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This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  below 
and  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  'VMS  CENTS  a 
day  thereafter.  ,-^ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/americanfarmerco01flin 


it^tspoiiizaf jbluzLOg  «  iJigrstial  la  KcwTrT. 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER, 


Complete  Agricultural  Library, 


USEFUL  FACTS  FOR  THE  HOUSEHOLD, 

DEVOTED  TO 

FARMING   IN   ALL   ITS   DEPARTMENTS   AND   DETAILS,   INCLUDING   THE   DAIRY, 
ORCHARD,-  VINEYARD,    GARDEN,    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS,   THEIR    BREEDING, 
MANAGEMENT,   AND    DISEASES  ;    BEES    AND    THEIR   MANAGEMENT, 
FISH    CULTURE,    SILK    CULTURE,    ARCHITECTURAL    DESIGNS 
FOR     HOUSES     AND     OTHER     FARM     BUILDINGS,     IM- 
PROVED   SANITARY    CONDITION    OF   COUNTRY 
HOMES,    Etc.,    Etc. 

EDITED    BY 

CHARLES  L.  FLINT, 

Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  of  Massachusetts  for  twenty-eight  consecutive  years,  and  Author 

of  "Grasses  and  Forage  Plants,"  "Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming,"  "Manual  of  Agriculture," 

Editor  of  "Harris  on  Insects,"  Etc.,  Etc. 


lUwstratefl  tsjitit  on&v  M^  ^nn&vt&  ^tigraxiitxss. 


COMPLETE    IN   TW^O    VOLUMES. 

VOL.  I. 


"Two  men  I  honor  and  no  third.  First  the  toil-worn  craftsman,  that  with  earth-made  implement  lahoriously 
conquers  the  earth  and  makes  her  man's." — Thomas  Carltle. 

"The  city  is  always  recruited  from  the  country.  The  men  in  cities  who  are  the  centres  of  energy,  the 
driving-wheels  of  trade,  politics,  or  practical  arts,  and  the  women  of  beauty  and  eenins  are  the  children  or 
grandchildren   of  farmers."— Ralph  Waldo  Ehebson. 


HARTFORD,  CONN.: 

EALPH  H.   PAEK  &  CO. 

1882. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1882, 

BY  RALPH  H.   PARK   &   CO. 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


THE  CASE,  LOCKWOOD,  &  BRAINASD  CO.,  j 
Pbintxiis  and  BniSKBS.  j 


Hon.    MAESHALL   P.    WILDER, 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  AMERICAN  POMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY. 

THE  ENLIGHTENED  AND  LIBERAL  FRIEND  AND  PATRON 


AGRICULTURAL  AND  HORTICULTURAL  PROGRESS  IN  AMERICA, 

BY 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


The  prosperity  of  a  country  depends  chiefly  tipon  tlie  intelligent  cultivation  of  its  soil. 
No  one  can  doubt  that.  The  intelligent  cultivation  of  the  soil  depends  upon  information. 
This  is  equally  plain.  Practical  and  theoretical  knowledge  is  power  in  agricultm-e,  as  in 
everything  else.  It  lies  at  the  foundation  of  individual  and  national  wealth.  Those  who 
know  the  most  will,  in  the  long  run,  do  the  best  work  at  the  best  time  and  in  the  best  way. 
They  will  work  out  the  best  results,  both  for  themselves  and  for  the  community  in  which 
they  live. 

The  progress  made  within  the  last  twenty  years  in  the  sciences  which  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  something  wonderful.  It  has  opened  new  fields  of 
thought,  of  investigation,  and  of  experiment.  During  that  time  the  science  of  chemistry  has 
made  rapid  advances,  and  its  methods  of  investigation  have  been  greatly  improved.  It  has 
brought  its  contributions  to  agriculture  from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  each  of  which  brings 
something  peculiar  to  itself.  It  has  explained  the  composition  of  soils  and  manures.  It  has 
added  greatly  to  our  stock  of  knowledge  as  to  the  methods  of  feeding  animals  to  obtain 
special  results,  giving  us  accurate  information  of  the  composition  of  feeding  substances,  and 
the  effect  of  different  processes  of  feeding  upon  the  development  of  the  animal  economy. 

At  the  same  time  botany  has  solved  the  mysteries  of  plant-growth,  and,  with  the  aid  of 
vegetable  physiology,  has  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  elements  of  plant-food,  and  the 
means  by  which  the  production  of  crops  can  be  greatly  promoted.  All  the  sciences,  indeed, 
have  contributed  to  the  development  of  agriculture,  some  of  them  directly,  others  by  leading 
the  minds  of  men  to  a  higher  standard  of  intellectual  activity. 

The  agricultural  literature  of  the  country  has  grown  up  almost  entirely  within  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century,  and  has  taken  a  rank  worthy  of  the  importance  of  the  industry  to  the 
development  of  which  it  is  devoted.  Thirty  years  ago  there  were  few  works  on  farming  in 
this  country  that  were  at  aU  creditable  either  in  style  or  the  information  they  contained. 
Most  of  the  books  on  the  subject  were  English,  or  reprints  of  English  pubUcations.  They 
were  not  well  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  American  farmers.  They  often  contained  much 
that  was  interesting,  but  generally  lacked  that  fuU  and  practical  information  based  on  actual 
experiment  that  was  well  calculated  to  meet  the  wants  of  daily  life  upon  the  farm.  They 
abounded  in  theories  rather  than  facts. 

The  present  work  is  designed  to  embody  the  most  practical  information  upon  agriculture, 
the  results  of  scientific  investigation  in  the  laboratory,  and  of  experiment  in  the  field.  It  is 
comprehensive  in  plan,  treating  of  a  great  variety  of  subjects  so  fully  as  to. make  it  unneces- 
sary to  purchase  many  books  on  special  topics — a  farmer's  hbrary,  in  fact,  condensed  within 
the  covers  of  a  single  volume.  It  aims  to  present  the  most  intelKgent  practice  of  the  best 
cultivators  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  and  to  meet  the  wants  of  every  practical  farmer  who 
desires  to  rise  above  the  drudgery  of  his  calling.  It  does  not  deal  to  any  extent  in  theories. 
The  effort  has  been  to  present  facts.  They  have  been  gleaned  from  many  fields,  from  con- 
versations with  intelligent  farmers,  from  the  talks  at  farmers'  clubs,  from  the  agricultural 
press,  and  from  actual  experience  on  the  farm. 


;j  PREFACE. 

Other  books  of  less  comprehensive  character  have  appeared  from  time  to  time,  and  they 
are  all  more  or  less  valuable  and  instructive,  but  it  is  some  years  since  they  appeared,  while 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  condition  of  many  parts  of  the  country,  owing  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  means  of  transportation,  and  the  consequent  modifications  in  the  systems  of 
farming.  The  farmer,  like  the  merchant,  is  under  the  necessity  of  keeping  up  with  the  times, 
in  order  not  to  be  left  behind  in  the  close  competition  which  he  has  to  meet.  Principles  may 
not  change,  but  practice  must  be  flexible  enough  to  adapt  itself  to  the  present  condition  of 
things  and  the  wants  of  the  market  in  which  the  infinite  variety  of  the  products  of  the  farm 
are  to  be  sold. 

This  volume  is  committed  to  the  press  in  the  confident  hope  and  behef  that  it  will  prove 
to  be  of  permanent  value  and  helpfulness  to  every  farmer  into  whose  hands  it  may  fall. 

CHARLES  L.  FLINT. 
Boston,  Mass.,  January,  1882. 


The  Publishers'  Announcement. 


In  presenting  "The  American  Farmer"  to  the  general  public,  it  is  proper  to  state  that 
it  has  been  the  object  and  aim  of  the  publishers  to  make  it  both  comprehensive  and  exhaus- 
tive ;  in  brief,  an  authoritative  standard  work  on  general  and  scientific  agriculture,  in  aU  its 
departments  and  details,  and  the  best  work  in  this  class  of  literature  ever  published  in  this 
or  any  other  country.  To  this  end  we  have  spared  neither  time  nor  expense,  and  flatter  our- 
selves that  the  "  well  done  "  of  the  American  Public  awaits  us. 

The  editor  of  this  work,  Hon.  Chas.  L.  Flint,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  needs  no  introduction 
to  the  Agricultural  World,  nor  does  he  need  the  encomiums  of  the  publishers  ;  for  his  twenty- 
seven  annual  reports  on  the  "  Agriculture  of  Massachusetts,"  issued  during  twenty-eight  con- 
secutive years  of  service  as  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  his  "Grasses 
and  Forage  Plants,"  "Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming,"  "Manual  of  Agriculture,"  "Harris 
on  Insects,"  and  his  numerous  essays,  lectures,  and  contributions  to  the  press,  all  stamp  him 
as  a  practical  man,  and  able  authority  on  all  that  pertains  to  advanced  agriculture. 

Now  when  we  add,  that  the  youth  and  early  manhood  of  Mr.  Flint  were  passed  upon 
the  home  farm  at  Middleton,  Mass.,  this  work  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  choice  fruitage 
of  a  life  devoted  to  the  interests  of  Agriculture — a  union  of  practice  and  theory;  a  secure 
guaranty,  as  to  the  entire  trustworthiness,  of  the  facts  for  farmers  contained  in  this  volume. 

This,  his  latest  production, — possibly  his  valedictory  to  the  Agricultural  World, — will  be 
welcomed  in  many  a  farmer's  home,  not  only  for  its  fullness  and  completeness  in  every  depart- 
ment of  which  it  treats,  but  also  for  the  plain  and  practical  discussion  of  all  subjects;  the 
reader  understanding  clearly  the  abundant  facts,  principles,  and  suggestions  found  herein, 
touching  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  which,  when  rightly  understood  and  utilized  by  the  intel- 
ligent, practical  farmers  of  our  country,  becomes  at  once,  not  only  the  foundation  of  our 
highest  national  prosperity  and  wealth,  but  the  very  keystone  of  our  body  politic.     , 

The  publishers  congratulate  themselves  that  they  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to  secure 
the  services  of  so  high  an  authority  on  practical  and  scientific  agriculture  for  the  editor  of 
this  work  ;  nor  should  they  neglect  to  congratulate  the  American  Public  that  they  are  to  be 
the  recipients  of  Mr.  Flint's  valuable  work,  and  able  to  avail  themselves  of  the  many  advan- 
tages that  such  a  volume  as  this  affords. 

As  might  be  anticipated,  this  work  is  very  appropriately  dedicated  to  the  Hon.  Marshall 
P.  Wilder,  of  Boston,  the  life-long  friend  of  the  farmer  and  the  personal  friend  of  Mr.  Flint, 
being  officially  associated  with  the  latter  in  the  Agriculture  of  Massachusetts  and  the  coimtry 
for  over  thirty  years.  Col.  Wilder,  now  in  his  eighty-fourth  year,  (of  whom  Mr.  FUnt  gives 
a  brief  memoir  in  connection  with  our  Fruit  Department,)  was  born  at  Rindge,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1798,  and  has  taken  an  active  interest  in  agricultural  pursuits  all  his  life,  having  been 
one  of  the  foremost  in  organizing  the  "Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,"  and  also 
the  "State  Agricultural  College  ;"  besides  being  the  President  of  the  "Massachusetts  Horti- 
cultural Society"  from  1840  to  1848,  and  of  the  "United  States  Agricultural  Society"  from 
1852  to  1858,  and  the  President  of  the  "American  Pomological  Society"  since  its  formation 
in  1848.     In  this  connection  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  it  was  through  the  personal  sohcita- 


iv  publishers'  announcement. 

tion  of  the  publishers,  that  Col.  Wilder  permitted  us  to  place  his  portrait  in  our  work  ;  and 
we  are  confident  that  his  many  friends  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  will  thank  us  for  the 
favor.  We  present  also,  as  a  fitting  frontispiece  to  this  work,  an  excellent  steel  engraving  of 
its  editor,  whose  genial  face,  as  represented,  is  a  speaking  picture  of  the  man,  of  whom  we 
may  say  truthfully :  "All  his  works  do  praise  him." 

"Without  disparaging  any  of  the  few  agricultural  works  now  before  the  public,  we  may 
say  generally  of  books  of  this  sort,  as  Daniel  Webster  once  said  of  the  legal  profession  : 
"There's  always  room  at  the  top";  at  this  point,  only  expressing  the  hope  that  happily  a 
critical  public  will  accord  to  our  book  that  honorable  place  in  agricultural  Hterature,  which 
we  believe  it  merits. 

The  methods  of  tillage  and  fertilization  of  the  soil,  the  cultivation  of  that  portion  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  here  presented,  whether  of  products  in  the  East,  West,  North,  or  South, 
will  be  found  not  only  entirely  reliable,  but  the  latest  word  on  the  subject  treated,  and  sug- 
gestive of  still  better  conditions  of  improved  agriculture  in  the  future. 

Broad  and  liberal,  as  well  as  humane  views  are  here  inculcated  with  reference  to  the 
breeding  and  management  of  all  domestic  animals  ;  the  hundreds  of  engravings  in  steel  and 
wood  being  an  attractive  as  well  as  instructive  feature  of  this  exhibit. 

The  systematic  arrangement  of  this  work  into  Parts  and  Departments,  with  Sub-headings, 
greatly  adds  to  its  utility  by  making  it  convenient  for  ready  reference,  and  invaluable,  if  not 
indispensable,  to  all  farmers,  and  those  interested  in  general  agriculture,  as  well  as  to  fanciers 
of  fine  stock  of  whatever  variety  or  breed. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  our  agreeable  duty  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  the  late 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Hon.  Wm.  G.  Le  Due,  and  his  successor,  Hon. 
George  B.  Loring,  Hon.  Marshall  P.  Wilder,  Hon.  Spencer  F.  Baird,  Director  of  the  United 
States  Pish  Commission,  and  Seth  Green,  Esq.,  from  all  of  whom  we  have  received  valuable 
assistance;  to  the  Commissioners  of  Agriculture  generally  in  the  several  States  who  have 
favored  us  with  copies  of  their  reports  and  other  important  documents;  to  Prof.  C.  V.  Riley, 
Entomological  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  valuable  printed  documents, 
to  Professors  Brewer,  Johnson,  and  other  leading  agricultural  writers.  Our  acknowledgments 
are  also  due  to  the  agncultui-al  press  generally,  to  the  Librarian  of  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Society,  and  to  the  officers  of  the  Boston  Public  Library,  who  have  greatly  ai(Jed  us 
m  the  prosecution  of  this  work;  to  Hon.  J.  H.  Pope,  Minister  of  Agriculture  in  the  Canadas, 
who  has  rendered  great  assistance  by  reports  and  other  documents;  and  finally,  to  that  agri- 
culturist of  world-wide  reputation  who  established,  and  for  nearly  fifty  years  has  conducted 
an  "  Experiment  Station  "  on  his  estate  at  his  own  expense,  and  solely  for  the  advancement  of 
knowledge  in  agriculture,  the  Hon.  J.  B.  Lawes,  LL.D.,  of  Rothamsted,  St.  Albans,  England; 
we  would  also  tender  our  sincere  thanks  for  the  many  valuable  documents  he  has  furnished 
us,  giving  the  rich  results  of  his  experiments  and  investigations. 

Very  respectfully, 

RALPH    H.   PARK   &   CO 
Hartford,  Ct.,  Jan.   1882. 


LIST  OF  FULL  PAGE  PLATES. 


PAGE. 

Engbaving  of  the  Editor, Frontispiece.  — 

Colored  Lithograph  of  Trotting  Stallion,   Gov.  Spragub,         .         .         .         ■         •  3 

Barn-yard  Grass, 187 

Bermuda  Grass,  Wire  Grass, 160 

Broom  Grass,  or  Sedge, •  1^*^ 

Broom  Sedge, l^*' 

Champion  Road-Grader  at  Work, 557 

Cleveland  Bay  St^vllion,   "Bay  Splendor, ■    .        •        •  '^^^ 

Clydesdale  Stallion,   "Tlme  o'  Day," 686 

Cock's  Foot  Grass, ^^"^ 

Cotton  Gin  (Power), ^^^ 

Crab  Grass, 188 

Crow  Foot  Grass, 165 

Design  for  a  Country  House. 614 

Dog's  Tail  Grass, 165 

Double-Geared  Plantation  Cane  Mill, 416 

Draco  Prince, '''81 

Drop-Seed,  Nimble  Wili,,          ........-•••  155 

Echo  Farm  Buildings  and  Jersey   Group, 586 

Eclipse  Wind  Engine,         .........■■••  538 

English  Draft  Stallion,   "Lincoln," •         •  '^^^ 

Egyptian  Grass, 183 

Erecting  Barb  Wire  Fence, 568 

Feather  Grass, 773 

Field  Pitching  Appar.^tus, 246 

Fowl  Meadow  Grass, 140 

Gama  Grass, 166 

Gathering  Tea, 458 

Grain  Dropper, 2'i'6 

Grasshoppers  in  a  Wheat  Field,    .......••••  261 

Halp-Blood  Percheron  Norman  Stallion,    "Napoleon  III,"       .....  706 

Hambletonian  Stallion,   "Satellite," '''29 

Harvester  and   Twine-Binder,         .......•••■  ^63 

Hay  and  Sugar-Cane  Scales,   .......-••••  415 

Hay  Elevator  and  Carrier, 344 

Hay  Rakes, 343 

Horse  Power, 543 

Hydraulic  Ram  in  Operation,           ...........  536 

Improved  Farm  Engine  with  Iron  Truck  Wheels,        .....-•  546 

Indian  Grass, 184 

•  Iron  Mower, 336 

Iron  Turbine  Wind  Engine, 535 

Jack,   "Magnu.m  Bonum,"  . 836 

Japan  Clover, 1^5 


LIST  OF  FULL  PAGE  PLATES. 


FADE. 

Jersey  Bull,  "  Litchfield,  " 593 

Johnson  Grass, 183 

Kemp's  Manure-Spreadeb, 30 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass, 139 

Leap  of  Tea, 453 

Means  Grass, 183 

Mexican  Clover 196 

Model  Barn,  Northeast  View, 640 

"           "       Northwest  View, 644 

"           "       Southeast  View, 639 

Mountain  Red-Top,  Northern  Red-Top, 143 

" Mouutain-Side  Farm,"'  Front  View  of  Barn 600 

"            "          "         Rear        "       <i       << 603 

Orlopf  Stallion,   "Sobol," 718 

Percheron-Norman  Stallion,   "Eldorado," 676 

•'                 "                "          "Romulus," 702 

Pigeon  Grass,  Buillb  Grass, 159 

Power  Cotton  Gin, 398 

Red-Top, 153 

Rescue  Grass, 178 

Rocky  Mountain  Locust, 284 

Rysdyk's  Hambletonian, 724 

Scene  on  the  Grandin  Farm,  Dakota. — Twenty  Gang  Plows  in  Operation,    .        .  608 

Schrader's  Grass, 178 

Self-Binding  Harvester, 278 

Sequoia  Gigantea — Giant  Red  Wood, 521 

S.MUT  Grass, 176 

Steam  Sugar  Works, 410 

Taggart's  Abdallah, 764 

Tall  Panic  Grass, 192 

Tall  Red-Top, 109 

Tea  Leaves, 454 

Texas  Millet, 141 

The  Silos  of  M.  Augustb  Gofpart,  at  Burtin,  France, 488 

Traction  or  Self-Pbopelling  Farm  Engine, 545 

Trotting  Stallion,   "Alexander," 754 

"                "           "Gov.   Sprague," 738 

"               "          "tuorndale," 743 

Vanilla  Grass, 179 

Water  Grass I74 

Wild  Fescue, I77 

Wood  Grass, 184 

Yard  Grass, 165 

Young  Tea  Plant  and  Root, 457 


GENERAL  INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 

Acme  Pulverizing  Harrow,  .         .         .101 

A  Country  Villa, 623 

Adamant  Cabbage  Plow,  or  Corn  Subsoiler,  84 

Adamant  Plow, 94 

Advance  Chilled  Plow,       ....  97 

Alpha  Potato, 343 

American  Hay-Tedder,        ....  240 

An  Ornamental  Cottage,     ....  634 

Baling-Press,  Lever, 247 

Baling-Press — Steam  Power,       .         .         .     248 

Barb  Wire, 570 

Barb  Wire  Fence  in  Sheep  Husbandry,  .  571 
Barn- Yard  Grass,  .  .  .  .  .187 
Bastian's  Early  Red  Beet,  .  .  .  .366 
Bastian's  Half  Long  Blood  Beet,  .         .     366 

Beauty  of  Hebron  Potato,  .  .  .  .334 
Bermuda  Grass,  Wire  Grass,        .         .         .160 

Black  Hawk, 728 

Black  Hawk,  Jr., 696 

Bones  of  the  Horse's  Leg,  ....     692 

Boston  Horse-Hoe, 361 

Broadcast  Plaster  and  Guano  Distributor,  .  290 
Broadcast  Seed-Sowers,       .         .         .     389,  290 

Broom  Grass,  or  Sedge 180 

Broom  Sedge, 170 

Bullard's  Hay-Tedder,         .         .         .         .241 

Cane-Mll, 414 

Carrot  and  Cotton- Weeder,  .         .         .     369 

Cassaday  Sulky  Plow,  ....       88 

Champlain  Wheat, 266 

Champion  Road-Grader  at  Work,  .  .  557 
Check-Rowing  Corn-Planter,       .         .         .312 

Chinese  Sugar-Cane, 431 

Cleveland  Bay  Stallion,  "Bay  Splendor,"  .  714 
Clod-Crusher  and  Leveler,  ....  101 
Clover-Huller  and  Cleaner,  .         .         .204 

Clydesdale  Stallion,  "  Time  O' Day,"  .     686 

Cock's-Foot  Grass, 187 

Colossal  Asparagus, 366 

Colt's  Foot  at  Two  Years,  .  .  .  .786 
Colt's  Foot,  Showing  Quarters,  .  .  .786 
Cohipton's  Surprise  Potato,  .  .  .  342 
Corn-Cultivator 314 


PAGE. 

Corn-Sheller,  hand, 321 

Corn-Sheller,  power,  .....  321 
Corn-Sheller  for  Husked  and  Unhusked  Com,  323 
Cotton-Gin,  hand,        .....  399 
Cotton-Gin,   hand,  with  Feeder  and   Con- 
denser attached, 400 

Cotton-Gin,  power,     .....  398 

Cotton-Seed  Huller, 402 

Cotton-Planter, 383 

Cotton-Press, 383 

Crab  Grass, 188 

Crow-Foot  Grass,        .         .         .         .         .165 

Cutting  the  Potato  to  a  Single  Eye,     .         .  339 

Dairy  Barns, 651 

Deer  Spring  Cultivator,       ....  316 

Defiance  Wheat, 266 

Design  for  a  Country  House,       .         .         .  614 

Dilapidated  Barn,  Fig.  3,   .         .         .         .  652 

Dog  Power, 543 

Dog's-tail  Grass,  .....  165 

Double-Geared  Plantation  Cane-Mill, .         .  416 
Double-Row  Stalk-Cutter,  .         .         .         .318 

Draco  Prince,      ......  781 

Drop-Seed— Nimble  Will 155 

Early  Amber  Sugar-Cane,  ....  421 
Early  Half-Long  Carrot,  .  .  .  .370 
Early  Half-Long  Scarlet  Carrot, .         .         .370 

Early  Half-Short  Scarlet  Carrot,  .         .  370 

Early  Scarlet-Horn  Carrot,  .         .         .  370 

Echo  Farm  Buildings,  and  Jersey  Group,    .  586 

Echo  Farm  Butter-Stamp 594 

Echo  Farm  Butter- Worker.         .         .         .  594 

Echo  Farm  Churn 593 

Echo  Farm  Cream-Strainer,         .         ,        .  593 

Echo  Farm  Group  of  Yearling  Jersey  Bulls,  589 
Echo  Farm  Group  of  Yearling  Jersey  Heifers,  588 

Echo  Farm,  Interior  of  Cow  Stable,    .         .  591 

Echo  Farm  .Jersey  Bull,  "Litchfield,"  .  593 

Echo  Fann  Triple  Strainer  Pail,  .         .  593 

Eclipse  Wind-Engine,  ....  538 

Eclipse  Wind-Engine  in  motion,         .         .  539 

Eclipse  Wind-Engine  at  rest,      .         .         .  540 

English  Cottage, 625 


GEXEKAL  INDEX  OF  ILLL'yTRATIONS. 


English  Cottage,  chamber  plan  of, 
English  Cottage,  ground  plan  of, 
English  Draft  Stallion,  "Lincoln,"     . 
Ensilage  Corn-Planter,        .... 

Ensilage  Cutter, 

Ensilage  Cutter, 

EgT])tian  Blood  Turnip  Beet, 

Egyptian  Grass,  ..... 

Erecting  Barb  Wire  Fence, 

Erecting  Barb  Wire  Fence,  Use  of  Stretcher, 

Excelsior  Oat, 


PAGE. 

625 
625 
710 
501 
503 
504 
366 
183 
568 
570 
294 


Farm  Bams, 

Farm  Mill, 

Farm  Mill, 

Farmer's  Favorite,  Grain-Drill,  . 

Feather  Grass, 

Field  Pitching  Apparatus,  .... 

Field  Roller, 

Filled    Silo    Being    Emptied    by  Vertical 

SUcing, 

Fowl  Meadow  Grass,  ..... 

Fused-Foot.  Steel  Point,     .... 

Gama  Grass,        ...... 

Gathering  Tea,   ...... 

Gilpin  Sulky  Plow 

Gleaner  Hay  and  Grain  R.ike, 
Grain-Dropper,   ...... 

Grapple  Hay-Fork,     ..... 

Grasshoppers  in  a  Wlieat-Field,  . 
Group  of  Yearling  Jersey  Bulls,  . 
Group  of  Yearhng  Jersey  Heifers, 

Half -Blood    Percheron  -  Xoi-man    Stallion, 

"Napoleon  HI.,"    . 
Hambletonian  Stallion,  "Satellite, 
Harvester  and  Twine-Binder, 
Harpoon  Hay-Fork,    . 
Hay  and  Sugar-Cane  Scales, 
Hay-Carrier, 

Hay-Elevator  and  Carrier, 
Hilling  Cultivator, 
Hoosier  Grain-Drill,    . 
Horse's  Foot, 
Horse-Hoe, 
Horse  Power, 
Hungarian  Millet, 
Hydraulic  Ram  in  operation. 


Imperial  Sugar  Beet,   . 
Improved   Farm   Engine,  with 

wheels, 
Improved  Long  Blood  Beet, 
Improved  Peach  Blow  Potato, 


truck 


Improved  Lima  Bean, 

Indian  Grass, 

Iron  Beam  Plow, 

Iron  Slower, 

Iron  Turbine  Wind  Engine, 

Jack,  "Magnum  Bonimi,"  . 
Japan  Clover, 
Johnson  Grass,    . 
Justin  Morgan,    . 


650 

322 
323 
274 
173 
246 
103 

505 
140 

93 
166 
458 

88 
243 
276 
245 
261 
589 
588 


706 
729 
262 
245 
415 
247 
244 
315 
274 
785 
316 
542 
190 
526 

370 

546 
366 
333 


Kemp's  Manure  Spreader,    . 
Kentucky  Blue  Grass, 

La  Dows  Pulverizing  Harrow, 
Lampas  Iron, 

"       "        use  of, 
Large  Globe  Artichoke, 
Large  Orange  Carrot,  . 
Large  '^Tiite  Belgian  Carrot, 
Leaf  of  Tea, 
Lever  Baling  Press,     . 
Liberian  Sugar  Cane,  . 
Location  of  the  Internal  Organs  of  the 
Long  Red  Mangel  Wurzel 


151 
146 
431 
183 
196 
649 


and  yards 


of. 


Meadow  Fescue, 

Meadow  Fox-tail, 

!Maple  Sugar  Making, — view  of  sugar  house. 

Means  Grass, 

ilexican  Clover,  . 

Model  Barn, — cow  stable. 

"         "         feeding  floor 
of,". 

"         "        ground  plan 

"         "         horse  stable, 

"         "        Northeast  View 

II         II  II      vrest     " 

"         "         Southeast       " 
Model  Horse  Barns,     . 

"         "         "        plans  of. 
Modern  Barn,  Fig.  1, . 
Mountain  Red  Top, 
' '  Mountain  Side  Farm, "  Front  View  of  Bam, 

"  "         "        Interior  view  of  Bam,  602 

"         "        Rear  View  of  Barn,     599 

Mudgett  Hay  Tedder,  .         .         .         .241 


Horse, 


PASE. 

36G 
184 
93 
236 
525 

826 
195 
183 
713 

30 
139 

100 
796 
796 
366 
370 
370 
453 
247 
421 
817 
370 


plan 
646,  647 
.  646 
.  648 
.  640 
.  644 
.  639 
.  654 
.  655 
.  653 
.  142 
600 


Natural  Position  of  the  Horse's  Head 

Nishwitz  Harrow. 

Northern  Red  Top, 

Old  Style  Barn,  Fig.  2, 

Oliver  Chilled  Plow,    . 

Oomseeana  Sugar  Cane, 


103 
142 
653 
97 
421 


GENERAL  INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAOE. 

OrlofEStalUon,  "Sobol,"     .         .         .         .718 

Osborne  Sulky  Plow, 93 

Pasterns, 693 

Percheron-Norman  Stallion,  "Eldorado,".  676 

Percheron-Norman  Stallion  "Romulus,"    .  703 

Pigeon  Grass — Bristle  Grass,        .         .         .  159 

Plan  of  United  Silos, 497 

Points  of  the  Horse, 683 

Potato  Coverer, 443 

Potato  Diggers, 347 

Potato  Planter, 340 

Power  Cotton  Gin, 398 

Red  Top, 153 

Rescue  Grass, 178 

Rocky  Mountain  Locust,     ....  384 

Root  Cutters, 363 

Rural  Cottage, 637 

"           "        chamber  floor,  ■plan  of,         .  637 

"           "        ground  plan  of,    .         .         .  637 

Rye  Thresher, 290 

Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,      ....  724 

Scene  in  the  Black  Tea  District,  .  .  452 
Scene  on  the  Grandin  Pann,  Dakota,  Twenty 

Gang  Plows  in  Operation,     .         .         .  608 

Schrader's  Grass,  .....  178 
Self-Binding  Harvester,       .         .         .         .278 

Sequoia  gigantea, — Giant  Red  Wood,          .  531 

Share's  Coulter  Harrow,       ....  101 

Sheep's  Fescue,   ......  151 

Short  Stem  Cauliflower 370 

Silver  Skin  Potato, 334 

Skeleton  of  The  Horse,  .  .  .  .803 
Small  Gherkin  or  Burr  Cucumber,       .         .370 

Smut  Grass, 176 

Snow  Flake  Potato 333 

Southern  Bent,    ......  154 

Southern  Seed  Corn,   .....  500 

Spring  Cultivator  for  Cotton,       .         .         .  395 
Stallion  "Frank  Allen,"     .         .         .         .751 

Stalk  Cutter  for  Cotton  or  Corn  Stalks  in 

the  field 397 


Stalk  Cutters, 
Steam  Sugar  Works,   . 
Stone  and  Root  Puller, 
Sub-Soil  Eagle  Plow, 
Sub-Soil  Plow,  Grub  Hook, 
Sugar  Evaporator, 
Stationary  Sugar  Evaporator, 
Swiss  Chard  Beet, 


Taggart's  Abdallah,    . 

Tall  Panic  Grass,  Switch  Grass, 

Tall  Red  Top,     . 

Tea  Leaves, 

Texas  Millet, 

The  New  Buckeye  Table  Rake, 

The  Silos  of  M.  Auguste  Goflfar 

France, 
Thomas  Harrow, 
Threshers  and  Cleaners, 
Tillage  in  India,  . 
Timber-land  Plow, 
Timothy,     ... 
Tobacco  Ridger, 
Traction  or  Self  Propelling  Farm  Eu; 
Trotting  Stallion    "Alexander," 
Trotting  Stallion  "Gov.  Sprague," 
Trotting  Stallion  "Thorndale,"  . 

Unnatural  Position  of  Horse's  Head, 
Use  of  Lampas  Iron,  . 


t,  Burtin, 


Vanilla  Grass, 

Vesey  Homestead  Cottage,  , 

Victor  Clover  Machine, 


Wagon  Jack, 
Water  Grass, 
Wild  Fescue, 
Wood  Grass, 


Yard  Grass, 

Yellow  Globe  Mangel  Wurzel, 

Young  Tea  Plant  and  Root, 


PAGE. 

317,  318 

410 

97 

93 

97 

417 

419 

366 


280. 


764 
192 
169 
454 
141 
279 


103 

283 
89 
88 
145 
443 
545 
754 
738 
743 


179 
623 
205 

667 

174 
177 
184 

165 
366 
457 


CONTEISTTS. 


PART  I.     GENERAL  AGRICULTURE. 

Farming  as  an  Occupation. 

Agriculture  tne  basis  of  civilization  and  weaUli  of  a  country — Its  aim  and  scope  compared  with  other 
avocations. — Dignity  of  farm  labor. — Its  relation  to  physical,  mental,  and  moral  culture — Its 
influence  upon  National  industry  and  prosperity^ — Original  calling  of  mankind — Independence  of 
the  farmer — Advantages  of  a  farmer  being  educated  to  his  business — Old  and  new  methods  of  farm- 
ing compared — Elements  of  success  in  farming — Farming  can  be  made  profitable.  3 

Soils. 

The  origin  of  soils — The  constitution  and  texture  of  soils — Their  classification — Clay  soils  and  their 
management — Gravelly  soils — Loamy  soils — Marl}'  and  calcareous  soils — Silt  and  alluvial  soils — 
Muck — Peat  soils  and  their  cultivation — Sub-soils — Friableness  of  the  soil — Light  colored  clays — 
Marls  and  sands — Color  of  soils — The  Dew  Point — Analysis  of  various  soils — Analysis  determines 
the  constituents  of  a  soil,  but  not  its  mechanical  condition — Analysis  of  plants  more  satisfactory 
than  that  of  soils — Both  are  aids  when  combined  with  experience  and  observation.  10 

'  •  Fertilizers. 

Elements  of  plant  food — Elements  necessary  to  supply  soils — Organic  and  inorganic  elements — Plant, 
life  and  plant  food — General  propositions  concerning  plant  food — Exhaustion  of  soil  by  farm  crops 
— Materials  removed  from  the  soil  by  various  products — Deficiency  of  potash  in  common  fertilizers 
and  in  soils — Common  manures  and  commercial  fertilizers — Barnyard  manure  and  its  value — Poul- 
try manure — Night  soil  and  poudrette — Sewage  as  a  fertilizer — The  sewage  of  Paris — Sail  in  a  Paris 
sewer — Composts — Their  value — How  to  construct  a  compost  pile — The  value  as  fertilizers  of  flesh 
— Blood — Hair — Horns — Hoofs — Fish — Fish  Guano,  &c — Cotton  seed  as  a  fertilizer — Castor  and 
Linseed  Pomace — Animal  dust- -Peruvian  Guano — Rectified  Peruvian  Guano — American  Guano — 
Lime — Ground  Limestone  and  shells — Gas  Lime — Wood  ashes — Coal  ashes — Soot — Charcoal  dust — 
Peat  and  peat  ashes — Sea-weed  and  sea-weed  ashes — Bones — Marl — Gypsum — Salt  as  a  fertilizer — 
Potash — Sources  of  supply  of  potash — The  Stassfurt  potash  mines — Composition  of  German  Potash 
salts — How  to  use  potash  salts  as  a  fertilizer — Leaves  of  trees  as  fertilizers — Manuring  with  green 
crops — Clover  for  vegetable  manure — Various  crops  for  green  manure — Sod — Special  fertilizers  for 
various  crops — Stockbridge  Formula  for  Wheat,  Indian  Corn,  Fodder  Corn, — Rye, — Oats, — Buck- 
wheat,— Potatoes, — Field  Beans, — Swede  Turnips  or  Rutabagas, — Onions, — Hay. — Application  of 
manures — Quantity  to  be  used — The  fallow  system.  29 

Tillage. 

The  advantages  of  tillage — It  aids  in  supplying  plant  food — Objections  to  tillage  answered — Judgment 
and  skill  necessary  to  successful  tillage — Different  soils  require  different  methods — Tillage  should 
alwaj's  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  crops  cultivated  and  the  character  of  the  soil — The  best  im- 
plements essential — The  plow  the  principal  reliance  of  the  farmer  in  the  labor  of  tillage — The  plow 
should  be  suited  to  the  kind  of  work  required, — a  light  plow  should  not  be  used  for  heavy  work, 
nor  a  sub-soil  plow  for  light  work — Sulky  and  Gang  plows.  Chilled  plows,  &c — Lands  that  should 
be  plowed  in  the  fall — Lands  that  should  be  plowed  in  the  spring — Best  method  of  fall  plowing — 
Ridging — Manner  of  plowing  a  field — Deep  and  shallow  plowing — Depth  of  plowing  must  depend 
upon  different  conditions,  such  as  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  crops  to  be  cultivated — Subsoil 
plowing — The  principal  material  for  plant  food  is  to  be  found  in  the  surface  or  agricultural  soil — 
When  desirable  to  break  up  the  subsoil — A  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  subsoil  essential  to 


Yl  CONTENTS. 

successful  tillage — Benefits  occasionallj-  derived  from  mixing  the  subsoil  with  the  surface  or  agri- 
culttiral  soil — An  instance  given — Clay  soils,  heavy  loams,  etc.,  best  pulverized  by  plowing  when 
dry  or  nearly  so — Use  of  the  harrow — Its  use  for  any  purpose  most  effectual  when  the  soil  is  dry — 
Best  implements  required — Various  harrows  and  clod  crushers  described  and  illustrated — The  use 
of  the  Roller — Benefits  derived  from  pressing  the  soil  upon  the  seed — Exterminating  noxious  weeds. 

86 

What  Crops  to  Raise. 

A  judicious  choice  of  crops  essential  to  success — Crops  that  can  find  a  ready  market  to  be  cultivated — 

Principle  always  to  be  regarded — Choice  modified  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  etc. — Relative  cost 

and  value  of  different  crops.  104 

Rotation  of  Crops. 

Benefits  of  a  judicious  rotation  of  crops^Theorics  relative  to  the  cause  of  failure  or  depreciation  of  the 
same  kind  of  crops  produced  continuously  from  the  same  soil — ^STature  follows  a  course  of  rotation 
— This  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  succession  of  different  forest  trees — "  Clover  sick  "  lands — A* 
scheme  of  rotation  to  be  so  formed  as  to  cultivate  the  same  or  similar  crops  on  the  same  ground  at 
Intervals  as  remote  as  practicable — The  English  practice  called  the  "Four-field  or  Norfolk  Sys- 
tem " — Rotation  in  Agriculture  in  Italy — Various  methods  of  rotation  adopted  in  this  country — 
Rotation  of  crops  in  the  Southern  States — Rotation  for  the  worn  lands  of  the  South — Grass — Pas- 
turage— Whatever  the  rotation,  good  crops  cannot  be  produced  in  any  section  without  proper  man- 
agement, and  a  sufficient  supply  of  manure  to  the  soil.  107 

Irrigation. 
Water  one  of  the  sources  of  supply  of  plant  food — The  benefits  derived  from  irrigation — Various  meth- 
ods of  irrigating  lands — Use  of  the  windmill  in  irrigation — When  irrigation  is  injurious — An  excess 
detrimental — When  irrigation  should  begin  in  the  spring — Should  always  be  adapted  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  crops  cultivated.  117 

Drainage. 

Various  methods — Benefits  to  be  derived  from  drainage — Difference  in  temperature  of  drained  and  un- 
drained  soils — Drainage  tends  to  render  soils  warm  and  more  friable — Enables  the  farmer  to  plant 
earlier  in  the  spring — Tends  to  prevent  injury  to  crops  from  excess  of  moisture — To  prevent 
drought — To  prevent  surface  washing  and  winter  killing  of  grain — Tends  to  an  earlier  harvest — 
Renders  a  location  more  healthful — Drainage  system  at  the  South — Reclaiming  the  Everglades  of 
Florida  by  draining  Lake  Okeechobee — The  drainage  system  two  hundred  years  ago — Partial  drain- 
age— Average  amount  of  rain-fall — What  lands  require  drainage — Location  of  drains — Necessity  of 
drains  being  properly  constructed  and  the  work  well  done — Tile  draining  the  best  method — Care- 
ful planning  of  location  of  drains  necessary  to  secure  the  best  results — How  to  dig  the  trenches — 
Depth  of  drains — How  to  lay  the  main  drains — How  to  lay  the  tributaries — Protection  against  sand 
and  other  obstructions  entering  at  the  joints — Filling  the  trenches — Stone  drains — Plank  drains — 
Turf — Brush,  etc. — The  mole  plow — Open  ditches — Furrow  draining  or  ridge  cultivation — Tile 
draining  the  most  effectual,  permanent,  generally  satisfactory,  and  eventually  the  most  economical. 

127 

AGRICULTURAL    PRODUCTS. 

Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. 

Great  importance  of  the  grass  product — Varieties — Description  of  more  than  one  hundred  varieties  of 
grasses — Their  cultivation — I'orage  plants — Varieties — Cultivation — Indian  Millet — Common  Millet 
— Grerman  or  Golden  Slillet — Pearl  Millet — Indian  Com  as  a  forage  plant — Japan  Clover — Mexican 
Clover — Red  Clover — Time  of  cutting  and  method  of  curing  clover — Conditions  favorable  to  fer- 
mentation in  clover  hay — Cultivating  clover  seed — Harvesting  clover  seed^Clover  as  a  fertilizer — 
"  Clover  sickness  "  of  lands — Alsike  clover  and  its  cultivation — White  clover — Crimson  clover — 
Alfalfa  or  Lucerne — Value  as  a  forage  plant — Cultivation — Sainfoin — Cultivation — Vetch — Spurry 
— The  Cow  or  field  pea — Lupine — Prickly  Comfrey — List  of  grasses  and  forage  plants,  with  their 
common  and  botanical  names,  their  time  of  blossoming,  whether  wOd  or  cultivated,  and  the  kind  of 
soil  adapted  to  their  growth — Glossani-  of  terms  used  in  describing  grasses — Grouping  of  grasses — 
Nutritive  value  of  grasses — Analyses  of  different  varieties — Tables  for  the  mixture  of  seeds  for  the 
following  lands— Mowing  lands,  Permanent  pastures.  Hay  and  pasture  combined— Rotation  and 
improvement  of  soil — Meadow  lands — Summer  pastures — Winter  pastures — Permanent  pastures 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

according  to  English  methods — Permanent  pastures  as  practiced  in  Scotland — Lawn  grasses — Fine 
lawns  frequently  mown — Hay  and  pasture  in  orchards  and  shady  places — Mowing  on  light  lands — 
Reclaimed  peaty  lands — Marshy  grounds  liable  to  be  occasionally  overilown  with  fresh  water — 
Rocky  lands — Time  to  sow  grass  seed — Selection  of  seed — Time  of  cutting  and  manner  of  curing 
hay — Improved  implements  in  hay  maliing — Mowing  machines — Hay  tedders — Horse  rakes — Horse 
hay  forks — Hay  carriers — Hay  caps — Storage  of  hay — Stacking  of  hay — Hay  stacking  apparatus — 
Baling  hay — Aftermath  or  Roweu — Cultivating  grass  seed — Fall  grazing  of  mowing  lands — The 
practice  injurious  to  the  crop  of  the  following  year  if  done  after  cutting  the  aftermath — Manuring 
mowing  lands — Rolling  mowing  lands  and  pastures  beneficial — Renovating  grass  lands.  138 

Cereals. 

Importance  of  the  cereal  product — The  great  advance  in  the  production  of  cereals  in  the  United  States 
during  the  last  ten  years — Comparative  advancement  in  the  production  of  the  different  cereals — 
Wheat — Description  of  different  varieties — Preparation  of  soil  for  wheat — Fertilizers — Selection  of 
seed — Time  of  sowing  spring  wheat — Time  of  sowing  winter  wheat — Quantity  sown  to  the  acre — 
Sowing  broadcast  and  drill  sowing  compared — Depth  of  covering — After-cultivation — Improved 
implements  in  the  cultivation  of  wheat — Harvesting — Threshing — Diseases  and  insects  of  wheat — 
Rust — Chinch  Bug — Hessian  Fly — Rye — Varieties— Soil— Fertilizers — Sowing— Harvesting — Thresh- 
ing— Diseases  of  Rye — Oats — Varieties — Soil — Fertilizers — Cultivation — Harvesting — Threshing — 
Diseases — Barley  —  Varieties — Soil — Fertilizers  —  Seeding — Harvesting — Threshing  — Buckwheat — 
Soil — Sowing — Harvesting — Corn — Its  importance  among  cereals — Analysis — Varieties  described — 
Selection  of  seed — Preparation  of  seed  for  planting — Soil  for  corn  and  its  preparation — Time  for 
planting  in  the  different  sections  of  the  country — Methods  of  planting — The  mixing  of  different 
varieties  to  be  obviated — Hill  and  drill  planting  compared — After-cultivation — Harvesting — Fodder 
— Stalks  in  the  field — Husking — Shelling — Shelling  unhusked  corn — Grinding  corn — Grinding  un- 
husked  corn — Cob  meal — Diseases  and  enemies  of  corn — Rice — Its  value  as  an  article  of  food — Va- 
rieties— Analysis  of  rice — Lauds  adapted  to  its  cultivation— Cultivation — Harvesting — Threshing 
and  milling.  263 

Roots  and  Esculent  Tubers. 

The  common  potato — Native  of  this  continent — Improvement  through  cultivation — Introduction  into 
Great  Britain — Subsequent  cultivation — -Description  of  varieties — Soil  and  its  preparation — Fertili- 
zers— Selecting  and  cutting  potatoes  for  planting — Cutting  to  a  single  eye — Number  of  eyes  to  the 
hill — Planting — Hill  and  drill  planting  compared — Potato  planters — Benefits  of  early  planting — The 
manner  of  growth  of  different  varieties  illustrated — Hilling  and  level  culture  compared — Forcing 
potatoes — Cultivation — How  to  raise  potatoes  from  cuttings — Two  crops  of  potatoes  a  year — 
Hybridizing  potatoes — How  to  raise  seedlings — Harvesting — Potato  diggers — Storing — Diseases — 
Potato  rot — Potato  Bug  or  Colorado  Beetle — Use  of  Paris  Green,  etc. — Scabby  Potatoes — How  to 
tell  a  good  potato — Sweet  potatoes — Native  of  Southern  Asia — Not  exclusively-a  Southern  product, 
and  maybe  raised  with  fair  success  in  many  of  the  Northern  States — Its  nutritive  value — Varieties 
— soil — Fertilizers — Obtaining  plants — Transplanting — Cultivation— Harvesting — Storing — The  Yam 
— Varieties— Chinese  yam — Cultivation — Turnips — Varieties — Table  of  nutritive  value  of  roots — 
Soil — Fertilizers— Preparation  of  soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Cultivation  of  spring  turnips — Ruta- 
baga or  Swedish  turnips — Harvesting — Storing — Raising  turnip  seed — Beets — Varieties — Prepara- 
tion of  soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Mangel  Wurtzels — Cultivation — Harvesting — Storage — Root 
Cutters — Carrots — Varieties — Cultivation — CaiTot  weeders — Harvesting  and  storage — Parsnips — 
Varieties — Preparation  of  soil — Cultivation — Artichokes — Analysis  of  artichokes  and  potatoes  com- 
pared— Their  value  as  food  for  swine  and  other  live  stock — Varieties — Planting  and  cultivation — 
Yield — Chufas — (Jultivation — Ridge  culture  for  root  crops — Root  pits — Ventilators  for  root  pits 
essential — How  constructed — Onions — Varieties — Soil  and  its  preparation — Cultivation  from  seed — 
Cultivation  of  Sets — Cultivation  of  top  onions — Potato  onions — Shallots — Rareripes — Onion  weeders 
— Cultivation  of  onion  seed — Harvesting  and  storing  onions.  330 

Miscellaneous  Products. 

Cotton — The  great  importance  of  the  product — History — First  exportations — (-otton  growing  section — 
Beauty  of  the  cotton  blossom — Varieties — Upland  cotton — Sea  Island  cotton — Cotton  product  of 
British  India  and  Egypt — Unproductive  cotton  fields  of  the  South — How  the  evil  may  be  remedied 
—  Invention  of  the  cotton-gin  —  Varieties  —  Soil  —  Preparation  of  soil  —  Fertilizers  —  Planting — 
Cultivation — Securing  the  crop — Ginning — Baling — Use  of  seed — Seed  hulling — Facts  elicited 
respecting   the  cotton  product   at  the  Atlanta  Exposition  in  1881  —  Enemies   of    the   cotton 


riii  CONTENTS. 

plant — Sugar — Sources  of  supply — Importation— Introduction  of  Sugar  cane — Section  suited  to  the 
production  of  the  sugar-cane — Varieties  of  sugar-cane — Preparation  of  the  soil — Fertilizers — Cuttings 
— Setting  the  cuttings — Cultivation — Harvesting — Manufacturing  sugar — Slachinery  required — 
Sorgho  and  Imphees — Soil — Planting — Cultivation — Harvesting — Manufacturing  syrup — Sugar  Beet 
— Varieties  —  Preparation  of  soil  —  Sowing  —  Cultivation  —  Harvesting  —  Storing  —  Manufacturing 
sugar — Sugar  maple — Obtaining  sap — Sugar  malting — Tobacco — Varieties — Soil — Preparing  seed 
beds — Sowing — Weeding — Preparationof  soil— Fertilizers — Transplanting — Cultivation — Enemies — 
Worming — Topping — Suckering — Cutting — Curing — Stripping — Packing — CofEee — Climate  suited 
to  the  cultivation  of  coffee — Soil — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparing  for  market — Tea — Southern 
localities  adapted  to  its  culture — Varieties — Methods  of  cultivation — Gathering — Curing — Peanuts 
Where  successfully  cultivated — Soil— Fertilizers — Planting — Cultivation — Harvesting — Indigo— Cul- 
tivation— Flax — Varieties — Preparation  of  soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparation 
for  market — Cultivating  seed — Hemp — Soil — Sowing — Method  of  cultivation — Cutting — Drying — 
Cultivating  seed — Jute — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparing  for  market — Peas — Varieties — Soil — 
Cultivation — Beans — Varieties — Preparation  of  soil — Planting — Cultivation — Castor  Beans — Culti- 
vation— Broom  corn — Preparation  of  soil — Planting — Cultivating — Harvesting — Curing — Hops — 
Soil — Cultivation — Stacking — Harvesting — Drying — Mustard — Varieties — Cultivation — Harvesting. 

382 
Ensilage. 
History  of  the  discovery  of  the  ensilage  system — Various  experiments — Objects  to  be  secured — Manner 
of  building  silos — Earth  silos — The  most  profitable  crops  to  ensilage — Cultivation — Cutting — How 
to  fill  a  silo — Removing  fodder  from  silos — How  to  feed  ensilage — Economic  value  of  ensilage  com- 
pared with  other  fodder — Improved  farming  methods — Ensilage  adapted  to  the  Southern  States — 
Analysis  and  composition  of  corn  (or  maize)  when  cut  in  its  green  state — Advantages  of  the  ensilage 
system — Opinions  and  experiments  from  various  authentic  sources  respecting  the  system.  489 

Good  Seed. 

Necessity  of  care  in  the  production  of  good  seed — Choice  of  plants — Improvement  by  cultivation — Hotv 
effected — Seed  plants  to  be  grown  apart  from  others — Special  cultivation  should  be  given — Protec- 
tions afforded  against  adverse  intluences — Importance  of  removing  inferior  plants — Gathering  anO 
storing  seed — Seed  from  the  strongest  plants  selected — Injury  from  moisture — Qualities  of  good 
seed — Vitality — Vigor — Productiveness — The  use  of  old  or  poor  seed  attended  with  loss  to  the 
farmer.  513 

Timber  Culture. 

The  great  importance  and  value  of  timber — The  destruction  of  American  forests  to  be  deplored — Influ- 
ence of  forests  upon  rain  fall — Climate — Soil  and  vegetable  growth — Healthful  influence  of  forests 
— Forests  should  be  restored — Tree  planting  a  necessity — Varieties — Large  trees  of  California — 
Time  and  manner  of  transplanting  forest  trees.  516 

Water  Supply  of  the  Farm. 

Importance  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  water  for  the  farm^Sources  of  supply — Springs — Ponds — 
Brooks — Rivers — Wells — Contamination  of  water  from  various  sources — Sickness  and  death  often 
caused  by  use  of  impure  water — Surface  drainage — Injurious  effects  of  metallic  pipes — Artesian 
Wells — Hydraulic  rams — The  windmill  as  a  motive  power  for  pumping  water — Use  of  syphon  in 
water  supply.  537 

Motive  Power  for  Farms. 

Various  powers  employed  for  farm  use — Dog  and  sheep  power — Horse  power — Wind  power — Steaiii 
power — Farm  engines — Their  importance  and  utility  on  large  farms — Steam  power  employed  oi, 
the  farm  of  air.  Dalrj'mple  in  Dakota— Steam  power  for  tillage.  543 

Farm  Teams. 

Good  teams  essential  for  farm  use— Best  animals  for  the  purpose — Horses— Mules— Oxen— Relative 
cost  and  value — Number  of  animals  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  work  to  be  performed?— Ftnu 
animals  should  have  good  care  and  kind  treatment.  647 

Roads  and  Road  Making. 

Importance  of  having  good  roads— Improper  manner  in  which  the  early  settlers  laid  out  roads— -Eleva 


CONTENTS.  ix 

tions  in  surveying  for  roads  to  be  avoided — How  roads  should  be  laid  out — Should  be  substantially 
constructed — A  solid  and  unyielding  foundation  necessary — Form  of  the  road-bed — Removing  ob- 
structions and  repairing  roads — System  of  drainage  for  roads — The  construction  of  catch  waters  or 
I  bars — Value  of  the  stone  crusher  and  roller  in  road  making.  549 

Farm  Roads. 

The  great  convenience  of  roads  connecting  different  portions  of  the  farm — How  constructed — The 
road  grader — Farm  roads  an  economy  in  the  saving  of  time,  labor,  and  accidents.  558 

Farm  Fences. 

Necessity  of  fences  on  the  farm — A  surplus  found  in  many  sections — Expense  and  labor  in  constructing 
and  repairs — Different  kinds  of  fence — Rail  fence — Post  and  rail — Board  fence — Stone  wall — 
Hedge — Wire  fence — Arguments  for  and  against  the  wire  fence — Importance  of  fences  being  well 
made  and  kept  in  good  repair.  560 

Wastes  and  Wants  of  the  Farm. 

Common  waste  of  fertilizers — Exhaustion  of  soil  from  constant  cropping  with  an  insufficient  supply  of 
manure — Neglect  to  perform  work  at  the  proper  time — Labor  not  always  economized — Carelessness 
or  indifference — Slovenly  management — Doing  work  overnice — Use  of  poor  tools — Lack  of  care 
of  farm  implements — Insufficient  help  on  the  farm— Poor  teams — Inconvenience  of  farm  buildings 
and  arrangement  of  farms — Farmers  should  read  the  best  agricultural  books  and  papers  and  keep 
up  with  the  times  in  advanced  methods  of  farming — Less  drudgery  in  farm  life  and  more  knowl- 
edge and  skill  in  conducting  the  business — Better  farm  implements  essential — Labor-saving  imple- 
ments to  be  used  wherever  practicable — Larger  crops  should  generally  be  produced  from  the  same 
amount  of  land — English  agriculture  an  example — A  more  perfect  system  of  management  in  farm- 
ing— Advantage  of  keeping  an  accurate  account  of  receipts  and  expenditures — Farmers  too  often 
put  the  receipts  of  the  farm  into  the  bank  or  bonds  instead  of  using  them  for  the  improvement  of 
lands  or  farm  buildings — More  capital  required  for  successful  farming.  572 

PART  II.     FARMS  AND  FARM   BUILDINGS. 

Choice  of  Farms. 

A  wise  choice  essential — Location — Quality  of  soil — Size — The  adoption  of  improved  methods  often  bet- 
ter than  change  of  locality — A  change  should  not  be  thoughtlessly  made — Desertion  of  the  old 
homestead  too  frequently  a  mistake — Advantage  of  large  farms — Advantage  of  small  farms— Pro- 
prietors of  small  farms  should  cooperate — The  farm  should  be  no  larger  than  can  be  properly 
managed — All  the  capital  should  not  be  invested  in  land.  682 

Model  Farms. 

Advantages  of  a  thorough  system  in  conducting  a  farm— The  best  methods  always  the  most  profitable 
— Examples  of  model  farms — "Echo  Farm" — Its  management — Improvements,  etc. — "  Deerfoot 
Farm  " — "  Mountain  Side  Farm  " — ' '  Lorillard  Stock  Farm  " — "  Hillhurst " — Long  View  Farm, "  etc. 

587 

Large  Farms  of  the  Country. 

Large  farms  a  necessity  in  some  sections  of  the  country — Western  farms — Southern — Eastern — Products 
— Noted  large  farms  of  the  country — "The  Dalrymple  Farm,"  including  Cass,  Cheney,  The  Alton, 
and  Grandin  farms — " Quinn  farm" — "Glen  Farm,  etc."  609 

Farm  Buildings. 

What  buildings  are  necessary  on  the  farm— All  farm  buildings  should  be  made  convenient,  and  in  as 
good  taste  as  practicable — Expense — Repairs — Painting  buildings — The  farm  house  should  be 
pleasantly  located,  near  the  road — Should  be  convenient,  tasty,  roomy,  light  and  well-ventilated — 
The  farmer  should  make  his  home  attractive  to  his  children — Influence  upon  character — The  exhi- 
bition of  good  taste  not  necessarily  an  extravagance — Size  should  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
family — Height  of  buildings — Plans  for  houses — Interior  arrangement — Expense — Warmth — 
Windows— Doors— Floors— Stairs— Roof  s— Chimneys— Mantels  and  closets— Piazzas— Eave  troughs 
— Blinds— Lightning  rods- Ventilation— Cellars— The  barn— Granary— Hog  house— Poultry  house 
— Wagon  house  or  shed — Wood  house — Store  house — Water  closets  and  vaults — Tool  house  and 
repair  shop— Ice  house.  613 


PART  III.     DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Horse. 

History — Value  to  mankind — Qualities  desirable  in  a  horse — The  farm  horse — The  carriage  and  saddle 
horse — Points  by  which  a  good  horse  may  be  known — The  eye — The  ear — Tlie  head — The  neck — 
The  chest— The  bones— The  shoulder— The  pastern— The  foot— The  back— The  hind  quarter— The 
rump — The  thigh  bone — The  hock — Varieties — The  Clydesdale — Percheron-Norman — English  draft 
— Boulounaise  draft — Conestoga — Cleveland  Bay — Hambletonian — Messenger — Morgan — OrloS — 
The  trotting  horse  of  America — Noted  trotting  horses,  their  description,  record,  etc. — Progenitors  of 
trotting  families  of  horses — Breeding — Disqualifications  for  breeding — Influence  of  the  sire — 
Influence  of  the  dam — Breeding  for  beauty,  style,  speed,  docility,  strength,  endurance — What 
horses  to  breed— Only  thoroughbred  or  high-grade  stallions  to  be  used — Care  of  breeding  mares — 
Care  of  young  colts — Castration — Breaking  or  training  colts — The  old-time  method  of  managing 
colts — The  present  system  of  colt  management — How  to  break  or  teach  a  colt — Uniform  kindness 
to  be  the  rule  in  colt  training — Valuable  colts  often  ruined  by  the  ignorance  and  brutality  of  the  so- 
called  professional  "colt  breaker" — The  training  to  begin  early — Halter  breaking— Driving  the 
colt — Teaching  a  colt  to  back — The  bitting  process — Value  of  good  training — Age  for  working — 
General  management  of  horses — Use  of  check-rein — Blinders — The  stable — Impaired  eyesight  from 
improper  amount  of  light  in  stables — Horse  stables — Proper  ventilation  of  stables — Warmth — Food 
— Water — Horse  shoeing— Importance  of  having  horses  properly  shod — Different  systems  of  shoe- 
ing— Shoe  tips — Barefoot — Diseases  of  horses — Their  treatment — Good  care  will  usuallj'  prevent 
disease — Treatment  of  old  horses — Kind  treatment  at  all  times  conducive  to  the  best  results.     677 

The  Ass. 

Native  of  Asia — Usefulness — Great  endurance — ^Varieties  and  characteristics — Breeding  in  the  United 
States — The  progenitor  of  the  mule.  826 

The  Mule. 

Economy  of  mule  labor — Hardiness  and  other  valuable  qualities — Mule  and  horse  labor  compared — 
Too  often  overworked  and  otherwise  abused — Benefits  of  kind  treatment — Rearing,  breaking,  and 
general  management — Quality  and  kind  of  food — Shoeing — Diseases  and  their  treatment.  829 


jCl*^--rf^''Sr'ftifiiBMr"'T7i^^ 


The  American  Farmer. 

PART    I. 

GENERAL   AGRICULTURE. 


FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION. 

AGRICULTURE  is  the  foundation  of  civilization ;  the  basis  of  all  other  industrial 
pursuits  ;  its  advancement  having  a  more  powerful  influence  on  the  prosperity  and 
social  elevation  of  a  people  than  any  other  of  the  world's  industries.  Were  it  not  for 
this  time-honored  avocation,  mechanics,  manufactures,  and  commerce,  would  have  nothing 
to  supply  the  material  upon  which  to  depend,  and  mankind  be  devoid  of  the  resources  of 
physical  life.  In  its  aim  and  scope,  the  amount  and  variety  of  its  productions,  it  stands 
supreme  among  man's  material  interests,  underlying  and  upholding  all  others. 

Webster  never  uttered  a  more  forcible  and  important  truism  than  when  he  said,  "  All 
national  wealth  depends  upon  an  enlightened  agriculture  ;  "  a  truism  illustrated  in  the  history 
of  every  nation  on  the  globe  ;  prosperity  and  wealth  ever  being  found  proportionate  to  a 
nation's  advancement  in  agricultural  knowledge  and  practice.  This  will  always  be  true  of 
any  country  or  limited  section  of  a  country ;  and  while  the  fact  is  recognized  with  respect  to 
all  nations  in  all  ages  of  the  world's  history,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  decrease  in  a  nation's 
wealth  and  prosperity  has  ever  been  found  to  be  proportionate  to  the  decrease  in  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  soil,  and  the  neglect  of  agricultural  interests  ;  the  depreciation  of  agricul- 
ture being  an  index  of  the  demoralization  and  decay  of  a  nation.  Agriculture  furnishes  the 
sources  of  all  physical  and  intellectual  energy;  in  fact,  the  products  of  all  other  trades  and 
professions  seem  insignificant  when  compared  either  in  quantity,  variety,  or  value  with  those 
of  the  farmer.  No  one  can  compute  the  deplorable  results  that  would  follow  the  suspension 
of  agricultural  labor  for  even  a  single  year  ;  in  all  probability,  famine  with  its  attendant 
horrors  would  extend  throughout  the  civilized  world,  which  would  soon  become,  by  this 
means,  in  a  great  measure  depopulated.  This  could  not  result  by  the  suspension  of  any  one  of 
the  other  branches  of  industry  for  one  year  or  several  years  ;  in  fact,  any  one  of  them  might 
be  suspended  for  a  succession  of  years  without  exerting  a  very  marked  influence  upon  the 
progress  of  civilization,  all  of  which  proves  the  supremacy  of  agriculture.  It  supplies  the 
indispensable  wants  of  the  human  race,  feeding  and  clothing  mankind  ;  the  materials  for  this 
purpose  being  received  by  the  farmer  directly  from  the  inexhaustible  stores  of  earth  and 
air  placed  there  by  the  bountiful  Giver  of  all  good.  This  brings  us  to  another  important 
consideration  in  connection  with  the  avocation  of  the  farmer,  and  that  is,  its  true  honor  and 
dignity,  and  tendfincy  towards  the  advancement  of  religion  and  morality,  as  well  as  the 
opportunities  afforded  for  physical  and  mental  development.  It  was  the  original  calling  of 
man,  appointed  by  the  Creator,  who  planted  a  garden  in  Eden  and  made  it  man's  duty  to 
"  dress  and  keep  it,"  and  when  by  disobedience  he  was  driven  from  Eden,  it  was  still  his 
mission  to  till  the  ground.  As  this  was  the  first  employment  assigned  man  by  God,  we 
have  here  not  only  a  proof  of  its  vast  importance,  but  every  reason  to  believe  it  also 
especially  adapted  to  man's  requirements  in  every  respect,  aU  of  which  has  been  fully  con- 


^  ■IHH,  AHKKICAN  FARMER. 

firmed  by  the  subsequent  history  of  the  human  race.  There  is  no  employment  tliat  brings 
man  into  such  close  communion  with  nature  —  a  communion  so  intimate  that  it  must 
almost  of  necessity  reach  to  nature's  God  ;  hence,  we  iind,  as  a  general  rule,  that  there  are 
fewer  skeptics  among  farmers,  in  proportion  to  the  number  engaged  in  the  occupation,  than 
among  other  branches  of  industry.  Farmers,  as  a  class,  are  moral  and  law-abiding  citizens, 
and  the  embodiment  of  those  principles  that  constitute  the  very  foundation  and  framework 
of  good  society.  In  making  this  assertion,  we  would  not  wish  to  extol  the  avocation  of  the 
farmer  beyond  its  real  importance,  or  place  other  industries  beneath  their  proper  standard  ; 
there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules  ;  honor  and  worth,  as  well  as  the  lack  of  these  essentials 
of  true  character,  are  to  be  found  in  all  occupations  under  the  sun  ;  but  we  believe  the 
verdict  of  the  public  generally  would  concur  in  the  opinion  previously  expressed,  viz. :  that 
the  avocation  of  the  farmer  has  a  tendency  towards  inculcating  a  reverence  for  the  Deity, 
with  its  attendant  ennobling  influences. 

It  is  true  that  character  makes  the  man,  and  not  his  occupation  or  surroundings,  and  that 
a  truly  honest  man  will  prove  himself  such  in  whatever  capacity  he  may  be  placed  :  also,  that 
a  man  lacking  these  qualities  will  not  be  changed  by  merely  engaging  in  the  most  honorable 
and  ennobling  occupations  ;  stiU  it  cannot  be  denied,  tnat  the  associations  and  influences  con- 
nected  with  the  employment  of  the  hands  and  brain,  do  have  a  powerful  influence  in  forming 
the  character  of'  an  individual.  Farming,  as  an  avocation,  presents  one  of  the  most  exten- 
sive fields  of  varied  research  and  close  investigation  of  any  of  the  various  professions  and 
trades  represented  in  the  world,  and  yet  how  few  comparatively  that  are  engaged  in  it,  who 
realize  the  opportunity  for  mental,  as  well  as  physical  development,  their  employment  affords. 
Asa  class,  however,  farmers  are  becoming  better  educated,  and  "thus  better  fitted  for  suc- 
cessful achievement  in  their  business  than  formerly,  while  the  Agricultural  Colleges,  Associa- 
tions, and  journals  of  the  present  time  are  rapidly  increasing  these  facilities.  There  is  no 
good  reason  why  the  farmer  should  not  be  specially  educated  to  his  business,  and  farming 
rank  among  the  learned  professions  of  the  day.  It  seems  to  us  that  scientific  farming 
requires  a  knowledge  of  a  greater  variety  of  things  than  almost  any  other  kind  of  business. 
As  far  as  the  nature  and  treatment  of  soils  is  concerned,  some  knowledge  of  mineralogy  is 
very  essential  ;  a  knowledge  of  chemistry,  botany,  and  entomology  are  all,  to  a  certain 
extent,  equally  valuable  as  far  as  they  apply  to  the  successful  growing  of  crops  and  their 
preservation  from  the  ravages  of  insects.  The  farmer  must  also  be  a  manufacturer  as  far 
as  the  making  of  butter,  cheese,  cider,  curing  of  hay  or  preserving  of  ensilage  and  crops 
generally  are  concerned,  while  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  habits,  necessities,  diseases, 
etc.,  of  domestic  animals  is  indispensable  to  success  in  the  work.  Surely  the  farmer,  in  order 
to  be  well  fitted  for  every  department  of  his  avocation,  must  not  only  possess  a  natural  taste 
and  aptitude  for  his  respective  calling,  but  should  receive  special  instructions  in  these  several 
departments  :  in  other  words,  he  should  be  educated  for  his  business,  thereby  increasing  his 
usefulness  and  success  in  life. 

One  of  the  wants  of  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  country  is  a  greater  facility  for  the 
education  which  is  especially  directed  to  the  practical  business  of  farming.  Our  agricultural 
colleges  are  supplying  this  need  to  a  certain  extent,  but  we  should  have  more  of  them  ; 
besides,  our  public  schools  practically  ignore  in  their  system  of  instruction  everything 
pertaining  to  this  important  branch  of  national  industry.  A  great  improvement  upon  the 
present  system  would  be  instituted  by  inculcating  a  more  general  knowledge  of  those  sciences 
which  are  more  intimately  connected  with  it,  such  as  chemistry,  mineralogy,  geology,  botany, 
and  their  relations  to  agriculture,  the  laws  that  modify  and  regulate  the  conditions  of  the 
great  mysteries  of  plant-life  and  plant  growth,  together  with  the  best  methods  of  fertilizing, 
grafting,  budding,  and  the  history  and  practice  of  everything  connected  with  this  pursuit, 
which  affords  employment  to  so  large  a  proportion  of  our  population,  and  which  forms  the 
basis  of  our  national  subsistence,  wealth,  and  power.  The  large  number  of  schools  in  various 
portions  of  Europe,  in  which  practical  instruction  is  given  in  farming  in  all  its  various 
branches  and  departments,  have  obviously  done  much  in  bringing  the  agriculture  of  those 


FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION,  5 

sections  of  the  Eastern  Continent  to  the  high  standard  it  has  attained.  In  these  schools,  boys 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age  are  instructed  in  the  practical  business  of  farming,  and 
also  in  mechanics,  as  far  as  the  use  and  repairing  of  all  kinds  of  agricultural  implements  are 
concerned, — theories  being  taught  only  in  connection  with  their  practice,  which  is  the  only 
true  method  of  instruction.  Science  has  opened  the  door  to  successful  progress  in  agricultm-e 
in  the  past,  a  progress  that  will  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  perfection  in  the  art  as  time 
advances.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  may  be  said  to  have  inaugurated,  in  a  great  measure,  this 
improvement  ia  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  although  it  was  not  until  1840  that 
Liebig  announced  propositions  that  opened  a  new  field  of  thought  and  investigation,  and 
awakened  the  attention  of  intelligent  farmers  to  the  importance  of  applying  the  results  of 
chemical  investigations,  which  in  a  great  measure  essentially  modified  the  agricultural  practice 
of  all  the  civilized  portions  of  the  world.  He  opened  the "  way  to  the  whole  system  of 
concentrated  fertilizers  in  the  following  simple  words  : — 

"  To  manure  an  acre  of  land  with  forty  pounds  of  bone-dust  is  sufBcient  to  supply  three 
crops  of  wheat,  clover,  potatoes,  turnips,  etc.,  with  phosphates  ;  but  the  form  in  which 
they  are  restored  to  the  soil  does  not  appear  to  be  a  matter  of  indifference;  for  the  more  finely 
the  bones  are  reduced  to  powder,  and  the  more  intimately  they  are  mixed  with  the  soil,  the 
more  easily  they  are  assimilated." 

Since  that  period  tlie  progress  in  improvement,  although  gradual,  has  been  marked,  and 
the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  has  become  in  many  sections  a  necessity  ;  not  only  this,  but 
they  are  now  regarded  by  ourt)est  farmers  everywhere  as  an  important  and  indispensable 
adjunct  to  farm-yard  manures.  What  science — which  is  justly  regarded  in  all  civilized 
countries  as  the  handmaid  of  successful  agricultui'e — will  accomplish  in  the  future,  remains  to 
be  seen  ;  but  if,  in  the  words  of  King  Brobdignag  to  Lemuel  Gulliver,  she  will  cause  "two 
blades  of  grass  to  grow  where  only  one  grew  before,"  great  good  will  be  accomplished. 

We  are  essentially  a  nation  of  farmers  ;  more  than  one-half  of  our  population  rel}'ing 
upon  agriculture  for  support,  and  no  country  is  more  dependent  for  prosperity  on  its  resources 
in  this  respect  than  our  own  ;  yet,  while  much  has  already  been  done,  and  great  advancement 
made  in  this  branch  of  industry  during  the  past  half  century,  there  remains  much  to  be 
accomplished  before  we,  as  a  nation,  shall  approximate  to  that  high  standard  and  degree  of 
success  that  it  is  our  privilege  to  attain. 

We  believe  no  one  would  think  of  disputing  the  fact  that  a  given  area  of  land,  with  a 
similar  soil,  season,  and  equally  favoring  conditions  otherwise,  would,  with  an  equal 
amount  of  time  and  labor,  produce  more  wheat,  corn,  grass,  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  or  any  other 
product  now,  than  it  would  twenty-five  or  fifty  years  ago.  And  this  is  due  to  the  advanced 
methods  of  farming,  including  the  use  of  improved  agricultural  implements,  etc.,  which 
practice  causes  the  soil  to  produce  more  with  the  same  or  less  expense  of  time  and  labor,  and 
hence,  farming  is  more  profitable  now  than  at  that  period,  not  only  in  the  amount  produced 
from  the  soil,  which  will  bring  more  in  return,  but  in  the  expense  of  production  in  time  and 
labor.  It  is  also  true  that  more  can  be  accomphshed  with  the  same  amount  of  labor  and 
expenditure  in  any  of  the  other  departments  of  business,  than  could  have  been  performed 
twenty-five  or  fifty  years  ago,  owing  to  new  and  scientific  discoveries,  increased  skill  and 
mechanical  art  ;  therefore,  the  farmer  of  to-day  need  not  make  his  business  the  drudgery 
that  it  was  formerly  ;  or,  if  he  works  as  hard,  he  can  have  better  returns  for  his  labor  in  the 
form  of  more  of  the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life.  Consequently,  farmers,  as  a  class,  are  not 
necessitated  to  labor  as  hard,  or  practice  as  much  seK-denial  in  the  rigid  economies  of  life,  in 
order  to  attain  success,  as  in  the  olden  time,  and  this  is  all  due  to  advanced  science  and  its 
application  to  agriculture. 

When  we  compare  the  implements  for  tilling  and  cultivating  the  soil  that  were  used  by 
our  forefathers,  with  those  of  the  present  time,  we  are  able  to  realize  more  fully  the  benefits 
bestowed  upon  agriculture  by  men  of  science,  inventors,  and  manufacturers.     The  improve- 


6  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ments  in  agricultural  macliines  alone  is  something  wonderful.  Formerly  the  principal 
farm  implements  consisted  of  a  one  and  two-horse  plow,  a  harrow,  a  few  hoes,  rakes,  and, 
•scythes  of  the  crudest  kind,  a  sickle,  a  reaping  cradle,  and  a  flail  for  threshing  the  grain. 
The  only  power  employed  in  the  use  of  these  rude  implements  was  that  of  the  horse,  mule, 
and  ox,  and  the  hand  of  the  farmer  ;  the  latter  being  the  main  reliance,  except  in  propelling 
the  plow  and  harrow,  and  even  here  the  holding  and  guiding  of  the  plow  often  called  for  the 
most  severe  physical  exertion  of  all  the  farm  labor.  Compare  these  machines  with  those  of 
to-day,  the  plows  of  every  conceivable  pattern  adapted  to  the  various  kinds  and  conditions 
of  soil ;  sulky  plows  that  will  turn  the  furrow  to  any  desired  depth  with  but  slight  manipu- 
lation from  the  driver,  who  rides,  except  to  hold  the  reins  and  guide  the  horses;  the  harrows 
and  clod-crushers  of  various,  devices  and  plans  of  operation,  that  pulverize  the  soU  to  a 
degree  of  perfection  that  was  once  never  dreamed  of  ;  the  drills  and  planters  that  deposit  the 
seed  and  cover  it  with  a  uniformity  that  is  truly  astonishing  ;  and  not  only  this,  but  in  the 
vast  amount  of  labor  accomplished  in  a  given  time,  the  driver  not  being  obliged  to  even  walk 
over  the  ground  ;  the  rollers,  the  cultivators,  and  horse-hoes,  the  mowers,  tedders,  horse- 
rakes,  forks,  carriers,  and  stackers  that  facilitate  the  former  laborious  and  slow  process  of 
hay-making,  not  only  enabling  the  farmer  to  secure  his  crop  of  grass  when  it  is  in  the  best 
condition  for  cutting,  and  not  oblige  him  to  leave  a  portion  until  it  is  over-ripe,  but  also 
rendering  him  less  dependent  upon  the  weather  in  securing  this  crop,  as  it  can  be  harvested, 
cured,  and  put  under  shelter  in  much  less  time  than  formerly. 

Thus  we  have  ensilage  cutters  that  dispose  of  the  forage  crop  in  a  green  state,  with  con- 
siderable less  labor  and  time  than  by  the  hay -making  method ;  the  reapers  and  self-binders, 
that  reap  and  bind  the  grain  as  if  by  magic  hands,  one  machine  doing  the  work  of  many  men 
in  a  given  time;  the  threshers  and  cleaners,  that  prepare  the  grain  for  market;  the  stalk- 
cutters,  corn-harvesters,  buskers,  and  shellers.  In  the  use  of  these  implements,  we  have  not 
only  the  powers  appropriated  to  the  piu'pose  in  the  olden  time,  but  steam  as  a  motive  power  in 
the  form  of  farm  engines,  that  can  be  utilized  in  threshing,  plowing,  husking,  grinding,  and 
various  other  kinds  of  farm  work,  one  such  machine  often  being  made  to  perform  the  work 
of  over  twenty  horses  at  once,  the  agricultural  implements  alone  of  some  well  conducted  farms 
now  often  representing  more  money  than  the  entire  value  of  a  good  farm  fifty  years  ago. 
Hence,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  application  of  science  to  agriculture  has  vastly  increased  the 
productions  of  the  country,  and  enabled  the  farmer  to  rise  above  the  mere  drudgery  that 
formerly  characterized  his  calling. 

But  these  are  not  the  only  advantages  emanating  from,  scientific  agriculture;  the  innu- 
merable experiments,  investigations,  and  labors  originating  from  this  source,  have  resulted  in 
giving  to  the  world  improved  varieties  of  all  kinds  of  agricultural  products,  including  grain, 
fruits,  vegetables,  flowers,  etc.;  also  farm  animals  of  such  improved  utility  and  beauty  as  to 
be  scarcely  recognized  as  akin  to  their  predecessors. 

Fifty  or  more  years  ago  the  farmers  of  the  country  were  generally  the  hardest  laboring 
class  that  could  be  found,  their  lives  being  a  constant  round  of  sevei'e  toil,  which  left  no  time 
for  the  emplojnnent  of  mind  or  hands  with  other  business.  But  little  attention  was  paid  to 
the  improvement  of  farm  stock — a  horse,  cow,  sheep,  or  pig  being  recognized  merely  as  such 
without  regard  to  desirable  points  of  preference  in  individual  animals.  Fanners,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  depended  almost  wholly  upon  the  products  of  their  farms  for  a  Hving,  raising  nearly 
all  the  supplies  for  their  own  tables,  and  also  largely  for  their  clothing,  which  was  manu- 
factured from  the  raw  material  in  their  own  homes. 

"Wheat  was  more  commonly  cultivated  than  now,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply 
bread  for  the  household,  flour  being  rarely  bought  by  the  barrel.  Rye  flour  and  com  meal 
were  mostly  used  for  making  bread,  that  made  from  wheat  flour  being  considered  quite  a 
luxury,  and  in  many  sections  was  dignified  with  the  name  of  "  cake,"  and  used  only  on 
extra  occasions,  such  as  when  company  was  entertained.    An  instance  illustrative  of  this  fact 


FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION.  7 

is  said  to  have  occurred  in  those  early  days  in  the  eastern  part  of  New  England.  A  high- 
toned  gentleman,  known  as  the  "Squii-e,"  called  at  a  farm  house  one  day  on  some  business, 
and  when  he  had  finished  his  errand,  and  had  remounted  his  horse  at  the  door,  the  good 
housewife,  wishing  to  impress  the  'Squire  with  the  dignity  and  thrift  of  her  family,  said  to 
him,  "'Squire,  won't  you. stop  and  have  some  cake  and  butter," — thinking  it  now  too  late  for 
him  to  accept  her  invitation.  To  her  chagrin,  the  doughty 'Squire  replied,  "Thank  you, 
marm,  I  don't  care  if  I  do,"  and  promptly  dismounted  and  entered  the  house. 

The  poor  woman  could  only  explain  that  to  her  surprise  she  found  the  flour  bread  all  out, 
and  offered  him  the  best  she  had,  some  Indian  "bannock." 

There  was  little  market  in  those  times  for  farm  produce,  except  in  the  larger  towns,  and 
these  were  often  reached  only  after  long  Journeys.  To  these  towns,  such  things  as  the  farm- 
ers had  to  spare  were  taken  and  exchanged  for  "  store  goods,"  said  "store"  usually  being 
some  corner  grocery,  where  more  rum  than  any  other  commodity  was  sold,  it  bemg  purchased 
and  used  by  the  most  respectable  people,  and  its  sale  considered  as  legitimate  and  laudable 
a  business  as  any  other. 

Each  farmer  owned  his  flock  of  sheep,  from  the  wool  of  which  the  family  were  princi- 
pally clothed.  It  was  carded,  spun,  and  woven  at  home,  and  made  into  garments  for  the 
entire  family,  that  from  which  the  "  best  clothes  "  of  the  masculine  portion  were  made  being 
called  "  fulled  cloth,"  which  was  woven  at  home  from  the  finest  wool  of  the  flock,  and  after- 
ward taken  to  tlie  fulling  mill,  where  it  was  subjected  to  a  process  of  fulling  or  thickening,  and 
afterwards  dyed,  pressed,  and  otherwise  finished  for  use.  The  material  for  the  dresses  of  the 
feminine  portion  of  the  household, — which  were  designated  "  gowns," — was  a  home-made 
flannel,  which  was  taken  to  the  mills  and  pressed  so  as  to  present  a  glossy  surface.  Each 
farmer  had  also  a  small  patch  of  flax  for  home  use.  At  the  proper  season  the  flax  was  pulled 
and  spread  in  rows  on  the  ground,  "rotted,"  and  afterward  "broken"  and  "swingled," — as 
the  process  was  termed ;  it  was  then  prepared  for  combing,  carding,  and  spinning  on  the 
small  machine  which  was  called  the  "  Httle  wheel,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  larger  imple- 
ment for  spinning  wool.  It  was  woven  into  cloth  for  table  covers,  toweling,  sheeting,  shir1> 
ing,  etc.,  the  coarser  portion  called  "  tow,"  which  was  combed  out  of  the  waste  material  of 
the  flax  at  the  first  combing,  was  spun  into  a  coarse  yarn  and  made  into  cloth  for  the  sum- 
mer suits  of  men  and  boys,  these  being  usually  as  harsh  and  uncomfortable  to  the  wearer  as 
they  were  coarse  and  uncouth  in  appearance.  Ready-made  clothing  being  unknown  in  those 
times,  the  hard-worked  tailor,  with  his  "  goose  "  for  pressing  seams,  the  gossiping  tailoress, 
who  carried  all  the  neighborhood  news  from  house  to  house,  and  the  old-fashioned  shoemaker, 
working  in  each  house  in  turn  till  all  the  family  were  supplied  with  a  pair  of  shoes,  were 
important  adjuncts  of  society,  as  they  went  their  accustomed  rounds,  plying  their  individual 
trades,  but  they  are  personages  entirely  unknown  to  the  present  generation. 

Great,  indeed,  has  been  the  change  since  that  period,  and  were  one  of  these  old  farmers 
of  the  past  to  awake  from  his  sleep  of  fifty  years,  and  make  his  appearance  among  the  gen- 
eration of  to-day,  he  would  scarcely  be  able  to  recognize  this  earth  as  the  same  he  once 
inhabited  and  tilled.  Fifty  years  from  the  present  will  possibly  mark  an  era  characterized  by 
an  equal  extent  of  progress,  although  it  may  be  as  difiicult  for  us  to  realize  it,  as  it  would  have 
been  for  the  generation  of  half  a  century  ago  to  predict  the  present  standard  of  advancement. 
The  future  prospects  of  American  agriculture  are  indeed  promising,  and  its  progress  may  be 
estimated  in  a  great  measui'e  by  the  thirst  for  knowledge,  energy,  and  enterprise  that  every- 
where characterizes  the  American  people.  In  striking  contrast  with  the  agricultural  advance- 
ment of  our  own  nation  during  the  last  half  century,  may  be  instanced  that  of  the  Chinese, 
where  the  same  rude  agricultural  implements  are  employed  in  tillage  to-day  that  were  used 
by  their  ancestors  thousands  of  years  ago.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  the  agricul- 
ture of  an  intelligent,  free  people  must  ever  essentially  differ  from  that  which  is  developed 
by  an  order  of  society  less  free,  and  characterized  by  ignorance  and  superstition. 


8  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  permanence  and  independence  of  the  farmer's  avocation  are  strong  arguments  in  its 
favor  in  the  choice  of  a  business,  while  there  are  few  callings  in  which  a  small  amount  of 
capital  can  be  as  safely  invested  and  at  the  same  time  prove  as  lucrative.  It  is  also  a  busi- 
ness that  is  always  sure  to  give  plenty  of  employment  to  those  engaged  in  it,  with  a  certainty 
of  a  fair  remuneration.  It  is  very  true  that  there  are  many  farmers  that  make  but  a  poor 
success  of  it, — if  success  it  could  be  called  without  a  misuse  of  the  term — but  it  is  equally  true 
that  there  are  failures  in  every  kind  of  business,  and  that  there  is  no  calling  known  but  what 
may  be  represented  by  incompetent  men  that  are  engaged  in  it,  such  men  as  would  not 
make  a  success  in  anything  they  might  undertake,  the  fault  not  being  in  the  business,  as  such, 
but  in  the  persons  representing  it.  In  any  occupation  or  department  in  life,  more  depends 
upon  the  man  than  the  business,  as  regards  the  ultimate  success.  In  order  to  be  successful 
in  any  position,  there  are  certain  requisites  that  cannot  be  ignored,  and  the  observance  of 
these  is  quite  as  essential  in  farming  as  in  any  other  employment  or  profession. 

Some  persons  seem  to  have  a  kind  of  general  capacity  or  aptitude  for  almost  any 
avocation,  and  will  make  a  success  of  anything  they  may  undertake,  but  these  are  the 
exceptions.  As  a  general  rule,  men  have  a  special  talent  for  certain  kinds  of  business,  and 
in  following  those  to  which  they  are  by  nature  fitted,  they  will  be  more  successful  and  happy 
in  their  pursuit  than  in  any  other.  However,  a  taste  for  certain  avocations  can  be  cultivated 
where  it  does  not  naturally  exist,  but  at  the  same  time  there  must  be  certain  natural  aptitudes 
or  capacities  inherent  in  the  individual  in  order  to  make  it  a  success  in  such  cases. 

The  really  successful  farmer  is  he  who  chooses  his  vocation  for  the  love  of  it,  and  who 
feels  that  in  it  he  is  in  his  own  native  element,  as  it  were;  he  enters  it  with  a  just  conception 
of  its  nature  and  demands,  and  in  its  pursuit  he  is  not  disappointed.  The  man  who  has  no 
love  for  the  business,  but,  on  the  contrary,  detests  it,  and  only  pursues  it  from  necessity, 
ought  not  to  expect  to  succeed,  for  he  lacks  the  first  great  essential  in  the  elements  of  success. 
The  successful  farmer  will  not  only  need  a  love  and  taste  for  the  business,  with  a  proper 
appreciation  of  its  nature  and  duties,  but  a  healthy  and  vigorous  body,  and  a  well- 
balanced,  cultivated  mind.  He  should  get  beyond  the  narrow-mindedness  that  characterizes 
so  large  a  class  of  farmers,  and  keep  abreast  of  the  times,  profiting  by  the  improvements, 
and  progress  of  the  age  in  which  he  lives,  and  be  willing  to  believe  there  may  at  present  be 
systems  of  practice  in  agriculture  superior  to  that  of  his  forefathers,  and  that  the  years  of 
labor  and  investigation  since  that  period  have  not  been  spent  in  vain.  What  would  be  the 
success  of  the  merchant,  if  he  should  refuse  to  conform  to  the  demands  and  customs  of  the 
present,  and  persist  in  selling  only  the  old-fashioned  goods  of  twenty -five' or  fifty  years  ago  ? 
He  might,  it  is  true,  sell  a  few  articles  as  ancient  relics,  but  his  business  as  a  merchant  would 
be  very  far  from  proving  a  success.  It  is  just  as  essential  for  the  farmer  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  times,  as  for  the  merchant  or  any  other  business  man,  in  order  to  insure  success  ;  and 
to  accomplish  it  he  must  study  the  wants  of  the  market,  and  raise  those  crops  that  are  most 
in  demand,  and  consequently  will  bring  the  highest  price  ;  and  not  only  this,  but  he  should 
inform  himself  as  to  the  best  methods  of  improving  his  lands,  and  cultivating  such  crops  so 
as  to  procure  the  best  results.  A  man  of  one  idea  may  possibly  succeed  in  some  pursuits, 
but  not  in  farming.  The  farmer  of  the  highest  success  must  be  a  man  of  broad  views, 
cultivated  mind,  and  well-developed  resources.  The  time  is  passed  for  the  opinion  of  the 
olden  time  to  be  popularly  entertained,  when  the  merest  ignoramus  was  thought  to  be  compe- 
tent to  do  well  enough  on  the  farm,  and  that  the  boys  of  the  family  that  were  intending  to 
be  farmers  did  not  require  as  good  an  education  as  those  who  were  intending  to  follow  some 
other  calling  or  profession.  The  farmer  of  the  present  and  future  must  be  well  informed  to 
answer  the  demands  of  his  position  ;  he  must  be  competent  to  meet  the  various  questions 
constantly  presenting  themselves  to  him  from  every  side  in  the  duties  of  his  vocation  :  lie 
must  be  capable  of  understanding,  as  far  as  possible,  the  nature  of  the  elements  with  which 


FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION.  9 

he  lias  to  deal,  and  the  laws  that  control  and  regulate  them.  He  must  be  able  to  appreciate 
the  agricultural  literature  of  the  times,  and  make  himself  familiar  with  it,  and  not  only  thus 
to  receive  the  products  of  other  minds,  but  he  must  be  competent  to  think  and  investigate 
for  himself. 

Successful  farming  demands  the  practice  of  systematic  business  principles.  No  man  can 
succeed  well  in  any  employment  whose  practice  lacks  method  and  thoroughness.  A  slack 
and  slovenly  manner  of  doing  work  of  any  kind  can  never  be  very  remunerative,  and  in  no 
business  is  this  fact  more  clearly  verified  than  in  farming.  No  farmer  can  manage  his  affairs 
on  strictly  business  princij)les  who  does  not  keep  an  account  of  his  receipts  and  expenditures, 
and  take  an  occasional  inventory  to  see  how  he  stands  financially.  A  merchant  might  run 
the  risk  of  being  bankrupt  if  he  did  not  do  this,  but  how  few  farmers  ever  have  a  systematic 
financial  account  kept  from  year  to  year. 

Farming  can  be  made  profitable  when  the  same  thought,  energy,  business  tact,  and  prin- 
ciples are  associated  with  it  that  are  required  for  other  successful  enterprises,  and  under  such 
favoring  conditions  the  profits  will  compare  favorably  with  those  of  other  emplojrments.  It 
is  true  that  few  among  the  many  farmers  can  be  called  wealthy,  but  this  is  equally  true  of 
other  vocations  ;  it  is  only  one  among  many,  in  any  business  the  world  over,  that  rises  to 
eminence  above  his  fellows  and  distinguishes  himself  by  extraordinary  achievements  of  any 
kind,  and  those  who  acquire  wealth  and  power  are  few  compared  with  the  masses  in  the 
enjoyment  of  but  a  competence.  But  the  farmer  can  trust  in  the  assurance  that  if  he  gives 
a  proper  amount  of  attention  to  the  business,  and  utilizes  the  aids  within  his  reach,  he  can 
make  it  pay,  and  the  compensation  will  be  a  fair  one  in  comparison  with  that  of  other  calhngs. 
That  farming  pays  best  which  will  produce  the  largest  amount  from  a  given  area,  with  an 
equal  expenditure  of  time  and  labor  ;  in  other  words,  it  is  the  surplus  production  of  each 
acre  over  the  cost  of  raising  the  crop,  or  the  raising  of  maximum  crops  at  a  minimum  cost, 
which  constitutes  the  real  profit  of  farming. 

Aside  from  the  other  advantages  to  be  derived  from  agricultural  pursuits,  there  is  much 
of  pleasure  connected  therewith,  in  an  esthetic  point  of  view,  or  what  might  be  termed  the 
poetiy  of  farming,  and  which  those  with  an  eye  for  the  beautiful  in  nature  cannot  fail  to 
appreciate.  There  are  few  persons  so  constituted  as  not  to  enjoy  and  appreciate,  to  a  certain 
extent,  works  of  art  in  the  form  of  beautiful  pictures  or  fine  statuary,  and  those  possessing 
the  means  wUl  often  pay  large  sums  of  money  for  these  master-pieces  of  the  best  artists,  and 
consider  them  indispensable  in  furnishing  their  homes  ;  but  what  painting  ever  equaled  the 
changing  scenes  of  nature  of  which  the  farmer  is  ever  a  participant  or  observer  ;  the  glory 
of  a  beautiful  sunrise  or  sunset,  the  ever-changing  clouds  in  storm  or  sunshine  ;  the  vast 
forests  and  fields  of  waving  grain  ;  the  quiet  loveliness  of  the  valley  among  the  hills  ;  the 
grandeur  of  the  distant  mountains,  or  the  broad  expanse  of  the  green  prairies  that  seem  like 
the  ocean  with  its  rolling  waves  suddenly  made  stationary  by  the  word  of  some  mighty 
power.  To  one  with  a  love  for  domestic  animals,  there  is  much  enjoyment  in  the  care  of  these 
mute  creatures  that  so  willingly  recognize  man  as  their  lord,  and  so  often  look  the  affection 
and  gratitude  they  cannot  speak. 

The  farmer  needs  the  painting  of  no  Landseer,  Bonheur,  or  other  artist,  however  distin- 
guished, to  cause  him  to  appreciate  a  fine  horse,  cow,  or  other  animal,  for  these  are  but  copies 
from  life,  and  he  has  the  originals  ever  about  him  ;  hence,  if  a  man  with  a  love  for  the 
beautiful  has  not  the  means  to  gratify  his  taste  in  art,  he  can  do  so  to  a  great  extent  by 
becoming  a  farmer  and  possessing  the  subjects  of  which  art  furnishes  but  the  copy. 

But  this  is  only  the  poetic  side  of  farm-life,  though  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked,  and 
the  business  of  the  farmer  requires  the  best  energies  of  hands  and  brain,  much  thought  and 
hard  labor  ;  and  to  him  life  is  earnest  and  real,  and  he  who  makes  the  wisest  and  best  use 
of  these  energies  will,  other  conditions  being  equal,  receive  the  largest  remuneration  for  his 
labors,  in  the  profits  that  are  the  result  of  intelligent  farming. 


10  TELE  A3IERICAN  FARSIER. 


SOILS. 


SOILS  may  be  defined  as  those  portions  of  the  upper  stratum  of  the  earth  which  contain 
a  mixture  of  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  substances  in  proportions  suited  to  the 
growth  and  nourishment  of  vegetation  ;  thus  containing  the  food  of  plants,  which 
assimilate  it  in  some  mysterious  way,  and  combining  with  it  the  requisite  elements  supplied 
by  the  air,  build  up  their  structures,  and  in  their  turn  furnish  sustenance  for  man  and  the 
lower  animals. 

Since  all  soils  are  formed  from  the  disintegration  and  decomposition  of  the  rocks  which 
constitute  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  together  with  a  mixture  of  vegetable  and  animal 
remains,  they  take  their  character  from  or  are  combined  mainly  of  the  elements  of  the 
rocks  from  which  they  take  their  origin  ;  hence,  the  great  diversity  of  soils. 

This  relation  is,  of  course,  modified  by  circumstances,  such  as  the  prevalence  of  one  or 
other  of  the  series,  or  the  greater  or  less  inclination  of  the  strata  by  which  the  debris  from 
different  sections  are  more  or  less  mixed,  and  also  by  the  action  of  the  water  in  washing 
certain  portions  of  the  surface  free  from  some  constituents  of  the  soil,  and  carrying  the 
debris  in  a  greater  or  less  quantity  to  others.  Hence,  the  great  difference  often  found 
between  the  fertility  of  the  soil  on  a  higher  ground  from  which  certain  of  its  elements  have 
been  washed,  and  that  of  the  valley  to  which  they  have  been  conveyed. 

The  names  commonly  appUed  to  the  different  soils,  have  respect  to  their  quahties  ;  thus 
they  are  from  their  composition  designated  clay  soils,  loam,  sand,  gravel,  chalk,  peat,  etc. ; 
or  from  their  texture,  in  respect  to  which,  those  in  which  clay  predominates  are  called  heavy, 
stiff,  or  impeTvious,  and  the  others,  light,  friable,  ox  porous.  From  the  tendency  of  the  clay  soils 
to  retain  moisture,  they  are  often  called  wet  and  cold,  and  the  other  soils,  for  possessing  the 
opposite  properties,  dry  and  warm.  According  to  their  degree  of  fertility,  they  are  also  often 
spoken  of  as  rich  or  poor. 

The  Origin  of  Soils. — It  is  now  a  generally  accepted  theory,  and  one  which  does  not 
antagonize  with  the  teachings  of  the  Scriptures,  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  soil  which 
covers  the  earth  surface,  and  which  is  cultivated  by  man,  was  once  a  solid  rock  forming  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  and  that  long  ages  before  man's  creation  and  occupancy  of  the  earth,  this 
rock  was  covered  by  sheets  of  ice  many  thousand  feet  in  thickness  in  the  form  of  glaciers,  that 
extended  over  nearly  the  entire  continent;  and  that  by  the  gradual  melting  and  moving  of  this 
vast  mass,  the  rocky  surface  of  the  earth  was  ground,  scoured,  and  pulverized,  forming  grooves 
and  scratches  in  the  rocks  that  can  even  now  easily  be  traced  to  the  extent  that  the  course  of 
the  moving  mass  can  be  determined,  which  was  from  the  north  in  a  southerly  direction  ;  and 
also  grinding,  as  if  by  an  immense  machine,  the  loose  materials  resting  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth  to  a  powder  or  paste,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  agricultural  soil ;  that  by  climatic 
changes,  the  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold,  terrific  storms  and  various  chemical  and  mechanical 
changes  thus  produced,  the  earth  became  fitted  for  the  production  of  a  lower  order  of  vegeta- 
tion. These  having  matured,  died,  and  decayed,  were  followed  by  those  of  another  order,  the 
higher  classes  of  plants  appearmg  as  the  soil  became  enriched  by  the  decay  of  pre\'ious  vege- 
table organisms.  During  these  ages  it  is  supposed  that  the  earth  was  constantly  undergoing 
changes  of  cUmate  and  vegetation,  which  latter  became  in  time  so  dense  and  luxuriant  as  to 
store  up  vast  quantities  of  carbon  taken  from  the  air,  and  in  this  manner  were  formed  the 
immense  beds  of  coal  which  are  now  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world;  thus  preparing  the 
earth  for  man's  future  necessities  long  before  his  creation.  It  will  be  found  that  soils  vary 
much  in  color;  this  is  caused  mainly  from  the  nature  of  the  different  rocks  from  which  they 
are  formed.  This  manner  of  soil  formation, — the  mixing  up  of  the  ground-up  fragments  of 
many  kinds  of  rocks, — have  given  great  variety  to  soils  both  in  formation  and  fertility,  and 
in  many  sections  has  prevented  uniformity  to  the  extent  that  often  adjoining  farms,  or  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  same  farm,  are  very  unlike  in  soil.     There  is,  of  course,  a  great  differ- 


SOILS.  11 

ence  between  the  upper  and  subsoil,  the  upper  being  mixed  more  or  less  with  vegetable 
matter,  besides  being  modified  by  atmospheric  agencies.  The  broken  and  pulverized 
material  Jying  above  the  solid  rocks  is  known  to  geologists  by  the  general  name  of  drift. 
With  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  agricultural  soil,  Prof.  Agassiz  says:— 

"There  is  hardly  anywhere  in  the  world  an  extensive  tract  of  cultivated  soil  which 
has  not  been  brought  to  the  place  where  it  exists  from  considerable  distances.  It  is  no 
doubt  the  case  that  the  rocks  are  decomposing  in  places  constantly ;  and  the  amount  of  this 
decomposition  is  very  great,  varying  according  to  climate,  and  is  the  result  of  influences  which 
are  also  different  under  different  climatic  conditiqns.  In  our  colder  northern  regions  the 
decomposition  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  filtration  of  water  into  rocks,  to  the  frosts  following 
that  infiltration,  to  the  splitting  of  the  surface  of  the  rock  into  fragments  in  consequence  of 
the  expansion  of  frozen  water,  and  thus  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks  themselves.  In  more 
southern  climates,  where  warm  tropical  rains  are  incessantly  pouring  upon  the  hard  rock,  it 
is  chiefly  that  agency  and  the  decaying  of  the  rock  by  the  heat  of  the  tropical  sun  which  pro- 
duces a  similar  result.  And  yet  this  process,  extensive  as  it  is,  is  not  the  chief  cause,  hardly 
an  extensive  cause,  of  the  production  of  agricultural  soU.  There  is  another  cause  which 
ought  to  be  taken  into  account — the  wearing  of  the  rock  by  the  action  of  running  water. 
Here  again  we  have  an  accumulation  of  an  immense  amount  of  loose  materials  which  are  the 
result  of  the  wearing  action  of  running  water.  And  yet  even  that  is  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  amount  of  loose  materials  which  are  scattered  over  the  earth  and  form  part  of  the  agri- 
cultural soil.  The  main  mass  of  the  agricultural  soil  is  derived  from  an  entirely  different 
source,  and  is  produced  by  an  entirely  different  cause.  There  has  been  at  work  a  grinding 
machine  more  powerful  than  the  action  of  the  sun,  of  water,  of  frost  or  of  wearing  currents. 
It  is  the  agency  of  ice ;  and  to  that  agency  we  owe  not  only  the  grinding  of  the  rocks  to 
powder  and  all  the  comminuted  material  which  forms  the  chief  portion  of  the  loose  coatings 
above  the  rocks  which  serve  as  the  basis  for  our  agricultural  operations,  but  we  owe  also  to 
that  natural  machinery  the  mixture  of  rocks  derived  from  different  regions,  which  have 
formed  the  compound  coating  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  without  which  agriculture 
would  be  hmited  to  those  regions  the  rocky  foundation  of  which  is  such  as  to  afford  a  suit- 
able  soil.  The  agency  of  ice  has  been  such  as  to  bring  together  from  remote  countries  the 
loose  materials  from  the  limestone  rocks,  the  slaty  rocks,  the  marl  beds,  the  granite  rocks, 
and  the  wearing  of  those  materials  into  paste  has  transformed  them  into  that  coating  which 
reaUy  constitutes  the  bulk  of  our  agricultural  soil.  Those  materials  have  been  remodeled 
since  by  atmospheric  agencies ;  they  have  been  rained  upon  since  the  time  they  were  deposited, 
and  of  course  the  action  of  water  has  carried  far  off  to  other  places  what  had  been  first 
worked  upon  by  ice.  But  this  is  not  very  extensive  and  does  not  constitute  a  part  of  the 
primary  formation  of  agricultural  soil. 

"  It  would  lead  very  far  to  enter  into  an  extended  discussion  of  the  manner  in  which  ice 
can  have  produced  these  resiilts.  It  would  probably  excite  a  smOe  if  I  were  to  begin  by 
saying  that  the  whole  extent  of  the  United  States  has  at  one  time  been  covered  with  a  sheet 
of  ice  many  thousand  feet  in  thickness;  and  yet  geology  can  show  that  it  was  so.  It  would 
probably  excite  doubt  if  it  were  stated  that  the  whole  sheet,  moving  from  the  north  in  a 
southerly  direction,  has  ground  the  loose  materials  resting  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  to 
that  paste  which  constitutes  the  agricultural  basis;  and  yet  it  is  so.  It  has  been  by  a  suc- 
cession of  observations,  starting  from  small  begiinings.  that  this  result  has  been  reached  and 
is  now  recognized  as  a  fact  among  geologists  " 

The  Constitution  and  Texture  of  Soils. — Since  soils  are  derived  mamly  from  the 
rocks,  they  will  contain  all  the  elements  which  the  rocks  originally  did  from  which  they  were 
formed ;  usually,  however,  in  different  proportions,  and  in  different  chemical  combinations, 
and  to  this  mineral  matter  is  added  various  materials  derived  from  the  air  (aside  from  the 


12  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

vegetable  or  animal  substances  which  they  may  contain  in  a  greater  or  less  proportion),  hence 
their  mechanical  texture,  as  well  as  their  mineral  composition,  depends  upon  their  origin. 

According  to  texture,  soils  are  commonly  termed  rocky,  stony,  gravelly,  sandy,  silt, 
marl,  and  calcareous,  loam,  clay,  etc.  Though  rocks  and  stones  cannot  properly  be  termed  a 
portion  of  tlie  soil,  yet  when  mingled  with  the  finer  soil  or  found  to  any  great  extent  upon 
the  surface,  these  terms  are  commonly  applied  to  distinguish  such  soils  from  others  of  different 
characteristics. 

Although  rocks  and  stones  have  long  been,  and  are  at  present,  the  great  pest  to  the  New 
England  farmer,  yet  they  are  not  entirely  useless,  as  they  frequently  benefit  crops  by  the 
warmth,  protection  from  winds,  and  the  moisture  they  aSord,  as  well  as  by  the  gradual 
decomposition  of  those  which  contain  lime,  potash,  and  other  fertilizing  elements  which  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  the  soil,  these  elements  being  furnished  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  rocks  through  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  the  crumbling  of  them  by  the  agency  of 
frost,  or  by  the  dissolving  of  their  mineral  properties  by  water — pure  water  itself  being  a 
strong  solvent, — while  water  containing  carbonic  acid,  such  as  rain-water  (which  always  con- 
tains it),  will  dissolve  limestone,  chalk,  and  even  the  hardest  marble  in  time,  though  the 
latter,  of  course,  much  more  slowly  than  the  former. 

Some  soils  are  peculiarly  fine  in  texture,  being  almost  entirely  free  from  stones,  gravel, 
or  sand,  such  as  that  of  certain  of  the  Western  prairies,  while  others  possess  but  little  mineral 
element,  being  composed  mostly  of  vegetable  matter,  such  as  peat  swamps,  and  salt  marshes. 

Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson,  Director  of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  who 
is  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  this  subject,  says,  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  depends, 
chemically,  first,  upon  the  presence  in  it  of  all  the  ash  elements  and  of  nitrates  in  proper 
quantity,  and,  second,  on  their  occurrence  there  in  such  states  of  combination  as  to  give  a 
constant  and  regulated  supply  ;  that  numerous  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  a  soil 
destitute  of  either  phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  or  oxide  of  iron,  is 
absolutely  barren  on  account  of  such  deficiency  ;  and  that  it  is  equally  certain  that  a  soil 
which  contains  the  usual  amount  of  potash,  but  only  in  the  form  of  feldspar,  or  of  phosphoric 
acid,  but  only  as  apatite,  or  of  magnesia,  but  only  as  serpentine,  is  infertile,  because  these 
substances  do  not  yield  their  elements  to  the  solvent  agencies  of  the  soil  or  plant  rapidly 
enough  to  serve  as  plant  food. 

Also  of  silica,  which  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  necessary  element  of  the  soil  in  order 
to  sustain  a  healthy  and  prolific  vegetation,  that  recent  investigations  appear  to  show,  that 
though  it  is  present  in  many  plants,  it  is  an  accidental  ingredient  and  in  no  manner  essential 
to  their  growth  or  perfection ;  and  alumina,  though  an  abundant  element  of  soils,  is  always 
absent  from  agricultural  plants;  that  soda  likewise  appears  to  be  unessential  to  most  of  the 
vegetative  processes,  for  although  it  is  perhaps  never  entirely  absent  from  cultivated  plants, 
it  often  occurs  in  them  in  extremely  minute  quantity,  so  that  the  soda  which  is  indispensable 
to  the  blood  and  milk  of  animals  must  be  obtained,  in  part  at  least,  directly  from  mineral 
sources. 

Hellriegel's  experiments  show  that  55  pounds  of  potash,  55  of  phosphoric  acid,  17  of 
magnesia,  17  of  soda,  23  of  lime,  11  of  sulphuric  acid,  8  of  chlorine,  and  54  of  nitrogen  (in 
the  form  of  nitrates),  are  sufiicient  in  soluble  condition,  in  1,000,000  pounds  of  soil,  in  order 
to  establish  there  a  fertility  equal  to  the  production  of  33  bushels  of  barley  grain  and  2,000 
pounds  of  straw  per  acre.  Good  soil,  however,  may  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  available 
plant-food  than  this.  The  weight  of  an  average  loamy  soil  is  estimated  to  be  about  4,000,000 
pounds  per  acre  for  each  foot  of  depth. 

It  is  estimated  by  good  authority,  that  a  crop  of  grain  of  thirty-three  bushels  removes 
from  the  soil  but  140  pounds  of  ash  elements;  that  is, — forty  pounds  in  the  seed  and  one 
hundred  pounds  in  the  straw. 


SOILS.  13 

"We  see  by  this  how  small  a  proportion  of  the  ash  element  is  taken  from  the  soil  by  a 
single  crop  of  the  above  mentioned  quantity. 

There  is  a  wise  provision  in  nature  which  prevents  some  soils  from  being  worn  out  or 
permanently  exhausted,  as  they  otherwise  might  be,  could  aU  their  fertilizing  elements  be 
extracted  by  man  at  will,  which  is  in  the  slow  and  gradual  solution  of  their  stored -up  treas- 
ures of  mineral  wealth,  and  the  chemical  changes  wrought  in  time  through  the  agency  of 
air  and  water. 

It  is  a  fact  well-known  to  any  farmer  that  when  soils  have  become  poor  or  infertile  from 
too  extensive  cropping  without  suflScient  fertilizers  of  the  proper  kind  to  restore  in  a  measure 
the  elements  extracted  by  the  production  of  the  crops,  often  a  rest  of  a  few  years,  without 
aid  from  any  kind  of  applied  fertilizers,  will  in  a  measure  restore  the  fertility.  This  is  caused 
by  the  decay  of  the  msoluble  part  of  the  soil,  which  thus  assumes  a  new  chemical  combination 
and  becomes  soluble,  these  being  chemical  changes  brought  about  through  the  agencies  of  the 
atmosphere  and  water. 

Prof.  Wm.  H.  Brewer,  also  of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  says 
in  relation  to  this  subject: 

"  If  the  original  rock  which  furnishes  the  sand  and  gravel  of  a  soil,  contains  all  the  min- 
eral elements  of  fertility,  such  a  soil  may  be  impoverished  by  too  hard  cropping,  but  it  cannot 
be  exhausted,  or,  as  you  would  say,  worn  out.  The  annual  weathering,  by  making  soluble 
what  was  before  insoluble,  is  a  process  of  continually  restoring  fertility  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree.  "We  are  told  of  certain  soils  in  Greece  which  have  been  cropped  for  thousands  of 
years,  and  are  still  reasonably  fertile,  because  of  such  changes. 

A  soil  having  this  character  in  a  less  marked  degree  may  be  temporarily  impoverished; 
we  say  then,  that  it  is  in  a  low  condition,  or  "run  down,"  and  yet  it  recuperates  rapidly  with 
rest,  and  with  proper  tillage  or  pasturage. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  soils  that  have  great  fertility  for  a  time,  and  when  they 
run  down  remain  very  poor  indeed.  What  fertilizing  material  the  soil  had  that  was  mostly 
in  an  available  condition  for  plant-food,  is  used  up  by  a  few  crops,  and  then  barrenness  fol- 
lows. I  have  heard  of  some  remarkable  cases  of  this  in  the  "Western  States,  where  the  soils 
seemed  wonderfully  fertile  at  first,  produced  a  few  large  crops,  then  utterly  failed,  and  are 
now  abandoned.  These  first  few  large  crops  took  up  the  plant-food  which  had  been  prepar- 
ing for  ceutiu'ies.  It  was  like  a  long  investment  suddenly  becoming  available  in  ready  cash, 
which  is  as  suddenly  spent,  poverty  following  in  its  track. 

Some  years  ago  I  began  a  microscopic  examination  of  different  sands  in  connection  with 
certain  geological  studies.  Sands  from  the  sea-shore  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  from  the 
shores  of  lakes  fi'esh  and  salt,  the  wash  of  rivers,  from  placer  mines,  from  mountains  and 
valleys,  the  drifting  sands  of  the  Pacific  slope,  and  from  the  deserts  of  the  great  basin,  and 
finally  the  sands  washed  out  from  various  soils,  arable  and  otherwise.  It  is  curious  to  see 
how  some  of  those  from  soils  have  been  modified  by  the  influences  here  spoken  of — often 
there  is  a  partial  cementing  again,  by  which  each  larger  particle  is  coated  with  smaller  grains 
adhering  to  it;  in  others  the  splits  and  cracks  by  frost,  and  more  interesting  still,  the  way 
some  show  that  they  have  been  partly  dissolved.  Only  this  week  I  was  examin- 
ing some  from  a  sandbank  deposited  in  Central  New  York,  near  Cayuga  lake,  so  long  ago 
that  a  ravine  four  hundred  feet  deep  has  been  worn  in  the  rock  since  that  sand  was  depos- 
ited. "When  deposited  it  was  evidently  all  worn  and  rounded  by  the  water  which  left  it 
where  we  now  find  it.  Now  each  quartz  grain  is  all  roughened  by  little  pits  sunk  into  it  by 
being  partly  dissolved  in  the  long  ages  it  has  lain  there.  In  another,  from  the  old  silt  left 
near  Niagara  Falls  before  the  gorge  was  made  in  its  present  shape,  the  solution  of  some 
ingredients  has  partially  re-cemented  others. 

The  matter  of  oxidation  is  a  curious  one.     "Wooden  posts  last  very  differently  in  differ- 


14  -     THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ent  soils.  As  a  rule,  they  decay  quickest  in  open  sandy  soils,  and  last  longest  in  heavy  clays 
or  wet  peat.  It  is  just  so  with  all  organic  matters.  It  is  well  known  that  in  some  grave- 
yards human  bodies  decay  in  four  or  five  years,  in  others  only  in  fifteen  or  even  twenty 
years.  Now,  this  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  use  of  manures.  In  some  soils  the 
organic  part  of  the  manure  disappears  quickly,  particularly  in  sandy  soils,  while  in  others, 
particularly  loams  and  clays,  they  remain  much  longer,  modifying  both  the  chemical  compo- 
sition and  physical  character. 

Again,  soluble  mineral  salts  are  washed  out  unequally.  As  a  general  rule,  those  salts 
which  are  of  most  use  to  plants  are  held  more  tenaciously,  while  those  that  are  injurious 
wash  out  easier. 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the  composition  and  constitution  is  affected  by  the  air 
that  is,  through  the  climate.  Alkaline  soils  and  salty  soils  of  various  kinds  are  only  found  in 
dry  climates.  All  the  saline  and  alkaline  soils  of  the  interior  and  western  parts  of  our  con- 
tinent, and  indeed  of  all  countries  (except  shores)  would  be  soon  purified  if  the  rains  were 
abundant  enough  for  numerous  springs  and  streams.  The  countries  are  salt  and  alkaline 
because  these  salts  have  been  developed  by  the  disintegration  of  the  rocks,  and  the  soils  have 
not  been  sufficiently  washed  out.  Even  our  Connecticut  coast  salt  marshes  soon  lose  their 
saline  character  and  become  fresh  if  the  sea  water  is  excluded." 

Thus  we  see  that  many  soils  contain  in  themselves  the  elements  of  fertility,  which  are 
gradually  supplied  through  the  agency  of  water  and  air,  while  others  soon  become  exhausted 
without  the  use  of  manures  or  other  fertilizers  to  restore  the  elements  that  have  been  extracted 
by  the  crops  produced. 

Classification  of  Soils.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  soils  frequently,  by  a  gradual 
process,  change  from  one  character  to  another,  so  that  a  minute  classification  is  almost 
impossible.  We  prefer  for  general  reference  the  arrangement  adopted  by  the  noted  British 
authority.  Prof.  Johnston,  which  is  based  upon  their  chemical  constituents. 

"  1st.  Pure  clay  (pipe  clay),  consisting  of  about  60  of  silica  and  40  of  alumina  and  o.xide 
of  iron,  for  the  most  part  chemically  combined.  It  allows  no  siHcious  sand  to  subside  when 
diffused  through  water,  and  rarely  forms  any  extent  of  soil. 

"  2d.     Strongest  clay  soil  (tile  clay,  unctuous  clay),  consists  of  pure  clay  mixed  with  5  to 

15  per  cent,  of  a  silicious  sand,  which  can  be  separated  from  it  by  boiling  and  decantation. 

"3d.  Clay  luam  differs  from  a  clay  soil,  in  allowing  from  15  to  30  per  cent,  of  fine 
sand  to  be  separated  from  it  by  washing,  as  above  described.  By  this  admixture  of  sand,  its 
parts  are  mechanically  separated,  and  hence  its  free. and  more  friable  nature. 

"  4th.     A  loamy  soil  deposits  from  30  to  60  per  cent,  of  sand  by  mechanical  washing. 

"  5th.     A  sandy  loam  leaves  from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  sand,  and 

"  6th.     A  sandy  soil  contains  no  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  pure  clay. 

"  The  mode  of  examining  with  a  view  of  naming  soils,  as  above,  is  very  simple.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  spread  a  weighed  quantity  of  the  soil  in  a  thin  layer  upon  writing  paper, 
and  to  dry  it  for  an  hour  or  two  in  an  oven  or  upon  a  hot  plate,  the  heat  of  which  is  not 
sufficient  to  discolor  the  paper — the  loss  of  weight  gives  the  water  it  contained.  While  this 
is  drying,  a  second  weighed  portion  may  be  boiled  or  otherwise  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  water,  and  the  whole  then  poured  into  a  vessel,  in  which  the  heavy  sandy  parts  are 
allowed  to  subside  until  the  fine  clay  is  beginning  to  settle  also.  This  point  must  be  care- 
fully watched,  the  liquid  then  poured  off,  the  sand  collected,  dried  as  before  upon  paper,  and 
again  weighed.  This  weight  is  the  quantity  of  sand  in  the  known  weight  of  moist  soil, 
which  by  the  previous  experiment  has  been  found  to  contain  a  certain  quantity  of  water. 

"  Thus,  suppose  two  portions,  each  200  grs.,  are  weighed,  and  the  one  in  the  oven  loses 
50  grs.  of  water,  and  the  other  leaves  60  grs.  of  sand, — then  the  200  grs.  of  moist  are  equal 
to  150  of  dry,  and  this  150  of  dry  soil  contains  60  of  sand,  or  40  in  100  (40  percent.).  It 
would,  therefore,  be  properly  called  a  loam,  or  loamy  soil. 


SOILS.  15 

"  But  the  above-  classification  has  reference  only  to  the  clay  and  sand,  while  we  know 
that  lime  is  an  important  constituent  of  soils,  of  which  they  are  seldom  destitute.  "We  have 
therefore, 

"  7th.  Afarly  soils,  in  which  the  proportion  of  lime  is  more  than  5  per  cent.,  but  does 
not  exceed  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  dry  soil.  The  marl  is  a  sandy,  loamy,  or 
clay  marl,  according  as  the  proportion  of  clay  it  contains  would  place  it  under  the  one  or  the 
other  denomination,  supposing  it  to  be  entirely  free  from  lime,  or  not  to  contain  more  than 
5  per  cent.,  and 

"8th.  Calcareous  soils,  in  which  the  lime,  exceeding  20  per  cent.,  becomes  the  distin- 
guishing constituent.  These  are  also  calcareous  clays,  calcareous  loams,  or  calcareous  sand, 
according  to  the  proportion  of  clay  and  sand  which  are  present  in  them.  The  determination 
of  the  lime,  also,  when  it  exceeds  5  per  cent.,  is  attended  with  no  difficulty. 

"To  100  grs.  of  the  dry  soil  diffused  through  half  a  pint  of  cold  water,  add  half  a  wine 
glass  full  of  muriatic  acid  (the  spirit  of  salt  of  the  shops),  stir  it  occasionally  during  the 
day,  and  Ifet  it  stand  over  night  to  settle.  Pour  ofE  the  clear  liquor  in  the  morning,  and  fill 
up  the  vessel  with  water  to  wash  away  the  excess  of  acid.  When  the  water  is  again  clear, 
pour  it  off,  dry  the  soil  and  weigh  it;  the  loss  will  amount  generally  to  about  one  per  cent, 
more  than  the  quantity  of  lime  present.  The  result  will  be  sufficiently  near,  however,  for 
the  purposes  of  classification.  If  the  loss  exceed  5  grs.  from  100  of  the  dry  soil,  it  may  be 
classed  among  the  marls;  if  more  than  20  grs ,  among  the  calcareous  soils. 

"  Lastly,  vegetable  matter  is  sometimes  the  characteristic  of  a  soil,  which  gives  rise  to  a 
further  division  of, 

"  9th.  Vegetable  molds,  which  are  of  various  kinds,  from  the  garden  mold,  which  contains 
from  S  to  10  per  cent.,  to  the  peaty  soil,  in  which  the  organic  matter  may  amount  to  60  or 
70  per  cent.  These  soils  also  are  clayey,  loamy,  or  sandy,  according  to  the  predominant 
character  of  the  earthy  mixtures. 

"  The  method  of  determining  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  for  the  purposes  of  classi- 
fication, is  to  dry  the  soil  well  in  an  oven,  and  weigh  it;  then  to  heat  it  to  dull  redness  over 
a  lamp  or  bright  fire  till  the  combustible  matter  is  burned  away.  The  loss  on  again  weighing 
is  the  quantity  of  organic  matter." 

The  preceding  are  commonly  recognized  as  such  general  divisions  as  possess  properties 
sufficiently  common  to  require  a  similar  process  in  testing.  The  earthy,  or  what  are  termed 
inorganic  parts  of  soils,  are  found  almost  exclusively  in  combination  with  earths,  salts,  or 
minerals,  and  constitute  from  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  to  over  10  per  cent,  of  aU 
plants;  in  addition  to  these  inorganic  parts,  fertUe  soils  must  also  contain  carbon,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  hydrogen,  which  are  called  organic  parts  of  soils,  because  of  their  greater  pro- 
portion in  vegetables  and  animals,  of  which  they  constitute  in  substance  from  about  90  to 
over  99  per  cent. 

Clay  Soils  and  their  Management. — From  their  aSinity  for  water,  and  a  ten- 
dency  to  hold  it  in  such  quantity  as  to  often  impede  a  rapid  or  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation, 
clay  soils  are  commonly  denominated  cold  and  wet. 

Clay  owes  its  origin  mainly  to  the  decomposition  of  other  minerals,  and  consists  largely 
of  alumina,  which  is  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  earths,  combined  with  silica  and  water, 
its  plasticity  being  due  to  the  alumina  it  contains,  which  being  so  fine  in  texture  and  com- 
pact, prevents  the  escape  of  water  resting  upon  the  surface  of  such  soils,  or  contained  within 
it.  In  its  pure  state,  alumina  is  an  earth  resembling  soft,  white  powder,  without  taste;  in  its 
crystaline  form,  it  occurs  as  sapphire  and  ruby,  which  are  among  the  hardest  and  most  val- 
uable of  the  precious  stones. 

Prof.  Brewer  states  that  when  on  bottom  lands,  or  in  valleys,  clays  are  usually  the  sedi- 
ment deposited  from  muddy  water  in  some  earlier  age  of  the  earth's  history,  but  when  on 
hillsides,  they  are  often,  in  part  at  least,  due  to  the  decay  of  slate  rocks. 


IQ  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER 

The  feldspar  which  by  its  decomposition  largely  yields  the  alumina  of  clay  soils,  contains 
also  potash  and  soda;  hence,  a  mixture  of  calcareous  matter  with  other  earths  proves  bene- 
ficial to  crops.  Clay  soils  have  also  a  remarkable  power  for  absorbing  ammonia  and  other 
substances,  which  constitute  the  food  of  plants. 

Under-draining  is  the  best  means  of  remo\nng  the  water  from  clay  soils,  and  thus  ren- 
der them  more  available  for  cultivation,  though  open  drains  are  effectual  to  a  certain 
extent. 

Sand,  being  porous,  is  very  valuable  to  mix  with  the  too  compact  clay,  thus  producing 
a  soil  neither  too  porous  or  compact;  for  large  fields,  this  may  often  prove  too  expensive  for 
practical  purposes.  Coarse  vegetable  manures,  such  as  straw,  corn-stalks,  fine  chips,  etc., 
which  have  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  compactness,  are  recommended  by  some  writers  on  this 
subject.  Barn-yard  manure  is  also  excellent.  Lime  and  gypsum  add  much  to  the  fertility  of 
such  soils. 

English  writers  on  agriculture  mention  the  use  of  burnt  clay  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
a  practice  long  in  vogue  there  for  the  improvement  of  clay  soils,  but  in  this  country  it  would 
be  attended  with  too  great  expense  to  be  practicable.  Their  method  is  to  roll  and  harrow  the 
field  in  dry  weather  till  the  majority  of  the  clods  are  about  the  size  of  a  large  walnut;  when 
perfectly  dry.  collect  them  into  rows  about  six  yards  apart  with  iron-teeth  rakes ;  about  four 
yards  apart  in  the  rows  apply  faggots  and  burn  the  clay  slowly,  to  prevent  hardening.  When 
the  heaps  of  earth  are  cold,  they  are  spread  over  the  surface  and  plowed  in.  This  method, 
it  is  stated,  has  astonishingly  increased  the  productiveness  of  some  of  the  poor  clay  soils  in 
certain  localities  of  England,  but  as  we  have  pre%nously  stated,  we  doubt  the  expediency  of 
its  adoption  in  this  country,  where  labor  is  attended  with  so  much  greater  expense. 

It  is  desirable  to  plow  clay  soils  in  the  autumn,  that  the  action  of  frost,  rain,  and  heat 
may  aid  in  pulverizing  the  earth,  after  which,  if  barnyard  manure  be  applied  (which  we  think 
one  of  the  most  desirable  manures  for  clay  soils),  it  acts  both  chemically  and  mechanically  to 
reduce  it  to  a  mellow  condition  and  perfect  its  texture,  being  in  a  condition  to  freely  admit 
air  and  moisture,  and  consequently  warmth  and  increased  fertility,  while  it  is  neither  too 
porous  or  compact,  and  readily  discharges  surplus  water,  yet  retains  sufBcient  for  moisture; 
by  the  fineness  and  closeness  of  its  particles,  the  soil  settles  sufficiently  compact  around  the 
roots  of  the  plants  to  increase  their  absorption  of  nutritive  properties,  which  produce  a  rapid 
and  healthy  growth.  If  plowed  in  the  spring  or  summer,  it  should  not  be  either  too  wet 
or  dry ;  if  too  wet,  it  turns  over  heavy  and  soon  becomes  hard  and  lumpy  by  drying  in  the 
hot  sun,  and  subsequent  plowing  or  harrowing  will  not  efEectually  counteract  the  evil  for  a 
long  time,  thus  often  injuring  the  texture  of  the  soil  for  many  years.  The  action  of  frost 
will  afterwards  correct  this  difficulty  in  a  measure,  but  not  wholly.  If  plowed  too  dry,  the 
soil  is  so  compact  that  it  renders  the  task  a  difficult  one;  besides,  it  remains  in  clods.  After 
the  rain  has  sufficiently  moistened  such  clods,  the  harrow  may  be  applied  effectually  to  reduce 
them  with  considerable  success;  but  it  is  better  to  plow  such  soil  when  neither  too  wet  or 
dry,  but  of  medium  consistency.  Plowing  under  green  crops  is  very  beneficial  to  clay  soils; 
but  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  their  successful  management  is  to  keep  the  texture 
in  a  desirable  condition  by  the  judicious  use  of  implements  in  working  the  land  over,  and 
preventing  its  becoming  lumpy  and  hard,  thus  at  tbe  same  time  improving  its  texture  and 
increasing  its  fertility  in  a  proportionate  degree. 

Thorough  mixture  should  never  be  neglected  in  any  soil,  as  the  change  of  particles  gives 
the  opportunity  for  the  extended  union  of  the  fertilizing  elements,  while  new  combinations 
are  thus  formed,  aided  by  the  atmosphere  and  the  increased  moisture  resulting  from  the  stir- 
ring of  the  soil. 

The  gradual  deepening  of  clay  soils,  that  is,  deepening  it  some  with  each  season's  plow- 
ing, is  thought  by  most  farmers  to  be  a  good  rule,  though  a  very  old  one. 


SOILS.  17 

Clay  soils  are  strong  and  durable,  and  retain  more  than  any  other  the  fertilizing  ele- 
ments that  may  be  added  in  the  form  of  manures,  etc.,  and  when  properly  managed,  are 
among  the  most  valuable  and  productive.  They  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of 
most  of  the  grains,  especially  wheat,  also  clovers  of  various  kinds,  and  beans.  They  are  also 
peculiarly  suited  to  grasses,  hence  are  often  denominated  grass  lands,  owing  to  their  peculiar 
fitness  for  mowing  lands  and  pastures. 

Saudy  Soils  and  their  Management. — Sandy  soils  are  in  almost  all  respects  the 
reverse  of  clays — ^being  warm,  light,  and  dry.  Under  judicious  cultivation,  for  most  kinds 
of  crops,  no  soils  yield  more  readily  or  bountifully,  while  they  possess  the  advantage  of  being 
ready  for  working  earlier  in  the  spring  than  clay  soils,  and  are  less  liable  to  be  affected  by 
frosts.  Being  leachy,  they  have  but  a  slight  hold  on  manures,  as  water  soon  washes  out  the 
fertihzing  elements,  consequently  it  is  best  not  to  apply  them  until  near  the  time  of  planting, 
such  as  late  in  the  winter  or  early  in  the  spring,  instead  of  the  fall,  as  on  some  other  soils. 

The  texture  and  quality  of  sandy  soils  are  much  improved  by  a  mixture  of  clay  and 
humus,  or  mold,  while  muck  and  vegetable  matter,  liberally  applied,  are  also  often  very 
beneficial.  With  a  good  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil,  little  fear  need  be  entertained  of 
drought. 

Allen  says  :  "  As  clay  soils  are  much  benefited  by  a  mixture  of  sand,  so  hkewise  are  sandy 
soils  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of  clay,  yet  in  a  much  higher  degree;  for  though  it 
would  never  pay,  as  a  general  rule,  to  add  sand  to  clay,  yet  the  addition  of  a  few  loads  of  the 
stiffest  clay  to  a  light  sand,  would  in  almost  every  instance  much  more  than  compensate  for 
the  trouble  and  the  expense.  For  this  purpose,  the  clay  should  be  thinly  spread  in  autumn 
upon  sward  land  previously  plowed,  and  the  winter's  frost  will  effectually  separate  the  parti- 
cles. It  should  then  be  harrowed  thoroughly  and  deeply  in  the  spring,  and  subsequently 
plowed  if  necessary.  Such  a  dressing  on  a  light,  crawling  land,  is  more  than  equivalent  to 
an  equal  quantity  of  the  best  manure,  and  wiU  be  permanent  in  its  effects.  Clay  and  sand 
are  necessary  to  each  other,  as  they  both  contain  qualities  which  are  essential  to  a  good  soil; 
and  that  will  always  be  found  the  best,  which  has  the  proper  proportion  of  each. 

Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  the  frequent  use  of  a  heavy  roller:  it  cannot  be  used  too 
often.  They  require  to  be  made  more  compact,  and  any  treatment  that  secures  this  object 
will  be  advantageous. 

Lime,  by  its  chemical  action  on  the  constituents  of  soils,  while  it  separates  clay,  renders 
sand  more  adhesive ;  and  when  cheaply  obtained,  it  is  always  a  profitable  dressing  for  sandy 
soUs,  to  the  full  amount  they  may  require.  Gypsum,  in  considerable  quantities,  has  an  effect 
similar  to  lime,  both  on  clay  and  sand;  and  when  added  in  smaller  portions,  produces  a 
striking  increase  in  the  crops  of  sandy  soUs.  Clay  marls,  containing  either  carbonate,  sul- 
phate, or  phosphate  of  lime,  are  of  great  value  to  sandy  soils.  Equally  beneficial  are  ashes, 
leached  or  unleached,  peat,  or  vegetable  manures  of  any  kind.  Some  calcareous  sands,  con- 
taining a  large  proportion  of  lime,  like  those  of  Egypt  and  extensive  regions  in  the  Barbary 
States,  wiU  produce  luxuriantly,  if  supplied  with  a  slight  addition  of  manure  and  an  abund- 
ance of  water.  Sandy  soils  can  never  be  profitably  cultivated  till  they  have  acquired 
sufficient  compactness  and  fertility  to  sustain  a  good  growth  of  grass  or  clover;  and  when 
once  brought  to  this  condition,  they  are  among  the  most  valuable. 

They  are  at  all  times  easily  plowed  and  worked;  they  require  no  draining;  and  though 
light  and  dry,  are  quick  and  kindly  soils,  giving  an  immediate  and  full  return  for  the  labor 
and  manure  bestowed  upon  them.  When  in  a  condition  to  produce  grass,  sheep  are  admira- 
bly adapted  to  preserve  and  augment  their  fertility,  and  by  their  incessant  migrations  over  it, 
iheir  sharp  hoofs  pack  the  surface  closely,  producing  the  same  effect  as  the  roller." 

For  corn  or  any  strong-growing  crop  in  sandy  soils,  it  is  well  to  give  the  land  a  large 
supply  of  barn-yard  manure — applying  it  after  the  land  is  plowed,  which  shovdd  be  a  few 


1^  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

weeks  before  planting,  that  the  soil  may  be  saturated  with  the  fertilizing  properties  at  the 
time  of  plantiug.  This  practice  favors  quick  starting  in  growth,  the  roots  being  fed  with  the 
manure  that  is  constantly  being  diffused  through  the  soil.  Sandy  soils  being  warmer  and 
more  dry  than  others,  favoring,  as  we  have  previously  stated,  early  working,  which  not  only 
gives  an  early  start  to  the  crops,  but  furnishes  them  with  the  winter  moisture  therein  con- 
tained, and  enables  them  to  secure  a  good  hold  upon  the  soil  before  the  dry  season  sets  in, 
and  thus  many  of  the  bad  effects  of  drouth  may  be  in  a  measure  avoided.  Where  the  season 
is  unusually  wet,  much  of  the  fertilizing  element  of  the  manure  will  be  washed  out  of  the 
soil  and  wasted,  but  where  dry  weather  is  more  prevalent  than  wet,  the  above  practice  will 
give  the  best  of  results. 

Leachy  soils  generally  must  have  frequent  and  light  applications  of  manure,  as  they  will 
not  retain,  like  clay,  the  wealth  of  soil  till  the  following  year  ;  they  will  only  hold  it  long 
enough  for  the  growing  vegetation  during  the  season,  the  remainder  passing  through  the 
light  soil,  and  is  lost.  Where  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  clay  mingled  with  the  soil, 
the  effect  of  retaining  will  be  varied  proportionately.  Clover  is  exceedingly  beneficial  in 
increasing  the  productiveness  of  poor,  sandy  soils  that  are  capable  of  producing  but  very  light 
crops.  We  give  the  following  method  from  the  pen  of  a  farmer  whose  land  at  the  time  of 
his  purchasing  it  was  of  such  poor,  sandy  quality  as  to  be  considered  almost  worthless  for 
agricultuj-al  purposes. 

"Clover  is  my  main  dependence  for  keeping  up  and  increasing  the  productiveness  of  my 
lands.  The  entire  tract  (300  acres)  is  now  all  under  cultivation,  and  the  annual  yield  to  the 
acre  of  wheat,  rye,  corn,  and  clover  hay  will  average  with  the  best  land,  in  Wisconsin  or 
Iowa,  which  has  been  the  same  number  of  years  under  cultivation.  My  favorite  plan  is  to 
have  one  field  each  of  clover,  corn,  and  wheat  every  year.  This  makes  a  three-year  rotation. 
The  first  crop  of  clover  is  cut  for  bay  in  June.  The  second  crop  is  allowed  to  go  to  seed, 
and  plowed  in  late  in  the  fall  ;  in  the  following  spring  it  is  planted  with  corn ;  the  next  spring 
sown  with  wheat,  and  the  land  will  be  found  to  be  abundantly  seeded  to  clover.  The  clover 
is  dressed  with  one  hundred  pounds  of  land  plaster  to  the  acre.  The  manure  made  on  the 
farm  is  spread  where  most  needed. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  let  the  land  remain  in  clover  for  a  longer  period.  My 
experience  is  that  clover,  being  a  biennial  plant,  will  winter-kill  the  third  winter  after  sowing, 
but  leaves  behind  a  great  mass  of  roots  that  wonderfully  enrich  the  soil.  Land  laid  down 
with  clover  is  better  than  money  in  bank,  drawing  more  interest  than  any  bank  can  pay  and 
compounding  the  interest  oftener. 

Boussingault  took  a  portion  of  pure  sand,  burned  it  until  all  traces  of  organic  matter 
were  expelled,  then  took  up  some  growing  clover  plants,  washed  them  clean,  removed  the 
external  moisture  with  blotting  paper,  weighed  them,  and  set  them  in  the  sand.  He  then 
watered  them  with  distilled  water,  placed  them  in  the  air,  and  in  two  months'  time  found 
that  they  had  tripled  their  amount  of  organic  matter — thus  proving  that  air,  pure  water,  and 
sand  have  all  the  elements  necessary  to  sustain  the  growth  of  clover.  In  rich  soil  the 
results  would  doubtless  have  been  increased,  but  we  see  in  this  little  experiment  the  elements 
of  all  successful  agriculture.  Had  he  buried  the  perfected  plant  in  his  sand,  and  planted 
again,  and  continued  the  process,  it  is  evident  that  there  would  be  no  end  to  the  amount  of 
fertility  which  might  be  accumulated,  and  this  would  not  be  in  an  arithmetical,  but  in  a 
geometrical  ratio,  for  the  presence  of  manure  in  the  soil  would  make  it  easier  to  accumulate 
still  more  from  the  atmosphere. 

Early  in  the  month  of  September  I  plowed  a  field  of  forty-three  acres  of  well-worn 
land,  from  which  a  crop  of  rye  had  been  harvested  the  preceding  July,  and  sowed  it  again 
with  rye.  In  November,  cattle  and  horses  were  permitted  to  run  on  it,  and  continued  to  do 
so  until  March — no  snow  covering  the  ground.     Early  in  May  the  rye  averaged  nearly  three 


SOILS.  19 

feet  liigh,  and  was  beginning  to  head  out,  when  the  plows  were  set  in  motion,  and  the  green, 
juicy  rye  was  turned  under  and  the  field  planted  with  com.  The  yield  was  forty-four  bushels 
of  No.  1  shelled  corn  to  the  acre.  There  was  less  labor  and  expense  attending  the  plowing 
and  sowing  of  that  rye  than  there  would  have  been  to  have  hauled  sufBcient  manure  from 
my  own  barnyard,  even  if  I  had  had  the  manure  to  have  spread  on  the  land  to  produce  the 
same  quantity  of  corn  that  plowing  in  the  rye  did.  Again,  the  corn  did  not  require  one-half 
the  labor  to  keep  it  clean  that  it  would  have  done  had  ordinary  barnyard  manure,  full  of  all 
kinds  of  seeds,  been  spread  on  the  land  and  plowed  in  before  planting.  Rye  is  the  best  of 
all  the  small  grains  to  clean  land  from  weeds.  The  late  fall  and  winter  feed  which  the  rye 
furnished  to  the  stock  was  of  more  value  than  the  seed  sown. 

Some  farmers  make  a  practice  of  sowing  rye  among  their  corn  in  July,  just  before 
cultivating  the  corn  the  last  time.  The  rye  does  not  make  much  growth  until  the  corn  is  ripe 
and  the  deadened  leaves  let  the  sun  on  it.  After  the  corn  is  picked,  the  cattle  are  turned  in, 
and  thrive  on  the  stalks  and  green  rye.  In  May,  the  rye  and  what  is  left  of  the  stalks  are 
plowed  in,  and  is  said  by  those  who  have  practiced  it  to  increase  the  yield  of  corn  ten  to 
fifteen  bushels  to  the  acre.  There  is  abundance  of  evidence  that  heavy  clay  lands  that  have 
been  worn  out  by  successive  cropping,  can  be  restored  to  at  least  their  original  fertility  by  the 
same  process  that  I  have  found  so  beneficial  on  sandy  land." 

Gravelly  Soils. — Gravelly  soils,  being  coarser  in  texture  than  what  are  commonly 
called  sandy  soils,  are  peculiarly  leachy  and  permit  the  escape  of  manures,  both  by  evapora- 
tion and  rapid  drainage  ;  they  are  therefore  not  as  valuable  as  sandy  soils.  Some  of  the 
gravelly  soils  are  composed  of  essentially  the  same  elements  as  the  coarse  granites,  viz.,  sand, 
clay,  and  potash,  with  a  small  percentage  of  iron,  lime,  and  magnesia.  Carbonic  acid  is  found 
in  the  air,  water,  and  soils  ;  when  in  a  state  of  solution  in  water  it  is  the  principal  agent  in 
decomposing  the  granite  rocks  and  setting  free  the  potash  contained  in  them  ;  when  in  large 
quantities  in  the  soil,  or,  as  chemists  say,  in  excess,  it  forms  bicarbonate  of  potash,  soda,  mag- 
nesia, and  lime,  all  being  soluble  in  water.  By  different  processes  new  compounds  are  thus 
formed  which  constitute  the  food  of  plants,  and  thus  the  coarser  soils  are  made  available  for 
agricultural  purposes.  Gravelly  soils  that  are  in  their  nature  calcareous,  or  composed  of 
decomposed  limestone,  are  more  valuable  for  tillage  than  the  former,  since  they  have  a  ten- 
dency to  retain  more  of  the  elements  of  plant-food,  and  are  consequently  richer  and  more 
compact.  The  poorer  gi'avelly  soils  are  used  principally  for  pasturage,  not  yielding  suflBcient 
returns  in  crops  generally  to  repay  the  expense  and  labor  of  tillage. 

Loamy  Soils. — A  loamy  soil  is  an  intermediate  in  character  between  sandy  and  clayey 
soils,  being  lighter  and  warmer  than  a  clay,  and  stronger  and  more  retentive  than  a  sandy 
soil.  Most  loamy  soils  contain,  in  different  proportions,  silicious  sand,  clay,  carbonate  of  lime, 
with  more  or  less  oxide  of  iron,  magnesia,  and  various  salts,  etc.  These  soils,  when  of 
desirable  combination,  are  generally  regarded  as  among  the  best  for  the  various  agricultural 
purposes.  When  they  contain  a  large  per  cent,  of  clay  they  require,  like  clay  soils,  careful 
drainage  ,  this  is  especially  desirable  for  an  orchard,  otherwise  many  of  the  tender  varieties 
would  be  liable  to  be  winter-killed.  In  cultivating  such  soils  they  should  be  treated  like 
either  clayey  or  sandy  soils  in  proportion  as  they  approximate  nearest  to  the  one  or  the  other 
of  these  soils  in  characteristics. 

Marly  and  Calcareous  Soils. — Marly  soils  contain  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  with 
a  considerable  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime,  the  latter  being  a  very  valuable  ingredient  as 
a  fertilizer.  They  are  designated  as  calcareous,  clayey,  or  sandy,  according  to  the  preponder- 
ance of  one  or  the  other  main  ingredient.  Pure  marl,  in  order  to  be  of  much  value  as  a 
manure,  must  be  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime,  and  sufficiently  soft  to  be  excavated  by  ordinary 
digging  utensils.     It  is  generally  formed  of  the  shells  of  mollusks  and  other  marine  animals 


20  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

of  a  former  age  ground  or  crushed  by  various  natural  causes,  and  cemented  by  clay  or  ren- 
dered compact  by  the  pressure  of  the  overling  stratum  of  earth,  or  from  other  causes.  South 
Carolina  and  New  Jersey  have  immense  beds  of  underlying  marl,  which  are  especially 
valuable  as  a  fertilizing  element,  and  to  which  much  of  the  fertility  of  their  soil  is  doubtless 
due.  Marl  containing  a  large  per  cent,  of  gypsum,  and  in  which  crystals  of  gypsum  are 
easily  descernible  to  the  naked  eye,  is  found  in  great  quantity  and  readily  accessible  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Jessup,  Florida.  The  large  amount  of  gypsum  it  contains  renders  it  of  great 
value  to  the  agricultural  interests  of  that  section.  Like  loamy  soUs,  marly  soils  may  contain 
also  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  sand  or  clay,  and  should  be  treated  according  as  they 
approach  nearest  the  characteristics  of  either  a  sandy  or  clayey  soil.  These  soils  are  very 
tenacious  of  manures,  and  are  what  may  be  termed  durable  or  lasting  soils. 

Silt  and  Alluvial  Soils. — Silt  being  synonymous  with  sediment,  denotes  those  soils 
which  are  formed  by  water  transporting  fine  sediment  or  mud  into  lakes  and  estuaries,  and 
depositing  it  in  their  beds.  Alluvial  soils  are  such  as  have  been  formed  by  the  deposit  of 
rivers  or  streams,  hence  a  silt  soil,  according  to  Prof.  Brewer,  may  be  a  river-deposit  and 
consequently  alluvial,  or  it  may  be  a  salt  marsh  by  the  sea,  or  such  a  marsh  reclaimed,  and  m 
no  way  pertaining  to  a  river  deposit,  in  which  case  it  cannot  strictly  be  called  alluvial,  and 
properly  is  not.  These  soils  vary  greatly  in  their  characteristics  from  a  mixed  clay  to  pure 
sand,  but  generally  combine  the  elements  of  such  soils  as  are  denoted  loamy  or  sandy  loams. 
When  of  this  character,  they  are  exceedingly  fertile,  and  if  favored  with  an  annual  overflow 
from  a  stream  above  them,  thus  depositing  upon  their  surface  the  fertilizing  elements  of 
other  soils,  they  yield  remarkably  large  crops  constantly  without  other  fertilizing  agents. 
They  are  suited  to  the  various  agricultural  purposes,  and  are  easily  tilled.  Such  soils  yield 
large  crops  of  the  best  of  grasses,  and  when  particularly  exposed  to  injury  by  freshets,  this 
crop  is  less  liable  to  be  damaged  by  such  exposure  than  any  other ;  therefore  it  will  be  safer 
for  farmers  having  such  particularly  exposed  lands,  to  appropriate  them  to  the  permanent 
production  of  grass.  The  rich  bottom  lands  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  furnish  a  good 
illustration  of  alluvial  formations,  as  also  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  drainage  of  Lake  Okeechobee  and  the  Everglades  in  Southern  Florida,  thus  reclaim- 
ing 12,000,000  acres  of  the  best  sugar  land  in  the  world,  will  prove  a  grand  scientific  agricultural 
achievement,  and  one  that  will  result  in  great  benefit,  not  to  Florida  alone,  but  to  the  United 
States;  since  Florida,  according  to  an  accurate  estimate,  is  by  this  means  capacitated  to  pro- 
duce more  sugar  than  the  United  States  consumes. 

Muck. — The  principal  constituent  of  muck  is  of  vegetable  origin,  being  formed  from 
decayed  vegetation  in  swampy  lands,  hence  as  a  soil  it  is  too  wet  to  admit  of  cultivation,  as 
such,  but  is  principally  used  as  an  absorbent  for  manures,  and  in  composts,  in  which  case  it 
must  be  well  dried  before  it  is  suited  to  absorb  the  liquid  portions  of  manure.  "When  thus 
saturated  it  makes  an  excellent  fertilizer.  Muck  varies  much  in  value,  according  to  its  origin. 
When  originating  from  a  mass  of  decayed  forest  leaves  and  other  plants,  it  must  of  necessity 
contain  considerable  fertilizing  matter;  if  from  mosses  and  coarse  sedges,  it  will  contain  far 
less  of  the  valuable  elements;  and  when  composed  largely  of  sand,  nearly  worthless;  or  it  may 
be  impregnated  with  protoxide  of  iron,  which  is  a  deadly  poison  to  vegetation,  hence,  its 
value  depends  entirely  upon  its  origin.  Its  chief  value  when  used  alone  consists  in  the  quan- 
tity of  vegetable  matter  it  contains,  and  which  is  well  adapted  to  soils  of  an  opposite  nature 
to  muck,  or  dry  soils  that  require  vegetable  manures.  When  thus  used  it  should  be  well 
drained  to  dispose  of  the  surplus  water  it  contains. 

The  Origin  and  Age  of  Muck  Deposits. — Wlierever  stagnant  water  has  existed 
for  a  long  time  a  certain  class  of  coarse  marsh  plants,  grasses,  and  mosses,  are  usually  found, 
such  conditions  favoring  their  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth.     These  plants  year  by  year  mature 


SOILS.  21 

and  decay  in  the  impure  water  that  is  the  source  of  their  origin,  and  at  the  same  time  is  like- 
wise their  grave.  As  years  go  by  and  centuries  succeed  each  other  with  their  changes  of 
heat  and  cold,  these  basins  become  filled  up  and  other  forms  of  vegetation  present  themselves; 
sometimes  trees  and  shrubs  cover  the  spot,  together  with  coarse  grasses  and  mosses,  the  bed 
remaining  spongy  and  soft,  the  annual  fall  of  leaves  and  the  decay  of  plants  constantly  con- 
tributing to  the  filling  up  of  the  stagnant  ponds.  In  some  cases  large  trees  have  fallen  and 
become  covered  with  the  accumulated  muck  and  peat,  and  have  thus  been  preserved  from 
destruction  for  ages,  forming  some  of  the  most  durable  timber  known  for  ship-building  and 
other  purposes.  Cypress  Swamp,  located  in  the  southern  portion  of  Delaware,  presents  an 
interesting  example  of  this  kind.  Here  for  several  miles  around  can  be  found  buried  in  the 
muck  and  peat  at  various  depths,  remnants  of  a  fallen  forest,  with  forests  of  another  genera- 
tion— mostly  white  cedar — growing  above. 

The  method  of  obtaining  these  buried  trees  is  described  as  follows,  by  a  recent  writer: 

"  The  huge  trees  which  lie  under  the  swamp  to  unknown  depths  are  of  the  white  cedar 
variety,  an  evergreen,  known  scientifically  as  the  Cupressus  Thyoides.  They  grew  years  ago 
in  the  fresh  water,  which  is  necessary  for  their  sustenance,  and  when  in  time,  either  by  a 
subsidence  of  the  land  or  a  rise  of  the  seas,  the  salt  water  reached  them,  they  died  in  great 
numbers.  But  many  of  them,  ere  they  died,  fell  over  as  living  trees,  and  were  covered 
slowly  by  the  deposits  of  muck  and  peat  which  fill  the  swamp.  The  trees  that  fell  over  by 
the  roots  are  known  as  windfalls  to  distinguish  them  from  the  breakdowns.  The  trees  which 
were  broken  off  are  the  ones  most  sought  for  commercial  uses,  and  they  are  found  and  worked 
as  follows:  The  log-digger  enters  the  swamp  with  a  sharpened  iron  rod.  He  probes  in  the 
soft  soil  until  he  strikes  a  tree,  probably  two  or  three  feet  below  the  surface.  In  a  few  min- 
utes he  finds  the  length  of  the  trunk,  how  much  still  remains  firm  wood,  and  at  what  place 
the  first  knots,  which  will  stop  the  straight  spht  necessary  for  shingles,  begin.  Still  using 
his  rod  hke  the  divining-rod  of  a  magician,  he  manages  to  secure  a  chip,  and  by  the  smell 
knows  whether  the  tree  is  a  windfall  or  breakdown.  Then  he  inserts  in  the  mud  a  saw,  like 
that  used  by  ice-cutters,  and  saws  through  the  roots  and  muck  until  the  log  is  reached. 

The  top  and  roots  are  thus  sawn  off,  a  ditch  dug  over  the  tree,  the  trunk  loosened,  and 
soon  the  great  stick,  sometimes  five  or  six  feet  thick,  rises  and  floats  on  the  water,  which 
quickly  fills  the  ditch  almost  to  the  surface.  The  log  is  next  sawn  into  lengths  two  feet  long, 
which  are  split  by  hand  and  worked  into  shingles,  as  well  as  into  the  staves  used  for  pails  and 
tubs.  The  wood  has  a  coarse  grain,  and  splits  straight  as  an  arrow.  The  shingles  made 
from  it  last  from  sixty  to  seventy  years,  are  eagerly  sought  for  by  builders  in  Southern  New 
Jersey,  and  command  in  the  market  a  much  higher  price  than  the  ordinary  shingles  made  of 
pine  or  chestnut.  In  color  the  wood  of  the  white  cedar  is  a  delicate  pink,  and  it  has  a  strong 
flavor,  resembling  that  of  the  red  cedar  used  in  making  lead  pencils.  The  trees,  once  fairly 
buried  under  the  swamp,  never  become  waterlogged,  as  is  shown  by  their  floating  in  the 
ditches  as  soon  as  they  are  pried  up,  and,  what  is  more  singular,  as  soon  as  they  rise  they 
turn  invariably  underside  uppermost.  These  two  facts  are  mysteries  which  science  has  thus 
far  left  so.  The  men  who  dig  the  logs  up  and  split  them  earn  their  money.  The  work  is 
hard,  exacting,  requiring  lusty  manual  labor,  skill,  and  experience. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  swamps  are  soft  and  treacherous,  no  machinery  can  be  used, 
and  long  stretches  of  mud  and  water  must  be  covered  with  boughs  and  bark  before  the 
shingles  can  reach  the  village  and  civilization.  The  number  of  the  trees  which  lie  below  the 
surface  of  the  ten  square  miles  of  swamp  is  almost  countless.  In  many  places  the  probe  will 
be  sunk  many  times  before  it  fails  to  strike  a  log.  As  the  workmen  only  dig  for  those  near 
the  surface,  and  none  but  the  best  trees  are  selected,  it  is  certain  that  only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  logs  have  been  exhumed  since  1812,  when  the  industry  first  sprang  up.  The  sunken 
forests  lie  in  all  shapes.     Sometimes  the  trees  are  found  parallel,  as  though  a  wind  blowing 


22  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

from  one  quarter  had  felled  them,  but  usually  they  lie  pointing  in  every  direction,  and  when, 
as  occasionally  happens,  the  wet  soil  sinks  or  dries,  the  mighty  trunks  are  seen  piled  upon 
each  other  as  in  a  Maine  log-jam.  What  are  seen,  too,  are  but  the  uppermost  strata  of  piles 
upon  piles  unseen  below." 

The  time  required  to  form  a  muck-bed  cannot  be  estimated,  the  stage  of  decay  of  the 
materials  composing  it  not  always  indicating  the  lapse  of  time.  Hundreds  of  centuries  must 
have  been  required  for  the  formation  of  the  deposits  in  the  swamp  previously  referred  to,  and 
human  computation  fails  in  arriving  at  any  definite  conclusion. 

Muck  differs  very  materially  in  texture  and  color,  according  to  its  origin  and  the  degree 
of  change  reached  by  the  material  of  which  it  is  composed.  It  is  generally  regarded  by 
chemists  and  agriculturists  as  most  valuable  for  agricultural  purposes  when  dried  and  used 
as  an  absorbent  of  liquid  manures,  its  application  alone  to  soils  of  any  kind  not  being  consid- 
ered generally  of  sufficient  value  to  warrant  a  recommendation  of  its  use  for  this  purpose. 

Peaty  Soils  and  their  Cultivation.  Peaty  soils  are  frequently  called  vegetable 
soils,  because  they  consist  mostly  of  vegetable  matter,  with  but  little  of  the  mineral  element. 
They  are  usually  found  in  low  swampy  localities,  but  sometimes  on  declivities  where  the 
water  is  obstructed  in  its  course  by  basin-shaped  cavities.  They  are  formed  mostly  by  the 
growth  and  decay  of  aquatic  vegetation.  In  many  swamps  the  peat  is  found  to  be  of  great 
depth,  sometimes  reaching  to  that  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet.  In  such  cases  the  locality  is 
supposed  to  have  formerly  been  a  lake  which  was  gradually  filled  up  with  peat.  When  peaty 
swamps  are  overflowed  from  time  to  time  by  a  river  that  deposits  sand  or  clay,  some  of  the 
most  productive  soils  will  frequently  thus  be  formed.  The  rich  lands  of  Holland,  which 
support  such  a  dense  population,  consist  of  a  soil  of  this  character.  The  islands  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers  in  California  are  well-known  examples  in  this 
country. 

Prof.  Brewer  says:  "Peaty  soils  may  shrink  on  drying  even  more  than  clays.  This  is 
due  to  two  causes, — first,  the  actual  shrinkage  of  the  dried  material,  and  second,  its  oxidation 
or  decay.  Wlien  such  lands  are  dried  and  brought  into  cultivation,  the  vegetable  matter 
decays.  When  the  Holland  peat-bogs  have  been  drained,  they  have  sometimes  sunk  several 
feet  in  the  course  of  years,  by  siich  decay,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  drained  marshes  in 
New  Jersey.  We  have  a  similar  case  in  New  Haven,  where  the  salt  water  was  shut  off  from 
a  salt  marsh  over  a  century  ago,  and  it  has  since  been  used  for  pasture ;  the  embankment 
was  broken  last  year,  and  the  tides  now  cover  it  like  a  lake;  the  land  has  sunk  away  from  a 
few  inches  near  the  edges  to  more  than  two  feet  in  the  more  peaty  portions." 

When  drained  and  exposed  to  the  air  sufficient  to  become  dry,  peat  in  its  natural  state 
is  often  used  for  fuel,  as  is  the  case  in  Ireland.  It  is  valuable  as  an  absorbent  of  hquid 
manures;  also  as  a  fertilizer  when  applied  alone  to  a  dry,  gravelly  or  sandy  soil. 

In  England,  charred  peat  has  been  used  as  a  manure,  both  when  applied  alone  and  when 
combined  with  night-soil,  liquid  manure,  sewage,  water,  etc.,  which  it  dries  and  deodorizes. 
So  great  at  one  time  were  the  expectations  of  an  enormous  demand  for  it,  besides  the  bene- 
fits to  result  to  Ireland  by  thus  disposing  of  her  bogs,  that  a  royal  charter  was  granted  to  a 
company  for  its  manufacture.  It  is  not  at  present,  however,  used  in  that  form  as  extensively 
as  that  which  is  merely  dried,  the  latter  being  a  better  absorber  and  retainer  of  ammonia 
than  that  which  is  charred.  Peaty  soils,  being  naturally  wet,  should  be  well  drained  of  sur- 
plus water  and  moisture,  in  order  to  be  successfully  cultivated. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  cut  up  the  hummocks  or  bogs  after  draining,  throwing  them 
into  heaps,  and  after  they  are  sufficiently  dried,  to  burn  them  and  scatter  the  ashes  over  the 
land  thus  drained.     Wood  ashes  and  gypsum  are  valuable  fertilizers  for  peaty  soils. 

Subsoils.  The  character  of  the  stratum  or  bed  of  earth  lying  immediately  beneath 
the  surface  soil,  called  subsoil,  affects  very  materially  the  efficiency  of  soils  in  their  produc- 


SOILS.  23 

tion.  If  it  is  of  a  clayey  nature,  that  prevents  the  escape  of  water,  and  thus  permits  an 
accumulation  on  the  surface,  many  crops  will  be  seriously  injured  by  heavy  rains.  Soils 
having  such  a  subsoil  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  under-draining,  and  this  should  be  done 
if  possible.  Some  recommend  breaking  up  and  loosening  this  hard  strata  with  a  subsoil 
plow.  This  should  be  cautiously  done,  however,  for  unless  the  subsoil  is  of  a  nature  to  ben- 
efit the  surface  soil  by  mixing  with  it  (which  is  rarely  the  case),  or  additional  manure  be 
applied,  the  latter  wiU  be  injured  by  the  mixing  ;  for,  while  deep  plowing  is  very  desirable  in 
some  soils,  furnishing  additional  moisture  to  the  roots  of  crops,  and  admitting  the  air,  besides 
increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil,  and  obviating  the  efEect  of  drouth  in  the  hot  season,  still,  with 
other  soils,  it  is  a  positive  injury,  and  the  few  benefits  derived  are  more  than  counterbalanced 
by  the  evO.  effects  upon  the  soil  of  bringing  up  coarse  gravel  or  other  undesirable  materials 
to  the  surface.  If  the  subsoil  can  be  broken  or  loosened  without  mixing  with  the  surface 
soil,  much  benefit  may  be  thus  derived.  Since  soils  differ  so  greatly  in  character,  only  gen- 
eral rules  can  be  given  in  this  respect-  the  farmer  being  able  to  judge  of  the  nature  of  his 
own  soil,  must  be  guided  accordingly. 

"When  the  subsoil  is  porous  and  leachy,  readily  permitting  the  escape  of  not  only  water, 
but  the  soluble  portions  of  manure  and  other  fertilizing  elements,  the  above-mentioned  pro- 
cess of  subsoil  plowing  would  be  very  injurious,  since  the  sand  or  gravel  would  be  brought 
to  the  surface  and  mixed  with  the  fertile  surface  soil.  Most  writers  recommend  in  such 
cases  the  deepening  of  the  surface  soil  by  the  addition  of  vegetable  manures,  in  order  to 
afford  greater  depth  for  the  roots  and  thus  increase  the  moisture.  This  is  a  laborious  and 
expensive  process,  however,  and  such  lands  make  usually  the  best  return  for  what  is  expended 
by  being  kept  as  permanent  wood  or  pasture  lands. 

If  the  subsoil  and  surface  soil  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  improved  by  mixing,  such 
as  the  one  being  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  nature,  the  other  of  a  clayey  or  marly  character,  the 
mixing  of  the  two  soils  by  deep  plowing  will  be  very  advantageous,  since  the  very  ingredi- 
ents wanting  to  perfect  or  improve  the  surface  soil  will  thus  be  furnished. 

Allen,  in  his  American  Farm  Book,  says:  "Tlie  effect  of  long-continued  cultivation, 
besides  exhausting  what  is  essential  to  the  earthy  part  of  plants,  is  to  break  down  the  coarser 
particles  of  the  soil,  by  the  mechanical  action  of  the  plow,  harrow,  etc.,  and  in  a  much  more 
rapid  degree,  by  the  chemical  combinations  which  cultivation  and  manuring  produce.  A 
few  years  suffice  to  exhibit  striking  examples  in  the  formation  and  decomposition  of  rocks 
and  stones.  Stalactites  and  various  specimens  of  limestone,  indurated  clays,  sandstone,  and 
breccias,  or  pudding  stones,  are  formed  in  favorable  circumstances,  almost  under  our  eye; 
while  some  limestones,  shales,  sandstones,  etc.,  break  down  in  large  masses  annually,  from 
the  combined  effect  of  moisture,  heat  and  frost.  The  same  changes,  on  a  smaller  scale,  are 
constantly  going  forward  in  the  soil,  and  much  more  rapidly  while  under  cultivation.  The 
general  tendency  of  these  surface  changes  is  towards  pulverization.  The  particles  forming 
the  soil,  from  the  impalpable  mite  of  dust  to  the  large  pebbles,  and  even  stones  and  rocks, 
are  continually  broken  up  by  the  combined  action  of  the  vital  roots  and  the  constituents  of 
soils,  by  which  new  elements  of  vegetable  food  are  developed  and  become  available,  and  in  a 
form  so  minute  as  to  be  imbibed  by  the  spongioles  of  the  roots,  and,  by  the  absorbent  vessels, 
they  are  afterwards  distributed  in  their  appropriate  places  in  the  plant.  Where  this  action 
has  been  going  on  for  a  long  period,  a  manifestly  beneficial  effect  has  immediately  followed 
from  bringing  up  and  mixing  with  the  superficial  earth  portions  of  the  subsoil  which  have 
never  before  been  suljject  to  cultivation. 

"  A  subsoil  which  is  permeable  to  water  is  sometimes  imperceptibly  beneficial  to  vegeta- 
tion, not  only  by  allowing  the  latent  moisture  to  ascend  and  yield  a  necessary  supply  to  the 
plants,  but  a  moisture  frequently  charged  with  lime  and  various  saline  matters,  which  the 
capillary  attraction  brings  from  remote  depths  below  the  surface.     It  is  probably  from  this 


24  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

cause  that  some  soils  produce  crops  far  beyond  the  yield  which  might  be  reasonably  looked 
for  from  the  fertilizing  materials  actually  contained  in  them.  This  operation  is  rapidly  going 
forward  during  the  heat  of  summer.  The  water  thus  charged  with  saline  matters  ascends 
and  evaporates  at  and  below  the  surface,  leaving  them  diffused  throughout  the  soil.  After 
long-continued  dry  weather,  a  thin  white  coating  of  these  salts  is  frequently  discernible  on 
the  ground. 

"  Where  rain  seldom  or  never  falls,  this  result  is  noticeable  in  numerous  and  sometimes 
extensive  beds  of  quiescent  (not  shifting)  sand.  Deposits  ofttimes  occur  several  inches  in 
thickness.  Such  are  the  extensive  beds  of  impure  muriate  of  soda  and  other  salts  in  the  arid 
deserts  of  Arizona;  in  the  great  Salt  Lake  Basin;  in  the  southern  parts  of  Oregon;  the 
nitrates  found  in  India,  Egypt,  Peru,  and  various  other  parts  of  the  world. 

'•  Besides  the  qualitiesof  soils  already  noticed,  there  are  several  physical  conditions  which 
affect  their  value.  They  should  be  of  sufficient  depth,  friable,  or  easily  pulverized  ; 
they  should  possess  the  right  color,  and  be  susceptible  of  the  proper  admission  and  escape  of 
heat,  air,  and  moisture. 

"  Friableness  of  the  Soil  is  a  quality  equally  removed  from  the  adhesion  of  strong 
clay  or  the  openness  of  loose  sand.  Good  loams  and  fertile  alluvial  soils  always  possess  this 
property.  "When  stirred  by  the  plow,  the  spade,  or  the  hoe,  the  earth  should  fall  and  crumble 
readily,  although  wet.  Such  a  condition  secures  a  ready  admission  to  the  roots,  which  thus 
easily  pervade  the  soil,  and  draw  from  it  in  every  direction  their  necessary  support.  Under 
draining,  and  the  addition  of  coarse  manures  to  clay,  fermented  manures  and  ashes  to  sand, 
and  lime  and  gypsum  to  both,  will  materially  enhance  their  friableness. 

"  Color  of  Soils. — Color  is  an  essential  feature  in  soils,  and,  like  friableness,  it  has 
an  important  relation  to  their  capacity  for  heat  and  moisture.  Dark-colored  earths,  and  black 
in  the  highest  degree,  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than  any  other  when  exposed  to  a  temperature 
above  their  own,  and  it  escapes  with  equal  readiness  when  their  relative  temperature  is 
reversed.  A  rough,  pulverized  surface,  which  is  seen  in  the  minute  inequalities  of  a  friable 
soil,  produces  the  same  result.  During  the  heat  of  the  day,  especially  when  the  sun's  rays  fall 
upon  the  earth,  the  dark  friable  soil  imbibes  the  heat  freely,  and  transmits  it  to  the  remotest 
roots,  thus  securing  warmth  to  the  plant,  which  is  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  of  its 
growth.  When  the  temperature  of  the  air  falls,  on  the  approach  of  evening,  a  reversed 
action  in  the  soil  takes  place,  by  which  the  heat  as  rapidly  escapes.  This  immediately  brings 
the  surface  to  '  the  dew  point,'  and  secures  a  copious  deposit  of  moisture,  which  a  friable 
soil  speedily  conveys  to  every  part  of  the  roots." 

For  reasons  above  given,  namely,  that  dark  soils  absorb  the  heat  more  readily  than 
lighter  ones,  a  dark  soil,  other  conditions  being  equal,  will  be  more  productive  than  a  light 
one.  In  cold  climates,  melons  are  often  ripened  by  covering  the  soil  an  inch  deep  with  char- 
coal dust,  while  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  Belgium  grape-growers  spread  fragments  of 
black  slate  over  their  light  soils,  and  thus  greatly  improve  them.  Muck  and  peat  both 
improve  the  soil  to  which  they  are  applied,  in  this  respect,  in  addition  to  their  fertilizing 
elements. 

The  Dew  Point. — The  temperature  at  which  dew  begins  to  form  is  called  the  "dew 
point,"  and  this  is  a  degree  of  temperature  when  the  air  begins  to  part  with  its  vapors.  It  is 
generally  attained  when  the  surface  of  an  object  is  below  the  temperature  of  the  air 
surrounding  it,  as  is  often  illustrated  by  the  moisture  on  an  earthem,  glass,  or  metallic  vessel 
filled  with  cold  water  on  a  hot  summer  day,  or  when  set  in  a  warm  room  in  cold  weather. 
The  temperature  at  which  the  vapors  of  the  atmosphere  condense  to  form  dew  is  usually 
several  degrees  below  that  of  the  atmosphere  in  clear  weather,  varying  from  four  to  ten 
degrees  ;  but  in  damp  or  rainy  weather  the  dew  point  will  often  be  found  to  correspond 


ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS.  25 

nearly  with  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  proving  that  any  cause  vhich  contributes  to 
bring  the  temperature  of  the  air  to  this  point,  or  the  degree  at  which  vapor  condenses  to  form 
dew,  will  also  condense  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  into  mist,  clouds,  rain,  snow,  etc. 
The  formation  of  dew  and  its  influence  upon  vegetation  and  soil  is  an  interesting  subject,  as 
well  as  an  important  one  in  agriculture. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS. 

WHILE  it  is  true  that  an  analysis  of  a  soil  or  of  any  of  its  products  gives  us  its 
component  elements  with  suflBcient  accuracy  for  us  to  theoretically  estimate  its 
capacity  for  production  or  value  in  nutritive  element,  we  frequently  find  such 
estimates  at  fault  in  practical  experience.  However,  this  should  not  cause  us  to  discard 
analyses  of  soils  or  their  products,  for  much  benefit  has  been  derived  thereby  in  many  ways, 
and  valuable  knowledge  thus  obtained  which  could  not  have  been  derived  from  any  other 
source;  for  while  chemistry  can  do  much  to  unlock  the  hidden  secrets  of  Nature  and  show 
us  the  means  by  which  she  accomplishes  certain  results,  it  cannot  do  everything,  and  this  latter 
fact  should  not  cause  us  to  undervalue  the  Light  and  knowledge  it  does  afford  us. 

The  productiveness  of  a  soil  depends  much  upon  its  mechanical  condition,  for  although  a 
soil  may  contain  all  the  elements  suited  to  a  luxuriant  and  healthy  plant-growth,  if  these 
elements  are  not  in  a  condition  for  a  plant  to  assimilate,  and  thus  derive  from  them  its 
nourishment  or  plant-food,  it  is  no  more  benefited  by  the  presence  of  these  nutritive  elements 
in  the  soil  than  if  they  were  entirely  wanting.  For  instance,  if  a  soil  is  hard,  or  much  of  the 
essential  substance  for  the  crop  production  is  largely  in  a  coarse,  crude  state,  and  not  in  a 
condition  to  furnish  the  right  proportion  of  the  elements  in  a  solvent  form,  which  is  the 
accepted  standard  of  the  amount  of  crop-production  in  any  given  soil,  we  can  readily  see 
that  the  delicate  roots  of  the  plants  cannot  penetrate  it  or  appropriate  its  various  combinations 
to  its  use  ;  and  although  there  may  be  large  quantities  of  nutrition  locked  up  there,  it  is 
practically  useless  as  far  as  the  crops  are  concerned.  Chemistry  can  separate  the  different 
elements,  by  analysis,  and  tell  us  what  proportion  of  each  the  soil  may  contain,  and  what 
essentials  are  wanting  ;  it  can  instruct  the  farmer  how  to  test  his  soils,  so  that  he  can  easily 
determine  the  kind  of  fertilizers  they  require  to  render  them  productive  ;  it  can  tell  him  the 
composition  of  the  different  plants  he  cultivates,  and  thus  show  him  what  kind  of  nutri- 
ment and  in  what  proportion  they  require  to  abstract  from  the  soil  to  produce  their  own 
growth;  hence,  he  will  be  able  to  determine  what  kind  of  fertilizers  to  apply.  But  chemistry 
cannot  tell  him  whether  these  elements  are  in  a  condition  for  the  plant  to  derive  from  them 
present  nourishment ;  in  other  words,  it  cannot  toll  him  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil; 
hence,  a  chemical  analysis  may  often  show  very  favorable  results  from  certain  soils,  while  the 
practical  experience  of  the  farmer  in  its  cultivation  may  result  very  unfavorably.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  chemical  analysis  may  prove  certain  soils  very  deficient  in  some  of  the  elements 
which  plants  require  for  their  food,  and  yet  its  texture  and  mechanical  condition  generally  be 
so  favorable  that  the  roots  can  easily  penetrate  it  and  take  up  almost  entirely  the  nutrition  in 
store  there,  and  thus  favorable  results  reached  in  the  crop  obtained. 

It  has  also  been  found  that  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  soils  produces  much  better  and 
larger  crops  than  either  the  clay  or  sandy  soil  alone.  Analysis  would  prove  the  clay  the  most 
abundant  in  the  nutritive  elements,  and  hence,  reasoning  from  that  fact,  we  would  conclude 
that  the  mixture  of  the  poorer  sandy  soil  would  deteriorate  the  clay  soil  instead  of 
increasing  its  productive  qualities.  This  proves  that  while  the  chemist  can  greatly 
benefit  the  farmer  by  his  skill  in  separating  and  testing  the  component  elements  of  the  soiJ, 


26  THE  AMERICAI^  FARMER. 

such  analysis  does  not  determine  accurately  its  degree  of  fertility,  since  practical  experience 
proves  that  successful  agriculture  depends  quite  as  much,  if  not  more,  upon  its  mechanical 
condition,  as  its  composition.  Notwithstanding  these  facts,  chemistry,  as  we  have  previously 
stated,  has  been  of  great  value  to  the  farmer,  and  the  high  standard  attained  in  agriculture 
at  the  present  time  is  due  largely  to  its  instructions. 

Notwithstanding  the  inability  of  chemical  analysis  to  furnish  us  all  the  knowledge 
desired,  sufficient  information  can  be  obtained  through  its  teachings  for  aU  practical  purposes. 
Chemistry  teaches  that  plant  nutrition  depends  upon  two  great  classes  of  matter — organic 
and  inorganic  ;  and  that  no  plant  can  accomplish  a  perfect  growth  without  being  supplied 
with  both  of  these,  in  such  proportions  as  it  needs;  and  that  if  a  plant  has  access  to  all  the 
requisite  mineral  elements  in  abundance,  these  mineral  elements  of  nutrition  are  valueless  in 
the  production  of  the  plant,  unless  it  can  at  the  same  time  obtain  in  some  way  all  it  requires 
of  the  inorganic  elements  of  nutrition ;  also,  that  plants  derive  a  large  portion  of  their  con- 
stituents from  the  atmosphere,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  and  the  remainder  from  the  soil, 
and  that  the  elements  supplied  by  the  one  are  as  essential  to  plant  growth  as  those  of  the 
other.  K  there  were  even  one  of  the  requisite  mineral  elements  wanting,  though  there  were 
an  abundant  supply  of  all  the  others,  there  would  not  be  a  perfect  growth  of  the  plant;  neither 
could  an  excess  of  one  element  make  up  the  deficiency  in  the  quantity  of  the  others.  For 
instance,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  both  essential  to  plant  growth,  and  this  growth  can- 
not be  produced  without  the  requisite  quantity  of  each;  now,  if  there  should  be  a  deficiency 
in  the  quantity  of  potash  in  the  soil,  no  surplus  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid,  however  great, 
could  counterbalance  that  deficiency  in  potash.  We  therefore  see,  that  if  any  one  of  the 
requisite  elements  of  the  soil  becomes  exhausted,  or  so  diminished  in  quantity  that  it  cannot 
afford  a  necessary  supply  for  the  plant  growth,  the  crop  will  be  a  small  one  until  this  neces- 
sary element  is  restored  to  the  soil.  Only  a  few  of  the  elements  of  the  soil  are  at  all  liable 
to  become  exhausted.  As  a  general  rule,  the  principal  mineral  constituents  that  may  become 
so  are  phosphoric  acid  and  potash:  while  nitrogen  is  the  only  organic  element  the  fanner  will 
probably  ever  be  required  to  supply. 

Prof.  Stockbridge,  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  says  that  "carbon,  of 
which  plants  in  their  dry  state  contain  about  fifty-five  per  cent.,  the  farmer  never  need  sup- 
ply, because  in  the  soil  and  in  the  air  there  is  an  abundant  supply  for  aU  the  plants  that 
ever  have  grown  or  that  ever  will  grow  on  the  earth,  and  nature  made  the  plant  with  the 
capacity  to  gather  it,  so  that  without  any  aid  from  man  the  plant  can  gather  all  its  carbon. 
There  is  no  need  then  that  you  feed  a  plant  with  carbon;  it  wiU  take  care  of  itself.  So  with 
oxygen,  and  so  with  hydrogen.  In  the  water  and  in  the  air, — with  which  the  plant  is  filled, 
— and  by  chemical  action,  the  union  of  certain  substances  in  the  plant,  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen,  the  plant  can  always  supply  itself  with.  No  farmer  need  ever  feed  his  plants 
with  these  substances  to  promote  their  growth.  If,  however,  we  come  to  nitrogen,  it  has 
been  abimdantly  proved  by  scientists  that  there  is  here  a  deficiency.  The  plant  takes  large 
quantities  of  nitrogen,  especially  in  its  seed ;  it  may  gather  some  nitrogen  naturally  from  the 
air,  perhaps  in  the  form  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  ammonia 
taken  in  soil  water.  It  can  gather  some,  and  yet  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  available  to  the 
plant  is  insufficient  to  supply  its  wants.  Now,  it  is  tlie  farmer's  clear  duty,  so  far  as  these 
four  elements  are  concerned,  to  regard  only  the  supply  of  nitrogen.  Give  your  plant  nitro- 
gen, and  you  may  rely  upon  it  as  a  natural  law,  that  they  themselves  can  take  care  of  the  supply 
of  the  other  organic  elements. 

Turning  now  to  the  inorganic  elements,  the  same  law  holds  good.  Take  soda,  for 
instance;  all  our  plants  require  soda,  but  so  far  as  the  farmer  is  concerned,  he  w^ll  find  that 
any  of  the  soils  that  are  made  of  micaceous  rocks  contain  enough  magnesia  and  soda  to  sup- 
ply all  the  plants  probably  that  will  ever  be  produced  on  that  soil;  he  will  probably  find  enough 


ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS.  27 

sulpliuric  acid  and  silica.  If,  however,  we  come  to  the  substance  that  we  call  potash,  we 
shall  find,  as  a  rule,  that  plants  take  a  large  quantity  of  it, — a  large  proportional  quantity, — ■ 
and  that  potash  is  very  deficient  in  the  soil.  The  constant  cropping  has  exhausted  the  soil  of 
potash,  and  the  farmer  must  supply  it.  All  scientists  agree  on  this  matter,  that  so  far  as 
the  farmer  is  concerned  in  supplying  the  wants  of  the  plant,  the  only  substances  that  he  need 
supply  wiU  be  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen.  Aly  own  experiments  seem  to  show 
that  with  one  or  two  plants,  he  should  give  them  a  little  of  something  else,  which  are  mag- 
nesia, and  a  httle  lime  for  the  tobacco  and  cotton  plant." 

"We  see,  therefore,  that  if  the  above  principle  is  correct,  it  will  be  a  very  easy  matter 
for  the  farmer  to  test  his  soil,  and  find  in  what  it  is  deficient.  It  may  be  deficient  in  one  or 
all  of  these  elements,  but  by  careful  experiment  and  noting  the  effect  upon  different  plots  of 
ground,  of  each  of  the  above  mentioned  fertilizers,  applied  separately  and  in  combination,  he 
can  soon  determine  by  the  results,  which  of  these  elements  are  requisite  to  the  improvement 
of  his  lands. 

These  elements  can  be  obtained  in  commercial  fertilizers,  or  they  can  be  prepared  by  the 
farmer  himself,  who  can  obtain  a  good  supply  of  potash  in  the  form  of  wood  ashes;  of  nitro- 
gen, in  the  form  of  fish-guano,  and  phosphoric  acid  from  a  quantity  of  bones.  By  careful 
experiment,  any  intelligent  farmer  can  thus  learn  the  elements  of  his  soil,  and  supply  the 
elements  of  plant-food  requisite. 

Since  soils  differ  so  greatly  that  those  taken  from  no  two  localities,  or  even  from  differ, 
ent  portions  of  the  same  field,  will  be  found,  on  analysis,  to  contain  the  same  proportion  of 
ingredients,  still,  a  fair  estimate  of  the  predominant  constituents  of  different  kinds  of  soil 
can  thus  be  obtained. 

The  following  are  very  fertile  and  arable  soils,  of  which  Professor  Johnston,  an  eminent 
English  authority,  says: — 

"The  first  had  been  cropped  for  160  years  successively,  without  either  manure  or  naked 
fallow.  The  second  was  a  virgin  soil,  celebrated  for  its  fertility.  The  third  had  been  unma- 
nured  for  twelve  years,  during  the  last  nine  of  which  it  had  been  cropped  with  beans,  barley, 
potatoes,  winter  barley  and  red  clover,  clover,  winter  barley,  wheat,  oats,  naked  fallow." 


1 

2 

From  01 

3 

Soil. 

Soil  from  Moravia. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. 

From  Belgiom. 

Silica  and  fine  Sand, 

77.209 

87.143 

94.261 

64.517 

Alumina,    ..... 

8.514 

5.666 

1.376 

4810 

Oxides  of  Iron,      .... 

6.593 

3.220 

3.336 

8.316 

Oxide  of  Manganese, 

1.520 

0.360 

1.200 

0.800 

Lime,           ..... 

0.927 

0..564 

0.243 ''fr,^" 

'   9.403 

Magnesia,    ... 

1.160 

0.313 

0.310' 

Sarb.  1 
Mag. 

''10.361 

Potash,  chiefly  combined  with  Silica, 

0.140 

0.120 

0.240 

0.100 

Soda,  ditto,             .... 

0.640 

0:025 

0.240 

0.013 

Phosphoric  Acid  combined  with  Lime  and  Oxide 

of  Iron,            .... 

0.6.51 

0.060 

trace 

1.221 

Sulphuric  Acid  in  Gypsum, 

0.011 

0.037 

0.034 

0.009 

Chlorine  in  common  Salt, 

0.010 

0.036 

trace 

0.003 

Carbonic  Acid  united  to  the  Lime, 

0.080 

Humic  Acid,          .... 

0!978 

1.304 

0.447 

Insoluble  Humis,   .... 

0.540 

1.072 

Organic  substances  containing  Nitrogen, 

1.108 

1.011 

100.  100.  100.  100. 

The  following  analyses  were  made  by  Prof.  CoUier,  chemist  for  the  department  of  agri- 
culture, at  "Washington,  D.  C: — 

No.  1. — Green  sand  marl,  from  Meridian,  Miss. 

No.  2. — Clay  from  Maryland. 

No.  3. — Clay  from  Potomac,  Terra  Co tta  Company. 


28 


THE  AlIERICAN  FARJtER. 

No.  4. — Kaolin  (porcelain  cla}'),  from  Maryland. 
No.  5. — Kaolin  from  Virginia. 


Constituents. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

Percent. 

16.80 
2.18 

36.55 
6.00 
2.28 

15.94 

2.69 

".14 
Trace.. 
Trace.. 
16.96 

Per  Cent. 
3.98 

53.32 

'".55 
1.96 

10.60 
.30 

29.96 

Per  Cent. 
9.16 

38.69 
2.33 
3.48 
7.63 
.80 

23.31 

'9.59 

Percent. 
17.42 

".86 

.29 

.81 

32.34 

2.49 

45.69 

Per  Cent. 
10.65 

Sand             

.18 

Trace. . 

Trace. . 

36.66 

Silicic  acid  (condensed) 

51.49 

99.54 

100.45 

9439 

99.81 

98.98 

Gypsum  Marl. — A  sample  of  marl  said  to   exist  in  very  great  quantity  and  readily 
accessible  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Jessup,  Florida,  gave  upon  analysis  the  following  : — 

Per  CeDt. 


Water  and  organic  matter. 

6.36 

Sand  and  clay,              .... 

68.94 

Gypsum  (CaSOi,  2HjO), 

13.79 

Limestone  (CaCOj),      .... 

3.77 

Iron  and  aluminium  oxides,    . 

7.14 

Phosphoric  acid,          .... 

Traces. 

100.00 

The  crystals  of  gypsum  are  easily  discernible  to  the  eye,  and  the  large  percentage  of 
this  fertilizer  makes  this  deposit  of  very  great  value  to  the  farming  interests  of  that  section. 

Unproductive  Soil. — The  following  analysis  of  soil  (which  was  from  Oak  Hill, 
Volusia  Co.,  Florida)  shows  that  its  barrenness  is  very  likely  due  to  a  lack  of  constituents 
suitable  for  plant  nourishment,  and  not  to  the  presence  of  any  injurious  substance. 

It  contains — 

Percent, 

1.05 

7.00 


Moisture, 
Organic  matter, 
Soluble  in  acid. 
White  sand. 


2.60 
89.35 


100.00 


One  of  the  most  fertile  soils  of  Sweden  is  said  by  Bergmann  to  contain  30  per  cent,  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  A  very  productive  soil  in  France  was  found  by  the  analysis  of  Chaptal 
to  contain  nearly  25  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  hme,  beside  7  per  cent,  of  organic  matter. 
Tillet  analyzed  a  soil  that  contained  37.5  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  was  exceed- 
ingly fertile.  Some  of  the  best  Mississippi  Valley  soils  are  said  to  yield,  upon  analysis,  from 
20  to  25  per  cent,  of  magnesian  lime,  and  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  hme,  while 
many  other  soils  throughout  the  United  States  have  been  known  to  yield  an  equal  proportioii 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  when  analyzed. 

As  we  have  seen,  chemistry  will  show  the  constitiients  of  the  soil,  and  what  elements  are 
lacking  that  are  essential  to  the  growth  of  certain  crops,  but  will  not  indicate  whether  those 


FERTILIZERS.  29 

elements  contained  within  it  are  in  a  condition  to  be  utilized  by  the  plants.  Although  this 
knowledge  imparted  by  chemistry  is  imperfect,  it  is  nevertheless  of  value  to  the  farmer,  for 
it  tells  him  what  elements  are  necessary  to  apply  to  his  lands  in  order  to  make  them  produc- 
tive. It  goes  farther  than  this  ;  it  shows  the  composition  of  the  various  plants  that  he 
cultivates,  and  what  proportion  of  the  various  fertihzing  elements  each  variety  of  product 
abstracts  from  the  soil ;  therefore  the  amount  of  fertilizing  material  removed  from  the  soil 
by  the  different  crops  can  be  calculated  with  considerable  accuracy,  and  by  applying  a 
sufficient  supply  of  these  elements  to  his  soil  he  may  be  sure  that  it  contains  the  necessary 
elements  of  fertihty  in  a  form  to  be  utilized  by  the  plants.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
both  the  analysis  of  soils  and  plants  are  of  great  use  in  agriculture,  and  that  when  both  are 
combined  with  experience  and  observation,  the  farmer  may  derive  great  benefit  from  the 
teachings  of  chemistry.  This  is  a  subject  of  great  interest  and  importance,  and  will  be  more 
fully  treated  in  connection  with  fertilizers. 


FERTILIZERS. 

PLANTS  require  food  on  which  to  subsist,  it  being  just  as  essential  to  their  sustenance 
as  with  animals.  They  also  require  a  variety  of  nutrition  for  their  proper  nourish- 
ment and  growth,  which  can  no  more  be  secured  without  it,  than  a  perfect  animal 
growth  when  subsisting  constantly  on  one  element.  It  is  also  equally  true  that  different  plants 
require  different  proportionate  elements  in  their  food,  just  as  different  species  of  animals 
require  different  kinds  of  nutriment,  and  they  will  dwarf  and  starve  unless  that  nourishment 
is  furnished  them.  When  farmers  learn  to  feed  their  crops  with  the  same  care  and  consider- 
ation that  they  feed  their  animals,  they  will  be  more  successful  in  their  business,  and  find  that 
farming  pays  well  for  the  labor  bestowed. 

Although  some  soils  contain  all  the  requisite  elements  of  plant-food  in  the  proper  propor- 
tions for  certain  kinds  of  crops,  and  will  produce  them  for  a  long  time  without  any  apparent 
impoverishing,  others  contain  certain  necessary  substances  of  nutrition  in  smaller  quantities, 
which  must  be  furnished  in  fertilizers  of  some  kind  in  order  to  produce  a  healthy  and 
luxuriant  growth.  These  elements  that  are  needed  in  the  soil  to  supply  the  suitable  plant- 
food  may  be  contained  in  the  proper  proportion  in  vegetable  manures  plowed  into  the  soil 
in  a  green  state,  stable  manure,  lime,  wood  ashes,  guano,  or  any  of  the  other  substances 
used  for  fertilizing  purposes.  It  depends  upon  the  farmer  to  ascertain  what  is  needed, 
and  supply  the  requisite  demand;  certain  it  is,  that  all  cultivated  soils,  however  rich,  will 
in  time  become  impoverished  with  constant  cropping,  unless  a  portion  of  the  elements 
extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  growth  of  these  crops  be  returned  in  the  form  of  fertilizers  of 
some  kind  ;  it  may  be  by  a  deposit  of  rich  mud  or  sediment  drained  to  impoverishment  from 
other  soils  by  inundation,  as  is  the  case  with  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and  banks  of  the  Ganges, 
or  it  may  be  by  other  agencies  ;  it  makes  no  difference  how  the  supply  comes,  the  principle 
remains  the  same,  which  is,  th9,t  soils  producing  constantly  must  be  supplied  with  nutriment 
from  some  source.  The  Nile  and  Ganges  rivers  have  continued  by  their  overflow  to  furnish  for 
more  than  3,000  years  all  the  fertilizing  elements  requisite  to  produce  crops  constantly  during 
that  period.  When  soils  remain  in  their  natural  state,  or  are  used  only  for  pastures,  but 
little  change  is  perceptible  in  their  character.  Changes,  however,  are  constantly  going  on 
both  in  their  texture  and  capacity  for  production,  although  so  gradual  as  to  be  perceptible 
only  after  a  long  period.  Soils  constantly  cropped  are  the  ones  to  become  exhausted  soonest. 
The  decay  of  vegetable  matter  upon  the  surface  of  lands,  the  fertilizing  properties  washed 
down  by  the  rains  and  melting  snows  from  the  steep  declivities  of  hills  and  mountains,  the 


FERTILIZERS.  31 

mineral  elements  contained  in  the  soil  and  rocks,  that  are  rendered  soluble  through  the 
agencies  of  the  atmosphere,  water,  heat,  and  cold — all  these,  though  silent  and  gradual  in 
their  working,  afiect  the  productiveness  of  soils  in  a  remarkable  degree.  The  washing  of  the 
fertilizing  properties  from  the  mountains  and  hills  is  one  great  reason  why  the  valleys  contain 
usually  the  most  productive  soils. 

The  food  of  plants  is  derived  from  two  sources,  viz.,  the  soil  and  atmosphere.  The 
elements  obtained  from  these  two  sources,  though  greatly  varying  in  proportionate  quantities, 
are  equally  essential,  as  far  as  the  plant-growth  is  concerned,  and  no  excess  in  the  amount 
furnished  from  one  source  can  make  up  or  counterbalance  the  deficiency  in  the  quantity 
furnished  from  the  other,  both  being  equally  necessary. 

Elements  of  Plant-Food.  The  elements  of  plant-food  necessary  to  produce  plant- 
growth  are  called  organic  and  inorr/anic  elements,  and,  in  a  general  sense,  embrace  every 
material  which,  if  added  to  the  soil,  will  tend  to  increase  its  fertility.  Organic  elements 
embrace  animal  and  vegetable  substances  which  have  a  certain  proportion  of  nitrogen ; 
inorganic  elements  comprise  those  that  are  purely  mineral  or  earthy,  and  which  generally 
contain  no  nitrogen.  The  organic  elements,  to  be  in  the  proper  proportion,  should  be  about 
ninety-five  per  cent.,  the  inorganic  the  remaining  five  per  cent.  By  burning  a  plant,  the 
organic  elements  will  be  converted  into  gases,  while  the  inorganic  elements  remain  in  the 
form  of  ashes,  called  in  analysis  the  ash  of  plants  ;  thus  the  organic  element,  or  the  ninety- 
five  pounds  out  of  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  dried  plant  that  is  burned,  and  which  is 
derived  mainly  from  the  air,  disappears,  while  the  inorganic,  or  the  five  pounds  out  of  every 
one  hundred  pounds  that  are  left  behind  in  the  form  of  ashes,  are  obtained  from  the  soiL 
Different  plants  differ  somewhat  in  the  proportion  of  the  organic  and  inorganic  elements 
contained  in  them.  The  tobacco  plant,  for  instance,  having  a  larger  proportion  of  ash  than 
many  others,  but,  on  the  average,  every  plant  that  grows  will  have  about  ninety-five  per  cent, 
of  organic  matter  and  five  per  cent,  of  inorganic  matter,  the  organic  matter  being  furnished 
by  the  air,  the  inorganic  by  the  soil.     This,  in  the  main,  is  the  unchangeable  law  of  nature. 

Since  the  atmospheric  elements  are  found  present  in  the  soil,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
according  to  its  texture  and  degree  of  porosity,  it  has  been  estimated  that  about  one-half  of 
the  material  furnished  to  plants  is  derived  from  the  earth.  It  was  formerly  believed  that 
plants  depended  for  their  nutrition  upon  the  organic  matter  (or  what  is  called  humus)  in  the 
soil.  This  humus  theory  was  set  aside  by  chemistry,  which  proved  that  certain  soils  were 
extremely  fertile  with  but  two  or  three  per  cent,  of  humus  in  their  composition,  while  certain 
other  soils  were  sterile  with  from  twenty  to  forty  per  cent,  of  humus  contained  in  them. 
Afterward  it  was  advocated  by  even  the  noted  Liebig,  that  plants  for  nutrition  required  only 
the  application  of  the  mineral  elements.  This  theory  was  met  by  the  nitrogen  theory, 
between  which  two  (the  mineral  and  nitrogen  theories)  a  long  contest  ensued,  until  it  was 
discovered  that  in  some  respects  both  theories  were  right,  and  in  others  that  both  were 
wrong.  Then  followed  the  theory,  that  in  order  to  ascertain  the  wants  of  plants  and  provide 
them  with  proper  nutriment,  we  had  only  to  analyze  the  soil  and  determine  its  wants,  also 
the  structure  and  composition  of  plants,  and  by  supplying  the  soil  with  the  elements  necessary 
to  certain  plants,  and  in  which  it  was  deficient,  a  perfect  supply  of  nutriment  would  thus  be 
furnished  the  plant.  Although  this  theory  seemed  to  approximate  nearer  the  truth  than 
either  of  the  preceding  ones,  stiU  it  had  its  objections,  and  its  advocates  were  disappointed  in 
not  meeting  with  that  success  in  its  practical  application  that  had  been  anticipated  ;  for  it 
was  soon  found  that  the  acids  of  the  chemist,  in  analysis,  would  take  from  the  sample  of  soil 
certain  elements  which  the  plant  never  could  find  and  appropriate  from  the  soil,  owing  to  its 
being  in  such  a  state  that  it  rendered  it  impossible  to  extract  it  from  the  soil.  For  instance, 
the  analysis  of  the  soil  might  prove  an  abundant  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  contained  within 
it,  but  it  might  not  be  in  such  a  solvent  state  as  is  necessary  for  the  tender  roots  to  derive 


32  THE  AMERICAN  FARJIER. 

nourisliment  from  it ;  hence,  the  plant  would  just  as  surely  starve  for  the  want  of  that  phos- 
phoric  acid  as  though  the  soil  contained  none.  In  other  words,  the  analysis  determined  the 
constituents  of  the  soil,  but  not  its  mechanical  condition,  upon  which  so  much  depends  in 
successful  agriculture.  Besides  these  objections,  different  samples  of  soil  taken  from 
different  portions  of  the  same  field  might  vary  greatly  in  their  composition  ;  hence,  an 
analysis  of  soil  from  one  portion  of  a  field  might  not  apply  to  other  portions. 

Elements  Necessary  to  Supply  Soils.  With  respect  to  the  obstacles  met  with 
in  chemical  analysis,  and  the  elements  abstracted  from  the  soil  by  different  crops,  Prof.  W. 
Q.  Atwater  says: 

"  It  was  once  thought  that  the  chemical  analysis  of  a  soil  would  easily  reveal  its  deficiencies 
in  plant  food.  But  later  experience  has  shown  that  this  is,  at  best,  a  costly  and  very  defective 
source  of  information.  Different  samples  of  soil  taken  from  different  places  in  the  same 
field  and  at  different  times  may  vary  widely  in  composition,  and,  what  is  a  still  greater  diffi- 
culty, the  chemical  tests  which  prove  the  presence  of  a  given  ingredient  in  the  soil,  do  not 
tell  whether  it  is  already  in  such  a  form  that  the  plant  can  use  it,  nor  whether  or  how  soon 
it  may  become  so.  And  there  are  many  other  factors  of  vital  importance  to  the  development 
of  the  plant  which  soil  analysis  does  not  reveal. 

To  find  what  materials  crops  remove  from  the  soil  is  an  easier  matter.  Tliousands  of 
analyses  of  the  more  important  vegetable  products  have  been  made,  nearly  aU  in  Europe, 
however,  and  we  have  tables  prepared  from  them  giving  the  average  composition  of  our  field 
crops.  From  these  any  farmer  may  calculate  how  much  plant-food  a  given  crop  takes  on  the 
average  from  his  soil.  These  figures  might  possibly  fit  his  case  no  closer  than  would  the  cal- 
culation of  his  own  weight  from  that  of  the  average  European,  but  they  will  sufSce  well 
enough  for  practical  purposes. 

Formulas  for  fertilizers  for  special  crops  are  commonly  based  upon  calculations  of  this 
sort.     For  instance,  a  crop  of  fifty  bushels  of  corn,  with  the  stalks,  would  take  from  the  soil 
on  the  average, 
Nitrogen,  -         -         -         -         76  lbs.  Magnesia,  -         -         -         -         23  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid,       -         -         -         51     "  Lime, 27    " 

Potash, 72    "  Sulphuric  acid,  -        •        •  8    " 

Now  we  may  assume  that  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are  the  only  ones  the 
soil  will  fail  to  furnish  in  plenty,  or  that  if  Hme  and  sulphuric  acid  are  needed  in  addition, 
there  will  be  enough  in  the  superphosphates  and  other  materials  to  be  used  to  supply  them. 
"We  have  then  to  provide  76  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  51  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  72  lbs.  of 
potash,  in  forms  readily  available  for  plant-food." 

Tlie  organic  elements  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  plants  are  four  in  number — 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen.  All  of  these,  with  the  exception  of  nitrogen,  are 
supplied  by  nature  in  suflicient  quantities;  though  this  is  furnished  to  a  certain  extent,  still 
it  is  often  found  in  such  small  quantities  as  to  require  an  additional  supply  applied  in  order 
to  render  its  fertility  available  in  the  production  of  good  crops. 

This  mysterious  element,  nitrogen,  in  order  to  be  beneficial  to  plants,  must  undergo  a 
chemical  change.  By  uniting  with  oxygen,  it  forms  nitric  acid;  by  uniting  with  hydrogen^ 
it  foi-ms  ammonia,  which  is  the  form  in  which  nearly  all  the  nitrogen  used  by  plants  is  taken; 
hence  nitrogen  and  ammonia  are  often  used,  in  connection  with  agriculture,  as  synonymous 
terms.  Both  nitric  acid  and  ammonia  are  powerful  fertilizers.  It  is  estimated  by  good 
authority  that  the  nitrogen  in  organic  matter  is  worth  only  about  three-fifths  as  much  as  pure 
ammonia.  Nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  also  in  the  form  of  nitric  acid,  is  washed 
down  to  the  soil  by  water.  Tlie  nitrates  are  carried  in  the  water  to  the  roots  of  plants;  the 
leaves  also  absorb  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  in  this  manner  the  plants  obtain  their  nitrogen. 


FERTILIZERS.  33 

The  inorganic  elements,  which  form  only  about  five  per  cent,  of  the  constituents  of 
plants,  are  eight  or  ten  in  number,  but  most  of  these  are,  as  a  general  rule,  euppUed  in 
abundance  by  the  soil. 

Prof.  Atwater  also  asserts  that  we  may  take  it  as  pretty  well  settled  "that  the  only  ingre- 
dients of  plant-food  which  we  need  supply  to  our  soils  are  Potash,  Lime,  Magnesia,  Phosphoric 
Acid,  Sulphuric  Acid,  and  Nitrogen.  Iron  and  chlorine  are  necessary  to  the  perfect  growth 
of  plants,  but  only  in  minute  quantities.  Silica  and  soda  are  needed,  if  at  all,  in  similarly 
small  proportions.     Every  ordinary  soil  supplies  these  last  four  substances  in  abundance. 

Of  the  above  list  the  magnesia  is  rarely  deficient  in  even  "worn-out"  soils.  Sulphuric 
acid  and  lime  are  more  often  lacking,  and  hence,  doubtless,  one  reason  of  the  good  effect  so 
often  observed  from  the  application  of  lime  and  plaster.  The  remaining  substances.  Phos- 
phoric Acid,  Nitrogen,  and  Potash,  are  the  most  apt  to  be  deficient.  In  some  soils  one,  in 
others  several  or  all  of  these  may  be  wanting.  When  we  say  the  ingredients  are  "wanting," 
we  do  not  mean  that  the  soil  does  not  contain  them,  but  that  it  does  not  supply  the  crops  as 
much  as  they  need.  It  is  not  so  much  because  our  "  worn-out "  soils  have  not  enough  plant 
food  in  store,  that  crops  starve  upon  them,  but  rather,  because  the  food  is  locked  up  in  such 
combinations  that  the  roots  cannot  get  at  and  use  them.  Such  is  the  general  result  of  the 
best  testimony  that  experience  and  experiment  have  placed  at  our  disposal." 

We  find  that  the  elements  usually  deficient  in  almost  all  soils,  as  above  stated,  are  Phos- 
phoric Acid,  Potash,  and  Nitrogen.  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon,  those  elements  supphed 
by  the  atmosphere,  will  be  abundant  and  always  available,  providing  the  plants  to  be  culti- 
vated are  grown  in  such  a  manner  that  the  air  can  have  free  access  to  them.  "When  the 
roots  and  stalks  are  so  compact  that  the  air  and  sunlight  cannot  penetrate  the  dense  mass  and 
the  air  circulate  freely  among  them,  there  will  never  be  a  perfect  or  healthy  growth  of  any 
crop,  though  some  crops  require  more  favoring  in  this  respect  than  others.  SufScient  space 
must  be  given  the  stalks  and  roots,  and  with  a  good  supply  of  air  and  sunlight,  other  con- 
ditions being  equally  favorable,  a  good  crop  must  of  necessity  follow.  Nitrogen,  as  we  have 
previously  stated,  although  furnished  in  part  by  the  atmosphere,  is  not  thus  furnished  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  for  a  perfect  plant  growth,  and  must  needs  be  supplied  by  man  in  some  form. 
Water  is  also  an  essential  agent  in  furnishing  a  source  of  food  supply  to  plants,  since  the 
elements  derived  from  the  soil  can  be  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  plant  only  in  a  liquid, 
or  soluble  form,  and  water  is  necessary  to  produce  this  condition  of  these  elements.  Some 
plants  require  more  water  than  others,  but  all  require  it  in  a  greater  or  less  quantity.  It  is 
stated  from  good  authority  that  the  cabbage  plant  is  composed  of  about  nine-tenths  water, 
and  the  potato-tubers  nearly  three-fourths,  which  shows  how  large  a  proportion  of  water 
enters  into  the  composition  of  some  plants. 

General  Propositions  Concerning  Plant  Food.  The  following  important 
propositions  concerning  plant  food,  agriculturally  considered,  are  given  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturte- 
vant  of  Massachusetts,  an  authority  that  will  be  a  sure  guaranty  of  their  reliabOity  and  true 
value  to  the  farmer. 

1st.     The  soil  contains  plant-food. 

2d.     The  plant  removes  this  plant-food  from  the  soil. 

3d.  Analyses  of  plants  will  show  the  character  and  quantity  of  the  plant-food  removed 
from  the  land. 

4th.  A  supply  of  the  elements  removed  by  the  plants  from  the  soil  in  such  a  way  that 
they  can  be  appropriated  by  the  plants,  will  produce  the  plant-growth,  under  proper  condi- 
tions. 

5th.  Plants  remove  varying  quantities  of  plant-food  from  the  soil,  according  to  their 
species,  their  manner  of  growth,  and  the  proportions  and  quantities  of  plant-food  present  in 
the  soil. 


34  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

6th.  The  constituents  of  plants  furnished  from  the  atmosphere  being  beyond  our  con- 
trol, in  studying  plant-growth  and  food  supply,  we  can  limit  ourselves  to  the  earth  alone,  and 
study  the  air  supply  only  as  modified  by  our  control  over  the  elements  supplied  to  our  land. 

7th.  The  soil  contains  the  elements  of  plant-growth  in  varying  proportions  and  condi- 
tions; some  elements  far  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  our  plant,  other  elements  in  quantities  suffi- 
cient only  to  support  a  scant  growth. 

8th.  The  plant-food  in  the  land  must,  to  be  of  service  to  the  crop,  be  in  a  soluble  state, 
or  in  a  state  capable  of  being  taken  up  by  the  rootlets  of  our  plants. 

9th.  When  the  elements  of  plant- food,  in  the  form  of  chemicals  or  dung,  are  added  to 
our  soD,  there  is  a  chemical  action  taking  place  between  them  and  the  soil  constituents,  in 
the  presence  of  moisture. 

10th.  The  soil  has  the  power  of  decomposing  most  of  the  chemicals  which  are  applied, 
and  has  a  retaining  jjower  on  their  compounds,  varying  with  the  character  of  the  element. 

11th.  As  a  rule,  phosphoric  acid  is  firmly  held  'by  the  soil,  and  is  not  subject  to  loss 
through  drainage,  and  has  a  limited  diffusibility;  potash  is  strongly  retained,  but  has  a 
greater  diffusibility;  nitrogen,  in  its  various  forms,  is  less  strongly  retained,  and  has  a  ready 
diffusibility. 

12th.  In  proportion  to  the  presence  of,  and  diffusion  of  these  fertile  elements  in  our 
soil,  other  conditions  being  favorable,  will  be  the  amount  of  our  crop. 

13th.  Waste  of  fertility  in  our  land  arises  from  drainage,  and  the  changing  of  soluble 
plant-food  into  insoluble  forms. 

14th.  Plants  require  different  proportions  of  plant-food,  and  different  combinations,  at 
different  periods  of  their  growth. 

15th.  The  presence  of  certain  elements  in  excess  has  an  influence  on  the  growth  and 
composition  of  the  plant. 

16th.  The  seed  has  an  influence,  in  itself,  in  determining  the  crop,  an  influence  apart 
from  the  presence  of  a  full  supply  of  food,  or  the  climatic  features  of  the  season. 

Phosphoric  Acidt — With  respect  to  the  three  elements  requisite  to  be  supplied  to 
lands  in  increasing  their  productiveness,  viz.,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitrogen,  we  quote 
the  following,  also  from  Dr.  Sturtevant,  as  one  of  the  best  authorities  in  the  country  on  this 
subject: — 

"Phosphoric  acid  is  one  of  the  principal  compounds  of  bone,  in  the  form  of  a  phosphate 
of  lime,  and  is  furnished  to  commerce  either  in  bone,  phosphate  guanos,  phosphate  rock,  or 
in  the  wastes  of  commerce.  It  occurs  in  three  forms:  an  insoluble  condition,  in  which  it  is 
unassimilable  by  the  plant;  a  soluble  form,  wherein  it  is  readily  absorbed,  and  an  interme- 
diate form,  the  reduced  or  reverted  form,  of  the  soluble,  wherein  its  adaptability  as  plant- 
food  is  questioned,  but  which  we  esteem  of  some  value,  on  account  of  the  condition  in  which 
it  occurs,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  usually  presented  to  the  plant  rootlets.  It  is 
commercially  prepared  from  bone  or  phosphate  rock,  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  which, 
uniting  with  a  portion  of  the  Ume  with  which  the  phosphorus  is  combined,  leaves  a  soluble 
form.     The  reaction  may  be  expressed  as  below: 

Bone  aeh.  Sulphuric  acid.  Superphosphate  of  lime.  Sulphate  of  lime. 

3CaO,  POp      +        2(H0,  SO3)      =         2H0,  CaOPO^  +         2(CaO  SO3) 

Three  atoms  of  lime,     ^         Diluted  Sulphuric  acid.  Supherphosphatc  of  lime.  Gypsum, 

combined    with  Phos-  >■  united  with  water, 

phoric  acid.  J 

This  product,  the  supeqahosphate,  is  the  valuable  portion  of  the  fertilizers  placed  on 
the  market  under  this  name,  and  it  may  compose  from  i-  per  cent,  to  2?.  per  cent,  of  their 
mass  by  weight  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid.  We  thus  see  the  importance  of  the  sale  of  fer. 
tilizers  by  guaranteed  analysis  under  government  control.  Ordinarily,  a  good  superphos- 
phate will  contain  about  10  per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  few  per  cent,  of  nitro- 


FERTILIZERS.  35 

gen,  in  addition  to  insoluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid.  "We  can  estimate  its  value  on  the 
basis  of  12  cents  a  pound  for  the  soluble  phosphoric  acid,  from  4  to  6  cents  a  pound  for  the 
reverted,  and  I  or  2  cents  for  the  insoluble.     Yet  these  figures  are  subject  to  changes. 

When  this  fertilizer  is  applied  to  our  land,  and  the  rains  fall,  it  is  washed  into  the  soil 
but  only  to  a  certain  distance.  The  soil  has  a  retaining  power  on  this  element,  and  holds  it 
firmly  against  washing.  So  far  as  the  phosphoric  acid  extends  through  the  soil,  it  is  diffused : 
that  is,  it  is  evenly  distributed,  and  the  soil  holds  it  in  saturation,  but  in  a  quantity  for  a 
given  area  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  "What  follows  from  this?  If  we  apply  a 
given  quantity  to  the  surface  of  our  land,  a  quantity  sufficient  if  applied  to  our  plant  to  raise 
a  maximum  crop,  so  far  as  this  constituent  is  concerned,  the  rains  wash  it  down,  and  it  is 
retained,  we  will  suppose,  by  the  first  inch  of  our  soil.  Now,  as  it  is  retained  by  the  soil  in 
this  position,  despite  the  rain-falls,  it  is  evident  that  in  this  supposed  case,  only  the  root  fibers 
which  enter  this  upper  inch  of  earth  can  feed  on  it.  If  a  double  quantity  be  applied,  then  it  will 
extend  down  two  inches,  and  the  same  facts  about  the  plant  feeding  holds  for  this  two  inches, 
and  so  on.  It  is  evident  that  it  can  only  be  by  applying  phosphoric  acid  in  large  quantities, 
or  repeatedly  during  a  series  of  seasons,  that  we  can  so  saturate  our  land  with  this  element, 
under  these  assumed  conditions,  as  to  furnish  the  whole  root-area  with  plant-food. 

These  considerations  would  lead  us  into  the  practice  of  looking  for  the  full  effect  of  this 
fertile  element  from  repeated  applications,  rather  than  from  a  single  trial.  They  would  also 
lead  us  to  apply  tliis  element  within  reach  of  the  principal  plant  fibers  in  all  cases.  They 
show  us  that  it  is  safe  to  apply  a  superphosphate  at  any  period  of  the  year,  so  far  as  loss 
by  drainage  is  concerned.  In  applying  on  sod  for  corn,  we  like  to  apply  this  element  of  our 
fertilizer  on  the  surface,  so  that  it  may  be  washed  in  by  the  rains  before  plowing.  Then  when 
the  sod  is  inverted,  shallow,  as  is  our  custom,  the  fertile  strata  of  the  earth  is  in  the  right 
position  for  the  roots. 

"We  also  have  an  action  of  the  acids  of  our  combined  fertilizers  in  rendering  more  solu- 
ble the  phosphoric  acid  which  has  reverted  in  the  soil,  but  space  will  not  admit  of  further 
considerations. 

Potash. — Potash,  as  supplied  in  commerce,  occiirs  in  three  forms, — the  carbonate,  sul- 
phate, and  muriate.  The  first  form  occurs  in  ashes,  and  we  will  suppose  a  bushel  of  ashes  to 
weigh  48  lbs.  to  the  bushel,  as  has  been  determined  as  the  average  for  house  ashes  as  they 
usually  occur.  Now  ashes  contain  about  6  per  cent,  of  potash,  and  about  2  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  in  a  reduced  or  insoluble  form.  Hence  a  bushel  of  ashes  would  be  held  as  of 
the  value  of  2.8  pounds  of  potash  and  .9  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  If  these  ashes  are 
worth  30  cents  a  bushel,  and  we  consider  the  phosphoric  acid  worth  6  cents  a  pound,  the  pot- 
ash in  our  ashes  stands  us  at  about  8f  cents  a  pound.  If  leached  ashes  are  used,  at  10  cents 
a  bushel,  the  potash  supply  is  costing  about  20  cents  a  pound.  Carbonate  of  potash  is,  how- 
ever, a  good  form  in  which  to  use  potash,  as  the  carbonic  acid  has  an  action  of  itself  in  the 
soil,  in  aiding  the  solution  of  plant-food. 

Of  late  years,  however,  the  principal  agricultural  supply  of  potash  is  looked  for  in 
Kainite  or  German  potash  salts.  These  are  the  product  of  the  salt  mines  of  Germany,  and 
are  put  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  sulphate  of  potash  and  muriate  of  potash  of  varying 
strength.  The  most  economical  for  the  farmer  are  the  high  gi-ades.  The  sulphate  of  potash 
which  contains  78-80  per  cent,  of  the  pure  salt,  furnishes  about  43  per  cent,  of  actual  potash, 
and  when  the  commercial  salt  is  quoted  at  4  cents  a  pound,  the  actual  potash  therefrom  is 
costing  about  9^  cents  a  pound.  Muriate  of  potash,  the  other  potash  salt  of  these  mines, 
when  of  80  to  85  per  cent,  muriate,  contains  about  50  pounds  of  actual  potash,  and  furnishes, 
when  the  commercial  article  is  selling  at  3  cents  a  pound,  the  potash  at  about  6  cents  a  pound. 
"We  thus  find  that  the  cheapest  supply  of  potash  is  in  the  high  grade  muriate.  To  furnish 
the  potash  at  the  price  it  is  procured  for  in  the  muriate,  we  should  buy  the  sulphate  of  the 
same  grade  at  about  2\  cents  a  pound,  and  wood  ashes  at  about  1 7  cents  a  bushel. 


3g  THE  AilERICAJS  FARMER. 

These  salts  of  potash  are  supposed  to  act  differently  on  crops,  but  we  do  not  consider 
the  matter  at  all  proved  at  present.  Indeed,  at  present  prices,  we  prefer  to  apply  the  muri- 
ate in  nearly  every  case,  or,  better  still,  two-thirds  muriate  and  one-third  sulphate. 

When  we  apply  our  potash  compounds  to  the  land,  they  become  dissolved  by  the  rains, 
and  wash  into  the  soil.  They  are  then  decomposed  into  their  constituent  parts,  separating 
into  sulphuric  and  muriatic  or  carbonic  acid,  and  potash,  and  while  the  acids  are  not  retained 
at  all  closely  by  the  soil,  but  follow  the  water  of  drainage  until  they  meet  new  compounds,  and 
are  subject  to  different  actions,  the  potash  is  quite  strongly  retained.  It  is,  hence,  easier  to 
saturate  our  soils  with  potash  than  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  if  our  soil  is  deficient  in  this 
element,  we  can  hope  to  more  speedily  cause  it  to  be  diffused  through  the  soil,  and  thus 
become  more  accessible  to  the  crops. 

In  applying  potash,  then,  we  desire  to  keep  it  near  the  surface  at  first,  as  we  are  quite 
certain  it  will  pass  downward  into  the  root  pasturage,  and  we  are  never  quite  sure  against  a 
small  waste." 

Nitrogen. — This  element  is  furnished  in  various  forms  by  the  atmosphere,  as  well  as  by 
the  decay  of  organic  materials  in  the  soil.  As  generally  supphed,  it  is  in  the  form  of  ammonia 
or  a  nitrate,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda.  It  is  found  quite  abundantly  in  guano,  which  is  one  of 
the  important  sources  from  whence  this  valuable  fertilizer  is  obtained.  It  is  also  obtained 
from  dried  blood  and  various  waste  materials.  Its  effect  on  plants  is  generally  speedy,  being 
readily  diffused  through  the  soil,  and  in  this  way  promptly  supplied  to  the  roots  of  plants, 
hence,  for  this  reason  is  subject  to  waste,  and  as  it  is  the  most  expensive  element  of  plant- 
food  the  fanner  has  to  supply  his  crops,  it  is  well  while  providing  a  sufBcient  amount  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  crop,  to  avoid  applying  an  excess. 

This  element  can  often  be  procured  from  local  waste  materials,  as  in  the  refuse  of 
woolen  mills,  fish  from  which  the  oil  has  been  extracted,  powder  factories,  etc.  Leather  con- 
tains it,  but  as  the  decomposition  is  very  slow,  a  long  time  is  generally  required  to  render  its 
fertilizing  qualities  perceptible.  Old  boots,  shoes,  or  harnesses  are  often  buried  under  fruit 
trees,  and  by  their  gradual  decay  prove  of  considerable  value  as  a  fertilizing  agent. 

The  bodies  of  dead  animals  added  to  the  compost  heap  will  also  furnish  in  their  decom- 
position a  valuable  amount  of  nitrogen.  Some  soils  respond  more  promptly  to  its  effects  than 
others,  but  aU  lands  are  more  or  less  benefited  by  its  apjAication;  especially  so  are  those  that 
have  long  been  under  cultivation. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  left  in  the  soil  by  a  crop  of  clover,  either  where  it  has  been  cut 
for  hay,  or  ripened  for  seed,  is  often  astonishingly  great,  and  furnishes  a  source  of  rich  food 
for  cereals.  Prof.  Voelcker  found  by  careful  investigation,  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  thus 
deposited  by  a  crop  of  clover  was  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  tons  per  acre.  He  also  found 
that  on  soils  where  clover  had  been  grown,  not  only  were  vast  quantities  of  nitrogen  stored 
up  by  this  product,  but  the  soil  was  left  in  a  better  condition  in  the  spring  than  could  have 
been  secured  by  the  appHcation  of  any  fertilizer.  These  investigations  of  Prof.  Voelcker 
were  made  at  different  depths  of  soil;  first  taking  an  upper  layer  of  six  inches,  then  the 
next  six  inches  below  the  former,  and  then  the  next  six  inches  below  that,  making  eighteen 
inches  of  soU  in  depth  carefuUy  analyzed. 

Exhaustion  of  Soils  by  Crops— The  Composition  of  Manures— Commercial 

Fertilizers,  etc. — We  give  the  following  tables  from  authentic  European  sources,  showing 
the  composition  of  many  of  our  common  farm  products;  also,  by  way  of  comparison,  a  table 
showing  the  composition  of  a  variety  of  fertilizers  commonly  used.  These  figures,  it  must 
be  remembered,  represent  only  general  averages;  in  special  cases,  there  might  be  more  or 
less  variation  from  these  percentages,  which  are  sufficiently  definite  for  all  practical  purposes. 
As  the  first  table  given  represents  the  average  composition  of  the  different  products,  it  also 
represents  the  amount  of  fertilizing  ingredients  removed  from  the  soils  in  producing  these 


THE  AilERICAN  FARMER. 


37 


products;  hence  the  farmer  may  be  able  to  calculate  the  extent  of  exhaustion  of  his  soil 
caused  by  certain  crops.  On  the  other  hand,  by  consulting  the  table  representing  the  compo- 
sition of  different  manures,  he  can  find  what  fertilizers  will  best  supply  the  requisite  elements 
for  special  crops,  or  what  will  best  restore  tlie  elements  extracted  by  the  growing  of  certain 
products. 

TABLE 
For  Calculating  the  Exhaustion  of  Soils  hy  Crops  and  Enriching  hy  Manures.     Average   Quanti- 
ties of  Water,  Organic  Matter,  Ash,  Nitrogen  in  Organic  Matter  and  Potash,  Lime,  Phosjihoric 
Acid,  and  other  Ingredients  in  Ash,  of  Fresh  (  Oreen)  and  Air-dry  Materials. 

Plants. 


veoetjUsle  materials. 
1,000  lbs.  cont.un 


Ingredients  of  Ash. 


< 

'i 

■g 

.a 

1 

lbs. 

lbs. 

2.0 

7.9 

1.1 

2.2 

2.1 

8.4 

1.1 

2.1 

1.9 

6.2 

1.6 

1.9 

2.0 

5.8 

2.6 

5.3 

1.5 

5.7 

1.9 

6.1 

2.3 

11.9 

3.3 

3.2 

1.9 

8.6 

3.5 

3.5 

3.3 

4.1 

1.9 

7.2 

6.1 

5.6 

5.0 

4.0 

3.3 

5.5 

0.6 

„  2 

0.7 

2.5 

0.5 

2.4 

1.4 

1.3 

1.5 

1.4 

0.4 

1.6 

3.3 

1.6 

0.3 

0.9 

0.5 

0.9 

0.5 

0.8 

2.7 

1.3 

0.4 

1.0 

0.9 

1.2 

6.4 

7.5 

3.7 

11.2 

17.7 

4.8 

GRAIN  AND  STRAW. 

Wheat,  grain 

Wheat,  straw 

Rye,  grain 

Rye,  straw 

Oats,  grain 

Oats,  straw 

Indian  Corn,  grain 

do.     stalks  and  leaves 

Buckwheat,  grain 

Buckwheat,  straw 

Beans 

Bean  straw 

Pease 

Pea  straw 

HAY. 

Average  Meadow  Hay 

Timothy  Hay 

Red  Clover  Hay 

Swedish  Clover  Hay 

Lucerne  (Alfalfa) 

GREEN  CROPS. 

Young  Grass 

Timothy  Grass 

Fodder  Rye 

Fodder  Corn 

Red  Clover  in  blossom 

ROOTS  (tubers)  ai«d  TOPS, 

Potatoes,  tubers , 

do.       vines  nearly  ripe. . 

Turnips,  roots 

Turnips,  tops 

Sugar  Beets,  roots 

Sugar  Beets,  tops 

Carrots,  roots 

Carrots,  tops 

Hops,  entire  plant 

Hops,  the  cones 

Tobacco,  leaves 


lbs. 

840.1 
812.9 
889.1 
816.5 
830.0 
816.6 
843.0 
808.1 
848.2 
788.3 
824.3 
796.1 
833.5 
796.0 


805.5 
794.9 
783.1 
800.3 
777.9 


179.3 
278.4 
223.7 
166.0 
206.3 


240.6 
210.3 
72.7 
90.1 
177.9 
84.9 
142.2 
152.0 

778.6 
813.2 
769.0 


lbs. 

16.9 
46.1 
17.9 
40.5 
27.0 
40.4 
13.0 
41.9 
11.8 
51.7 
30.7 
43.9 
23.5 
•44.0 


51.5 
63.1 
56.9 
39.7 
63.1 


20.7 
21.6 
16.3 
12.0 
13.7 


9.4 
19.7 

7.3 
11.9 

7.1 
18.1 

7.8 
26.0 

81.4 
66.8 
151.0 


lbs. 

20.8 

4.8 
17.6 

4.0 
19.2 

5.6 
16.0 

4.8 
14.4 
13.0 
40.8 
16.3 
35.8 
10.4 


15.5 
1.5.5 
19.7 
24.0 
23.0 


5.0 
5.4 
5.3 
1.9 
5.1 


3.4 
4.9 
1.8 
3.0 
16 
3.0 
2.2 
5.1 


34.8 


lbs. 

5.3 
6.3 
5.6 

7.8 
4.4 
8.9 
3.7 
9.6 
2.7 
24.3 
13.1 
18.5 
9.8 
10.1 


13.3 
20.4 
18.3 
11.0 
15.3 


11.6 
7.4 
6.3 
4.3 
4.4 


5.7 
4.3 
3.3 
2.8 
3.9 
6.5 
2.8 
2.9 

29.1 
23.0 
30.3 


lbs. 

0.6 
2.7 
0.5 
3.5 
1.0 
3.6 
0.3 
4.0 
0.5 
9.5 
1.5 
9.8 
1.3 
16.2 


8.6 

4.5 

20.0 

13.5 

26.2 


2.2 
1.6 
1.2 
1.6 

4.8 


0.2 
6.4 

0.8 
3.9 
0.4 
2.7 
0.9 
8.5 

18.1 
11.1 
62.8 


lbs. 

0.4 
31.3 
0.4 
22.9 
13.0 
19.6 
0.2 
11.7 
0.1 
2.9 
0.2 
3.3 
0.2 
3.0 


13.9 

22.1 

1.4 

1.6 


2.1 
7.7 
5.3 
1.7 
0.3 


0.3 
0.9 
0.1 
0.5 
0.1 
0.7 
0.2 
2.9 

16.4 
11.1 
13.5 


38 


SOILS. 


FERTILIZING  MATERLVLS. 

1,000  (or  100)  LliS.  CONTAIN 


ANIMAL  EXCREMENTS. 

1,000  LBS.  CONT.UH 

Stable  manure,  fresh 

' '     moderately  rotted 

"      thoroughly  rotted 

Dungheap  liquor 

FsBces,  fresh 

Urine,  human,  fresh 

Night  soil,  fresh 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 

100  LBS.  CONTAIN 

Peruvian  guano 

Dried  blood 

PHOSPHATES. 

Bone-meal,  average 

Bone-meal,  from  solid  parts 

do.         from  porous  parts 

Bone  black,  fresh 

Bone  black,  spent 

Bone  ash 

Baker  guano 

Jarvis  guano 

Navassa  Phosphates 

SUPERPHOSPn.\TKS. 

Rectified  Peruvian  guano 

Baker  guano,  superphosphated 

Navassa  "  

Boneblack  "  

Bone-meal  "  

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

Plaster 

Gas-Lime 

Sugar-house  Scum 

Ashes,  Evern;reen  Trees 

Ashes,  Deciduous  Trees 

Leached  Ashes 

Peat  Ashes 

Anthracite  Coal  Ashes 


6.0 
5.0 
7.0 
6.0 
10.0 
6.0 
10.0 
11.8 
2.6 


16.0 
15.0 
15.0 
15.0 
13.0 


4.0 
2.6 

20.0 
7.0 

34.5 
5.0 
5.0 

30.0 
5.0 
5.0 


246  44.1 
192  '58.0 


51.4 
79.0 


33.3 
31.5 
37.3 
10.0 
6.0 
3.0 
9.2 
8.2 
5.4 


41.9 
6.2 
3.5 
8.0 

23.8 


1.3 
34.5 
5.0 
5.0 
5.0 

5.6 


65.0 
10.7 
39.9 
13.5 
16.0 


33.8 
7.0 


60.7 
63.5 
55.7 
84.0 
84.0 
91.0 
81.0 
80.0 
93.0 


42.1 
78.8 
83.5 
77.0 
63.2 


80.0 
91.7 
41.0 
90.0 
90.0 
75.0 
95.0 
90.0 


lbs. 
4.5 
5.0 
5.8 
1.5 
10,0 
6.0 
7.0 


13.0 
n.7 


10.0 
0.3 


20.0 
15.5 


0.3 
0.2 
6.0 
10.0 
2.5 
1.5 
0.1 


INGREDIENTS  OF  POTASH. 


11.0 
0.7 


31.3 
33.0 

29.0 
43.0 
37.0 
46.0 
41.5 
39.1 
37.5 


9.5 
35.9 
17.0 
25.0 
33.4 


0.5 
0.3 
31.0 
64.5 
20.7 
35.0 
30.0 
24.5 


lbs. 
2.4 
2.6 
3.0 
0.1 
10,9 
1.7 
2.6 


13.0 
1.0 


33.2 
25.2 

20.0 
32.0 
26.0 
35.4 
.34.8 
30.0 
33.2 


10.5 
21.8 
15.4 
16.2 
16.6 


0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
1.5 
18.0 
0.5 


15,0 
28.5 
19,5 
31.0 
19.5 


58.0 
0.7 
44.0 
13.5 
0.3 
1.6 
1.6 
0.3 
1.3 
5.0 


8.5 
3.0 
3,5 
5,0 
15.0 
6.5 
0.8 
0,5 
5.0 


3.0 
1,5 
4.0 
3.0 
9,1 
18.0 
18.0 
30.0 


lbs. 
1.5 
1.9 
1.6 
1.2 
0.4 
5.0 
4.0 


We  see  by  the  first  of  these  tables,  that  in  the  wheat  grain  we  have,  La  1,000  pounds,  on 
the  average,  about  21  lbs.  of  nitrogen;  5^  lbs.  of  potash  and  7.9  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid.  In 
the  same  amount  of  wheat  straw  there  would  be  4.8  pounds  of  nitrogen;  6.3  lbs.  of  potash 
and  2.2  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid.  In  1,000  lbs.  of  hay,  made  from  the  common  grasses,  we 
would  have  15.5  lbs.  of  nitrogen;  13.2  lbs.  of  potash,  and  4.1  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid.  In 
1,000  lbs.  of  ordinary  clover  hay  there  would  be  21.3  lbs.  of  nitrogen;  18  lbs.  of  potash 
and  5.6  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid. 


FERTILIZERS. 


39 


We  quote  below,  a  table  arranged  by  Prof.  Atwater,  based  upon  tlie  previous  table, 
Bhowing  how  mucli  of  each  of  the  more  important  ingredients  is  removed  from  the  soil  by 
various  crops  of  ordinary  size. 

TABLE. 
Materials  removed  from  the  Soil  by  Various  Crops. 


.2 

.a  o 

03 

M 

S 
5 

1 

t 

HYE. 

Grain  25  bushels— 1,400  lbs 

lbs. 

0.3 
3.8 

lbs. 

11.8 
7.3 

lbs. 

0.7 
12.2 

lbs. 

2.9 
3.9 

lbs. 

7.8 
27.3 

lbs. 
24  6 

Straw,  3,500  lbs., 

14  0 

Total, 

4.1 

04 
2.6 

19.1 

6.0 
3.8 

12.9 

1.0 

7.2 

6.8 

1.8 
3.2 

35.1 

4.2 
17.8. 

38.6 

OATS. 

Grain   30  bushels— 960  lbs., 

18.4 

Straw,  2  000  lbs 

11.2 

Total, 

3.0' 

0.1 
3.3 

9.8 

9.5 
6.6 

8.2 

0.7 
8.1 

6.0 

2.4 
3.3 

22.0 

6.4 
18.9 

29.6 

WHEAT. 

Grain,  20  bushels— 1,200  lbs., 

25.0 

Straw,  3,000  lbs., 

14.4 

Total 

3.4 

0.6 

7.8 

16.1 

16.5 
.34.5 

8.8 

0.8 
26.0 

5.7 

5.6 
16.9 

25.3 

10.4 
62.4 

39.4 

CORN. 

Grain,  50  bushels  — 2,800  lbs., 

44.8 

Stalks,  6,500  lbs., , 

31.2 

Total, 

8.4 

7.2 

5.4 

14 
3 

51.0 
12.3 

1.44 

7.5 
15 

26.8 

25-8 

1.8 

73 
15 

22.5 

9.9 

3.6 

17 
2 

72.8 
39.6 
51.3 

71 

47 

760 

HAT. 

Mixed  grasses,  14  tons— 3,030  lbs., 

46.5 

POTATOES. 

Tubers,  150  bushels  — 9,000  lbs., 

30.6 

TOBACCO. 

Leaves,  1,800  lbs.,  (1,260  lbs.  dry,) 

Stalks,  1, 100  lbs.  dry, 

49 
33 

Total, 

17 

22.5 

88 

19 

118 

82 

These  elements  that  are  thus  removed  from  the  soil  must  be  supplied  in  some  way,  or 
exhaustion  of  soil  follows.  If  stable  manure  could  be  supplied  in  sufficient  abundance  to  such 
lands,  not  only  would  all  the  materials  removed  from  the  soil  by  the  crops  be  returned  and 
the  fertility  of  the  land  kept  up,  but  it  would  be  gradually  increased.  But  as  this  cannot  be 
done,  owing  to  an  insufficiency  of  the  article,  the  farmer  must  depend  upon  other  materials, 
such  as  guanos,  saperphosphates,  etc.,  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  Prof.  Atwater  says  in  this 
connection,  with  respect  to  the 

Deficiency  of  Potash  in  Common  Fertilizers  and  in  Soils. — "Most  of  our 
artificial  manures  are  only  special  fertilizers.  Guanos,  phosphates,  fish  and  bone  manures  and 
the  like,  contain  more  or  less  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  lime ;  the  superphosphates  con- 
tain sulphuric  acid  also.     With  the  exception  of  some  to  which  German  potash  salts  have 


40  THE  A3IERICAX  FAR3IER. 

been  added,  very  few  of  them  contain  any  appreciable  quantities  of   magnesia  or  potasb. 
They  supply  part  but  not  all  the  materials  which  soils  may  lack. 

Many  farmers  find  that  guano,  fish,  and  other  special  fertilizers  whose  action  is  quick 
and  stimulating,  seems  to  leave  their  soil  in  a  more  exhausted  condition  than  before  they  were 
applied.  And  the  complaint  is  not  uncommon  that  such  fertilizers  do  not  bring  the  same 
return  as  formerly. 

May  we  not  at  least  question  whether  the  immediate  effect  of  these  special  fertilizers 
has  not  been,  in  many  cases,  to  aid  tbe  plant  to  use  the  more  available  stores  of  food  in  the 
soil,  uutU  these  latter  have  become  so  far  exhausted  as  no  longer  to  respond  to  the  stimulat- 
ing action  of  these  special  manm-es  ? 

If  the  above  supposition  be  correct,  it  is  clear  that  what  such  exhausted  soils  need,  is 
something  to  supply,  not  only  the  nitrogen  and  phosphonc  acid  of  the  guano,  or  fish,  or  bone, 
or  superphosphates,  or  other  special  fertilizers,  but  also  the  potash  and  other  materials  that 
these  latter  do  not  furnish. 

Ashes  are,  for  many  soiLs,  a  standard  fertilizer.  Places  where  a  tree  or  a  brush-beap 
has  been  burned,  often  show  the  effects  of  the  manuring  for  years.  It  is  a  trite  saying,  that 
'The  land  never  forgets  ashes.'  Ashes  supply  dii-ectly  all  the  soil  ingredients  of  plant-food, 
except  nitrogen.  Their  indirect  action  is  also  very  important  m  rendering  nitrogen  and  the 
other  materials  already  in  the  soil,  available  to  crops.  Instead  of  wearing  out  soils,  thev 
strengthen  them.  May  not  this  difference  be  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  fact  that  they  supply 
the  other  ingredients  of  plant-food  that  the  guano  and  fish  lack? 

Stable  manure  furnishes  all  the  ingredients  of  plant-food.  It  is  a  complete  fertilizer. 
Farmers  do  not  complain  that  it  helps  to  exhaust  their  land. 

There  are  soils  which,  by  applications  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  in  the  form  of 
guano,  bone,  or  nitrogenous  superphosphates,  may  be  made  to  bear  good  crops  year  after 
year.  They  supply,  of  themselves,  the  other  materials  needed.  They  have  abimdant  stores  of 
magnesia  and  potash,  and  so  on,  and  by  weathering,  tillage,  and  the  action  of  the  fertOiziog 
materials  added,  these  are  worked  over  from  unavailable  forms  into  those  which  the  plant 
can  use. 

But  such  is  not  always  the  case.  Among  the  worn-out  soils  of  New  England,  there  are 
a  great  many  which  lack  more  than  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  lime. 

This  is  veiy  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  elaborate  experiments  of  Prof.  F.  H.  Storer,  at 
the  Bussey  Institution,  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  These  were  made  upon  what  Prof.  Storer 
calls  'a  very  good  representative  of  the  light,  leachy  soils  that  overlie  gravelly  drift  in  New 
England.'  In  these  experiments,  which  continued  through  a  series  of  years,  different  crops 
were  raised  with  different  manures,  the  same  crop  being  grown  with  the  same  manure  on  the 
same  plot,  year  after  year.  Those  raised  wdth  fertilizers  containing  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid  only,  showed  very  little  good  effect  from  tbe  manuring,  while  the  potash  compounds 
brought  the  most  satisfactory  returns.  As  Prof.  Storer  says,  the  '  crpng  want '  of  tliis  land 
was  for  potash." 

Barnyard  Manure- — Farm  manures,  as  a  general  rule,  may  be  regarded  as  containing 
all  the  essential  elements  of  plant-food,  hence,  are  complete  fertilizers.  Ln  this  respect 
they  differ  from  commercial  fertilizers,  any  one  of  which  contains  but  a  portion  of  the 
requisite  elements  appropriated  by  plants  in  their  growth.  Animal  excrement  was 
foi-merly  almost  the  only  reUance  of  the  farmer  for  replenishing  his  lands,  he  depending 
mainly  for  the  supply  upon  what  was  furnished  by  the  barn-yard,  the  pig-sty,  and  the 
sheep-fold;  and  even  these  manures  were  usually  lessened  in  value  by  being  left  imtil 
wanted  for  use,  where  their  most  valuable  fertilizing  elements  would  be  leached  out  by  the 
rains  and  evaporated  by  the  sun. 

The  improvements  in  the  system  of  agriculture  during  the  last  half  or  quarter  of  a 
century,  while  they  bring  new  aids  to  the  farmer  by  the  use  of  concentrated  fertilizers  of 


FERTILIZERS.  41 

various  kinds,  have  furnished  nothing  that  has  caused  this  old  time-honored  fertilizer  to  be 
less  valued,  or  less  vtseful;  but  since  the  old  source  of  supply  is  not  at  present  sufficient  for 
the  demands  of  the  soil  in  crops  produced,  these  furnish  important  and  valuable  substitutes, 
or  rather  are  supplementary  aids  to  that  which  our  forefathers  depended  upon  principally. 

Though  there  has  been  a  great  improvement  within  a  few  years  with  regard  to  preventing 
the  waste  of  stable  manure  among  farmers  generally,  still  there  is  a  great  loss  in  this  respect 
on  many  farms,  which  a  little  pains-taking  and  care  would  prevent.  The  soil  needs  all  the 
manure  that  can  be  made  upon  the  farm,  both  liquid  and  solid,  which,  if  saved  and  applied 
will  result  in  larger  crops,  and  consequently  larger  profits;  hence,  a  waste  of  anything  that 
can  increase  the  productiveness  of  the  farm,  is  a  loss  in  money  to  the  farmer.  Among  the 
fifty  important  theses  published  by  Liebig  as  axioms  of  his  theory,  he  says: 

"  In  the  productions  of  the  field,  through  the  harvests,  a  great  quantity  of  the  elements 
of  the  soil  which  have  become  elements  of  the  plants  is  taken  away  and  removed  from  the 
soil;  before  the  sowing,  the  soil  is  richer  than  after  the  harvest, — the  composition  of  the  soil  is 
changed  after  the  harvest. 

The  lost  fertility  is  again  restored  by  means  of  manures, — stable  manures, — excrement 
of  man  and  animals. 

Stable  manure  consists  of  putrefied  materials  from  plants  and  animals,  which  contain  a 
certain  quantity  of  soil  elements.  The  excrements  of  animals  and  men  show  the  ashes  of  the 
food  which  has  been  consumed  in  the  bodies  of  animals  and  men,  and  derived  from  plants 
that  have  been  harvested  from  the  fields.  The  urine  contains  the  soil  elements  of  nourish- 
ment soluble  in  water,  the  fseces  those  that  are  not  soluble  therein.  The  manure  contains 
the  soil  elements  of  the  harvested  products  of  the  field." 

Hon.  Alexander  Hyde  of  Mass.,  says:  "  We  have  yet  to  learn  that  there  is  any  effec- 
tual substitute  for  large  loads  of  barn-yard  manure  and  compost.  There  are  two  great  objec- 
tions to  all  these  concentrated  fonns  of  patent  fertilizers,  even  supposing  them  to  be  pure 
and  good  of  their  kind.  The  first  is  that  they  generally  contain  only  two  or  three  elements 
of  plant-food,  and  the  second  is  that  they  utterly  ignore  the  fact  that  one  great  object  of 
putting  manure  upon  the  land  is  the  mechanical  effect — the  putting  of  the  soil  in  such  a  con- 
dition that  it  can  absorb  nutriment  from  that  great  reservoir  of  fertility,  the  air,  and  also 
allow  the  plant  free  foraging  ground  for  appropriating  to  itself  all  the  food  that  mother  earth 
contains  in  her  bosom." 

It  is  estimated  that  the  urine  of  the  horse  is  of  more  value  as  a  fertilizer  than  the  solid 
manure.  Though  that  of  the  cow  is  less  valuable  than  the  solid,  still  it  is  quite  a  valuable 
fertilizer,  the  average  weight  of  that  produced  by  an  ordinary  cow  being  about  two  thousand 
pounds  in  one  year,  and  the  estimated  worth  about  three  dollars.  In  some  portions  of  Europe 
a  much  higher  estimate  is  placed  upon  its  value  as  a  fertilizer.  In  Flanders,  for  instance,  its 
estimated  value,  according  to  good  authority,  is  about  ten  dollars  per  year.  According  to 
the  analysis  of  Sprengel,  the  average  urine  of  the  cow  contains  92.6  per  cent,  of  water;  that 
of  the  horse,  94;  the  sheep,  96;  the  hog,  92.6;  and  that  of  the  human  species  93.3.  The 
remainder  is  composed  of  various  salts,  and  rich  vegetable  food,  very  valuable  as  fertilizers; 
but  the  human  is  much  richer  in  these  elements  than  any  other.  Like  the  solid  manures,  its 
quantity  and  value  varies  greatly,  and  depends  upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  food  and  liquid 
taken  into  the  stomach,  etc.  By  reference  to  the  table  of  analysis  of  various  manures  previously 
given,  the  composition  of  these  products  of  the  farm,  so  often  wasted,  will  be  ascertained. 
Many  fanners  spend  large  sums  of  money  yearly  in  the  purchase  of  guanos  and  other  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  which,  with  a  little  forethought  in  the  economy  of  manures  produced  upon 
the  farm,  would  not  only  render  that  expenditure  needless,  but  prove  the  farm  product  more 
valuable  often  for  agricultural  purposes  than  the  former.  Since  manures  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  successful  husbandrj',  it  becomes  a  question  of  importance  to  the  farmer  as  to 
how  this  necessary  element  can  best  be  utilized  and  increased ;  in  other  words,  how  shall  the 


42 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


manure,  both  liquid  and  solid,  and  the  compost  piles  from  all  sources  on  the  farm,  he  saved, 
increased,  and  utilized  ?  In  answering  this  question,  we  would  say  that  the  first  consideration 
of  importance  was  the  proper  construction  of  the  barns  or  sheds,  in  order  that  all  the 
manure  made  could  be  preserved,  instead  of  allowing  all  the  liquid  portion  to  bo  wasted,  and 
throwing  the  soUd  manure  out  of  the  stable  windows  to  lie  in  piles,  exposed  to  the  leaching 
process  of  the  storms,  permitting  the  rain  and  eaves  droppings  to  wash  out  the  most  valu- 
able inorganic  part  of  it,  and  the  sun  to  evaporate  a  large  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous 
elements,  as  is  still  too  often  the  practice  with  the  farmers  of  our  country.  Barn  cellars, 
when  properly  constructed,  are  very  convenient  receptacles  for  both  solids  and  liquids,  and 
also  furnish  protection  from  exposure  to  the  sun  and  storms.  But  whenever  used,  a  sufficient, 
amount  of  suitable  absorbents  should  be  applied  to  take  up  all  the  hquid  portions,  so  that 
they  can  be  applied  to  the  land  as  readily  and  with,  as  little  inconvenience  to  the  farmer  as 
the  solid  manure.  We  do  not,  however,  recommend  the  use  of  farm  cellars  for  the  storage 
of  manure,  unless  more  than  the  ordinary  facilities  are  employed,  in  order  to  carry  off  the 
gases  that  must  of  necessity  arise  from  the  decomposing  mass  in  the  cellar  to  the  floor  above,  • 
where  the  animals  are  kept.  These  must  be  carried  off  by  a  perfect  system  of  ventilation. 
No  animal  can  be  healthy  and  continue  to  breathe  such  atmosphere;  and  animals  thus 
stabled  will  be  compelled  to  breathe  it  unless  great  care  is  taken  in  making  provision 
for  thorough  ventilation;  for,  although  many  absorbents  employed  will  prove  to  a  great 
extent  deodorizers,  such  as  dried  muck,  loam,"  etc.,  they  will  not  generally  be  used  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  become  wholly  so. 

Neither  do  we  approve  of  the  practice,  followed  by  some  farmers,  of  keeping  pigs  in  a 
barn  cellar  which  is  used  for  the  storage  of  manure.  The  foul,  confined  air  in  such  a  place, 
almost  destitute  of  sunlight,  cannot  be  otherwise  than  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  swine. 
No  animal  can  be  healthy,  and  hence  fit  to  become  the  food  of  man,  that  does  not,  while 
living,  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air  and  sunlight.  Otherwise  the  blood  becomes 
poisoned,  the  whole  animal  system  diseased,  and  the  meat  thus  produced  will  be  anything 
but  a  wholesome  sanitary  diet.  In  order,  also,  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  foul  air  of 
the  manure  thus  stored  below  the  barn  from  arising  and  vitiating  the  air  where  the  cattle 
or  horses  are  kept,  it  should  be  mixed  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  absorbents  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  ammonia  and  other  substances.  The  barn  cellar  should  also  be  well  ven- 
tilated, while  all  barns  where  animals  are  stabled  should  be  supplied  with  a  sufficient  amount 
of  pure  air  by  means  of  proper  ventilation;  that  is,  the  ventilators  should  be  so  arranged  as 
to  permit  the  escape  of  the  foul  air  of  the  barn  and  admit  the  fresh  air  from  without, 
without  producing  a  draft  upon  the  animals,  which  latter  would  be  the  means  of  serious 
trouble  among  the  stock, — a  draft  of  air  being  one  of  the  worst  exposures  for  either  man  or 
beast  to  severe  colds,  with  possibly  pneumonia  or  lung  fever,  etc.,  that  could  be  found.  "We 
have  known  valuable  animals  to  have  died  from  such  exposure  through  the  thoughtlessness 
or  ignorance  of  their  owners. 

A  very  important  fact  for  the  farmer  to  have  in  mind  is,  that  the  better  the  animal  is 
fed,  the  better  will  not  only  be  the  meat,  the  milk,  butter  and  cheese,  but  the  better  will  be  the 
fertilizing  properties  of  the  manure  furnished  by  such  animals.  Excessive  and  rapid  fer- 
mentation  should  be  avoided,  as  much  of  the  ammonia  is  often  thus  wasted.  Horse  manure 
is  especially  liable  to  ferment  or  "burn,"  as  the  fermenting  process  is  termed,  and  is  often 
rendered  almost  worthless  by  the  loss  thus  sustained.  Many  farmers  prevent  this  by  mixing 
it  with  cow  manure,  which  is  colder  and  less  liable  to  fermentation,  thus  easily  obviating  the 
difficulty.  If,  however,  this  is  not  convenient,  owing  to  the  locality  of  the  horse  and  cow 
stables,  or  for  any  other  reason,  it  is  desired  to  keep  them  separate,  decomposition  can  be 
greatly  retarded  by  keeping  the  manure  trodden  compactly  and  saturated  with  water  to  keep 
out  the  air  as  far  as  possible;  thus  keeping  the  temperature  low,  it  can  be  preserved  a  long 
time  before  fermentation  commences. 


FERTILIZERS.  43 

"Where  no  cellars  are  provided  for  the  manure  taken  from  the  stables,  it  should  be 
protected  from  the  rain  and  sun  by  covered  sheds,  which  will  repay  the  farmer  for 
furnishing,  in  the  amount  of  rich  fertilizing  material  saved,  the  quantity  thus  saved 
soon  repaying  expense  of  the  sheds.  Where  cellars  for  its  storage  are  used,  many  farmers 
prefer  muck  or  peat  as  an  absorbent  of  the  liquid  portions;  but  in  such  cases  it  is  necessary  that 
the  material  be  perfectly  dry,  and  in  order  to  secure  this  condition,  it  should  be  dug  from  the 
muck  or  peat  bed  and  thrown  into  heaps,  where  it  is  left  several  months  exposed  to  the  air  and 
sun.  The  drying  and  decomposing  process  can  be  greatly  facilitated  by  shovelling  over  the 
piles  and  admitting  the  air  occasionally.  Some  advise  mixing  lime,  (three  or  four  bushels  to 
a  cord  of  muck,)  first  slacking  it  with  water;  wood  ashes  are  also  often  used  for  this  purpose, 
about  iifteen  bushels  to  the  same  quantity.  When  dry  and  ready  for  use  it  should  be  stored 
in  some  convenient  shed.  Only  a  small  quantity  will  be  required  to  absorb  the  liquid  accumu- 
lations of  the  stable  each  day.  Dried  leaves,  straw,  and  clay  are  also  used  for  this  purpose. 
Some  prefer  saw  dust  for  the  bedding  of  stock,  and  as  an  absorbent  of  the  liquids  of  the 
stable,  which  is  found  very  valuable  for  this  purpose;  but  it  should  be  quite  dry,  or  it  will 
be  entirely  useless.  It  readily  absorbs  the  liquids,  and  is  easily  mixed  with  the  solid  manure 
and  soil,  when  applied  to  lands.  Dry  loam  has  been  found  to  be  a  valuable  absorbent  also, 
when  used  in  the  stables  for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Albert  Day  of  Brooklyn  thus  describes  his 
method  of  preserving  stable  manure: — 

"  In  the  preservation  and  preparation  of  manure  the  principle  of  the  old  adage  holds 
good — 'A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned.'  Hence,  my  first  care  is  to  guard  against  the  loss 
of  valuable  ingredients  of  the  manure  caused  by  the  action  of  the  weather,  and  by  the  escape 
of  the  ammonia  set  free  in  the  process  of  fermentation. 

"  To  accomplish  this  end  and  to  make  the  largest  quantity  of  the  most  valuable  manure, 
'  my  milch  cows  are  kept  in  the  stable  nights  from  about  the  first  of  September  until  about  the 
first  of  June,  and  in  the  winter  months  eighteen  to  twenty  hours  per  day.  The  stables  are 
littered  with  refuse  hay  or  straw,  and  the  manure  is  thrown  into  a  cellar  beneath,  where  I 
usually  have  some  three-cart  loads  of  loam  for  every  animal  housed.  The  manure  is  spread 
over  a  portion  of  the  cellar  at  intervals  and  covered  with  the  loam,  at  the  same  time  throwing 
on  plaster.  I  have  preferred  this  course  to  that  of  putting  muck  or  loam  in  the  stable  to 
absorb  the  liquid  portion,  as  one  involving  less  expense,  and  securing  equal  benefits.  The 
bulk  of  the  other  manures  upon  the  farm  are  from  the  hog-pen,  horse-stable,  and  barn-yard. 

"  The  compost  in  the  cellar  is  worked  over  two  or  three  weeks  before  use,  when  it  is 
drawn  to  the  field  and  ploughed  in,  and  the  compost  from  the  barn-yard  and  hog-pen  worked 
in  on  the  furrows  with  a  Shares  harrow.  I  plow  in  much  less  now  than  in  former  years,  for 
the  reason  that  from  experiments  in  both  methods  I  am  much  better  satisfied  with  the  re- 
sults of  surface  applications.  From  this  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  the  manure  is  applied 
fresh  rather  than  fermented. 

"  A  slight  covering  of  earth  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  escape  of  ammonia  and  other 
gases,  even  from  the  rapidly  fermenting  compost  heap;  and  spread  in  or  upon  the  field, 
where  the  process  of  fermentation  is  comparatively  slow,  very  little  is  lost,  in  the  opinion  of 
many  good,  practical  farmers,  even  by  top-dressing." 

Tanks  for  holding  the  liquid  manure  from  the  stables,  have  long  been  in  use  in  many 
portions  of  Europe  and  this  country,  it  being  conveyed  to  them  in  drains  from  the  stables. 
These  tanks  or  cisterns,  which  are  made  of  cement  or  concrete,  are  so  constructed  as  to  be 
closely  covered  to  prevent  the  escape  of  ammonia,  which  is  produced  by  the  fermenting  pro- 
cess. This  fermentation  rapidly  progresses  in  warm  weather,  but  the  loss  can  be  retarded  by 
putting  in  gypsum  or  charcoal,  which  absorb  the  ammonia.  A  few  days  after  fermentation 
commences,  the  liquid  is  pumped  into  casks  and  carried  on  to  the  lands.  When  designed  for 
watering  plants,  it  must  be  diluted  with  water  to  prevent  injury.  This  process  is  attended 
with  considerable  labor,  although  it  may  prove  a  good  one  where  a  large  number  of  animals 


44  THE   AJfEBICAN  FARJIER. 

are  kept,  but  for  the  general  farmer  we  tliink  the  use  of  absorbents,  as  above  stated,  far 
preferable.  Horse  manure  is  one  of  the  valuable  farm  manures,  and  the  easiest  to  ferment 
When  packed  in  heaps  this  process  will  sometimes  commence  in  twenty-four  hours.  Even  in 
the  severe  weather  of  winter,  fermentation  will  progress  rapidly,  if  a  large  quantity  is  accu- 
mulated.  When  not  arrested,  it  becomes  in  a  short  time  of  about  as  little  value  as  ashes, 
and  loses  about  nine-tenths  of  its  original  weight.  The  fermentation  or  "burning,"  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  can  be  arrested  or  prevented,  as  we  have  previously  stated,  by  mixing  with 
other  manures,  or  rendering  the  mass  compact,  and  saturating  with  water  to  prevent  the  cir- 
culation of  air. 

Sheep  manure,  and  that  furnished  by  the  pig  sty,  are  also  very  rich  fertilizers,  the 
former  being  considered  by  many  to  be  more  valuable  in  producing  good  crops  than  even  cow 
manure.  It  is  rendered  most  available  by  being  composted,  as  it  frequently  injures  the  seed 
of  plants  if  placed  in  the  hill  or  near  it  before  the  fermentation  is  completed.  By  supplying 
the  pig  yard  with  plenty  of  muck,  the  material  from  that  source  is  greatly  improved,  and 
proves  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

The  illustration  represents  a  manure  spreader  manufactured  by  the  Kemp  and  Bur- 
pee  Manufacturing  Co.,  Syracuse,  New  York,  a  most  valuable  acquisition  to  the  agricultural 
implements  of  the  present  time,  being,  in  fact,  a  manure  spreader,  pulverizer,  and  cart  com- 
bined. It  not  only  is  a  great  labor-saving  machine,  but  does  the  work  better  than  could  be 
done  by  hand,  spreading  the  manure  more  uniformly  and  at  the  same  time  pulverizing  it, 
which  increases  its  value,  since  the  i:ner  the  manure  is  pidverized  when  applied  to  the  soil 
the  more  readily  it  is  assimilated.  It  will  spread  all  kinds  of  manure,  whether  coarse  or 
fine,  wet  or  dry,  heav}'  or  light,  and  is  regulated  to  spread  different  quantities  to  the  acre,  so 
that  the  farmer  may  know  just  what  amount  per  acre  he  is  using.  It  can  also  be  attached  to  the 
fore  wheels  of  any  ordinary  farm  wagon. 

Poultry  Manure. — This  is  a  valuable  fertilizer,  and  any  farmer  who  has  been 
accustomed  to  neglect  his  flock  of  hens,  caring  little  or  nothing  for  their  products  or  the  care 
they  received,  would  be  surprised  at  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  guano  they  manufacture 
when  properly  fed,  and  which  might  be  utilized  by  being  saved  from  their  roosting  place. 
The  droppings  of  the  poultry  should  be  secui-ed  from  under  their  roosts  every  few  days  and 
mixed  with  earth,  or  with  a  compost,  as  they  are  very  soluble.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  scatter 
a  little  sand  over  the  floor  of  the  hen  house  every  day  or  two,  wliich  has  a  tendency  to  keep 
the  place  clean.  When  applied  to  the  soD,  it  should  be  harrowed  in  hghtly,  since  the  excre- 
ment of  fowls  contains  both  the  fceces  and  urine  combined;  it  is  peculiarly  rich  in  the 
fertilizing  elements,  and  is  considered,  in  this  respect,  next  in  value  to  night-soil.  Poultry 
should  always  be  pro\aded  with  warm  quarters  for  roosting,  and  we  hope  no  farmer  is  so  far 
behind  the  times  in  this  respect  or  so  inhumane  as  to  adhere  to  the  old  and  barbarous  custom 
of  forcing  his  hens  to  roost  in  trees,  and  take  care  of  themselves  on  the  scanty  pittance  they 
are  able  to  glean  from  the  barn-yard. 

Night-Soil  and  Poudrette.- — One  of  the  most  powerful  fertilizers  known  is  human 
excrement.  In  China,  Japan,  and  many  portions  of  Europe,  it  has  long  been  one  of  the  chief 
fertiUzing  substances  used  in  agriculture,  where  the  continued  fertility  of  the  soil  and  abun- 
dant crops  fully  attest  its  value.  In  our  own  country,  this  source  of  supply  has  for  various 
reasons  been  in  a  great  measure  ignored  and  neglected,  though  it  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
market  among  the  various  commercial  fertihzers,  mixed  with  charcoal,  dust,  charred  peat,  or 
other  substances  under  the  name  of  poudrette  or  tafeu.  By  being  thus  mixed  and  dried,  it  is 
disinfected  of  its  efBuvia^  and  becomes  a  convenient  article  for  transportation,  With  regard 
to  this  substance.  Prof,  C,  A,  Goessmann,  of  the  Mass.  Agricultural  College,  and  also  State 
Agricultural  Chemist,  sa3-s: — 

"There  are  sometimes  four  different  kinds  of  poudrette  offered  for  sale: — 

"  I.  Blood  or  Meat  Poudrettes,  which  are  manufactured  from  the  solid  portion  of  the  human 


FERTILIZERS.  45 

excretions,  with  the  addition  of  blood  and  refuse  meat  from  the  slaughter-house,  or  the  carcasses 
of  dead  animals.     They  are  usually  sold  in  a  dry  and  pulverized  state. 

II.  Simple  Poudreites,  which  consist  of  the  dried,  pulverized,  solid  human  excretions. 

III.  Humid  Poudrettes.  These  consist  usually  of  the  entire  contents  of  the  vaults. 
which,  after  being  deodorized,  are  left  in  large  tanks  for  evaporation  by  mere  exposure,  or 
receive  additions  of  gypsum,  etc.,  as  absorbers  of  moisture. 

IV.  Compost  Poudreites.  The  following  course  is  frequently  pursued  in  their  manufac- 
ture, the  sweepings  of  the  streets,  ashes,  refuse  lime  from  gas-houses,  and  various  other  suit- 
able refuse  materials  of  factories,  etc.,  are  screened  to  remove  stones  and  other  worthless 
materials.  The  screened  mass  is  subsequently  filled  in  alternate  layers  with  deodorized  night- 
soil,  in  large  tanks  containing  water-tight  floors.  These  tanks  are  frequently  large  enough  to 
store  five  hundred  tons  at  one  time.  After  the  material  has  been  left  for  from  four  to  five 
months  for  a  thorough  disintegration,  it  is  cut  through  from  the  surface  to  the  floor,  and 
thereby  thoroughly  mixed.  The  fertilizers  Nos.  Ill  and  No.  IV  are,  for  economical  reasons, 
best  adapted  for  consumption  in  the  vicinity  of  the  manufacturing  establishment,  whilst  Nos. 
I  and  No.  II,  on  account  of  their  higher  value,  may  enter  with  good  success  more  distant 
markets.  There  is  scarcely  any  other  class  of  commercial  fertilizers  which  is  apt  to  suffer  as 
readily  a  depreciation  in  value  from  careless  mangement  of  its  raw  material  and  its  mode  of 
manufacture,  as  the  poudrettes.  For  this  reason,  they  ought  to  be  sold  by  analysis;  at  least 
with  reference  to  the  amount  of  ammonia,  phosphoric  acid  and  potassa.  A  detailed  state- 
ment of  these  substances  gives  a  somewhat  more  definite  idea  regarding  the  nature  of  the 
excretions  which  served  in  their  manufacture.  It  needs  no  particular  argument  to  show  the 
great  value  of  the  human  excretions  in  the  agricultural  industry,  as  long  as  those  of  our 
domesticated  animals  are  considered  most  efScient  for  the  manuring  of  our  farm-lands. 

"  The  food  of  man,  as  a  general  rule,  is  much  richer  in  the  most  valuable  elements  for 
plant^growth  than  that  of  our  farm  hve-stock;  the  same  relations  are  true,  for  obvious 
reasons,  with  regard  to  the  excretions  of  both.  To  establish  that  claim  among  our  farmers 
requires  the  manufacture  of  standard  articles  of  definite  chemical  and  physical  properties. 
It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  notice,  that  in  the  most  densely -populated  countries,  the  superior  efBciency 
of  the  human  excretions  for  manurial  purposes  has  been  most  decidedly  recognized.  Belgium, 
like  China  and  Japan,  is  largely  indebted  for  its  high  state  of  cultivation  to  the  extensive  use 
of  night-soil  as  a  fertilizer.  Prejudice  against  the  more  general  use  of  the  latter  for  the 
reproduction  of  our  garden  and  farm  crops  contributes  largely  to  the  indifference  which  still 
prevails  among  many  agriculturists  regarding  the  magnitude  of  the  pecuniary  interests 
involved  in  the  question  of  securing  the  hiunan  excretion  in  the  most  advantageous  form  for 
agricultural  purposes.  The  same  indifferent  management  which  characterizes  quite  frequently 
the  treatment  of  the  barn  manure  causes  usually  a  most  serious  depreciation  of  the  contents 
of  the  vaults.  The  wasteful  practice  adopted  in  our  large  cities  with  regard  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  human  excretion  is  not  unfrequently  the  outgrowth  of  considerations  which  have 
largely  lost  their  importance  in  consequence  of  the  accumulated  experience  elsewhere.  An 
intelligent  solution  of  the  sewage  question  in  our  large  cities  touches  the  pecuniary  interest 
of  every  farmer.  However  intricate  the  various  considerations  which  deserve  careful  atten- 
tion may  render  the  problem,  the  sewage  question  cannot  be  considered  satisfactorily  settled 
without  a  due  recognition  of  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  country." 

A  noted  agriculturist  has  said  that  the  waste  from  the  kitchen  and  the  contents  of  the 
water-closet,  if  properly  composted,  would  be  of  greater  value  than  the  same  amount  of 
many  of  the  commercial  fertilizers  that  are  bought  at  a  high  figure  by  our  farmers. 

Says  Liebig:  "  If  we  admit  that  the  liquid  and  solid  excrements  of  man  amount  on  an 
average  to  547  pounds  in  a  year,  which  contain  16.41  pounds  of  nitrogen,  this  is  much  more 
than  is  necessary  to  add  to  an  acre  of  land  in  order  to  obtain,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
nitrogen  derived  from  the  atmosphere,  the  richest  possible  crop  every  year." 


46  THE  A5IERICAN  FARiEER. 

Prof.  HOgard,  of  the  University  of  Mississippi,  states  that  all  the  products  of  our  fields, 
excepting  a  portion  of  the  feed  crops,  ultimately  go  to  serve  as  food  or  raiment  to  man. 
Hence  man's  excrement,  rags,  paper  and  bone,  must  and  do  contain  the  ingi-edients  withdrawn 
from  our  soils;  and  were  we  faithfully  to  return  all  these  things  in  the  proper  form  and  in 
the  right  place,  we  should  need  no  guano  islands  to  eke  out  the  deficiency  in  the  return  made 
in  the  ofial  crops  and  manure  of  cattle.  Prof.  J.  F.  W.  Johnston  says  of  it:  "Night-soil  is 
the  most  valuable  of  all  the  solid  animal  manures.  "When  dry,  few  other  solid  manures  can 
be  compared  with  it,  weight  for  weight.  Dried  night-soil  is  equal  to  thirty  times  its  bulk  of 
horse  manure." 

The  cesspool  and  \:>Tivj  are  necessary  concomitants  of  every  family,  but  it  is  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  regulated  that  renders  them  a  source  of  pestilence  and  ill  odors,  or  that 
can  transfonn  these  unseemly  parts  of  the  farm-house  into  comeliness  and  a  source  of  profit, 
in  converting,  by  the  natural  process,  these  noxious  odors  into  elements  of  fertility  for  farm 
use;  thus  producing  utility  and  beauty,  which  may  be  in  the  form  of  farm  crops,  garden  veg- 
etables, fruits,  or  flowers,  from  what  would  otherwise  be  a  source  of  noxious  efBu%na  to  poison 
the  air,  and  breed  disease.  How  shall,  this  be  accomplished  7  In  the  first  place,  we  would 
say,  let  such  places  be  surrounded  with  some  kind  of  shrubbery  or  vines,  concealing  the 
deformities  of  art  (which  are  in  such  cases  usually  conspicuous)  with  the  beauties  of  nature. 
As  a  disinfectant,  there  is  nothing  better  than  dry  earth;  a  little  used  each  day  to  cover  the 
contents  of  the  vault  and  absorb  the  liquids  wiU  prevent  all  offensive  odors,  and  keep  the 
contents  in  a  condition  to  be  easily  handled  when  taken  out  to  apply  to  the  soil.  It  is  nec- 
essary that  the  earth  should  be  perfectly  dry,  in  order  to  be  an  efEectual  absorbent.  Earth- 
closets  have  long  been  in  use  in  England  and  France,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country, 
and  have  been  found  to  be  completely  deodorized,  when  used  as  above  described. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment,  that  such  soil,  after  being  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air, 
and  thoroughly  dried,  can  be  used  repeatedly  in  the  same  manner,  even  sis  or  seven  times, 
without  being  offensive,  which  proves  the  powerful  deodorizing  effect  of  earth. 

By  adopting  the  earth-closet  principle,  any  farmer  can  easily  secure,  free  of  expense,  one 
of  the  best  fertilizers  in  quality  that  can  be  found.  Road-dust,  sifted  coal-ashes,  pulverized 
charcoal  and  dry  muck,  or  any  kind  of  dry  soil,  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  "When  either 
is  used  in  sufficient  quantity  each  day,  it  can  afterwards  be  as  easily  handled  and  removed  as 
any  kind  of  soil;  it  is  also  improved  in  quality  by  being  mixed  with  eaith  or  some  foreign 
substance.  By  this  means  also  is  it  not  only  deodorized,  but  the  evil  effect  of  drainage  into 
wells  can  be  obviated,  thus  preventing  the  contamination  of  the  water,  which  is  so  often,  in 
the  country,  the  fruitful  cause  of  typhoid  fevers,  and  other  diseases. 

Sewage  as  a  Fertilizer. — The  sewage  question,  both  in  a  sanitary  and  agricultural  point 
of  view, — in  other  words,  the  question  as  to  how  the  sewage  of  our  cities  can  best  be  utilized 
to  fertilize  the  soil,  and  thus  prove  the  double  benefit  of  a  sanitary  and  agricultural  means, 
has  long  engaged  the  attention  of  scientific  men,  and,  although  no  definite  solution  of  the 
problem  or  practical  plan  has  yet  been  adopted,  we  feel  sure  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  this  question,  which  so  materially  afEects  the  sanitary  interests  of  the  country,  wiU  be 
satisfactorily  settled  in  the  interests  of  agriculture,  as  it  has  been  in  various  European  cities. 

Of  course,  the  sanitary  view  of  the  subject  is  first  in  importance,  and  demands  the  high- 
est consideration,  irrespective  of  agricultural  benefits  to  accrue  therefrom.  It  cannot  be 
otherwise  in  the  nature  of  things,  than  that  the  water  supplied  by  rivers  and  lakes  to  our 
cities,  is  contaminated  with  poison,  disease,  and  filth  from  the  sewers  that  empty  into  them. 
When  we  remember  that  the  city  supply  furnishes  the  drinking-water  to  the  inhabitants  of 
those  cities,  we  do  not  wonder  at  the  various  diseases,  and  the  extended  death  lists  that  swell 
the  records;  we  only  wonder  that  they  are  so  few.  Gen.  N.  N.  Halsted  of  Newark,  N.  J., 
states  as  follows  respecting  this  subject: 


FERTILIZERS.  47 

"  It  has  been  ascertained  by  Boussingault,  that  a  man  in  a  healthy  state  passes  three 
pounds  of  urine  daily;  and  Liebig  states,  that,  in  the  same  state,  he  voids  five  ounces  and  a 
half  of  dung.  These  two  quantities  give  a  total  annual  quantity  of  1,220  pounds  of  liquid 
and  solid  manure  voided  by  every  person,  on  th  3  average.  Now,  taking  two  million  as  the 
population  of  London,  the  quantities  of  those  manures  voided  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
metropolis  amount  annually  to  1,089,285  tons.  Chemistry  has  ascertained  that  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  the  excrements  of  man  are  as  valuable  to  vegetation  as  those  of  guano ;  and,  as 
the  different  sorts  of  guano  seU  from  £6  to  £10  per  ton,  we  are  warranted  in  estimating 
the  value  of  night-soil  and  iirine  at  £8  per  ton,  which  would  give  the  entire  value  of  this 
manure  in  London  alone  every  year  at  £8,714,280,  or  $43,571,400  in  gold.  This 
may  seem  like  exaggesration ;  but,  put  it  at  half  the  amount,  and  the  subject  is  serious 
enough  to  address  itself  to  every  thinking  mind.  This  waste  is  not  the  worst  of  it.  We 
claim  that  there  is  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  higher  in  importance  than  all  considerations  of 
moneyed  value :  we  mean  so  far  as  this  waste  of  sewage  into  the  rivers  affects  the  supply  of 
drinking-water  for  our  cities.  "We  take  two  prominent  instances  within  the  State  of  New 
Jersey;  the  two  largest  cities  both  taking  their  supply  of  water  from  the  same  source, — the 
Passaic  River.  This  river,  furnishing  an  illimitable  supply,  takes  the  drainage  of  the  large 
manufacturing  town  of  Paterson,  and  the  smaller  towns  along  the  river,  to  the  points  where 
the  supply  is  taken  up:  in  addition  to  these,  the  sewage  of  the  city  of  Newark,  with  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  thousand  population,  discharged  into  the  Passaic  River,  is  carried  up 
by  every  flood-tide  beyond  the  city,  and  to  the  very  conduits  where  the  water  is  taken  for 
the  supply  of  the  two  cities,  Newark  and  Jersey  City.  The  operations  of  the  United  States 
Government  in  removing  the  reef,  and  the  obstructions  to  navigation  in  the  river  above  the 
city  of  Newark,  have  greatly  facilitated  this  flow;  and  there  can  now  be  no  question  but  that 
the  supply  of  each  city  is  contaminated  by  this  sewage.  The  joint  commission  of  Newark 
and  Jersey  City  employed  an  eminent  chemist  to  analyze  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  as  fur- 
nished the  two  cities.  We'  quote  so  much  of  his  report  treating  of  sewage  pollution  of  rivers 
as  applies  forcibly  to  our  subject,  and  the  sanitary  point  now  involved :  '  That  class  of  scien- 
tists who  study  microscopic  fungi,  mycologists  (in  common  with  many  distinguished  scientific 
physicians),  are  now  settling  down  to  the  belief  that  most  epidemic  and  epizootic  diseases  are 
accompanied  (as  causes,  not  merely  as  effects)  by  certain  fungoid  growths:  in  other  words, 
that  these  diseases  are  produced  by  vegetable  parasites.  When  these  fungi  take  root  in  live 
animal  tissues,  they  develop  into  abnormal  and  monstrous  forms,  which  have  not  been  recog- 
nized until  lately;  but  it  is  now  known  ttat  the  spores  discharged  (by  millions  of  millions  it 
may  be)  with  the  excreta,  when  cultivated  outside  the  body,  come  back  again  to  their  normal 
forms,  and  the  fungi  are  recognizable.  Thus  in  common  dysentery  and  cholera-morbus,  the 
spores,  when  replanted,  produce  a  common  fungoid  parasite  of  wheat;  while,  during  the  fear- 
ful Asiatic  cholera,  the  spores  produced  a  parasite  of  the  East  India  rice-plant.  These  facts 
(if  they  must  be  admitted  as  such,  which  seems  inevitable)  are  suggestive  with  regard  to 
sewage  contamination  of  rivei's.  One  case  of  cholera  brought  to  Paterson,  or  any  of  the 
towns  lying  on  the  upper  Passaic,  might  fill  the  whole  river  with  the  living  seeds  of  the  pes- 
tilence. A  like  propagation  would  take  place  from  Newark  throughout  Jersey  City  and 
Hoboken,  and  even  throughout  Newark  itself.  I  am  aware  that  these  are  appalling  consid- 
erations, and  may  be  rejected  by  some  as  contingencies  too  remote  and  dreadful  to  be  possi- 
ble. But  human  experience,  alas!  will  not  counterbalance  any  such  puerile  view  as  this.  We 
must  stare  these  horrors  sternly  in  the  face,  bring  all  our  science  to  bear,  and  study  preven- 
tion, rather  than  wait  till  called  upon  to  endure  the  evil  when  it  shall  have  passed  beyond 
our  cure.' 

It  is  not  only  river  water  that  is  contaminated  by  the  sewage  of  the  cities,  but  the 
wells  are  also  poisoned  from  which  many  of  the  inhabitants  derive  their  sole  supply  of  cool 


48  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

drinking-water,  in  their  innocence  supposing  they  are  drinking  the  purest  and  best.  We  give 
a  single  instance  in  illustration.  A  well  in  Market  street,  in  the  city  of  Newark,  standing  in 
front  of  the  office  of  one  of  the  daily  journals  of  that  city,  had  been  so  lauded  for  its  cool 
and  sparkling  water,  that  people  were  wont  to  stop  and  refresh  themselves  with  a  drink  from 
its  pump:  nay,  instances  were  frequent  of  passers-by  in  the  thi'ong  of  Broad  street  crossing 
over  and  going  down  to  this  pump,  as  if  to  a  favorite  soda-fount.  It  might  have  been  a  rival, 
for  aught  we  know,  to  some  such  popular  establishment  in  its  vicinity.  This  well,  with  two 
others  very  much  used,  was  designated  by  the  chief  engineer  of  the  water  board,  to  Profes- 
sor Wurtz,  as  among  those  of  the  city  most  resorted  to.  Samples  were  taken;  and,  on  anal- 
ysis, the  one  we  have  selected  was  found  to  contain,  in  the  words  of  the  professor,  '  about  five 
grains  to  the  gallon  of  an  ingredient  which  cannot  be  traced  to  any  other  source  than  the 
infiltration  of  urine  of  man  or  beast,  or  both.'  He  further  recommended  the  closing  of  this 
well  to  the  public  use,  and  it  was  done. 

These  words  require  no  comment:  they  speak  for  themselves." 

We  see  from  the  above  that  for  both  sanitary  and  economic  I'easons,  the  night-soil  should 
not  go  into  the  sewage  of  the  city.  The  following  will  show  how  the  French  have  utilized  the 
sewage  of  Paris  for  agricultural  purposes. 

The  Sewage  of  PariSi — The  benefits  of  appropriating  sewage  water  to  irrigating 
the  land  is  fully  shown  in  the  following  account  given  by  Prof.  Geo.  H.  Cook,  of  New  Jersey, 
in  his  report  on  Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Teaching  in  Europe  : — 

"  The  24th  of  June  was  given  to  an  excursion  to  GennevUliers,  where  the  sewage  water 
:of  Paris  is  used  to  irrigate  and  enrich  market-garden  land.  The  question  of  sewage,  its 
removal  and  purification  for  sanitary  benefits,  and  its  uses  for  agricultural  purposes,  have 
been  discussed  in  Paris  much  as  in  other  cities.  Friends  of  sanitary  improvement,  however, 
.  have  insisted  that  the  first  step  should  be  taken  and  the  first  expenses  incurred  in  the  interests 
'  of  public  health,  and,  in  spite  of  determined  opposition,  have  carried  their  point.  A  very 
;  successful  beginning  has  been  made. 

In  most  of  the  houses  of  Paris  there  are  two  sets  of  drain-pipes.  One  of  these  connects 
the  washing-sinks,  bath  tubs,  etc.,  with  the  city  sewers  ;  th«  other  connects  the  water-closets 
with  cesspools  in  the  house-yards,  and  these  last  are  pumped  out,  and  the  contents  are  carried 
off  to  be  used  on  the  land.  It  is  only  the  sewage  from  the  former  kind  that  have  to  be 
attended  to,  and  for  this  purpose  the  whole  contents  of  the  public  sewers  are  collected  in 
very  large  conduits  from  both  sides  of  the  Seine,  and  are  conducted  down  to  Asnieres,  on 
the  river,  and  just  at  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  Here,  by  means  of  powerful  pumps,  about 
one-third  of  all  the  sewage  water  is  raised  high  enough  to  flow  by  gravity  over  a  large  tract 
of  flat  land  in  the  bend  of  the  river  just  below  this  place.  The  rest  of  the  sewage  is  allowed 
to  enter  the  river'  here.  The  amount  of  sewage  carried  in  the  sewers  yearly  is  about  one 
nundred  and  thirty-three  million  cubic  yards,  and — as  a  cubic  yard  is  not  far  from  two  hun- 
dred gallons — the  daily  flow  of  sewage  is  about  seventy-three  million  gallons.  One-thii-d  of 
this,  or  twenty-four  millions,  is  daily  pumped  up  twenty  or  thirty  feet  to  distribute  it  over 
the  peninsula  on  which  Gennevilliers  stands,  comprising  about  one  thousand  acres. 

The  sewage  is  carried  to  various  parts  of  this  plot  in  closed  pipes,  and  is  then  let  out 
into  open  ditches,  which  are  a  Httle  above  the  general  surface  of  the  ground.  From  these  it 
is  let  out  into  little  irrigating  ditches,  which  are  drawn  parallel  to  each  other,  and  about  three 
feet  apart,  so  that  the  whole  ground  looks  as  if  laid  out  in  garden  beds.  The  beds  are 
planted,  and  water  in  the  little  ditches  soaks  through  and  moistens  and  feeds  the  roots  of  the 
growing  plants  without  defiling  or  in  any  way  injuring  their  leaves  or  stems,  and  a  most 
luxuriant  growth  is  produced.  Every  year  the  little  ditches  are  changed,  and  where  those 
of  one  year  are,  is  the  middle  of  the  bed  the  next  year,  and  the  sediment  of  the  ditches  is 
scraped  out  to  mis  with  the  soil  as  manure.     In  winter  the  water  can  be  distributed  over  the 


FERTILIZERS.  49 

whole  surface,  but  in  summer,  when  the  vegetation  is  active,  it  needs  skill  and  experience  to 
put  on  the  water  or  withhold  it  at  proper  times.  The  gardeners,  however,  have  learned  to  do 
it  successfully — and  the  land  which  nine  years  ago  was  only  an  open  gravelly  sand,  so  poor 
that  but  moderate  crops  of  rye  could  be  grown  on  it,  is  now  the  most  productive  garden-soil 
about  f  aris.  When  the  experiment  was  begun  no  one  would  take  the  water,  and  the  city 
bought  about  twenty-five  acres  of  ground  on  wliich  to  make  the  first  trial.  That  land  is  now 
rich,  and  rents  yearly  for  $40  an  acre,  and  the  adjoining  land-owners,  who  have  concluded  to 
try  the  effect  of  the  water,  have  increased  their  rents  fourfold — the  average  rent  being  now 
about  §36  an  acre.     No  one  who  has  taken  the  water  has  yet  discontinued  its  use. 

The  first  effect  sought — that  of  purifying  the  water — is  produced  completely.  As  it 
comes  from  the  sewers  it  is  dark-colored,  tiu'bid,  and  of  a  vile  odor.  After  being  filtered 
through  the  cultivated  ground  it  collects  in  the  underdrains  and  runs  out  clear,  cool,  without 
smell  or  taste,  and  to  chemical  tests  shows  no  organic  matter.  In  fact,  the  little  brook  we 
saw  looked  like  the  purest  and  most  tempting  of  spring  waters,  and  those  who  drank  it  said 
it  was  so. 

The  crops  grown  on  this  soil  are  cabbages,  beets,  carrots,  beans,  artichokes,  cauliflowers, 
garlic,  onions,  leeks,  celery,  salsify,  pumpkins,  potatoes,  mint,  absinthe,  angelica,  and  nursery 
and  fruit  trees. 

A  committee  of  investigation  who  examined  this  subject  in  all  its  relations,  reported  the 
following  as  crops  per  acre  raised  on  these  grounds  : — 

Artichokes — From  14,000  to  30,000  heads. 

Cauliflowers— 12,000  to  20,000  heads,  weighing  from  30,000  to  35,000  pounds. 

Garhc— 32,000  pounds. 

Carrots— 52,000  to  72,000  and  even  115,000  pounds. 

Celery— 87,000  pounds. 

Cabbage— 120,000  pounds. 

Onions— From  52,000  to  72,000  pounds. 

Leeks — 52,000  pounds. 

Potatoes— From  25,000  to  35,000  pounds. 

Pumpkins— 100,000  to  120,000. 

Salsify— 8,000  to  10,000  bunches,  weighing  22,000  pounds. 

A  remarkably  fine  dairy  is  kept  there,  and  the  cattle  are  fed  on  lucerne  grown  with 
sewage,  and  we  were  treated  to  strawberries  grown  on  ground  irrigated  with  sewage  water, 
which  were  as  large  and  unexceptionable  in  flavor  as  Durand's  "  Great  American."  The 
vegetables  are  among  the  finest-looking  in  market,  and  are  unquestioned  in  flavor  and  good 
quality.  The  commission  reported  that  '  the  quality  of  the  products,  which  had  been  con- 
demned by  some  persons,  was  now  acknowledged  good  ;  they  retain  the  flavor  which  properly 
belongs  to  them,  and  do  not  contract  any  bad  taste.' 

The  benefits  of  this  use  of  sewage  water,  both  for  its  sanitary  and  agricultural  effects, 
are  fully  demonstrated,  and  proves  the  soundness  of  the  views  of  those  who  devised  and 
carried  it  out.  So  far,  the  expense  has  been  borne  by  the  city.  No  charge  has  been  made 
for  the  supply-ditches  and  drains,  or  for  the  water.  At  the  present  time  the  question  is  being 
raised,  whether  the  land -owners,  whose  rents  have  been  increased,  and  the  gardeners,  whose 
crops  have  been  so  much  enlarged,  should  not  pay  a  part  of  the  expense.  It  is,  however, 
generally  conceded  that  the  main  part  of  the  expense  must  be  paid  for  the  public  good,  and 
for  the  benefit  which  it  brings  to  health,  and  that  it  cannot  be  expected  that  sewage  water, 
diluted  as  it  is,  can  ever  be  used  on  agricultural  land  so  as  to  pay  the  whole  cost  of  distrib- 
uting it.  The  present  effort  is  very  encouraging  to  sanitarians,  and  has  only  been  reached 
after  a  great  deal  of  talk  and  unsuccessful  work  for  the  same  end.  On  the  ground  where 
the  sewage  is  now  distributed,  we  saw  large  reservoirs  into  which  the  sewage  water  waa 


5(j  THE  Al^IERICAN  FARAEER. 

formerly  drawn,  in  order  to  precipitate  the  fei'tilizing  matters  by  some  chemical  process,  but 
it  failed.  The  water  was  made  clear,  but  the  main  impurities  were  not  removed,  and  the 
works  stand  there  as  a  monument  of  the  work  required  to  accomplish  this  end,  so  important 
for  all  cities,  where  filth  ^-ill  accumulate  and  must  be  removed  or  destroyed." 

France  has  set  a  good  example  to  otlier  countries  in  thus  disposing  of  the  sewage  of  her 
largest  city,  and  though  some  improvements  can  doubtless  Ije  made  in  this  system,  it  is 
admirable  in  its  results  thus  far  practiced.  As  apropos  to  the  subject,  a  description  of  a  sail 
in  the  Paris  sewers,  as  given  by  a  Boston  journalist,  may  not  be  devoid  of  interest  to  our 
readers : — 

"A  Sail  in  a  Paris  Sewer. — A  visit  to  the  eewers  of  Paris  is  indeed  a  novel  one. 
There  are  two  %nsiting  daj-s  per  week  for  the  sewers,  and,  by  writing  to  the  prefect,  the  person 
who  desires  to  make  them  a  visit  can  obtain  a  pass.  This  pass  is  about  three  inches  square, 
and  is  as  finely  embellished  and  printed  as  an  invitation  to  a  millionaire's  reception.  The 
entrance  to  the  sewers  is  at  the  Place  du  Chatelet,  and  is  simply  a  slab  removed  from  the  top 
of  the  main  sewer.  When  my  turn  came  to  enter  into  the  yawning  blackness  below,  I 
shuddered  as  one  would  who  never  expected  to  see  the  light  of  day  again.  Descending  the 
narrow,  winding  staire,  I  found  myself  in  a  large  vaulted  space.  This  was  the  main  sewer, 
black  as  the  Styx,  and  probably  many  times  nastier.  Directly  over  the  nastiness,  the  rails 
resting  on  either  side  of  the  sewer,  were  a  number  of  open  cars,  holding  fifteen  or  twenty 
each,  whose  constnictioQ  would  almost  warrant  t"he  term  elegant.  Bottoms  and  sides  were  of 
light  wicker-work,  and  at  either  end  shoen  two  globular  lamps.  As  fast  as  a  car  was  filled  with 
passengers,  two  men  on  either  side  of  the  sewer  passed  a  stout  bar  through  fixed  iron  rings 
in  the  car- frame,  and,  bracing  themselves  against  the  projecting  ends,  trolled  off  and  trundled 
us  away  into  the  darkness.  At  short  intervals  the  noise  of  murmuring  rills  and  babbling 
.brooks  came  to  our  ears.  These,  as  we  were  rushed  by  them,  we  saw  to  be  the  tributaries  of 
the  main  stream.  The  sewer  over  which  we  rode  was  named  from  the  street  under  which  it 
ran — the  Rue  de  Rivoli — and  the  murmuring  rills,  brooks  and  ri\'ulets,  were  called  from  the 
streets  under  which  they  passed.  Some  bounded  into  the  main  river  in  joyous  little  cascades, 
and  the  meeting  of  others  with  the  parent  river  was  conducted  in  a  more  quiet,  orderly,  and 
solemn  fashion.  The  average  smell  was  simply  that  of  a  sewer,  somewhat  carbolized, 
perhaps,  but  stiU  a  sewer.  "We  stopped.  Here  we  were  to  leave  the  car.  Here  began  the 
remainder  of  the  passage  by  water — at  least,  it  is  called  water,  and  for  navigation  the  fluid 
answers  tlie  purpose  ;  but  it  isn't  water.  We  left  the  car.  The  barges  were  loading  up. 
Each  would  hold  fifteen  or  twenty  people.  Our  barge  started.  It  rolled  unctuously  in  the 
dark-colored  fluid.  As  the  passengers  moved  about  in  getting  to  their  seats,  it  rolled  as  a 
vessel  might  roll  in  a  lake  of  molasses.  It  was  an  unpleasant  sensation.  The  motive  power 
was  furnished  by  a  few  blouse-covered  Frenchmen  attached  to  long  ropes,  who,  in  the  capacity 
of  mules,  hauled  us  along.  Silently  we  moved  on.  Not  a  ripple  was  heard  under  the  prow. 
The  sewer  had  no  capacity  for  rippling.  Little  was  seen,  save  the  ghmmer  of  the  lamp  on 
the  barge  ahead  of  us,,  and  a  long,  straight,  silent  stream.  The  barge,  loaded  deeply,  seemed 
but  a  few  inches  above  thia  Parisian  Styx.  As  we  slightly  rocked,  there  came  awful  sugges- 
tions to  our  minds  of  the  possibility  of  shipping  a  sea.  On  the  current  we  saw  straws,  corks, 
and  lemon  peelings.  A  young  man,  actively  and  impleasantly  curious,  thrust  his  cane  in  the 
stream,  with  a  view  of  getting  soundings.  On  bringing  the  cane  on  board,  all  in  its  vicinity 
moved  away.  Some  folks  never  can  let  well-enough  alone.  We  turned  into  the  Rue  Royale. 
The  stream  grew  wider,  the  current  more  rapid.  Most  of  the  ladies  now  held  handkerchiefs 
to  their  faces.  Tliey  seemed  a  deeply-affected  company.  The  smell  was  that  of  carbonated 
sewage.  It  was  discernible  by  the  tongue  as  well  as  the  nose.  The  combined  ride  and  sail 
occupied  one  hour  and  a  quarter.  I  suppose  we  traversed  two  miles  of  sewer;  anyhow,  I 
was  only  too  glad  when  the  voyage  ended  and  I  once  more  inhaled  the  pure  air  of  heaven." 


FERTILIZERS.  51 

Composts. — We  sometimes  hear  tlie  question  asked  by  farmers,  "  What  is  the  use  of 
composting  barnyard  manure?  Why  not  take  it  directly  from  the  stables  to  the  field  and 
thus  save  the  labor  of  composting  it?"  We  know  of  no  better  answer  than  this:  Since 
manure  contains  the  elements  of  plant-food,  and  must  be  decomposed  and  become  soluble  or 
gaseous  before  it  can  properly  feed  the  little  rootlets  that  are  reaching  out  in  the  soil  for  their 
nourishment,  thus  to  support  and  promote  plant  growth, — the  sooner  this  decomposition  is 
accomplished,  the  earlier  will  the  plant  be  supported,  and  the  better  its  growth  established, 
instead  of  waiting  for  this  process  to  take  place  in  the  soil,  after  being  plowed  under,  which 
sometimes  requires  considerable  time,  unless  well  pulverized  when  applied  to  the  land ;  besides, 
even  then  the  manure  is  so  inaccessible  to  the  amount  of  air  required  to  produce  fermentation, 
that  the  process  of  decomposition  is  much  retarded;  but  when  composted  before  being 
applied,  it  is  readily  assimilated.  Another  good  reason  for  composting  might  be  the  use  that 
can  be  made  of  the  fermenting  manure  to  produce  a  similar  fermentation  in  other  substances 
mixed  with  it,  thus  utilizing  for  fertilizing  purposes,  what  might  otherwise  be  entirely 
useless. 

The  word  "compost"  signifies  "placed  together,"  hence  it  means  a  compound.  Alex- 
ander Hyde,  of  Massachusetts,  thus  defines  it  in  a  lecture  on  this  subject: 

"Compost  is  'hash,'  and  as  we -can  make  hash  of  fish,  flesh,  or  fowl,  using  for  this  pur- 
pose cod,  halibut,  salmon,  or  any  other  kind  of  fish;  beef,  pork,  mutton,  or  any  other  kind 
of  meat;  brahmas,  dorkings,  shanghais,  or  any  other  kind  of  fowl,  using  nice  cuts,  or  the 
refuse  pieces,  as  economy  or  skill  may  dictate;  so  we  may  compost  out  of  an  almost  unhmited 
number  of  substances.  There  are  almost  as  many  modes  of  compounding  food  for  plants  as 
for  man,  and  every  house-wife  knows  that  these  are  endless.  Speaking  generally,  it  may  be 
said  that  everything  that  has  once  been  organized  into  plant  or  animal  life,  may  be  made  to 
go  the  round  of  Ufe  again. 

More  specifically,  as  we  generally  use  potatoes  as  the  base  of  hash,  by  which  to  extend 
the  animal  food,  so  we  generally  use  muck,  or  some  substance  abounding  in  vegetable  matter, 
such  as  sods  or  leaf  mould,  as  the  base  of  the  compost  heap,  so  as  to  extend  the  more  concen- 
trated animal  fertilizers  and  render  them  more  easily  assimilated  by  plants." 

By  the  use  of  dry  earth,  muck,  and  other  substances  as  absorbents,  in  stables,  pig-yards, 
and  privy-vaults,  as  has  been  indicated  in  the  previous  pages,  these  manures  are  composted 
and  greatly  improved  in  condition,  for  appUcation  to  lands,  besides  the  saving  by  this  means 
of  much  of  the  liquid  that  might  otherwise  be  lost,  and  preventing  the  escape  of  ammonia 
and  other  valuable  gases.  But  as  it  is  often  desirable  to  compost  by  a  different  process,  we 
will  consider  the  usual  and  most  approved  method  of  doing  it. 

Many  farmers  compost  their  manures  under  the  stable-floors  in  a  barn-cellar  for  that 
purpose,  where  the  various  manures  of  the  farm  are  mixed  with  muck  and  other  absorbents 
until  well  fermented ;  others  preserve  the  liquid  manure  in  tanks  under  the  stable  for  that 
purpose,  and  produce  a  valuable  fertilizer  in  the  form  of  ammoniated  superphosphate,  by 
mixing  with  it  ground  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  lime.  Perhaps  the  more  common  method 
of  composting  is  by  making  a  compost  heap. 

How  to  Construct  a  Compost  Pile. — An  elevated  and  dry  spot  is  generally  selected 
as  the  site  of  the  compost  heap,  in  order  that  it  may  not  receive  the  wash  from  a  higher 
source  and  thus  much  of  the  fertilizing  substance  be  washed  away  and  lost. 

Boards  should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  the  liquid  portion  from  soaking  into 
the  ground,  as  would  be  the  case  were  the  soil  of  a  sandy  or  gravelly  nature.  A  layer  of 
muck  or  loam,  from  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  thick,  should  be  placed  so  as  to  form  a  base 
for  the  heap ;  over  this  a  layer  of  stable  manure  of  equal  thickness  should  be  spread,  which 
forms  the  fermenting  principle  of  the  heap.  This  may  be  covered  by  a  layer  of  leaves,  or 
refuse  of  any  kind,  such  as  straw,  cornstalks,  decajdng  vegetables,  etc.     If  in  the  vicinity  of 


52  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

a  woolen  or  paper  mill,  or  tannery,  the  waste  substances  fumislied  by  these  are  often  utilized 
in  the  compost  heap  with  good  effect.  Some  farmers  put  in  old  woolen  rags,  old  boots  and 
shoes,  bones,  brine,  soap  suds  and  all  the  garbage  from  the  kitchen,  and  old  refuse  of  every 
kind  and  description  that  can  be  collected  together,  and  which  will,  in  time,  become  subject 
to  the  chemical  changes  of  the  compost  heap,  and  produce  an  excellent  fertilizer. 

In  the  cotton  growing  states,  cotton-seed  is  often  utilized  as  an  important  ingredient  of 
the  compost  pile,  after  having  been  fermented  with  wood-ashes  to  soften  and  reduce  the 
hulls.  Another  layer  of  muck  should  follow  this,  then  stable  manure  and  waste  material, 
thus  alternating  until  the  pile  is  made  of  sufficient  size.  Tlie  manure  from  the  sheep  fold, 
pig-sty  and  poultry-house,  together  with  night-soil,  all  furnish  rich  material  for  this  purpose, 
and  are  thought  by  most  farmers  to  be  more  beneficial  to  various  crops  when  composted  in 
this  manner  than  when  applied  separately.  The  compost  heap  should  be  composed  of  about 
one  load  of  manure  to  two  loads  of  muck,  in  proportionate  quantity  of  each,  and  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  pounds  of  plaster  added  to  each  load.  It  should  be  built  five  or  six  feet  high 
(if  not  under  cover),  to  prevent  the  rains  from  leaching  it.  The  top  of  the  heap  should  be 
covered  with  inuck.  Some  surmoimt  this  vrith  boards  on  straw,  as  they  finish  a  hay-stack, 
which  is  a  very  good  practice.  When  built  under  a  cover,  leaching  by  the  rain  is  prevented, 
but  it  involves  the  additional  labor  of  keeping  the  mass  wet.  The  three  essentials  necessary 
to  produce  rapid  decomposition  in  the  pile  are  air,  moistui-e,  and  a  temperature  above  65°, 
and  these  conditions,  except  in  quite  cold  weather,  are  generally  found  in  a  compost  heap. 
Superphosphate  of  lime,  about  two  hundred  pounds  to  each  cord  of  material,  is  considered  by 
many  a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  compost  pile,  also  finely  ground  bone,  which  is  a  good 
substitute  for  the  latter  when  that  material  is  diflScult  to  obtain. 

Freshly  slacked  lime  hastens  decomposition,  and  thus  gets  the  mass  in  condition  to  be 
used  much  sooner  than  it  otherwise  would  be,  but  its  use  is  objected  to  by  many  as  having  a 
tendency  to  set  free  much  of  the  nitrogen,  and  thus  involving  too  much  loss  to  be  profitably 
used.  Salt  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give  five  or  six  bushels  to  the  acre  is  also  often  a  valuable 
acquisition  to  the  pile.  Some  mix  ashes,  both  leached  and  unleached,  with  the  compost, 
while  others  prefer  to  apply  the  ashes  to  lands  separately. 

Alexander  Hyde  says  further  respecting  composts:  "Muck,  mixed  up  with  fermenting 
manure,  becomes  quickly  infected  with  a  tendency  to  decomposition,  the  manure  acting  much 
like  yeast  in  the  housewife's  bread-bowl.  A  little  leaven  of  manure  is  thus  made  to  leaven 
the  whole  lump.  When  shoddy  was  not  so  much  in  vogue  as  it  is  at  present,  we  were  accus- 
tomed to  use  the  refuse  of  a  neighboring  woolen-mill  for  composting  with  muck,  and  as  the 
wool  was  generally  oily,  ready  to  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air  rapidly,  and  thus  undergo  a 
spontaneous  combustion,  we  have  seen  the  pile  in  an  almost  boiHng  condition.  A  yellow  oily 
substance  exuded  from  it,  and  a  stick  thrust  into  the  pile,  soon  became  feverishly  heated. 
In  contact  with  such  fermentation,  muck  is  rapidly  cooked,  and  made  into  good  plant-food. 

Common  barn-yard  manure  does  not  ferment  so  furiously  as  oUy  wool-waste,  but  the 
effect  is  similar.  A  board  placed  in  it  rots  twice  as  fast  as  when  in  common  earth.  Even 
old  boots,  which,  from  the  tannin  in  them,  resist  decay  with  great  pertinacity  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  placed  in  the  compost  heap,  become  as  powerless  as  Samson  with  his  head 
shaven,  and  are  as  easily  torn  as  so  much  pasteboard.  Horse-manure  is  more  inclined  to 
fermentation  than  that  from  cows,  and  is  therefore  best  adapted  to  produce  this  decomposing 
influence  in  the  compost  heap.  We  have  known  bones  in  a  pile  of  horse-manure  become  so 
soft  that  they  could  easily  be  crushed. 

We  are  not  prepared  to  assent  to  the  assertion  so  often  made,  that  no  additional  virtue 
is  acquired  by  manure  in  the  process  of  composting  and  fermentation.  It  might  as  well  be 
asserted  that  flour  acquired  no  additional  nutriment  by  composting  it  with  a  little  yeast  and 
water.  In  the  process  of  fermentation  great  chemical  changes  are  going  on ;  old  compounds 
are  destroyed  and  new  ones  formed. 


FERTILIZERS.  53 

ITie  power  of  absorption  is  not  tlie  only  recommendation  of  muck  for  the  base  of  com- 
post. Pure  muck  is  pure  vegetable  matter,  has  been  once  organized  into  vegetable  life,  and 
in  its  decay  must  furnish  food  for  future  vegetation.  Placed  in  contact  with  animal  manures, 
or  any  dead  animal  substance,  the  decomposition  of  the  muck  is  also  accelerated,  and  the 
mutual  action  is  highly  favorable  for  forming  a  good  plant-food. 

■The  quahty  of  muck  varies  in  different  locahties.  "We  have  dug  that  which  had  the 
odor  of  burning  gunpowder  as  it  first  came  from  the  pit.  Such  muck  is  a  good  manure  in 
itself.  Other  deposits  possess  less  intrinsic  value.  The  goodness  depends  in  a  measure  upon 
the  character  of  the  vegetation  which,  by  its  partial  decay,  has  formed  the  muck  bed. 
Rushes,  ferns,  and  mosses  form  a  muck  of  less  value  than  that  made  from  leaves  of  deciduous 
trees,  and  soft,  sappy  wood,  partially  decayed,  furnish  less  fertilizing  material  than  hard 
woods. 

But  muck  is  not  the  only  base  of  the  compost  heap,  and  whether  we  should  use  it  at  all 
will  depend  somewhat  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  to  which  the  compost  is  to  be  applied.  If 
this  is  sandy  or  gravelly,  or  a  loam  in  which  sand  predominates,  there  is  no  better  compost 
than  that  with  muck  or  leaf -mold  as  the  base.  On  clay  land,  also  well-drained,  muck  eperates 
favorably  in  making  it  loose  and  friable ;  but  if  it  is  incUned  to  be  wet  and  cold,  muck 
increases  this  tendency,  as  it  is  a  great  absorbent  and  retainer  of  moisture.  We  have  used  a 
muck  compost  on  a  clay  loam,  pretty  well  drained  too,  till  we  perceived  that  the  vegetation 
started  a  little  later  in  the  Spring,  when  we  changed  the  base  of  the  compost,  using  alluvial 
soil  instead  of  the  muck.  The  change  was  decidedly  beneficial.  The  soil  was  apparently 
pretty  much  destitute  of  vegetable  matter,  but  was  rich  in  silicates  and  other  salts. 

The  caterer  of  plant-food  finds  that  plants,  like  animals,  are  fond  of  a  variety.  Barn- 
yard manure  is  the  staple  fertilizer,  and,  like  bread  in  the  animal  economy,  makes  the  best 
steady  diet.  But  this  manure  is  better  when  made  up  or  composted  of  the  excrements  of 
different  animals.  Let  a  farmer  feed  a  piece  of  land  with  the  droppings  of  sheep  alone,  or 
cows  alone,  for  a  series  of  years,  and  he  will  find  that  the  effect  is  not  so  great  after  a  time, 
and  that  a  little  horse-manure  put  for  a  change  upon  the  same  land  will  work  wonders. 
Night-soil  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  fertilizers,  and  has  been  much  used  by  market-gardeners 
near  our  large  cities,  yielding  in  its  first  applications  immense  crops,  but  after  a  time  it  loses 
its  magical  influence,  and  a  market-gardener  once  said  to  us  that  he  was  so  well  convinced  of 
the  necessity  of  a  change  in  plant-food,  even  where  night-soil  was  used,  which  he  considered 
the  best  for  the  growth  of  vegetables,  that  once  in  the  course  of  six  or  eight  years  he  would 
prefer  a  dressing  of  muck  or  rotted  sods,  or  leaf-mold,  or  even  good  loam,  to  any  pure  nitro- 
genous manure.  A  compost  made  of  nitrogenous  manure,  salt,  lime,  ashes,  bone-dust,  refuse 
vegetables,  and  refuse  of  almost  every  nature,  wiU  make  a  fertilizer  of  which  plants  will  not 
soon  tire. 

Different  methods  are  employed  for  forming  composts,  according  to  the  judgment  and 
opinions  of  different  individuals ;  some  preferring  a  hUl-side  slope  for  locating  the  compost 
heap  to  an  elevated,  level  situation. 

Dr.  Thomas  Pollard,  late  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  in  Virginia,  gives  the  following 
method  in  his  recent  report: 

"  A  good  plan  for  a  compost  heap  is  to  select  a  gentle  slope,  and  from  the  place  selected 
for  the  compost,  dig  a  ditch,  say  a  foot  wide  and  half  a  foot  deep,  as  long  as  may  be  necessary, 
and  sink  a  keg  or  barrel  at  the  mouth  to  catch  the  drainings.  On  each  side  of  the  compost 
pUe  slope  the  ground  with  a  hoe  down  to  the  ditch,  so  that  all  the  drainings  will  flow  into  the 
ditch;  cover  the  whole  bottom  where  the  compost  is  to  be  formed  with  plank  and  cover  the 
ditch  with  plank,  so  that  the  drainage  will  get  into  it  and  the  compost  be  prevented  from 
clogging  it  up.  To  build  up  the  pile  straight  it  wiU  be  well  to  make  a  temporary  barricade 
of  plank  across  the  ditch  about  three  feet  up  from  the  keg.     Commence  building  the  compost 


54  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

pile  against  this  plank  fence.  Build  up  the  pile  in  sections  of  about  six  feet  to  a  convenient 
height,  sloping  the  sides  so  as  to  shed  rain.  Finish  each  section  to  the  top,  sprinkle  the 
outside  with  dissolved  bone,  or  if  ground  bone  is  used,  then  with  gypsum,  and  cover  with 
boards  or  with  straw  like  a  stack,  unless  the  compost  is  made  under  shelter,  as  some  prefer,  to 
prevent  loss  of  the  liquid  manure  by  heavy  rains.  But  this  will  involve  the  labor  of  keeping 
the  pile  wet  by  pouring  water  over  it.  When  one  section  is  finished  proceed  to  fojTn  the 
next  section  above  and  so  on.  The  advantage  of  finishing  ofi  in  sections  is,  that  decompo- 
sition starts  Looner,  and  by  the  time  the  last  section  is  done,  the  first  will  be  sooner  ready. 

The  constituents  and  proportions  for  the  composts  must  be  determined  with  reference 
to  the  crops  to  be  grown,  and"  the  soil. 

It  is  particularly  important  that  putrescent  manures  should  be  composted,  for  the  quan- 
tity can  be  largely  increased  with  very  little  or  no  loss  in  quality,  particularly  if  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  be  added.  Even  without  these  it  would  be  jirofitable  to  compost,  for  by 
adding  rich  dirt,  scrapings  of  fence-comers  and  ditch  banks  or  woods'  mold,  and  adding  all 
the  hen-manure,  hog-manure,  urine,  soapsuds,  etc.,  from  the  house,  a  pile  can  be  made  of 
equal  value  and  much  larger  than  if  no  compost  is  attempted,  because  many  things  will  be  saved 
and  added  which  would  be  thrown  away  and  neglected.  And  by  adding  these  things, 
ammonia,  which  would  escape,  will  be  absorbed  and  retained,  and  the  fermentation  will 
reach  and  embrace  all  the  materials  in  the  pile,  and  '  a  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump.' 
But  ground  bone  or  ground  phosphate,  or  these  materials  in  dissolved  form,  should  be 
added,  and  potash,  if  the  soils  and  crops  require  it.  Do  not  add  ashes  or  lime  to  the  compost 
unless  g3rpsum  is  applied  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  the  ashes  driving  ofi  the  ammonia.  It 
is  probable  that  it  is  better  not  to  add  lime  at  all.  In  making  composts,  the  farmer  must 
study  the  wants  of  his  difierent  crops  and  of  his  soil.  If  the  compost  has  to  be  formed  in 
a  short  time,  it  will  be  better  to  use  dissolved  bone  or  phosphate;  but  if  there  is  sufficient 
time,  then  ground  bone  or  phosphate  should  be  used,  as  the  ammonia  and  other  things  in  the 
pile  will  have  time  to  make  the  phosphoric  acid  soluble.  Observe,  we  frequently  use  the  term 
phosphoric  acid  for  the  bone  or  phosphate,  in  which  form  it  is  available  to  crops.  If  the 
dissolved  article  is  used,  g3rpsum  will  not  be  necessary.  If  the  ground  article  is  used,  then 
gypsum  will  be  necessary  to  prevent  escape  of  the  ammonia.  Professor  Pendleton,  using 
stable-manure  as  the  basis,  directs  that  about  the  first  of  January  this  be  removed  to  an  open 
space,  the  manure  to  be  chopped  and  the  compost  formed  by  a  layer  of  stable-manure  six 
inches  thick,  with  a  good  sprinMing  of  ground  phosphate  (South  Carolina)  over  it;  then  a 
layer  of  cotton  seed  (previously  saturated  with  water) ;  then  another  layer  of  superphosphate 
half  an  inch  thick;  then  a  layer  of  stable-manure,  and  so  on,  until  the  heap  is  completed,  which 
should  be  conical  in  form.  (We  think  the  pile  had  better  be  flat  to  catch  water  enough  to 
promote  fermentation  and  prevent  firing!)  Over  the  heap  then  apply  several  inches  of  dry 
clay  soil  to  prevent  the  escape  of  ammonia.  But  if  superphosphate  is  used  this  will  not  be 
necessary.  Professor  Pendleton  in  one  place  says  ground  phosphate,  and  in  another  Super- 
phosphate. This  compost  is  to  be  put  in  corn  or  cotton  beds  in  March  and  April.  As  wo 
cannot  get  cotton-seed,  which  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  then  we  must  substitute  sulphate  ammonia 
or  nitrate  soda,  if  we  think  we  have  not  enough  nitrogen  for  the  crop.  If  we  have  a  clover 
or  pea-fallow,  or  there  is  much  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  we  can  do  without  these.  In  the 
cotton  states  very  little  grass  is  raised,  and  the  land  is  usually  clear  of  vegetable  matter. 
Cotton-seed  comes  in  there  very  happily,  and  is  very  valuable  in  the  production  of  a  cotton 
crop.  In  our  compost  heaps  for  a  tobacco  crop  we  can  profitably  put  in  the  compost  aU  the 
tobacco  stalks  and  stems  we  can  get;  they  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  put  in  before 
Christmas,  to  give  them  time  to  decompose.  So  much  putrescent  manure  will  not  be 
required  in  compost  with  these  other  materials  as  when  used  alone.  "We  may  do  with  ten  or 
fifteen  one-horse  cart-loads  per  acre,  or  less  than  this  if  some  material,  as  sulphate  ammonia  or 


FERTILIZERS.  55 

nitrate  soda,  is  added  to  supply  ammonia.  In  the  cotton  States  they  always  add  cotton- 
seed to  the  heap,  which  furnishes  as  much  ammonia,  pound  for  pound,  as  good,  dry  stable- 
manure.  Judge  Turner,  of  Hancock  coimty,  Georgia,  reported  to  the  commissioner  of 
agriculture  of  that  State  the  following  experiment:  dissolved  bone,  apphed  at  the  rate  of  two 
hundred  pounds  per  acre,  yielded  only  six  hundred  and  seventy-two  poimds  of  cotton  per 
acre,  while  fifty  poimds  dissolved  bone,  seventy-five  pounds  cotton-seed  and  seventy-five 
pounds  of  stable  manure  to  the  acre,  yielded  one  thousand  and  eight  pounds  cotton  to  the 
acre.  This  seems  a  remarkable  result  for  so  small  a  quantity  of  stable-manure  and  cotton- 
seed. 

When  the  compost  is  hauled  out,  every  layer  in  the  heap  should  be  chopped  down  and 
well  mixed  and  pulverized.  For  wheat,  it  should  of  course  be  applied  broadcast;  for  corn, 
tobacco,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  the  trenches,  unless  there  should  be  a  plenty  to  apply  broadcast." 

An  agricultural  writer  from  Georgia  recommends  that  a  compost,  which  he  has  found 
extremely  valuable,  be  formed  according  to  the  following  method:  "If  360  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed be  well  wet  and  then  mixed  with  four  bushels  of  hard-wood  ashes,  and  permitted  to 
ferment,  all  the  time  kept  moist,  and  turned  several  times,  they  will  form  a  compost  that  wiU 
saponify  the  oil  in  the  cotton-seed,  break  down  the  hulls,  and  reduce  them  to  a  pulpy  mass 
of  most  wonderful  fertilizing  properties.  Then  mix  this  mass  with  one  ton  of  well-rotted 
stable-manure;  let  the  whole  stand  three  weeks;  turn  it  twice;  keep  all  the  time  under  shel- 
ter, and  it  wiU  be  fit  for  use.  I  consider  this  quantity  equal  to  400  pormds  of  guano,  and 
think  it  wiU  bring  as  large  crops  as  can  be  gotten  from  that  quantity  of  guano  apphed  to  an 
acre  in  the  drill. 

The  practice  of  composting  cotton  seeds  directly  with  phosphates  and  manure  is  objec- 
tionable, judging  from  my  experience.  The  following  are  the  reasons:  The  cotton-seeds  are 
made  dry  and  hard,  the  hulls  are  not  broken  up;  the  benefits  from  the  seeds  are  not  obtained 
on  these  accounts.  I  have  noticed  the  seeds  entire  two  years  after  using  the  compost,  show- 
ing they  had  not  given  up  their  valuable  properties  to  plants.  The  phosphate  forms  an 
insoluble  fatty  acid  with  the  oil  in  the  seed,  which  coating  defies  rot  and  prevents  decompo- 
sition. To  avoid  all  these  inconveniences,  I  prefer  composting  the  cotton-seed  with  an  alkali, 
so  as  to  form  a  soap,  as  this  will  break  up  the  hulls,  and  permit  the  valuable  fertilizing  prop- 
erties of  the  seed  to  be  readily  surrendered  to  the  plant  for  food.  Ashes  contain  the  cheapest 
alkali  for  this  purpose;  100  pounds  of  ashes  will  saponify  300  pounds  of  cotton-seed,  and 
reduce  them  to  pulp.  Hence  the  above  compost  is  recommended,  which  has  proved  emi- 
nently valuable  in  my  experience.'' 

The  fermentation  process  will  commence  in  a  few  days  after  the  compost  heap  is 
foimed,  if  the  weather  be  moderately  warm,  which  will  increase  to  a  certain  degree  before 
subsiding.  By  keeping  the  mass  compact,  fermentation  can  be  retarded;  water  apphed  will 
also  produce  the  same  effect.  The  only  danger  at  this  stage  in  the  process  is,  that  if  the 
fermentation  proceeds  too  rapidly,  some  of  the  most  valuable  elements,  such  as  ammonia, 
will  escape  in  the  exuding  gases  and  be  lost.  This,  however,  can  be  detected  by  the  odor; 
and  if  there  be  a  strong  odor  similar  to  ammonia,  or  what  is  commonly  called  '■  hartshorn," 
in  the  vapor  that  escapes,  this  proves  that  these  elements  are  being  lost,  and  the  evil  will 
have  to  be  remedied  by  putting  on  a  covering  of  wet  plaster  with  a  covering  of  dry  earth 
above  it,  which  is  considered  the  best  method  of  checking  it,  since  wet  plaster  arrests 
decomposition  as  weU  as  retains  any  ammonia  that  may  have  been  generated, — or  it  may  be 
checked  by  turning  on  water  only. 

If  the  compost  pile  be  made  rather  late  in  the  autumn,  such  as  the  latter  part  of  October 
in  the  colder  climate,  and  in  December  in  the  warmer,  too  rapid  decomposition  might,  in  a 
great  measure,  be  avoided  by  the  temperature  of  the  air.  It  is  always  a  benefit  to  the  com. 
post  thus  formed  to  be  shoveled  over  and  mixed  before  using.     The  time  required  to  properly 


56  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER 

compost  fertilizing  materials  (which  is  not  done  until  the  materials  are  all  broken  up  and 
separated),  varies  according  to  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  substances  used,  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  treated,  the  degree  of  heat,  cold,  and  moisture  to  which  they  are  exposed, 
etc.  It  is  somethnes  accomplished  in  three  or  four  weeks,  but  often  not  under  six  months  or 
a  year;  riome  writers  say  two  years,  but  we  think  this,  as  a  general  rule,  is  quite  too  long, 
though  there  may  be  exceptional  cases  where  the  materials  used  would  require  this  length  of 
time.  When  made,  as  above  described,  in  the  fall,  the  composted  manure  will  usually  be 
ready  for  use  in  the  spring. 

General  Grant  states  that  when  in  China  he  was  shown  a  piece  of  land  which  had  been 
under  cultivation  every  year  for  5,000  years  without  deterioration  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
This  result  is  effected  by  returning  to  the  soil  everything  taken  from  it.  Fish  constitutes  a 
large  proportion  of  the  food  of  the  people,  and  offal  not  consumed  for  human  food  is  care- 
fully applied  to  the  soU,  and  fish  is  a  great  fertilizer.  Even  ths  roots  of  the  wheat — which 
is  grown  to  a  very  limited  extent — are  taken  and  rotted  in  a  compost  heap  and  returned  to 
the  soil.  AH  the  leaves  and  garbage  are  utilized  in  the  same  manner.  Thus  the  Chinese 
have  shown  us  that  by  returning  to  the  soil  the  elements  extracted  from  it,  deterioration  in 
fertility  may  be  entirely  prevented. 

Flesh,  Blood,  Hair,  Horns,  Hoofs,  etCt  These  substances,  when  decomposed, 
afford,  in  a  condensed  form,  some  of  the  most  valuable  fertilizing  elements,  such  as  nitrogen, 
phosphate  of  lime,  etc.  They  are  not,  however,  always  procurable  by  the  farmer,  but  when 
a  loss  occurs  among  the  animals  of  the  farm,  or  if  the  refuse  of  a  slaughter-house  can  be 
obtained  and  buried  in  a  peat-bed,  or  rich  garden  mold,  until  a  perfect  decomposition  has 
taken  place;  or,  if  put  into  the  compost  pile,  the  fertilizing  material  thus  obtained  will  well 
repay  the  trouble  and  labor  attending  it.  "When  buried,  a  little  hme  added  to  the  pile  before 
covering  will  greatly  quicken  the  process  of  decomposition.  It  is  estimated  that  a  dead  cow 
or  horse  thus  buried  and  mixed  with  eight  or  ten  times  their  weight  of  soil,  will  yield  from 
ten  to 'fifteen  loads  of  the  richest  manure.  When  the  body  is  cut  in  pieces  and  mixed  with 
dry  muck  or  loam,  decomposition  is  hastened  and  a  more  uniform  mixture  produced ;  but 
this  never  should  be  done  if  the  animal  died  of  a  virulent  disease.  In  such  a  case,  the 
dead  animal  should  be  buried  deep  in  the  earth  and  far  from  any  farm  building,  and  never 
be  used  as  a  fertilizer.  The  compost,  in  any  case,  should  be  made  at  a  distance  from  the 
house.  Allen  says  that  butchers'  offal  will  give  twenty  times  its  weight  of  more  valuable 
manure  than  any  from  the  cattle-yard. 

Dried  blood,  when  unadulterated,  forms  a  valuable  commercial  fertihzer.  MeaX  scraps 
of  any  kind,  fish-offal,  shoddy,  gelatine,  and  glue-waste  are  all  valuable  sources  of  nitrogen. 
Much,  however,  depends  upon  their  mechanical  condition,  with  respect  to  their  value,  such 
as  their  fineness,  freedom  from  moisture,  etc.  Horns,  hoofs,  clippings  from  hides,  etc.,  are 
also  rich  in  organic  substances  required  by  plants,  when  mingled  with  the  soil,  but  must  be 
very  finely  pulverized  to  be  available  as  fertilizers,  as  their  naturally  indestructible  character 
prevents  them  from  decaying  easily.  The  horns  and  hoofs  are  prepared  by  first  steaming, 
which  renders  them  soft  and  pliable  like  rubber;  they  are  then  quickly  dried,  which  makes 
them  very  brittle,  and  are  easily  ground  into  a  fine  powder,  which  yields,  on  analysis,  over  15 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

Dried  Blood .  This  fertilizer  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  animal  substances  on  account 
of  the  nitrogen  it  furnishes,  and  its  rapid  formation  of  ammonia.  The  western  cities  suj)ply 
largely  the  markets  of  the  country  with  this  commodity,  which  has  within  a  few  years 
become  to  be  highly  valued  in  the  agricultural  world.  It  is  prepared  for  the  market  for 
fertilizing  purposes  in  the  following  manner:  from  two  to  four  tons  of  fresh  blood  are  put 
into  wooden  or  iron  tanks  of  suitable  size,  containing  double  bottoms  several  inches  apart. 
The  upper  bottom  is  perforated  with  small  holes  and  covered  over  with  a  coarse  sacking  to 


FERTILIZERS.  57 

serve  as  a  strainer  or  filter.  These  two  bottoms  of  the  tank  have  each  a  larger  opening, 
which  is  closed  by  a  long  stick  fitting  into  them,  and  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  tank 
which  is  used  to  discharge  the  liquid  that  has  passed  through  the  strainer,  after  the  treat- 
ment of  the  blood  has  been  accomplished.  A  steam-pipe  passes  down  to  the  filter,  which  is 
controlled  by  a  valve.  The  steam  is  then  turned  on  and  remains  so  for  an  hour  or  more,  which 
heats  the  blood  and  changes  it  into  a  coagulated  mass  that  collects  upon  the  filter  or  strainer 
after  the  liquid  at  the  bottom  has  been  discharged.  It  is  afterward  dried  by  steam  and  pul- 
verized for  the  market.  This  substance  wUl  contain,  when  pure,  from  1 0  to  16  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  lost  by  discharging  the  liquid  is  very  shght,  amounting 
to  only  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 

Animal  Dust. — This  fertilizer  is  prepared  from  the  blood,  meat,  scraps,  and  a  part  of 
the  bones  obtained  from  large  slaughter-houses,  some  of  which,  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  are 
large  enoiigh  to  dispose  of  three  hundred  head  of  cattle  and  two  thousand  sheep  per  day, 
and  the  daily  production  of  the  fertilizer  made  from  the  refuse  is  equal  to  about  six  tons.  It 
is  made  by  the  meat  scraps  and  smaller  bones  being  passed  through  the  rendering  process  to 
seciu'e  the  fat  ;  the  refuse  matter  is  then  mLxed  with  blood  and  dried  by  steam  heat.  When 
properly  dried  and  ground  to  a  powder,  it  furnishes  a  good  fertilizer,  which  is  easily  decom- 
posed and  assimilated  by  the  plants,  and  is  said  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  Peruvian  guano. 
Of  course,  this  material  varies  in  its  composition  and  value,  and  is,  like  most  other  commodities 
in  the  market,  susceptible  of  adulteration,  but  the  following  table  from  an  authentic  source, 
giving  the  analysis  of  this  article  manufactured  by  a  reliable  firm,  will  show  about  what  its 
average  fertilizing  properties  should  be  : — 

AMMA.L  DUST. 

Per  Cent. 
Volatile  and  organic  animal  matter,  .  .  .  .  71.00 

Ash  constituents,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  28.90 

Moisture,  ........  11.50 

Pliosplioric  acid  in  ash,  .  .  .  .  .  .  11.26 

Nitrogen  in  organic  matter. 
Insoluble  matter. 
Most  of  the  blood  and  refuse  of  the  la: 
States  are  used  for  making  this  manui'e. 

Cotton  Seed,  Castor,  and  Linseed  Pomace.— The  pomace  left  after  expressing 

the  oil  from  cotton-seed,  linseed,  castor  beans,  etc.,  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  can  be  made  very 
profitable  for  fertihzing  the  soil,  when  of  a  suitable  texture,  since  the  finer  the  texture,  the 
more  easily  is  it  decomposed  to  become  available  plant-food.  Prof.  White,  of  Georgia,  in 
his  treatise  on  the  "Complete  Analysis  of  the  Cotton-plant,"  states  that  the  ashes  of  the  hulls 
of  the  cotton-seed  contain  fourteen  per  cent,  of  potassium  oxide,  and  seven  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  Cotton-seed  furnishes  a  valuable  ingredient  to  the  compost  pile,  but  when  taken 
whole  will  become  most  readily  reduced  and  the  hulls  broken  up  by  first  being  fermented  by 
having  the  seeds  well  wet  and  mixing  with  hard-wood  ashes,  in  the  proportion  of  about  360 
pounds  of  seed  to  four  bushels  of  ashes.  This  should  be  kept  well  wet  untU  thoroughly 
fermented,  as  described  under  the  heading  of  Composts.  It  is  conceded  by  the  best  agricul- 
turists, as  a  general  rule,  that  the  waste  material  of  any  farm-crop  pays  best  when  used  upon 
the  same  field  which  served  for  its  production,  and  that  this  is  especially  true  in  case  of  the 
industrial  products  where  a  frequent  reproduction  of  the  same  crop  becomes  a  leading  feature 
of  the  farm  management.  In  this  way,  the  elements  extracted  from  the  soil  in  the  production 
of  certain  crops  are  in  a  measure  restored,  and  exhaustion  of  soil  prevented. 

Fisll,  Fish  Guano,  Fish  Pomace,  etc.— Fish  have  long  furnished  manure  for 
agricultural  purposes  to  this  and  other  countries,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  supply  for  the  future,  since  it  is  rich  m  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  two 


ge  slaughtering  establishments  in  the  Eastern 


58  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

valuable  elements  of  plant-food.  The  aborigines  of  our  country  were  acquainted  with  its 
value  as  a  fertilizer,  and  were  accustomed  to  place  one  or  two  fish  in  a  hill  when  planting 
their  maize,  burying  them  with  the  seed,  that  their  decomposition  might  enrich  the  soil,  by 
the  time  the  seed  had  well  started  in  growth.  Tliis  practice,  as  well  as  that  of  plowing  them 
into  the  soil,  of  course,  involves  much  waste,  as  the  shght  covering  of  earth  would  not  be 
sufficient  to  retain  the  gases  produced  by  the  decomposition.  Various  species  of  small  fish 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  the  menhaden  being  used  the  most  extensively  in  this  coxmtry. 
The  best  and  only  proper  mode  of  using  them  for  a  fertilizer  is  to  first  compost  them  with 
dry  earth  or  muck.  This  should  be  done  by  making  a  compost  heap  of  alternate  layers  of 
fish  and  earth,  one  above  the  other'to  the  desired  height,  and  covering  the  pUe  at  the  top 
with  three  or  four  feet  of  soil.  The  pile  should  have  about  a  foot  of  earth  at  the  bottom, 
upon  which  a  layer  of  fish  should  be  spread  from  four  to  five  inches  deep  ;  upon  this  a  layer 
of  earth  about  a  foot  deep,  followed  by  another  layer  of  fish,  and  so  on  till  the  pile  is  complete, 
the  top  to  be  covered  with  a  foot  of  soil.  As  the  fish  decomposes,  the  soU  acts  as  an  absorbent 
and  deodorizer,  which  are  so  effectual  that  no  annoyance  will  be  occasioned  by  the  escape  of 
any  efiluvia  offensive  to  the  most  fastidious  olfactories.  In  a  few  weeks,  if  the  weather  be 
warm,  the  pile  can  be  shoveled  over  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  earth.  It  may  be  applied 
at  any  time  to  the  soil,  but  shoiild  not  be  left  exposed  to  the  storms,  as  the  rains  wiU  leach 
out  its  valuable  properties  ;  when  not  intended  for  immediate  use,  it  should,  therefore,  be 
kept  under  a  shed  or  cover  of  some  kind. 

Upon  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  menhaden  fish  are  used  principally  for  this  purpose,  being 
very  abundant,  and  furnish  a  large  portion  of  our  fish  guanos.  The  fish  are  usually  first 
subjected  to  a  process  that  extracts  a  great  portion  of  the  oil,  and  the  pomace  is  then  dried 
and  ground,  ready  for  use.  The  flesh  of  fish,  hke  that  of  all  domestic  animals,  contains  about 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  a  fish  guano  that  contains  the  largest  amount  of  nitrogen 
is,  of  course,  the  most  valuable.  When  an  undue  amount  of  heat  is  apphed  in  extracting 
the  oil  from  the  fish,  the  guano  is  injured  for  agricultural  purposes  in  a  proportionate  degree. 
Prof.  Gocssmann  says: 

"Nobody  familiar  with  the  natui'e  of  a  good  fish  guano  considers  it  less  eflScient  for 
agricultural  piirposes  than  any  other  animal  refuse  matter  of  a  corresponding  percentage  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen.  In  fact,  all  true  guanos,  the  Peruvian  not  excepted,  owe  their 
most  valuable  constituents,  in  a  controlling  degree,  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  fish.  A  well- 
dried  and  finely-ground  fish  guano  is  one  of  our  best  substitutes  for  Peruvian  guano,  and 
ranks  equally  high  with  the  best  quality  of  animal  dust  from  our  butcher-refuse  estabhsh- 
ments.  It  deserves  the  liberal  patronage  of  fanners  wherever  a  rich  nitrogenous  phosphate 
is  called  for." 

In  England,  an  immense  amoimt  of  fish  guano  is  made  from  little  herrings  (clupea 
sprattus),  that  are  taken  in  vast  quantities  oS  the  southern  coast  of  that  country. 

When  the  ground  material  is  used,  it  should  be  mixed  with  about  twice  its  bulk  of  dry 
earth  and  usually  scattered  broadcast,  and  either  harrowed  in  at  once  or  covered  by  plowing 
a  shallow  furrow.  When  used  in  the  hill,  this  mixture  should  be  covered  slightly  with  soil 
before  dropping  the  seed.  The  quantity  required  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil,  and 
the  kind  of  crops  to  be  produced. 

Peruvian  Guano. — It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  deposits  of  guano  upon  the 
Chincha  Islands,  after  furnishing  to  the  world  from  twelve  to  fifteen  millions  of  tons  of  this 
substance,  are  nearly  exhausted,  and  that  other  islands  now  furnish  almost  entirely  the  supply 
to  meet  the  demand.  The  Guanape  Islands,  located  about  three  hundred  miles  north  from  the 
Cnincha  Islands,  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  now  produce  large  quantities  of  it,  but  will  not  be 


Chincha. 

Guauapi 

13.50 

9.70 

14.54 

13.10 

— 

14.20 

FERTILIZERS.  59 

able  to  furnish  as  much  as  the  former,  and  the  quality  is  not  quite  equal  to  that  produced  by 
the  Cbincha,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  analysis  of  the  two  varieties  compared : — 

Nitrogen,  ..... 
Phosphoric  acid,  .... 
Sand . 

Considerable  quantities  are  also  furnished  by.  the  Lobos,  Macabi,  and  Ballistas  islands. 

The  Chincha  Islands  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  furnishing  a  fine  quahty  of  this  material, 
as  they  are  located  only  about  twelve  miles  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  in  a  region  where  rain 
never  falls,  and  the  air  is  so  dry  that  the  juices  of  meat  will  evaporate  so  rapidly  that  it  can 
be  preserved  by  drying  without  salt.  Therefore,  the  accumulations  of  the  excrement  deposited 
there  for  ages  by  the  sea-birds  have  never  been  leached  of  their  valuable  fertilizing  properties 
by  the  rains,  and  possess  the  elements  suited  to  plant-growth  in  an  eminent  degree.  These 
islands  are  almost  entirely  devoid  of  vegetation,  are  very  rocky,  and  covered  to  an  incredible 
depth  with  these  deposits  of  the  excrement  of  the  sea-fowl,  w^hich  gather  there  and  feed  upon 
the  fish  that  are  so  numerous  in  the  waters  surrounding  their  shores.  It  is  said  to  look  in 
the  distance,  on  approaching  the  islands,  like  light-colored  hills  covered  with  snow,  so  great  is 
the  amount  accumulated.  It  is,  as  will  be  seen  by  consulting  the  table  giving  the  analysis  of 
manures  on  a  previous  page,  very  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  well  adapted  to 
most  crops  and  soOs.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  with  respect  to  what  soils  will  be  most 
suited  to  its  use,  and  hence  the  most  benefited  by  its  application,  since  soils  differ  so  greatly, 
that  this  can  best  be  determined  by  experiment. 

If  used  too  long,  however,  upon  any  soil  without  a  change  to  some  other  manure  for  a 
time,  the  ifiU.  will  be  Uable  to  become  exhausted  of  those  elements  that  it  does  not  largely 
furnish.  This  is  true  of  all  fertilizers  that  do  not  furnish  a  fair  proportion  of  aU  the  elements 
of  plant-food.  It  is  wonderfully  stimulating  in  its  effects  when  applied  to  old,  exhausted 
soib.  Peruvian  guano  should  not  be  appUed  in  its  pure  state  to  seed  of  any  kind,  as  it  will 
be  liable  to  injure  it.  Some  farmers  recommend  mixing  it  with  three  or  four  times  its 
weight  in  good  soil  before  using.  For  such  crops  as  grass,  wheat,  oats,  etc.,  it  should  be 
sowed  broadcast  in  the  early  spring.  For  corn,  potatoes,  cotton,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  the  mixture 
should  be  placed  in  each  hill,  covered  slightly  with  earth,  and  the  seed  dropped  upon  it,  thus 
giving  the  opportunity  of  mingling  its  elements  with  the  soO.  before  the  tender  rootlets  pene- 
trate it.  It  is  best  in  all  cases  to  apply  it  in  damp  weather  ;  iu  fact,  its  value  is  greatly 
affected  by  the  moisture  or  dryness  of  the  season  whenever  used,  an  unusually  dry  or  wet 
season  being  injurious,  as  the  former  prevents  decomposition,  while  the  latter,  in  many  soils, 
especially  sandy  soils,  leaches  out  its  most  valuable  properties,  and  places  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  plant-roots.  The  average  quantity  for  use  is  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
pounds  per  acre.  When  applied  to  flowering  plants  and  garden  vegetables,  it  is  well  to  dilute 
it  in  water  and  sprinkle  about  the  roots. 

Rectified  Peruvian  Guano. — For  several  years  after  the  introduction  of  Permdan 
guano  into  the  market,  it  continued  to  be  of  uniform  quality;  after  a  time,  however,  it  was 
observed  that  various  admixtures  of  stones  from  the  underlying  rocks,  and  sand  from  beach 
washings,  showed  that  some  portions  of  the  supply  were  becoming  exhausted.  It  also  some- 
times happened  that  entire  cargoes,  or  a  portion  of  them,  became  damaged  by  sea-water  in 
the  transportation,  or  by  being  packed  in  a  very  damp  place.  It  was  decided  by  parties 
interested  in  the  guano  trade,  to  endeavor  to  restore  the  value  thus  lost  by  treating  the 
damaged  material  with  sulphuric  acid,  by  mixing  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  pounds  of  the 
acid  with  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  guano  when  dried,  which  experiment  was  found  to 
be  very  successful,  the  rectified  guano  meeting  with  unusual  favor,  so  much  so  that  when  the 
damaged  article  was  disposed  of,  the  good  guanos  were  subjected  to  the  same  process. 


60  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

American  Guano. — This  name  has  been  applied  to  the  product  furnished  by  the  low 
coral  islands  in  the  far  western  Pacific,  and  which  is  inferior  to  the  guanos  of  the  islands  on 
the  coast  of  Peru,  owing  to  its  being  deposited  in  a  region  exposed,  to  a  certain  extent,  to 
rains,  also  moisture  from  the  low  character  of  the  surface  of  the  islands,  and  from  being 
mingled  more  or  less  with  the  soil.  These  islands  are  ten  in  number,  the  principal  being 
Baker,  Howland,  Jarvis,  Enderbury,  and  Starbuck.  The  guanos  they  furnish  differ  mucli 
from  the  Peruvian,  being  free  from  odor,  and  resembling  brown  dust  in  appearance,  while 
they  are  aearly  destitute  of  nitrogen,  but  rich  in  phosphates.  The  African  and  Peruvian 
guanos  are  light  in  color,  and  have  a  pungent  odor.  It  is  estimated  that  Baker  Island  alone 
contained  160,000  tons  before  the  supply  was  diminished  by  transportation,  since  the  inaugu- 
ration of  the  guano  enterprise.  Enderbury  also  contained  about  the  same  amount,  while 
that  of  the  other  islands  varied  in  quantity  from  20,000  to  50,000  tons.  Some  of  the  islands 
have  already  been  abandoned,  their  supply  being  exhausted.  As  a  general  rule,  a  larger 
quantity  of  this  will  be  required  for  most  soils  than  the  Peruvian,  as  it  is  less  rich  in  fertilizing 
properties  than  the  latter. 

Bat  Guano  is  found  in  caves  in  many  of  the  Southern  States  from  Virginia  to  Texas. 
It  is  stated  that,  before  the  war,  this  substance  was  experimented  with  for  the  extraction  of 
nitre,  which  it  was  thought  to  contain  in  abundance,  many  of  the  experiments  proving  quite 
successful  in  obtaining  a  large  per  cent,  of  this  compound,  but  not  sufficiently  so  to  warrant 
continuing  the  working  of  it  for  this  purpose.  It  is,  however,  thought  to  be  a  valuable 
fertilizing  material,  most  of  the  samples  that  have  hitherto  been  analyzed  having  been  found 
to  contain  a  fair  per  cent,  of  organic  nitrogen,  while  many  of  them  contain  ammonia  and 
nitrates.  In  Highland  Co.,  Virginia,  also  in  Tuscumbia,  Alabama,  these  deposits  are  said  to  be 
quite  extensive,  the  latter  containing  a  cave  from  eighty  to  ninety  feet  deep,  and  aljBut  three 
miles  wide,  where  it  is  found  in  great  quantities.  The  guano  furnished  from  this  source  has 
been  tried  on  corn,  tobacco,  and  some  other  products,  with  good  results.  The  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture  says: 

"The  continued  examination  of  bat-guano  has  afforded  results  confirming  those  obtained 
by  the  former  analysis,  and  proving  the  wealth  of  native  fertilizing  material  existing  in  the 
South.  Indeed,  calculations  based  upon  the  reported  extent  of  the  deposits  and  the  proportion 
of  valuable  constituents  they  are  found  by  analyses  to  contain,  show  the  aggregate  value  of 
this  material  that  may  be  considered  in  sight  to  amount  to  about  $20,000,000.  Surely 
Southern  cultivators  need  no  urging  to  induce  them  to  take  advantage  of  these  stores  of 
fertility  for  their  poor  or  exhausted  soils." 

Dr.  Goessmann,  of  Massachusetts,  says  the  value  of  bat-guano,  as  a  fertilizer,  compares  in 
value  favorably  with  those  of  the  fish  products  largely  manufactured  in  New  England,  and 
eves  with  Peruvian  guano.  Not  having  used  this  substance,  or  seen  the  result  of  its 
application,  we  are  not  able  to  speak  from  experience  or  observation  on  this  subject,  but, 
judging  by  the  estimation  placed  upon  it  by  those  having  a  knowledge  of  its  use,  as  well  as 
by  the  result  of  chemical  analyses,  we  do  not  doubt  that  this  product  may  be  utilized  to  the 
gseat  advantage  of  agriculture  in  many  of  the  Southern  States. 

Wood  Ashes. — Wood  ashes  are  particularly  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  containing  a  large 
proportion  of  potash,  which  is  in  a  condition  to  act  quickly  upon  the  soil  in  furnishing  a 
stimulating  element  of  plant-food,  and  are  consequently  the  best  of  saline  manures;  they 
however  vary  in  quality  according  to  the  quality  of  that  from  which  they  are  produced,  ashes 
from  hard  wood  being  more  valuable  than  those  from  the  soft  varieties.  But  any  farmer 
who  knows  the  value  of  ashes,  would  not  permit  to  be  wasted  those  from  any  source;  all 
would  be  carefully  saved  and  applied  to  his  lands;  and  when  they  can  be  procured  on  rea- 
sonable terms,  it  would  well  repay  purchasing  them  for  this  purpose. 


FERTILIZERS.  61 

Potash  is  a  more  lasting  manure  than  some  fertilizers,  and  does  not  wash  so  readily  from 
the  soil;  hence,  ashes  can  be  relied  upon  as  a  manure  of  considerable  permanence,  and  have 
long  been,  like  barn-yard  manure,  one  of  the  chief  dependences  of  the  farmer  for  feeding  his 
crops.  The  ashes  of  seaweed,  and  plants  that  grow  near  the  sea,  contain  large  quantities  of 
soda,  while  bone  ashes  consist  mostly  of  phosphate  of  hme. 

Ashes  are  valuable  for  grass  and  various  other  crops,  such  as  grains,  potatoes,  turnips, 
clover,  lucern,  peas,  beans,  etc.  "When  mixed  with  bone-dust  they  are  said  to  be  more  valu- 
able for  all  root  crops — peas,  beans,  and  clover.  They  may  often  supplement  the  use  of  sta- 
ble-manure, but  cannot  take  the  place  of  it,  since  stable-manure  contains  all  the  elements  of 
plant-food,  and  ashes  do  not.  The  quantity  to  be  applied  must  depend  upon  the  soil  and  the 
kind  of  crop  to  be  cultivated.  Soils  containing  a  large  amount  of  potash  will  require  less  than 
those  not  having  a  sufficient  supply.  As  a  general  rule,  light  soils  should  have  a  smaller  quan- 
tity, and  rich,  heavy  clays  a  larger  supply,  but  as  the  constituents  of  different  soils  difEer  so 
greatly,  the  reverse  will  often  prove  true,  and  many  light  and  dry  soils  be  benefited  to  a  greater 
extent  by  their  apphcation  than  the  heavy  and  damp.  Experiment  will  be  the  surest  guide 
to  the  farmer. 

As  to  quantity,  we  have  known  some  soils  to  be  best  benefited  by  about  50  bushels  per 
acre;  others,  to  be  equally  benefited  by  from  10  to  15  bushels,  the  quantity  to  be  used 
entirely  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  "When  used  a  long  time  without  the  applica- 
tion of  an  equal  amount  of  vegetable  or  barnyard  manure,  they  will  exhaust  the  soil,  manures 
requiring  a  rotation,  as  well  as  crops. 

But  they  can  be  applied  to  grass  lands  for  a  longer  period  without  injury  to  the  soil,  than 
to  tillaged  lands.     They  should  be  sown  broadcast,  and  well  harrowed  in  to  plowed  lands. 

Ashes  should  be  kept  quite  dry  imtil  used.  They  are  valuable  in  reducing  bones  for 
fertilizing  purposes,  and  in  composts. 

Leached  Ashes  are  those  from  which  the  potash  has  been  in  a  great  measure  extracted 
in  the  "form  of  ley,  by  water,  and  are  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  oxide 
of  iron,  etc.  They  will  furnish  nearly  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as  unleached  ashes,  but  only 
a  small  amount  of  potash ;  hence,  while  they  are  of  some  value  for  agricultural  purposes,  they 
are  not  as  valuable  as  the  unleached,  where  potash  is  needed  in  the  soil.  They  also  fiirnish 
a  less  amount  of  lime  than  the  imleached. 

Coal  Ashes  have  been  known  to  benefit  certain  heavy  soils  by  rendering  them  hghter 
and  more  porous,  but  do  not  in  themselves  possess  much  value  for  fertilizing  purposes,  as  will 
be  seen  by  reference  to  the  table  giving  the  analyses  of  various  manures  on  a  former  page. 
Their  chief  value  is  as  a  mulch  when  spread  wide  and  thick  enough  to  smother  weeds  and 
grass.  They  are  sometimes  useful  for  spreading  around  the  roots  of  young  fruit-trees,  for 
reasons  above  given.  When  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  contain  many  cinders  from  not  having 
been  thoughly  burned,  they  would  be  injurious  to  light  soils,  though  they  might  improve  the 
mechanical  condition  of  such  as  are  heavy  and  damp. 

Soot  has  long  been  valued  as  a  top-dressing  for  cereal  crops  in  the  early  stage  of  their 
growth,  and  for  grasses.  It  contains  ammonia,  charcoal,  and  other  desirable  fertilizing  ingre- 
dients. It  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  15  to  50  bushels  per  acre.  On  light  soils,  the 
addition  of  from-  8  to  10  bushels  of  salt  per  acre  is  said  to  increase  its  good  effect.  Like 
ashes,  its  best  effect  is  not  appreciable  in  a  very  dry  season,  moist  weather  being  most  desir- 
able for  the  application  of  either.  It  is  often  used  mixed  with  absorbents  like  earth,  marl,  or 
muck,  which  aid  in  preventing  the  escape  of  ammonia.  It  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  in 
trenches,  and  harrowed  in.  The  mixture  of  salt  and  soot  is  said  to  be  the  most  powerful  of 
all  manures  for  carrots. 


62  THE  A^IERICAN  FARMER. 

Charcoal  Dnst,  when  applied  as  a  top-dressing  to  lands,  serves  to  condense  ammo- 
nia, nitric  acid,  and  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere.  It  has  an  extraordinary  capacity  for  absorb- 
ing gases,  and  is  said  by  reliable  authority  to  absorb  ninety  times  its  bulk  of  ammoniacal  gas. 
It  renders  soUs  warmer  by  absorbing  the  sun's  rays,  and  also  senses  to  check  rust  in  wheat, 
and  mildew  in  other  crops. 

Peat  is  used  for  agricultural  purposes — principally  for  making  composts,  and  as  an 
absorbent  of  other  manures.  Dried  j^eat  is  valuable  for  absorbing  the  liquid  manures  of  sta- 
bles. As  it  contains  from  75  to  90  per  cent,  of  water  in  its  natural  state,  it  should  be  dug 
and  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  several  months  before  being  used  for  this  purpose. 

It  varies  in  quality  according  as  it  is  mixed  more  or  less  with  the  soil,  some  being  much 
more  rich  in  ammonia  than  others. 

Peat  Ashes  were  at  one  time  highly  recommended  for  their  value  as  a  manure,  both 
when  applied  alone,  and  as  an  absorbent  of  night-soil,  sewage-water,  the  liquid  manure  of 
stables,  etc. 

It  should  first  be  dried  thoroughly.  It  has  been  proved  by  Dr.  Anderson  of  Scotland 
that  peat,  when  well  dried,  is  a  better  absorbent  and  retainer  of  ammonia  than  after  it  has 
been  charred. 

In  reclaiming  peat  soils  farmers  frequently  bum  the  peat  and  spread  the  ashes  over  the 
beds  from  which  the  peat  was  taken. 

Sea-Weed. — To  those  farmers  living  within  convenient  distance  of  the  sea-shore,  a 
valuable  manure  can  be  obtained  from  the  drifted  sea-weed.  It  is  often  thrown  upon  the 
sandy  coast  by  the  waves  in  large  quantities,  and  can  easily  be  raked  up  and  carried  away 
after  the  tide  has  receded. 

It  is  frequently  used  as  a  bedding  for  cattle,  and  makes  a  valuable  addition  to  the  com- 
post heap.  In  England  it  is  frequently  applied  as  a  top-dressing  to  grass  and  clover.  It  may 
be  plowed  into  the  soil  in  the  spring  with  a  shallow  furrow,  three  or  four  inches,  and  is  valu- 
able for  most  crops,  especially  grain,  which  it  is  said  to  produce  of  a  very  fine  quality.  It  is 
also  said  to  be  highly  valuable  in  the  cultivation  of  potatoes.  Large  quantities  are  recom- 
mended in  using. 

Ashes  of  Sea-Weed. — As  sea-weed  is  quite  bulky,  and  is  sometimes  inconvenient  to 
remove  to  a  distance,  it  is  often  burned  where  gathered,  and  the  ashes  saved  for  agricul- 
tural purposes.  These  ashes  contain  soda,  potash,  and  other  fertihzing  substances.  The 
ashes  of  sea-weed  are  known  under  the  names  of  kelp,  barilla,  and  varec.  In  Sicily,  Spain, 
and  some  other  countries,  the  ashes  of  marine  plants,  called  barilla,  were  used  for  making 
soap.  Kelp  and  varec  are  terms  applied  to  the  ashes  of  sea-weed  made  from  the  algSB  and 
fuci  species,  which  grow  upon  rocks  in  great  abundance  on  a  large  portion  of  the  coast  of 
Great  Britain  and  some  other  countries.  The  sea- weeds  are  dried  and  burned  in  large  ovens, 
twenty-four  tons  of  the  sea-weed  being  required  to  produce  one  ton  of  kelp.  This  is  at  pres- 
ent the  principal  material  from  which  iodine  is  obtained.  The  name  for  sea-weed  ashes  issued 
in  France  is  varec. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  sea-weed  ashes  have  alkaline  properties  that 
may  be  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  of  the  soU. 

Marl  is  soil  containing  clay,  carbonate  of  lime,  sand,  and  sometimes  sulphate  and  phos- 
phate of  lime,  differing  in  its  composition  in  different  localities,  some  containing  more  or  less 
of  these  ingredients  than  others.  It  is  often  applied  to  lands  to  increase  their  fertility,  the 
lime  it  contains  being  the  most  essential  element.  When  it  is  found  in  the  proximity  of,  or 
lying  under  sandy  or  peaty  soils,  its  application  in  large  quantities  is  attended  with  the  best 
effects. 


FERTILIZERS.  63 

It  is  adapted  to  all  soils  that  have  not  already  a  sufficient  supply  of  hme.  It  is 
especially  adapted  to  grass  and  clover.  The  clay  marl  produces  the  best  effect  on  light,  sandy 
soils,  and  the  sandy  marl  on  clay  and  heavy  soils.  It  is  better  to  be  well  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  air  before  applying  it  to  any  kind  of  soil.  The  green  sand  marl,  of  which  there  are 
e.xtensive  beds  in  New  Jersey,  contains  a  large  amount  of  potash,  besides  lime,  magnesia, 
sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  siKca,  and  various  other  substances,  and  is  a  valuable  fertili- 
zer. It  has  long  been  a  staple  manure  in  that  State,  where  it  occurs  in  three  distinct  depos- 
its,— the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  marl  beds,  which  stretch  across  the  State  from  the  High- 
lands of  Navesink,  near  Sandy  Hook,  to  the  Delaware  River,  below  Wilmington,  and  in  many 
localities  is  easily  excavated.  It  seems  especially  adapted  to  the  use  of  vegetation  as  plant- 
food,  its  apphcation  having  a  speedy  effect.  The  result  of  its  use  is  seen  in  a  remarkable 
degree  in  the  improvement  of  the  light,  sandy  soils  of  Eastern  New  Jersey,  where  large  tracts 
of  sandy  and  almost  worthless  lands  have  been  transformed  into  a  garden.  It  must  be 
applied  in  large  quantities,  often  several  tons  to  the  acre,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results, 
and  then  furnishes  potash  and  other  fertilizing  properties  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
permanency. 

Lime. — Lime  is  manufactured  from  limestone,  marble,  and  shells,  by  burning  or  sub- 
jecting them  to  intense  heat,  which  expels  th%  carbonic  acid.  After  this  acid  has  been  driven 
off  by  calcination,  it  has  great  afSnity  for  water  and  carbonic  acid,  and  readily  combines  with 
both,  on  exposure  to  either  water,  earth,  or  the  atmosphere ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  said  to  be 
"  air-slacked." 

AVith  respect  to  the  manner  and  extent  of  benefiting  soils  by  the  application  of  lime, 
there  exists  among  the  farmers  of  the  present  day  a  difference  of  opinion,  some  claiming  it 
to  be  of  no  appreciable  value  whatever;  others,  that  it  acts,  not  only  as  a  fertilizer,  but 
by  its  chemical  action  upon  some  of  the  constituent  elements  of  the  soil,  renders  them  more 
available  as  plant-food;  in  other  words-,  it  unlocks  the  stores  of  rich  plant-food,  which  by  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  are  locked  up  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plant-roots,  and  hence 
are  useless  to  them. 

Lime  enters  into  the  composition  of  nearly  all  crops,  and  when  not  found  in  sufficient 
quantities  in  the  soil,  will  prove  a  valuable  fertihzer;  but  most  soils  contain  in  themselves  a 
fair  proportion  of  lime  for  the  production  of  most  crops,  yet,  as  has  been  previously  stated, 
the  quantity  sufBcient  for  the  present  requirements  of  the  plant,  may  not  be  available;  hence 
experiment  alone,  as  is  the  case  with  most  fertilizers,  will  best  prove  to  the  farmer  whether 
his  lands  will  be  benefited  by  its  use  or  not.  Its  application  hastens  the  decay  of  vegetable 
substances  contained  in  the  soil,  and  converts  them  into  available  plant-food,  and  by  its 
chemical  action  upon  the  coarser  particles  of  the  soil,  causes  them  to  become  broken  up  and, 
in  a  measure,  pulverized,  thus  setting  free  the  mineral  properties  therein  contained,  and 
which  are  so  essential  to  vegetation.  When  not  contained  in  any  soil  in  sufBcient  quantity, 
it  can  be  applied  separately,  or  combined  with  sulphuric  acid  in  the  form  of  gypsum  or  plas- 
ter; and  since  these  two  ingredients — lime  and  sulphuric  acid — wash  out  of  the  soil  more 
readily  and  freely  than  most  of  the  other  constituents,  it  must  be  freqiiently  applied  to  make 
up  the  constant  loss  of  these  elements,  and  keep  the  soil  supplied  with  the  requisite  amount. 

A  farmer  of  large  experience  says,  he  knows  of  a  farm  that  has  not  had  a  bushel  of  lime 
appUed  to  it  in  twenty  years,  and  it  is  now  infested  with  sorrel;  previous  to  this  time,  lime 
was  used  upon  it,  and  it  was  very  productive ;  he  draws  the  natural  conclusion,  that  lime 
would  prove  a  remedy  for  the  evil.  We  think  he  argues  correctly,  and  that  all  such  lands 
as  will  produce  sorrel  and  other  weeds  better  than  the  common  farming  products,  will  be 
greatly  improved  by  the  application  of  lime,  which  corrects  the  acidity  of  the  soil,  and  ren- 
ders it  suited  to  the  production  of  more  valuable  crops.  It  also  is  very  beneficial  in  destroy- 
ing many  noxious  insects  and  worms  that  injure  the  roots  of  plants.     Allen  says  of  it : — 


64  THE  AJMERICAN  FARMER. 

"  Lime,  next  to  ashes,  eitlier  as  a  carbonate  or  sulphate,  has  been  instrumental  in  the 
improvement  of  our  soils  beyond  any  other  saKne  manures.  Like  ashes,  too,  its  application 
is  beneficial  to  every  soil,  not  already  sufficiently  charged  with  it.  It  makes  heavy  land 
lighter,  and  light  land  heavier;  it  gives  adhesiveness  to  creeping  sands  or  leachy  gravel,  and 
comparative  openness  and  porosity  to  tenacious  clays  ;  and  it  has  a  permanently  beneficial 
effect,  where  generaUy  used,  in  disinfecting  the  atmosphere  of  any  noxious  vapors  existing  in 
it.  It  does  not  condense  and  retain  the  organic  matters  brought  into  contact  with  it  by  the 
air  and  rains,  but  it  has  the  better  effect  of  converting  the  insoluble  matters  in  the  soU  into 
available  food  for  plants.  It  has  proved  in  many  instances  the  wand  of  Midas,  changing 
everything  it  touched  into  gold.  It  is  the  key  to  the  strong  box  of  the  farmer,  securely  lock- 
ing up  his  treasure  till  demanded  for  his  own  use,  and  yielding  it  profusely  to  his  demands 
whenever  required.  In  its  influence  in  drying  the  land,  and  accelerating  the  growth  of  plants, 
the  use  of  Hme  is  equivalent  to  an  increase  of  temperature ;  and  the  farmer  sometimes  expe- 
riences, in  effect,  the  same  benefit  from  it,  as  if  his  land  were  removed  a  degree  or  two  to 
the  south.  The  influence  of  lime  in  resuscitating  soils  after  they  have  been  exhausted  has 
been  frequent  and  striking;  and  it  may  be  stated  as  an  incontrovertible  truth,  that  wherever 
procurable  at  low  prices,  lime  is  one  of  the  most  economical  and  efficient  agents  in  securing 
fertility  within  the  farmer's  reach. 

It  has  been  falsely  said  to  be  an  exhauster  of  soils;  that  it  enriches  the  fathers  and 
impoverishes  the  sons.  So  far  as  it  gives  the  occupant  of  the  land  the  control  over  its  latent 
fertility,  this  is  true;  but  if  he  squanders  the  rich  products  when  within  his  reach,  it  will  be 
.his  own  fault.  Lime  gives  him  the  power  of  exhausting  his  principal;  if  he  uses  aught 
.beyond  the  interest,  his  prodigality  is  chargeable  to  his  own  folly,  not  to  the  liberality  of  his 


Lime  made  from  shells  is  the  most  valuable.     Our  cultivated  crops  contain  on  the  aver- 
.  age  about  as  much  lime  as  potash. 

Lime  should  be  slacked  before  being  applied,  except  when  used  to  decompose  the  organic 
,  substances  in  the  soU;  it  can  then  be  applied  without  slacking,  but  in  any  case,  while  it  is  nec- 
.  essary  that  it  should  be  thorouglily  mixed  with  the  earth,  it  should  be  kept  near  tlie  surface, 
as  it  is  liable  to  sink  into  the  soil.  In  whatever  way  it  is  appUed,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
the -carbonic  acid  which  has  been  expelled'  from  it  by  the  heat  is  quickly  regained  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  it  should,  in  consequence  of  this,  be  as  little  exposed  to  the  ah-  as  possible 
before  being  applied  to  the  land.  It  should  be  put  upon  the  land  as  soon  as  practicable  after 
slacking.  Some  farmers  pile  it  in  heaps  upon  the  land,  and  by  mixing  it  with  water  apply 
it  at  once,  and  harrow  it  in.  Another  method  is  to  place  it  in  large  piles  and  cover  it  thickly 
with  earth  and  leave  it  to  gradually  slack.  In  this  case  there  is  danger  from  loss  by  drench- 
ing, rains,  unless  the  pile  be  well-protected  to  prevent  washing.  Some  favor  a  compost  of 
earth,  hme,  and  salt,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  salt  to  three  or  four  parts  of  lime.  It 
is  better  to  apply  lime  in  small  quantities,  and  do  so  frequently,  than  to  make  a  large  appli- 
cation of  it  at  longer  intervals,  from  ten  to  fifteen  bushels  being  considered  by  good  judges 
a  fair  allowance  for  ordinary  soils,  though  we  have  known  ]  00  or  more  bushels  per  acre  to 
be  used.  By  watching  the  effect  of  a  small  application,  the  farmer  will  be  able  to  judge 
whether  his  lands  require  it  in  larger  quantities,  or  whether  its  use  on  his  particular  soil  be 
at  all  beneficial,  since  there  is  scarcely  anything  that  is  so  dependent  upon  repeated  experi- 
ment,  and  so  independent  of  all  definite  rules,  as  the  fertilizing  department  of  agriculture, 
owing  to  the  great  diversity  of  soUs,  the  difference  in  their  mechanical  condition,  and  various 
other  causes. 

Lime  is  particularly  valuable  in  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  causing  the  ashes  to  be  very 
white. 


FERTILIZERS.  65 

Ground  Limestone  and  Shells  are  sometimes  applied  as  a  fertilizer,  and  are  similar 
in  effect  to  old  air-slacked  lime,  or  slaell-marl,  being  a  carbonate  of  lime  in  their  principal 
composition. 

Its  action  is  more  speedy  when  ground  fine  than  when  coarsely  ground.  It  is  useful  on 
such  soils  as  are  benefited  by  the  application  of  lime.  Ground  shells  are  also  sometimes  used 
as  a  fertilizer.  They  contain  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  and  often  some  animal  mat- 
ter. It  is  better  to  burn  them  first,  as  they  are  then  converted  into  nearly  pure  lime;  besides, 
this  is  the  easier  and  cheaper  method  of  preparing  shells  for  use. 

Gas  Lime. — Lime  from  gas-works  is  said,  by  competent  writers,  to  be  for  agricultural 
purposes  about  equal  in  value  to  common  lime. 

It  is  the  refuse  lime  that  has  been  used  in  the  manufacturing  of  gas,  and  consists  mainly 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  some  sulphur,  tar,  and  sulphate  of  lime,  and  must  be  applied  more 
cautiously  or  in  more  moderate  quantities  than  common  lime.  It  is  safer  to  apply  it  after  a 
few  weeks'  exposure  to  the  air,  as  it  would  be  liable  to  poison  vegetation  if  used  fresh  from 
the  gas  works.  It  is  very  important  that  it  be  well  pulverized,  that  it  may  be  evenly  spread 
upon  the  land  It  may  be  apphed  to  grass  or  plowed  lands  for  wheat  or  other  crops,  and 
should  in  the  latter  case  be  well  harrowed  in.  Some  farmers  pile  it  in  small  heaps  in  the  fall 
or  winter,  and  spread  it  in  the  spring.  When  designed  for  plowed  crops,  it  would  be  well 
to  spread  it  upon  the  soil  late  in  the  fall  or  winter,  that  it  may  be  exposed  to  the  air  before 
being  harrowed  in.     It  is  also  valuable  for  the  compost  heap. 

Its  acrid  quaUties  ai'e  said  to  render  it  valuable  as  an  insect-repeller,  and,  when  strewn 
sparingly  over  young  turnip-plants,  to  repel  the  turnip-fly.  Some  writers  recommend  its  use 
at  the  rate  of  25  bushels  per  acre,  but  we  think  it  would  be  well  to  experiment  cautiously 
with  a  smaller  quantity  at  first. 

Bones  contain  a  large  proportion  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  other  substances  which  ren- 
der them  valuable  for  fertilizing  purposes.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  ingredient  of  the  bone  tliat 
is  not  useful  to  vegetation,  and  it  is  well  adapted  to  almost  all  soils  and  nearly  all  agricul- 
tural products,  especially  so  to  the  various  kinds  of  grains,  to  potatoes,  turnips,  clovers,  and 
most  garden  vegetables.  Since  bones  decompose  so  slowly,  one  of  their  chief  factors  of  value 
in  agriculture  is  the  fineness  to  which  they  are  reduced  before  applpng,  since  the  finer  they 
are  ground  the  more  readily  will  the  plants  be  able  to  appropriate  them  as  plant-food. 

Bone  is  especially  valuable  for  fruit-trees.  Many  farmers  use  bones  to  place  under  tlie 
roots  of  grape-vines  and  fruit-trees  when  setting  them,  putting  a  peck  or  more  of  old  bones 
in  the  bottom  of  the  place  dug  for  inserting  the  roots.  This  will  give  something  for  the 
rootlets  to  feed  upon  for  years,  as  they  become  slowly  decomposed,  and  will  be  of  great  value 
in  promoting  the  future  growth  and  vigor  of  the  trees  or  grape-vines.  As  bone-dust  is  rather 
slow  in  decomposing,  it  is  recommended  by  many  writers  on  agriculture  to  apply  it  in 
autumn  or  early  winter,  thus  giving  the  rains  and  melting  snows  an  opportunity  to  act  upon 
it,  and  wash  it  among  the  roots  of  plants.  It  may  be  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  from  five 
hundred  pounds  to  a  half  ton  or  more  per  acre,  according  to  the  nature  and  needs  of  the 
soil.  In  England,  the  enormous  quantity  of  a  ton  and  a  half  of  bone  manure  per  acre  is  often 
apphed  to  pastures  of  old  clay  soil  in  keeping  them  productive;  and  English  writers  on  the 
subject  state  that  there  is  nothing  equal  to  it,  either  in  the  permanency  of  its  effects,  or  in  the 
production  of  a  sweet,  luxurious  herbage,  of  which  the  cattle  are  fond. 

Pulverizing  and  Reducing  Bones. — There  are  various  methods  of  pulverizing  or 
reducing  bones  for  agricultural  purposes.  Grinding  is  the  best  process  when  a  mill  is  acces- 
sible for  that  purpose,  and  the  finer  they  are  ground  the  better.  When  grinding  is  impos- 
sible, for  lack  of  a  suitable  mill,  many  farmers  reduce  them  by  the  use  of  ashes  and  liquid 
manure,  by  first   breaking  the  bones,  as  well  as  may  be,  with  a  sledge-hammer,  and  then 


gg  THE  AMERICAN  FARIMER. 

mixino-  them  in  a  large  barrel  or  hogshead,  in  alternate  layers,  with  wood  ashes,  the  layers  to 
be  each  three  or  four  inches  deep.  When  the  bones  are  thus  disjjosed  of,  wet  the  whole  with 
urine  from  the  cattle  or  horse  stable  (which  can  easily  be  saved  by  placing  a  tank  under  the 
stable-floor)-  there  should  be  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  liquid  manure  to  wet  the  whole  mass 
thoroughly.  After  fermenting  a  few  weeks,  the  bones  will  be  sufficiently  soft  to  be  easily 
crushed  with  the  shovel,  and  they  can  then  be  mixed  with  dry  earth,  road-dust,  muck,  or  any 
other  dry  absorbent,  and  are  ready  for  use. 

Some  use  water  only,  first  making  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  and  covering  it 
with  straw  for  a  filter,  placing  a  tank  underneath  to  receive  the  lye.  As  the  lye  accumulates  in 
the  tank  it  is  again  poured  into  the  barrel.  This  is  to  be  continued  daily,  with  perhaps 
occasionally  a  little  addition  of  water  to  restore  the  quantity  lost  by  evaporation.  A  month 
or  two  of  warm  weather,  it  is  said,  will  render  the  bones  soft  and  ready  to  be  mixed  for  use. 
The  addition  of  a  little  caustic  potash  of  commerce  will  hasten  the  operation  and  give 
increased  value  to  the  manure.  The  use  of  liquid  manure  is  preferable  to  water  for  this 
purpose. 

A  recent  writer  gives  the  following  method  of  reducing  bones  with  lye: 

"  Where  unleached  ashes  are  easily  obtained,  bones  can  be  reduced  to  a  very  fine  state  by 
boilino-  them  in  strong  lye.  This  eats  them  up  with  great  rapidity.  We  have  reduced  a  half 
ton  of  them  in  a  day  with  two  four-barrel  kettles.  The  fine  bone  must  be  frequently  taken 
from  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  with  a  shovel  made  of  the  proper  shape,  to  keep  it  from  burning 
on  the  bottom.  When  the  bone  is  reduced  to  a  fine  state  in  this  way,  it  is  not  all  soluble,  as 
in  the  case  of  being  reduced  with  acid,  but  it  is  so  fine  that  it  becomes  soluble  in  a  short  time, 
by  the  action  of  the  air  and  soil.  When  the  wood-ashes  can  be  obtained,  this  is  an  excellent 
way  to  reduce  bones,  as  it  may  be  considered  very  cheap,  since  the  potash  or  lye  is  all  saved 
in  the  manure,  and  is  worth  all  it  costs.  The  leached  ashes  are  also  valuable  as  a  manure,  and 
the  only  expense  that  can  properly  be  counted  in  reducing  the  bones  by  this  method  is  the 
labor.  Although  the  fine  bone  reduced  with  lye  is  not  so  soluble  as  that  dissolved  in 
sulphuric  acid,  yet  it  is  more  rapidly  dissolved  by  the  action  of  air  and  soil  than  fine  ground 
bone.  Dry  earth  is  excellent  to  mix  with  this  lye-reduced  bone,  if  it  is  to  be  applied  in  the 
hill  to  potatoes  or  corn;  but  if  it  is  to  be  applied  through  a  drill  vrith  grain,  or  corn  planted 
with  drill,  it  must  be  dried  with  some  dry,  fine  sifted  material,  such  as  coal-ashes,  or  dried 
and  sifted  clay,  lime,  or  land-plaster. 

We  have  found  this  the  best  application  for  potatoes.  We  might  expect  this  result,  as 
the  ash  of  the  potato  is  59  per  cent,  potash  .and  20  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  these  two 
most  important  elements  are  the  principal  ones  in  this  manure.  We  have  also  found  it  suc- 
cessful upon  wheat,  oats,  rye  and  grass." 

It  is  a  custom  with  the  German  farmers  to  decompose  even  the  ground  bone,  before 
applying  it  to  the  soil ;  for  this  purpose  they  mix  it  with  sawdust  or  dried  peat,  and  pour 
over  it  liquid  manure  or  water,  letting  it  stand  in  piles  about  a  week  to  ferment,  then  turn  it 
over  and  mix  it  with  earth  and  put  it  upon  the  field,  where  it  is  either  plowed  under  quite 
shallow,  or  harrowed  under  rather  deeply.  It  is  often  composted  with  manure  to  advantage, 
the  bone-dust  and  manure  acting  and  re-acting  upon  each  other  in  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion, producing  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

Bones  can  be  pulverized  by  burning,  but  this  drives  off  the  organic  matter,  which  con- 
tains nitrogen,  and  hence  greatly  diminishes  their  value;  it  leaves,  however,  the  phosphate  of 
lime,  which  is  a  very  rich  fertilizer. 

A  very  good  manure  can  be  made  by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  in  reducing  bones,  but  it 
must  be  used  with  the  greatest  caution,  as  it  will  make  the  hands  sore,  and  spoil  clothing,  if 
they  come  in  contact  with  it. 

Old  bones  that  have  been  lying  about  the  farm  for  a  long  time  exposed  to  aU  kinds  of 


FERTILIZERS.  67 

■weatter,  are  harder  to  reduce  than  fresh  bones  containing  gelatine.  As  a  general  thing,  it 
will  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  purchase  ground  bone  from  the  manufacturers,  who  have 
every  facility  for  putting  them  in  a  condition  favorable  and  convenient  for  use.  The  only 
objection  is,  that  this  material  is  often  adulterated  by  mixing  something  of  inferior  value  with 
it,  and  the  fraud  is  difficult  of  detection  except  by  chemical  analysis,  which  will  neither  be 
convenient  nor  economical  for  the  farmer  to  have  done.  The  best  safeguard  will  be  to  deal 
only  with  manufacturers  who  have  a  good  reputation  for  honesty  in  producing  a  pure  article. 
Mineral  phosphates,  as  well  as  bones,  furnish  a  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  to  the  agricul- 
tural world.  They  are  found  in  South  Carolina  in  great  abundance,  and  are  sometimes  called 
phosphate  marls.  They  are  supposed  by  geologists  to  be  coprolites,  or  the  excrementitious 
remains  of  fossil  animals,  that  seem  to  have  congregated  in  great  numbers  in  this  region. 
They  are  reduced  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  are  considered  among  the  best  of  fertilizers. 

Gypsum,  Plaster,  or  Sulphate  of  Lime. — The  pure  gypsum,  when  ground  and 
subjected  to  the  proper  degree  of  heat,  constitutes  what  is  called  "  Plaster  of  Paris,"  which  is 
so  extensively  used  for  stucco,  hard-finish,  and  for  various  purposes  in  ornamental  art. 

The  most  celebrated  gypsum-beds  are  those  of  Montmartre,  near  Paris.  In  this  country 
gypsum  is  found  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  York,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Michigan,  and  various 
other  localities.  It  is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  containing  lime,  combined  with  sulphiuic  acid, 
and  a  few  other  substances. 

The  pure  gypsum  is  usually  white,  but  the  ground  land-plaster  is  white  or  light  gray, 
and  sometimes  of  a  dark  gray,  like  that  quarried  in  central  New  York.  Its  agricultural 
value  depends  upon  its  amount  of  sulphate  of  lime  principally,  and  cannot  be  judged  of 
accurately  by  its  color  or  appearance  after  being  ground. 

The  use  of  gypsum  is  attended  with  great  benefit  to  certain  soils  and  crops,  being  best 
adapted  to  sandy,  loamy,  or  clay  soils,  though  requiring  a  larger  application  to  such  soils  as 
contain  a  considerable  amount  of  vegetable  matter.  Its  use  is  especially  beneficial  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  red  and  white  clovers,  grass,  lucern,  sainfoin,  peas,  beans,  etc.  It  has  been 
found,  by  the  experience  of  most  farmers,  that  in  the  use  of  plaster,  as  with  wood-ashes  and 
some  other  fertilizers,  that  the  season  has  much  to  do  with  the  benefits  derived  from  its  appli- 
cation; that  gypsum  requires  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  when  the  season  is  very  dry,  the 
benefits  resulting,  even  upon  the  same  field,  are  greatly  inferior  to  those  of  a  moist  season; 
also,  another  noticeable  fact  in  its  use  is,  that  it  almost  always  shows  better  results  upon  the 
north  and  northeastern  slopes  of  hills,  than  upon  the  southern.  This  can  be  accounted  for 
only  in  the  fact  that  the  northern  slopes  of  hills  are  longer  in  the  shade  than  the  southern, 
and  usually  have  a  heavier  deposit  of  dew ;  hence  the  soil  there  would  contain  more  moisture 
than  the  southern  slopes,  proving  the  necessity  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture  in  attaining 
the  best  results. 

Plaster  is  a  great  absorbent,  and  its  efficiency  is  supposed  to  be  in  a  measure  attributable 
to  its  power  of  absorbing  and  retaining  ammonia,  and  furnishing  it  to  plants  to  which  it  is 
applied,  as  they  have  need.  It  is  a  very  good  absorbent  to  apply  to  the  manure-heap,  com- 
post-pile, and  privy  vaults,  not  only  acting  as  a  disinfectant,  but,  by  thus  mixing  it  with 
ammonical  manures,  a  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  obtained  which  is  less  volatile  than  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  the  natural  product  of  these  substances. 

When  apphed  to  the  soil,  the  sulphate  of  ammonia  more  readily  parts  with  its  fertilizing 
properties  than  the  carbonate  form,  which  effect  is  of  course  modified  by  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  soil. 

Liebig  says  on  this  subject:  "  Soluble  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  carbonate  of  lime  are 
formed,  and  this  salt  of  ammonia,  possessing  no  volatility,  is  consequently  retained  in  the  soil. 
All  the  gypsum  gradually  disappears,  but  its  action  upon  the  carbonate  of  ammonia  continues 
as  long  as  a  trace  of  it  exists." 


(38  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Gypsum  seems  to  produce  very  different  efEects,  as  we  have  previously  stated,  on  differ- 
ent soils,  and  in  different  seasons.  Sometimes  its  results  are  astonishing  in  its  prompt  effect  in 
increasing  the  yield  of  crops,  as  in  the  case  of  Dr.  Franklin  (mentioned  in  the  chapter  on 
clover),  whose  name,  traced  by  its  application  to  a  clover-field,  could  be  distinctly  seen  from  a 
long  distance,  by  the  darker  gi-een  and  more  luxuriant  growth  than  the  other  portion  of 
the  field.  In  other  cases  its  application  seems  to  have  no  effect  whatever.  It  is  often  a 
powerful  stimulant  to  old  worn-out  lands,  as  it  seems  to  set  free  the  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  soil;  but  it  must  be  used  with  judicious  care,  for,  if  applied  too  long  continuously 
upon  any  soil,  such  lands  wiU  become  exhausted  and  cease  to  produce  crops  worth  cultivating; 
they  wiU  become  what  is  sometimes  termed  "  plaster  sick,"  which  is  simply  a  starvation  of  the 
soil  for  want  of  a  greater  variety  of  food,  as  it  furnishes  only  a  part  of  the  elements  of 
plant-food. 

Plaster,  from  its  own  constituents  and  by  absorption  of  ammonia  from  the  air,  can 
furnish  only  two  of  the  many  inorganic  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  plants. 
If  its  use  could  be  followed  by  clover,  as  a  green  manure  every  three  or  four  years,  thus 
restoring  in  a  measure  the  elements  extracted  by  its  stimulating  effects,  such  soils  would  be 
greatly  benefited,  and  its  use  in  this  manner  could  be  continued  for  a  long  time  with  no 
injurious  effects. 

The  necessity  of  moisture  in  obtaining  favorable  results  in  its  use  will  be  apparent 
when  we  remember  that  it  requires  over  400  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one  part  of  gypsum. 

For  corn,  potatoes,  and  crops  cultivated  in  a  similar  manner,  it  is  usually  put  in  the  hill 
at  the  time  of  planting  the  seed,  though  some  sprinkle  it  upon  the  plants  after  the  crops  have 
been  hoed  the  first  time,  and  when  they  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  For  many  crops,  siich  as 
grass,  clover,  grains,  etc.,  it  is  sown  broadcast,  which  can  be  done  with  almost  any  broadcast 
seed-sower. 

Experiment  alone  can  determine  definitely  to  what  soils  its  use  is  best  adapted,  and  the 
quantity  to  be  applied.  Some  English  writers  mention  two  or  three  hundred  pounds  per  acre 
as  a  proper  amount,  but  American  writers  generally  do  not  recommend  over  one  hundred  or 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  acre.  When  deposited  with  the  seed  by  the  grain-drill,  it 
should  be  mixed  with  three  or  four  times  its  quantity  of  soil,  otherwise  the  germ  of  the  seed 
might  be  injured. 

Salt  (Chloride  of  Sodium). — The  use  of  common  salt  as  a  fertilizer  of  the  soil  is 
of  remote  date.  In  China  and  Hindostan,  the  rice-fields  have  been  kept  in  fertility  for  ages 
by  applying  sea-water.  Its  use  has  also  been  long  known  in  various  portions  of  Europe.  It 
supplies  plants  with  chlorine  and  soda,  but  its  principal  value  as  a  fertilizer  is  in  its  chemical 
action  upon  other  elements  of  plant-food  in  the  soil,  which  it  renders  more  available.  It  also 
is  a  valuable  agent  in  exterminating  grubs,  worms,  and  other  vermin  from  the  soil,  being  very 
beneficial  in  the  culture  of  garden  vegetables,  for  this  reason.  It  has  a  tendenc}'  to  keep  the 
land  cool  and  moist,  and  thus  neutralizes  drouth,  and  is  thought  by  many  farmers  to  glaze 
and  stiffen  the  straw  of  grains,  and  prevent  crinkUng  and  rust.  Salt  mixed  with  wood  ashes,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  salt  to  four  of  ashes,  and  applied  at  the  rate  of  a  handful  to 
the  center  of  each  hill  of  com  immediately  after  planting,  is  said  by  good  authority  to 
supersede  the  use  of  scare-crows  and  coal-tar,  as  no  worm  or  crow  will  touch  it;  besides,  the 
fertilizing  properties  of  the  compound  are  highly  beneficial.  When  sown  on  wheat,  it  is 
said  to  destroy  the  chinch-bug,  so  destructive  to  that  crop.  To  lands  near  the  sea-coast  and 
that  occasionally  receive  a  supply  of  salt  from  the  spray  that  is  carried  to  them  by  the  ocean 
storms,  it  usually  produces  no  apparent  effect,  as  they  are  already  supplied  with  a  suflBcienI 
quantity  of  this  element.  It  is  a  fertilizer  that  must  be  used  with  care,  for  if  too  large  £ 
quantity  be  applied,  it  is  liable  to  injure  vegetation.  When  applied  in  contact  with  seed,  as 
is  sometimes  done  with  grain-driUs,  only  a  small  quantity  should  be  used,  as  it  may  destroy 


FERTILIZERS.  69 

the  gerra.  It  will  destroy  the  eyes  of  potatoes,  when  put  in  contact  with  them  in  the  hUls  at 
planting.  A  western  farmer  and  writer  states  that  he  has  never  seen  any  damage  done  the 
wheat-crop  by  the  chinch-bug  where  there  had  been  two  hundred  pounds  of  salt  to  the  acre, 
sown  broadcast,  and  that  the  best  time  for  sowing  it  is  when  the  wheat  is  about  four  inches 
high.  The  refuse  salt  from  packing-houses  is  often  used  for  this  purpose.  Prof.  Whitney 
states  that  there  is  no  manurial  substance  of  less  rehabUity  than  salt,  for  the  reason  that  its 
effects  depend  not  only  upon  the  kind  of  crops  raised,  but  upon  the  character  of  the  land 
itself,  and  in  no  less  degree  on  the  other  fertihzers  with  which  it  may  be  used.  On  sandy 
soils,  devoted  to  the  growth  of  the  mangold- wurtzel,  the  results  of  its  use  are  often  marvelous; 
under  these  conditions  its  application  is  very  common  and  pi-ofitable  in  England.  It  rarely 
benefits  stiff  clay  soils,  as  it  renders  them  too  wet.  It  is  thought  by  most  farmers  to  be 
adapted  to  light  soils,  such  as  a  light  sand  or  loam ;  also  to  those  soils  that  are  rich  in  organic 
matter,  and  which  contain  considerable  humus.  It  is  not,  however,  of  advantage  to  apply  it 
to  very  loose,  sandy  soils,  or  what  are  termed  gravelly  soils. 

According  to  Dr  Voelcker,  the  good  effect  of  applying  salt  is  in  its  power  of  liberating 
the  ammonia  from  soils  which  have  been  highly  manured  with  decomposed  stable  manure, 
and  that  it  is  most  beneficial  when  applied  to  light  land  after  a  good  dressing  of  this  manure, 
either  alone  or  with  Peruvian  guano.  English  writers  generally  favor  its  use  in  combination 
with  some  other  fertilizer,  such  as  lime,  soot,  nitrate  of  soda,  etc.  The  following  are  the 
results  of  Dr.  Voelcker's  experiments  : — 

On  a  sandy  soil,  containing  only  a  moderate  quantity  of  soda  and  potash,  and  with  a 
deficiency  of  Ume,  from  a  given  area,  without  the  use  of  salt,  there  was  obtained  12  tons, 
2  cwt.,  and  76  pounds  of  mangolds.  When  salt  had  been  applied  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred 
pounds  per  acre,  18  tons,  19  cwt.,  and  93  pounds  were  produced,  showing  an  increase  per 
acre,  from  the  use  of  salt,  of  58  tons,  14  cwt.,  and  20  pounds.  Three  hundred  pounds  of  salt 
per  acre  were  applied,  and  the  increase  was  slightly  less  than  the  preceding.  On  increasing 
the  amount  of  salt  to  eight  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  the  yield  was  21  tons,  18  cwt.,  and  84 
pounds,  or  an  increase  of  over  nine  tons  as  compared  with  the  area  that  was  unmanured  with 
salt.  From  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  pounds  of  salt  per  acre  are  often  beneficial  to 
pasture-lands  ;  cattle  and  sheep  greatly  relish  such  grass.  When  applied  to  coarse  grasses 
it  has  a  tendency  to  greatly  improve  the  quality  of  the  herbage. 

The  quantity  of  salt  to  be  applied  must  be  determined,  in  the  main,  by  experiment,  as 
well  as  the  kind  of  soQ  to  which  it  is  adapted.  It  would  be  well  for  the  farmer  to  apply  it 
to  a  portion  of  his  field,  and  carefully  note  the  result.  Some  writers  speak  of  using  at  the 
rat!  of  two  bushels  per  acre  with  good  effect;  but  it  seems  to  us  that  this  is  an  unusually 
large  quantity;  four  hundred  pounds  is  about  the  quantity  generally  recommended  by  Eng- 
li  'i  authorities,  while  many  agriculturists  of  our  own  country  recommend  two  hundred  or 
three  hundred  pounds  per  acre  as  a  sufficient  quantity.  The  quantity  required  will,  of  course, 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soO,  the  same  as  with  all  other  fertilizers. 

Potash— Sources  of  Supply— The  Stassfurt  Potash  Mines,  etc.— Since 
potash  is  such  an  essential  element  in  plant-production,  and  consequently  an  element  greatly 
needed  in  the  soil,  where  it  is  rarely  found  in  sufficient  quantities,  it  is  a  question  of  no  small 
import  to  the  farmer  as  to  how  this  necessary  substance  can  be  obtained.  Wood-ashes  are 
valuable  in  this  respect,  but  cannot  always  be  procured  in  sufficient  quantities,  or  at  a  rate  to 
render  their  use  an  economical  fertilizer.  Very  fortunately  for  the  agricultural  interests  of 
the  world,  an  immense  deposit  of  the  salts  produced  from  the  evaporation  of  sea-water,  and 
containing  a  number  of  compounds,  including  potassium,  has  been  discovered  in  northern 
Germany,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  an  ancient  sea.  An  aU-wise  and  kind 
Providence  has  thus  provided  for  the  wants  of  man  in  this  respect,  as  in  all  others,  and  has 
left  them  there  for  him  to  discover  and  apply  to  use  through  the  patient  labor  of  his  hand 


70  THE  AJIERICAX  FARMER. 

and  brain.  These  famous  German  potash  mines  are  located  near  the  Hartz  Mountains, 
partly  in  Prussia  and  partly  in  the  small  Duchy  of  Anhalt.  These  include  the  mines  of 
Stassfurt  proper,  the  contiguous  mines  at  Leopoldshall,  and  those  more  recently  opened  about 
ten  miles  distant  at  Westeregeln.  According  to  the  best  authority,  the  deposits  of  this 
region  consist  chiefly  of  the  various  compounds  of  sodium,  potassium,  magnesium,  and  Ume, 
with  sulphuric  acid,  and  chlorine.  The  larger  proportion,  however,  consists  of  chloride  of 
sodium,  or  rock-salt,  which  seems  to  be  stored  there  in  an  inexhaustible  supply.  Lying  on 
the  top  of  the  rock-salt  deposit  are  various  mineral  salts,  such  as  kieserite,  polyhalite,  kainite, 
camallite,  etc.  The  total  area  of  this  salt-basin  is  supposed  to  be  about  six  hundred  square 
miles;  the  upper  surface  of  the  deposit  at  Stassfurt  being  from  350  to  830  feet  from  the  surface. 
It  is  stated  that  in  the  year  1856  the  miners  penetrated  to  the  depth  of  1,856  feet,  finding 
pure  rock-salt  in  a  seemingly  inexhaustible  supply  as  they  bored  down,  and  that  they  then 
said,  ''  We  have  made  the  depth  equal  to  the  date;  the  salt  layer  seems  to  be  as  immeasurable 
as  the  centuries.     Let  up  stop."     Prof.  Atwater  says  of  these  mines: — 

"  It  is  a  comparatively  few  years  since  the  deposits  were  discovered,  but  the  products 
have  come  into  very  general  use  in  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  are  being  im- 
ported quite  largely  into  this  country.  When  rightly  used  on  soils  deficient  in  potash,  they 
are  very  profitable  fertilizers.  A  vast  amount  of  experimenting  has  been  done  with  them, 
more  in  Germany  than  anywhere  else.  The  results  indicate  that  the  usefulness  of  these  salts 
as  fertilizers  depends  not  only  upon  the  character  of  the  salts  themselves,  of  which  there  are 
various  grades,  but  also  on  the  kind  of  soil,  the  mode  of  application,  and  the  kind  of  crop. 

Composition  of  German  Potash  Salts.— The  potash  salts,  as  taken  from  the 
mines,  contain  only  smaU  proportions  of  potassium  compounds,  the  bulk  consisting  of  materials 
which  have  comparatively  little  agricultural  value,  and  are  sometimes  positively  injurious. 
In  the  early  history  of  the  Stassfurt  potash  industry,  many  experiments  were  made  with 
these  crude  salts,  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  'Kainit,'  their  use  has  been  attended  perhaps 
oftener  by  failure  than  by  success.  It  has  been  found  necessary  to  subject  them  to  chemical 
treatment,  by  which  the  potash  compounds  are  more  or  less  completely  purified.  This  is  done  at 
factories  near  the  mines,  where  immense  quantities  of  the  potash  salts  are  manufactured  for 
technical  and  agricultural  uses.  As  prepared  for  market,  the  potash  fertilizers  contain  potas- 
sium in  the  form  of  either  chloride  of  potassium  or  sulphate  of  potash,  and,  along  with 
these,  chloride  of  sodium,  chloride  of  magnesium,  sulphate  of  soda,  and  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
and  small  quantities  of  other  materials. 

The  basis  of  potash  compounds  is  the  element  Potassium.  This,  combined  with  oxygen, 
forms  potassium  oxide,  or  potassa,  or,  in  famOiar  language,  potash.  The  same  term,  potash, 
is  applied  to  two  other  potassium  compounds.  One,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  compound 
made  up  of  potassa  and  water,  is  known  in  the  chemical  laboratory  as  potassium  hydrate, 
and,  in  common  language,  as  caustic  potash.  The  other  is  a  compound  of  potassa  with  car- 
bonic acid,  and  is  commonly  called  carbonate  of  potash.  The  ordinary  potashes  and  pearl- 
ashes,  prepared  from  the  lye  of  wood-ashes,  are  more  or  less  impure  carbonate  of  potash. 
Potassium,  combined  with  chlorine,  forms  potassium  chloride,  commonly  called  chloride  of 
potassium,  or  '  muriate  of  potash.'  Potassa  united  with  sulphuric  acid  forms  potassium  sul- 
phate, or  sulphate  of  potash.  By  adding  to  ordinary  potash  lye  from  ashes,  a  proper  amount 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  boiling  the  liquid  down,  we  might,  with  proper  care,  obtain  a  solid 
substance,  which  would  be  a  sulphate  of  potash.  If  we  were  to  use  hydro  chloric  (muriatic) 
acid  instead  of  sulphuric,  we  should  obtain  a  chloride  of  potassium,  or  muriate  of  potash. 
Other  elements,  as  well  as  potassium,  combine  with  sulphuric  acid  and  chlorine  to  form 
sulphates  and  chlorides.  Sodium  chloride  is  common  salt.  Sulphate  of  soda  (sodium  sul 
phate)  is  known  as  Glauber's  salt,  and  sulphate  of  magnesia  as  Epsom  salts.  The  German 
potash  salts  consist  of  potassium  chloride  and  sulphate,  mingled  with  more  or  less  of  the  just- 


FERTILIZERS.  71 

named  compounds.  It  is  customary  to  reckon  the  potassium  of  these  salts  as  'actual  potash.' 
In  the  sulphates  this  term  expresses  the  amount  of  potassium  oxide,  potassa,  or  potash  present. 
In  the  muriates  it  represents  the  amount  of  potash  which  the  potassium  would  make  if  it  were 
combined  with  oxygen  instead  of  chlorine — 100  lbs.  of  pure  sulphate  of  potash  contains 
about  54  lbs.  of  'actual  potash.'  100  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  potash  are  therefore  said  to  be 
equivalent  to  54  lbs.  of  actual  potash,  and  vice  versa,  54  lbs.  of  potash  in  the  sulphates  are 
reckoned  as  equivalent  to  100  lbs.  of  sulphate  of  potash.  In  the  'muriates,'  100  lbs.  of 
chloride  of  potassium  are  reckoned  equivalent  to  about  63  lbs  of  potash,  and  vice  versa. 

How  to  use  Potash  Salts  as  FerJilizers. — "The  results  of  experiments  in  differ- 
ent places  are  so  varying  that  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  precise  rules  to  apply  to  all  cases. 
The  potash  salts  sometimes  bring  a  remarkable  increase  of  crop,  and  sometimes  do  no  good 
at  all.  Whether  a  given  soU  is  deficient  in  potash  or  not,  can  be  best  told  by  actual  experi- 
ment. In  general,  potash  is  most  Ukely  to  be  lacking  in  light,  sandy,  and  calcareous  soils, 
and  in  those  which  consist  largely  of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  Uke  peat  and  muck  beds  and 
moors.  It  is  more  apt  to  be  plenty  in  loamy  and  in  clayey  soils  that  come  from  what  the 
geologists  call  igneous  rocks,  which,  hke  the  trap  rocks  of  our  region,  and  the  granites, 
syenites,  and  other  rocks  that  contain  felspar  and  mica,  are  rich  in  potash.  But  in  soils  of 
either  of  these  classes  the  available  supply  may  be  reduced  by  cropping.  Where  guanos, 
phosphates,  bone,  fish-manures,  and  other  fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
lime,  Ijut  furnishing  little  or  no  potash  and  magnesia,  do  not  bring  as  large  returns  as  for- 
merly, a  trial  of  potash  salts  is  to  be  recommended. 

Ihe  potash  salts  have  proven  especially  beneficial  for  fodder  crops,  like  clover,  grass, 
and  rye;  for  leguminous  crops,  such  as  beans  and  peas,  and  vetches;  and  for  potatoes,  roots, 
tobacco,  and  fruits.  The  immediate  effects  upon  grain  crops  are  usually  not  so  beneficial. 
When  applied  shortly  before  putting  in  the  seed,  the  result  is  often  unsatisfactory,  especially 
as  regards  the  quality  of  the  grain.  For  tobacco  they  have  proved  highly  beneficial,  and 
there  is  reason  to  presume  they  might  do  the  same  for  corn.  They  have  been  found 
remarkably  useful  in  some  cases  for  fruits,  especially  grapes,  and  their  use  for  our  failing 
orchards  and  other  fruit-trees  is  worthy,  at  least,  of  trial. 

In  fact,  the  question  whether  it  will  pay  to  use  potash  salts  in  any  given  case  or  not,  is 
one  that  cannot  be  decided  in  advance.  Chemists  can  not  give  prescriptions  for  your  failing 
soils  as  doctors  do  for  your  diseased  bodies.  You  must  settle  such  questions  yourselves  by 
actual  trial.  I  should  therefore  by  no  means  advise  any  one  to  invest  in  large  quantities  of 
these  salts  before  he  had  found  whether  they  were  going  to  benefit  him  enough  to  make  it 
profitable  or  not. 

As  I  have  said,  the  high  grades  will,  generally  speaking,  be  best  for  our  use.  The 
chlorides  are  the  cheapest,  because  they  are  produced  at  less  cost  from  the  crude  salts;  but 
for  such  crops  as  potatoes  and  tobacco,  the  sulphates  are  safer.  The  general  effect  of  the 
chlorides  is  to  increase  the  quantity  rather  than  to  improve  the  quality  of  these  crops.  They 
are  apt  to  make  the  potatoes  soggy,  and  to  injure  the  burning  quality  of  tobacco.  So  if  you 
■want  your  potatoes  mealy,  use  the  sulphates;  and  if  you  grow  tobacco,  and  would  have  it  good, 
use  the  sulphates.  The  muriates  are  apt  to  injure  the  burning  quality  of  the  leaf,  giving 
it  a  tendency  to  char  and  hold  fire  but  a  short  time,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  sulphates. 

For  fodder  crops,  like  clover,  grass,  and  corn,  and  for  grain,  and,  indeed,  for  any  of 
the  crops  we  raise  in  this  part  of  the  coimtry,  except  the  ones  just  mentioned,  the  chlorides 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  I  have  lately  noticed  some  statements,  by  the  way,  that  the  use 
of  the  chlorides  for  sugar-beets  is  rather  on  the  increase  in  Germany,  the  effect  on  the  per- 
centages of  sugar  and  of  objectionable  materials  in  the  juice  not  being  so  bad  as  had  formerly 
been  supposed. 

The  method  of  applying  potash  salts  is  a  matter  of  great  importance.     Cases  are  very 


72  THE  AMERICAN  FARIHER. 

common — I  have  known  several  myself — where  crops  were  injured  or  destroyed  by  improper 
application.  The  great  point  is  to  have  the  material  uniformly  diffused  through  the  soil,  so 
as  to  be  within  as  ready  reach  of  as  many  of  the  roots  as  possible,  and  not  to  be  concenti'ated 
in  single  places  in  such  quantity  as  to  injure  the  plants.  The  best  way  to  secure  this  distrib- 
ution is  to  apply  it  some  time  before  the  seed  is  put  in.  For  a  crop  to  be  sown  in  the  spring, 
it  is  well  to  put  the  potash  fertilizers  on  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  water  from  rains  and  melting 
snows  may  have  opportunity  to  carry  the  potash  down  into  the  soil,  and  thus  secure  a  deep 
and  uniform  distribution  before  it  is  wanted  for  the  growing  crops.  This  is  a  particularly 
good  plan  with  the  chlorides,  and  with  the  low  grade  salts,  if  the  latter  are  used.  The  chlo- 
rine is  gradually  leached  down  into  the  lower  strata  of  the  soil,  and  away  beyond  where  it 
will  do  harm.  There  is  no  reason  to  fear  loss  of  potash  or  magnesia  in  this  way,  since  they 
are  retained  by  the  absorptive  power  of  the  soil,  and  do  not  get  beyond  reach  of  the  roots. 
The  only  ingredients  thus  exposed  to  loss  are  the  soda  and  chlorine,  which  have  very  little 
value.  There  may,  perhaps,  be  danger  that  the  chlorine,  in  leaching  out,  will  take  lime  with 
it  from  the  soil,  but  the  loss  would  probably  be  of  little  practical  moment.  If,  however,  you 
cannot  apply  your  potash  salts  in  fall  or  early  spring,  the  next  best  plan  is  to  mix  them  with 
three  or  four  times  their  bulk  of  earth,  spread  the  mixture  uniformly,  and  either  plow  under 
or  harrow  in.  Another  most  excellent  way  is  to  mix  the  salts 'with  stable  manure,  by 
spreading  them  on  the  heap  from  time  to  time  as  it  accumulates.  For  clover  or  grass  landsi 
where  the  potash  salts  are  to  be  used  as  a  top-dressing,  a  very  good  plan  is  to  compost  and 
apply  as  long  as  possible  before  the  growth  of  the  crop  begins. 

It  is  especially  advisable  to  apply  the  potash  compounds — not  alone,  but  mixed  with 
phosphates  and  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  In  this  way  the  best  practical  results  have  been 
obtained.  Peruvian  guano,  ammoniated  superphosphates,  bone  and  fish,  furnish  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  and,  if  superphosphated,  sulphuric  acid  also.  The  potash  salts 
supply  potash  with  more  or  less  sulphuric  acid  and  magnesia.  Such  mixtures  therefore 
would  form  "complete  fertilizers." 

In  Germany,  where  the  potash  salts  have  come  into  very  general  use,  quantities  cor- 
responding to  from  200  to  400,  or  at  most  500  pounds  of  the  higher  grades,  and  from  300  to 
600  of  the  lower  grades,  per  acre,  are  recommended." 

The  general  conclusion  respecting  the  use  of  the  German  potash  salts  as  fertilizers  are 
given  by  Prof.  Atwater  as  follows: 

"  1.  Potassium,  the  basis  of  potash  compounds,  is  indispensable  to  the  growth  of  all 
our  cultivated  plants.  It  has  at  least  one  specific  office  in  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  that  of 
aiding  in  the  formation  of  carbo-hydrates  (starch).  Without  a  plentiful  supply  of  potash  in 
available  forms,  fuU  crops  are  impossible. 

2.  The  German  potash  salts  afford  at  present  the  cheapest  and  most  available  supply 
of  potash  for  fertihzers.  They  supply  also  more  or  less  of  magnesia  and  sulphuric  acid, 
which  are  essential  ingredients  of  plant-food,  and  sometimes  deficient  in  our  soils,  and  of 
sodium  and  chlorine  compounds,  which  latter  may  be  beneficial  or  harmful,  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  their  use. 

3.  The  higher  grades  wiU  be,  in  general,  most  profitable  for  use  in  this  country, 
because  they  furnish  the  most  potassium  with  the  least  admixture  of  inferior  materials,  on 
which  costs  of  freight  and  handling  must  be  paid.  The  chlorides  (muriates),  with  80-84 
per  cent,  of  chloride  of  potassium,  and  the  sulphates,  with  70  to  80  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of 
potash,  or  the  sulphate  of  potash  and  magnesia,  with  54-57  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  potash, 
are  to  be  especially  recommended. 

4.  For  potatoes,  sugar-beets,  or  tobacco,  the  sulphates  are  preferable;  for  other  crops, 
the  chlorides,  which  are  cheaper,  are  equally  good. 

5.  In  order  to  secure  imifoi-m  diffusion  through  the  soil,  the  potash  salts  should  be 


FERTILIZERS.  73 

applied  as  long  as  possible  before  the  crop  is  sown.  It  is  well  to  mix  witli  earth,  or  to  com- 
post, before  applying,  especially  if  iised  shortly  before  sowing  the  seed.  And,  in  general, 
potash  salts  are  well  adapted  for  composting  with  muck,  earth,  stable-manure,  phosphates, 
fish,  and  the  Hke. 

6.  The  best  results  are  generally  obtained  by  using  potash  salts  not  alone,  but  with 
other  fertilizers,  as  superphosphates,  guanos,  and  fish.  Mixtures  of  these  latter  with  potash 
salt  form  "complete  fertilizers."  The  proper  use  of  potash  salts  is  as  adjuncts  to  other  fer- 
tilizers. 

7.  From  200  lbs.  to  400  or  500  lbs.  per  acre  of  the  higher,  and  300  to  600  lbs.  of 
the  lower  grades,  are  appropriate  quantities. 

8.  The  question  of  the  need  of  potash  in  a  given  soil  can  be  best  decided  by  actual 
trial.  It  will  be  generally  advisable  to  test  the  question  by  experiments  on  a  small  scale 
before  making  large  purchases." 

Magnesia  is  contained  in  many  soils,  and  in  limestones,  which  are  often  called  mag- 
nesian  limestones,  when  this  element  is  found  in  them  in  large  quantities. 

It  is  also  found  in  wood-ashes,  oyster-shell  lime,  New  Jersey  green  marl,  and  various 
other  fertilizing  materials. 

The  waters  of  the  ocean  contain  magnesia,  to  the  presence  of  which  is  attributed  the 
peculiar  bitterish  taste  it  possesses.  It  is  estimated  that  every  cubic  foot  of  sea-water  con- 
tains  two  and  a  half  ounces  of  magnesia.  It  is  supposed  that  the  celebrated  Strassfurt 
deposit  referred  to  in  previous  pages,  which  is  one  of  the  principal  soui'ces  of  commercial 
magnesia  and  its  salts,  is  the  residue  of  some  ancient  sea. 

The  trap  rocks  of  the  Hudson  River  Palisades  have  been  found  on  analysis  to  sometimes 
contain  ten  per  cent,  of  this  substance.  The  ashes  of  grains  of  some  wheat  have  been  found 
to  contain  11.75  per  cent,  of  magnesia;  hence,  a  soil  deficient  in  this  element  would  not  pro- 
duce wheat,  however  rich  it  might  otherwise  be.  Since  lime  is  abimdant  in  wheat  straw,  a 
good  calcareous  soil,  when  lacking  magnesia,  might  produce  straw  without  any  wheat,  or,  if 
the  heads  were  formed,  they  would  be  very  imperfect  in  wheat  formation. 

Leaves  of  Trees  can  be  made  available  in  furnishing  fertilizing  substances  in  the 
form  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  Ume,  in  limited  quantities.  Used  in  the  compost  heap, 
as  bedding  for  stock,  or  as  a  covering  for  plants  to  protect  them  in  winter,  they  are  valua- 
ble. When  mixed  with  the  compost  heap,  or  with  the  manure  from  the  stables,  they  will 
soon  become  decomposed  and  add  to  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  mass,  and  will  well  repay 
the  farmer  for  gathering,  providing  he  is  not  required  to  go  a  long  distance  to  obtain  them. 
The  best  time  for  gathering  them  is  when  damp  with  dew  or  rain,  as  they  can  then  be  put  in 
a  more  compact  form,  and  be  more  easily  handled.  If  there  are  boys  upon  the  farm,  a  late 
autumn  day  could  not  be  spent  by  them  in  labor  much  more  profitably  or  pleasantly  than  in 
gathering  and  storing  leaves  for  the  various  uses  to  which  they  can  be  applied.  Stored  under 
shelter,  in  some  bam  or  shed,  they  should  be  spread  and  raked  over  occasionally  in  order  to 
dry  them,  if  designed  for  the  bedding  of  stock.  Besides  being  valuable,  the  gathering  of 
leaves  that  would  otherwise  be  blown  about  the  farm  buildings,  giving  the  premises  an 
untidy  appearance,  would  be  of  advantage  to  any  farm. 

Tobacco  Stems. — The  refuse  of  the  cigar  manufactories,  consisting  of  the  stems  and 
midribs  of  tobacco  leaves,  have  been  utilized  to  a  considerable  extent  as  fertilizers,  especially 
in  the  culture  of  tobacco. 

Analysis  proves  that  they  are  a  good  general  fertilizer,  supplying  all  the  elements  of 
plant-food  to  a  certain  extent,  and  are  especially  rich  in  potash  and  lime.  They  are  liable  to 
be  rather  variable  in  composition,  especially  in  respect  to  moisture.  They  are  generally 
plowed  into  the  soil  a  few  weeks  before  planting.  On  clayey  soils,  they  are  frequently  ap- 
plied  in  autumn,  but  this  practice  would  not  be  advisable  on  a  sandy  or  porous  soil,  as  the 


7J  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

fertilizing  elements  ■would  be  likely  to  be  leached  out  by  tlie  rains  and  melting  snows,  and 
lost  before  the  time  of  planting. 

In  plowing  them  under,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  bury  them  too  deep  in  the  soil,  where 
their  fertilizing  elements  will  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  the  young  plants. 

Manuring  with  Oreeu  Crops  is,  in  the  opinion  of  many  farmers,  one  of  the  most 
economical  and,  to  certain  lands,  one  of  the  surest  and  most  speedy  means  of  improving  the 
mechanical  condition  or  texture  and  fertilizing  properties  of  the  soil  that  are  known  in 
agricultui'e. 

Besides  fertilizing  the  soil  by  the  use  of  green  manures  (as  most  plants  have  all  the  ele- 
ments of  fertility  in  a  good  proportion),  the  soil  is  rendered  more  mellow  and  thus  better 
fitted  for  the  production  of  other  crops.  The  land  is  also  cleared  of  troublesome  weeds  by 
plowing  before  the  seed  ripens.  Soils  are  also  improved  by  changing  the  combination  of  cer- 
tain elements  in  them,  which  may  be  done  by  the  simple  process  of  plowing  in  the  crop.  If 
plants  derived  all  their  nourishment  or  fertilizing  properties  from  the  soil  alone,  simply  plow- 
ing in  again  what  the  soil  had  produced  would  not  prove  of  so  much  advantage  as  far  as 
adding  fertihty;  but  the  plant  obtains  its  constituent  elements  not  from  the  soil  alone,  but 
from  the  soil  and  atmosphere  combined  ;  many  plants  also  draw  a  portion  of  their  food  from 
the  subsoil,  and  these  elements  combine  to  form  compounds  in  the  plant,  some  of  which  are 
found  in  the  leaves,  others  in  the  roots,  sap,  and  stems,  etc.  Nitrogen  is  contained  in  some 
of  these  compounds,  which  is  a  promoter  of  decomposition.  By  the  decomposition  of  these, 
other  elements  become  involved,  and  new  combinations  are  formed,  which  we  call  decay,  but 
which  is,  in  fact,  only  a  change  in  the  elements  forming  the  plant.  By  this  means,  the  aver- 
age farmer  may  derive  great  benefit  to  his  lands  with  but  slight  expense,  and  we  think  it  a 
great  error  in  farmers  generally  that  they  do  not  resort  to  the  use  of  vegetable  manures  more 
frequently  in  obtaining  a  supply  of  plant-food  for  their  crops. 

The  time  when  the  crop  is  plowed  under,  and  the  depth  to  which  it  is  covered  by  the 
furrow,  are  both  very  important  considerations  in  this  system.  With  regard  to  the  former, 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  farmers,  some  regarding  the  best  time  to  be  when  the 
crop — clover  or  buckwheat,  for  instance — is  in  full  bloom;  others  prefer  the  period  just 
before  blossoming.  In  no  case  should  it  be  deferred  until  the  blossoms  fall  and  the  seed 
begins  to  form.  The  harder  the  fiber  of  the  stems,  the  longer  the  time  required  to  make 
them  available  for  plant-food.  When  green  vegetation  is  allowed  to  decay  in  the  open  air, 
much  of  the  fertilizing  material  is  evaporated  by  the  atmosphere,  and  hence  lost  to  the  soil. 
In  the  other  extreme,  if  the  crop  is  buried  too  deeply  in  the  soil,  it  decays  more  slowly,  and 
also  much  of  the  fertility  designed  for  plant-food  will  be  buried  too  far  from  the  reach  of  the 
roots  of  many  plants ;  hence  it  is  very  essential  that  the  vegetable  manure  be  covered  by  the 
soil  just  enough  to  prevent  the  fertiUzing  elements  from  passing  oS  into  the  air,  and  suffi- 
ciently for  the  soil  to  absorb  all  these  properties.  It  should  be  turned  down  only  enough  to 
be  simply  well  covered ;  in  this  way  the  strength  of  its  fertilizing  properties  lies  near  the  sur- 
face, and  the  heat  and  hght  rains  will  also  aid  in  the  decomposition,  and  if  plowed  under  in 
the  proper  stage  of  its  growth,  this  wUl  be  very  rapid. 

Vegetable  manures  are  especially  adapted  to  such  soils  as  have  a  large  proportion  of  lime, 
but  when  lime  does  not  exist  in  a  fair  proportion  in  the  soil,  it  will  be  well  to  apply  it.  This 
corrects  any  sourness  in  the  soil,  and  aids  decomposition.  Gypsum  and  ashes  are  recom- 
mended  by  some  as  good  substitutes  when  lime  or  marl  are  not  easily  procured. 

Some  writers  recommend  vegetable  manures  for  all  soils  except  low,  peaty  lands.  They 
are  beneficial  often  to  a  surprising  extent,  to  the  two  extremes  of  clay  and  sandy  soils,  giving 
a  peculiar  mellowness  to  the  one,  and  a  retentive  character  to  the  other,  improving  their 
texture  and  color  by  the  necessary  humus  supplied ;  also  improving  their  capacity  for  moist- 
ure, especially  to  the  sandy  soil. 


FERTILIZERS.  75 

The  effect  of  their  use  will  vary  according  to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  soil  upon 
wliich  they  are  used,  the  kind  of  crop  produced,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  system  is 
conducted. 

For  the  exhausted  lands  of  New  England,  upon  which  certain  crops  have  been  continu- 
ously grown  for  years,  and  have  thus  been  rendered  but  partially  pi'oductive,  and  for  many 
of  the  worn-out  soils  of  the  Southern  States,  which  have  become  exhausted  by  the  constant 
cultivation  of  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco,  etc.,  this  system  is  highly  recommended  by 
many  of  the  best  agricultural  writers  of  the  country. 

Before  so-sving  any  crop  for  green  manure,  it  will  be  well  to  apply  to  the  soil  well-decom- 
posed and  pulverized  barnyard  manure,  bone-dust,  guano,  or  some  other  good  fertihzer,  in 
order  to  give  the  plants  a  good  vigorous  start,  since  the  more  luxuriant  and  heavy  the  growth 
of  the  crop  to  plow  under,  the  more  fertilizing  material  will  be  obtained  from  it,  and  conse- 
quently the  greater  benefit  to  the  soil. 

Some  exhausted  soils  require  considerable  time  to  recuperate  in  this  way,  but  it  does  not 
involve  much  expense.  Often  three  or  four  crops  of  green  manure  are  turned  under  before 
certain  worn  soils  will  be  rich  enough  to  produce  a  fair  product. 

For  green  manuring,  various  crops  are  used,  but  some  are  more  valuable  than  others. 
First  and  foremost  in  value  we  place  red  clover.  The  crops  most  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose  are  red  clover,  buckwheat,  rye,  oats,  corn,  millet,  many  of  the  grasses,  the  cow-pea, 
etc.  Rape,  vetches,  mustard,  spurry  lupine,  and  the  leaves  of  turnips,  after  removing  the 
bulbs,  are  frequently  used  for  this  purpose  in  Europe. 

Clover  for  Vegetable  Manure  tas  been  styled  by  one  of  the  best  authorities  in 
agriculture  (Joseph  Harris),  "the  grand  renovating  crop  of  America." 

Hon.  George  Geddes,  so  well  known  throughout  the  United  States  as  a  practical,  scien- 
tific, and  eminently  trustworthy  farmer,  says  of  it: 

"  The  agriculture  ef  Onondaga  county  is  based  on  the  clover  plant.  It  is  used  for  pas- 
ture, for  hay,  and  for  manure.  Strike  this  plant  out  of  existence  and  a  revolution  would  fol- 
low that  would  make  it  necessary  for  us  to  learn  every  thing  anew  in  regard  to  cultivating 
our  lands.  What  their  value  would  be  without  clover,  we  will  not  attempt  to  conjecture. 
"We  have  this  most  valuable  treasure,  and  appreciate  it.         *         *         * 

If  our  soils  require  improving,  we  turn  the  clover  crop  under,  and  repeat  the  operation 
until  there  is  sufficient  fertility  to  allow  us  to  carry  the  clover  off.  The  oftener  we  can  fill 
the  soil  with  roots,  and  then  plow  them  under,  and  thus  allow  them  to  rot,  the  sooner  do  we 
expect  to  get  our  land  in  condition  to  bear  a  crop  of  grain." 

A  very  considerable  part  of  the  cultivated  land  of  this  county  (Mr.  Geddes  might  have 
appropriately  said  "  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  cultivated  land  in  Central  and  Western 
New  York)  "  has  never  had  any  other  manuring  than  this  clover  and  gypsum,  and  its  fertility 
is  not  diminishing.  Fields  that  are  distant  from  barnyard  manure  are  rarely  treated  to  any 
thing  but  gypsum  and  clover.  These  fields  are  not  cropped  with  grain  as  often  as  those  that 
have  the  benefit  of  barnyard  manure,  but  they  are  manured  with  much  less  expense. 

The  cost  of  clover  seed,  at  $6  per  bushel,  is,         .           .            .            .            .            .  $1  50 

The  cost  of  sowing  is  about,           .            .             ......  8 

The  cost  of  three  bushels  of  gypsum  at  the  mills  is,         .....  34 

The  cost  of  drawing  the  same,         .            .            ,            .            .            .            .            .  13  ■ 

The  cost  of  sowing  at  three  different  times,            ......  38 

Total  cost  of  manuring  one  acre,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .      $3  33 

A  field  having  the  first  year  given  a  crop  of  hay  and  another  of  seed,  the  second  year  an 
acre  will  nearly  or  quite  pasture  a  cow  from  the  twentieth  of  May  until  the  middle  of 
August.     If  then  plowed  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  it  will  be  in  the  best  possible  condition 


70  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

for  winter  wheat;  the  land  may  be  used  the  second  year  for  pasture  the  whole  season  if  not 
wanted  for  wheat,  and  put  into  corn  or  any  ottier  crop  tne  next.' 

He  also  has  stated  that  he  had  a  field  which  for  seventy-four  years  had  been  manured 
with  nothing  except  clover,  grown  upon  it  and  plowed  in,  and  that  tliis  field  had  produced 
wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  and  grass.  The  clover  thus  used  had  for  fifty  years  been  regularly 
treated  with  gypsum,  and  that  the  land  is  constantly  increasing  in  fertility.  SufQcient  tests 
have  been  given  clover  as  a  fertilizer,  when  plowed  under,  to  prove  that  it  can  be  used  con- 
tinuously on  many  soils  for  a  long  period  with  good  results,  many  farmers  considering  it  a 
good  substitute  for  barnyard  manure.  If  it  can  be  thus  utilized,  it  proves  a  great  conven- 
ience for  use  on  such  lands  as  are  at  a  distance  from  the  farm  buildings,  where  the  cartmg  of 
yard  manure  would  be  attended  with  considerable  labor  and  expense.  As  clover  will  pro- 
duce two  or  three  crops  during  the  season,  many  farmers  cut  the  first  for  hay,  and  plow  under 
the  second  for  manure,  while  others  secure  both  crops  for  hay,  and  plow  under  merely  the 
stubble  and  roots,  which  are  accounted  by  many  as  equivalent  to  a  good  dressing  of  stable 
manure;  but,  of  course,  the  greater  the  quantity  of  this  fertilizing  material  that  is  left  in  the 
soil  the  greater  wiU  be  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  soil  resulting  from  the  system  of  green 
manuring,  and  the  sooner — other  conditions  being  equal — will  the  entire  crop  used  for  this 
purpose  restore  and  enrich  the  lands  upon  which  it  is  used.  Some  recommend  sowing  buck- 
wheat with  the  clover  seed.  As  we  have  never  practiced  this  method,  we  cannot  give  the 
result  of  it  from  experience.  Clover  should  be  plowed  under  when  perfectly  green,  having 
attained  a  good  growth ;  and  most  farmers  consider  the  best  time  for  doing  this  to  be  when 
in  full  blossom;  it  should  then  remain  undisturbed  until  the  proper  time  for  sowing  grain  or 
planting  other  crops. 

Yarious  Crops  for  Green  Manurei — Next  in  value  to  clover,  buckwheat  is  thought 
by  many  to  merit  a  place,  and  to  be  nearly  equal  to  clover  in  fertilizing  properties.  It  can 
be  easily  sown  and  raised,  and  requires  but  a  short  time  for  growth ;  hence,  where  a  crop  of 
wheat,  rye,  or  barley  has  been  removed  it  is  especially  adapted  to  the  purpose.  It  also  shades 
the  ground  well,  keeping  it  cool,  and  thus  lessens  the  evaporation  of  its  fertilizing  gases  and 
renders  it  mellow,  while  it  keeps  down  the  weeds.  It  thus  furnishes  a  very  good  substitute 
for  clover. 

Winter  rye  is  also  valuable  for  green  manure.  It  should  be  sown  early  in  the  fall,  and 
a  further  growth  given  it  in  the  spring  before  turning  it  under. 

Corn  also  sown  broadcast  is  highly  valued  by  many  for  this  purpose. 

The  wonderfully  valuable  properties  of  the  cow-pea,  as  a  renovator  of  poor  soils,  are  well 
known  in  the  South,  where  it  is  considered  the  best  of  vegetables  for  this  purpose.  It  grows 
luxuriantly  and  rapidly,  producing  two  crops  in  a  season,  and  will  thrive  on  very  poor  land, 
but  the  crop  will  be  greatly  improved  by  the  application  of  about  a  hundred  pounds  of  plaster 
per  acre. 

It  should  be  turned  under  when  most  of  the  pods  are  about  half-grown,  and  none  are 
neai  being  ripened. 

Dr.  Pollard,  late  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  in  Virginia,  gives  the  following  directions 
relative  to  improving  partially-exhausted  lands  in  the  Southern  States,  by  the  use  of  vegetable 
manures: 

"  By  husbanding  aU  animal  manures,  and  sowing  peas  and  clover,  we  can  obtain  a  large 
amount  of  nitrogen  for  the  soil.  It  may  be  said  that  a  considerable  portion  of  our  lands  are 
too  poor  to  produce  clover  or  even  a  crop  of  peas.  Then  let  two  hundred  pounds  of  ground 
South  Carolina  phosphate,  and  three  himdred  pounds  of  kainit  (Dr.  Ravenel's  '  ash  element') 
be  applied  to  the  land,  and  peas  be  seeded ;  turn  these  under  and  sow  clover  with  wheat,  or 
oats  if  thought  best,  and  we  shall  be  apt  to  get  a  stand  of  clover,  particularly  if  the  land  be 
limed  after  the  peas  are  turned  under.     But  the  clover  will  do  better  by  itself  than  with 


FERTILIZERS.  77 

■wheat  or  rye,  if  a  stand  can  be  obtained.  The  wheat  or  oats,  to  be  sure,  will  be  some  protec- 
tion in  the  spring  from  frost,  but  grass  and  weeds  will  soon  spring  up  to  protect  the  clover. 
If  this  plan  should  be  tried,  as  a  means  of  furnishing  nitrogen  and  improving  poor  lands,  it 
might  be  well  to  sow  the  clover  in  the  fall  as  soon  as  the  peas  are  turned  under,  if  it  is  deter- 
mined to  grow  the  clover  alone.  If  this  is  done,  the  land  should  be  rolled  after  seeding 
clover,  as  the  peas  will  leave  it  in  a  spongy  state.  But  if  the  farmer  cannot  get  the  'ash 
element,'  let  him  sow  oats  or  rye  early  in  the  fall,  or  oats  early  in  the  spring,  turn  them  under 
in  June,  then  sow  peas,  and  then  clover,  if  a  good  growth  of  peas  has  been  secured,  appl3ring 
lime,  however,  if  possible,  after  the  peas  are  fallowed  in." 

Hungarian  grass  possesses  rich  vegetable  substances,  has  a  luxuriant  growth,  and  turns 
under  very  easily,  as  its  fine  fibrous  roots  hold  fast  to  the  ground,  while  the  upper  portion  is 
turned  into  the  furrow,  never  clogging  the  plow.  It  is  a  cheap  crop  and  grows  quickly,  being 
ready  for  plowing  under  usually  in  about  sixty  days,  requu-ing  only  about  a  dollar's  worth  of 
seed  per  acre.  Its  growth  wiU  be  facilitated  by  finely  pulverizing  the  soil  before  sowing; 
and  after  covering  it  lightly  with  a  harrow  to  use  tlie  roller,  which  promotes  a  quick  germi- 
nation of  the  seed. 

After  the  crop  has  been  plowed  under,  the  decomposition  of  the  buried  vegetable  matter 
will  be  hastened  by  harrowing  the  ground  and  rolling  it.  It  is  said  to  leave  the  land  in  a 
better  condition  for  wheat  than  oats  used  for  this  purpose. 

Sod  of  any  kind  of  grass  is  valuable  for  fertilizing  purposes,  and  the  more  grass  there 
is  on  it,  when  turned  down,  the  better.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  among  farmers  in  cultivating  corn, 
that  the  best  crops  are  generally  produced  when  the  seed  is  planted  upon  the  inverted  grass 
turf;  the  roots  and  stubble  of  the  grass  furnishing  an  immense  quantity  of  valuable  plant-food 
for  the  growing  crop.  Besides  the  vegetable  substances  we  have  mentioned  for  fertil- 
izing purposes,  various  others  are  often  used ;  in  fact,  every  decomposable  thing  adds  to  the 
productiveness  of  soils,  when  applied  in  the  proper  quantity  and  manner. 

Even  weeds  of  rank  growth  plowed  under  can  be  utilized  in  furnishing  enriching 
elements  to  the  soil,  when  suitably  decomposed ;  they  should,  however,  be  plowed  before  any 
of  them  have  ripened  their  seed,  as  they  would  otherwise  become  self-sown  and  produce 
another  crop  of  weeds.  It  is  as  true  in  agriculture,  as  everywhere  else,  that  every  creation 
has  a  purpose,  and  "nothing  is  made  in  vain." 

Commercial  Fertilizers. — The  question  often  asked  by  the  farmer  is,  Do  commer- 
cial fertilizers  pay? — in  other  words,  Is  the  amount  expended  in  artificial  fertilizers  realized  in 
benefit  to  the  crops?  In  answering  this  question,  many  considerations  must  of  necessity  be 
taken  into  account. 

They  may  be  very  beneficial  and  well  repay  the  expenditure  involved  in  increasing  the 
quantity  and  often  the  quahty  of  the  crops,  or  they  may  result  in  a  serious  loss  to  the  farmer, 
with  an  injury  to  the  soil;  much  depending  upon  the  kind  and  quantity  used,  and  the  manner 
of  using.  In  the  use  of  aU  fertilizers,  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  requirements  of  the  crop  to  be 
produced  must  be  taken  into  account;  it  must  also  be  properly  applied. 

If  a  farmer  expends  large  sums  of  money  for  phosphoric  acid  and  applies  it  to  the  soil, 
when  nitrogen  is  what  that  soil  needs  in  producing  the  desired  crop,  disappointment  will  be 
the  result;  or,  if  he  supplies  to  a  soil  nitrogen  when  phosphoric  acid  i^  the  element  needed, 
the  result  will  be  no  more  satisfactory  than  the  former;  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  if  too  small 
a  quantity  of  the  proper  kind  be  applied  to  produce  any  change  in  the  productive  capacity  of 
the  land,  or  if  an  unwarrantable  amount  of  certain  kinds  be  used  and  in  a  short  time  it 
exhausts  certain  elements  of  the  soil,  with  other  undesirable  results — in  either  of  these  cases 
the  fault  would  not  be  with  the  fertilizer  itself,  but  with  the  lack  of  skill  in  the  one  who 
selected  and  applied  it.  Soils  widely  differ  in  their  capacity  for  supplying  crops  with 
plant  food,    and   correspondingly   in   their   demands    for   aid   from  fertilizers;    some   soils 


78  THE  ASIERICAN  FAR3IER. 

will,  consequently,  give  the  best  results  witli  one  kind  of  fertilizer,  and  others  with 
another  kind,  while  others  still  will  not  respond  to  any  application  whatever,  until  the  condi 
tions  are  changed,  which  can  only  be  effected  by  suitable  drainage,  irrigation,  the  use  of 
lime,  or  proper  tillage. 

In  order  to  attain  the  highest  results  in  agriculture,  as  with  everything  else,  we  must 
make  use  of  the  right  materials  in  the  right  place;  and  if  artificial  fertilizers  are  thus  used 
they  cannot  bring  results  otherwise  than  satisfactory,  providing  the  season  and  other  circum- 
stances be  favorable.  The  world-renowned  experiments  at  Rothamsted.  England,  bv  Mr. 
Lawes,  embracing  a  period  of  over  forty  years,  besides  those  from  other  noted  scientific  agri- 
culturists covering  a  more  hmited  space  of  time,  all  prove  conclusively  that  artificial  fertilizers, 
when  rightly  used,  will  prove  the  most  potent  aids  in  agriculture,  and  that  the  only  means  of 
determining  what  a  soil  needs  is  to  study  it  by  careful  observation  and  experiment. 

In  making  this  statement  favorable  to  artificial  fertilizers,  we  do  not  wish  to  be  under- 
stood as  recommending  them  as  substituting  entirely  the  various  farm  manures  that  the 
farmer  has  recourse  to  in  improving  his  lands  and  crops;  we  do  not  recommend  them  as 
supplanting,  but  supplementing  the  farm  manure. 

We  think  it  would  be  a  very  poor  policy  indeed  for  any  farmer  to  allow  the  farm 
manures  to  go  to  waste,  and  expend  money  for  commercial  fertilizers.  We  believe  in  using 
all  the  available  icastes  of  the  farm  possible,  for  manure — the  compost  heap,  cess-pool,  privy-vault, 
ashes,  old  bones,  and  everything  that  can  add  to  that  best  of  all  the  fertilizers,  stable  manure 
— to  aid  in  furnishing  plan1>food  to  crops.  It  would  be  very  poor  economy  for  a  farmer  to 
neglect  to  gather  his  o-mi  crops  and  buy  of  his  neighbor,  and  it  would  be  equally  poor 
economy  for  him  to  neglect  to  make  use  of  his  farm  manure,  and  buy  commercial  manures  to 
take  their  place.  The  poor  farm  management  in  the  one  case  would  be  equal  to  that  of  the 
other. 

"We  simply  advise  that  the  farmer  use  the  artificial  fertilizers  to  supplement  or  help  out, 
as  it  were,  the  farm  manure,  as  most  farms  require  more  manure  than  the  farm  furnishes  for 
keeping  them  up  in  their  best  condition  in  soil,  and  giving  the  best  results  in  crops.  It  is 
thought  by  many  of  our  leading  agriculturists,  that  a  liberal  supply  of  barn-yard  manure 
increases  the  effect  of  the  commercial  fertilizers,  and  vice  versa,  when  the  two  are  used 
together. 

Mr.  Wood  of  Mt.  Kisco,  N.  Y.,  recently  stated  at  an  agricultural  meeting  that,  as  a 
result  of  his  experience  in  commercial  fertilizers,  he  would  warn  farmers  against  their  use  in 
small  quantities,  or  without  the  application  of  sufBcient  plant-food  to  support  the  growth  of 
the  plant  after  the  fertilizers  have  started  it  vigoroiisly;  that,  by  the  use  of  phosphates,  he 
can  raise  one  hundred  bushels  or  more  per  acre  of  southern  white  Dent  corn,  and  it  will  be 
sufficiently  ripe  to  be  cut  by  the  first  of  September.  His  lands  are  made  very  rich  otherwise 
by  the  iise  of  barn-yard  manures,  and  the  phosphates  force  the  growth  of  his  crops  so  rapidly 
that  the  effect  is  to  give  him  the  results  of  a  climate  like  that  of  southern  New  Jersey. 

Prof.  Atwater.  in  giving  the  result  of  farm  experiments  with  fertilizers,  in  connection 
■with  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  also  says: 

"  17.  The  common  impression  among  farmers  that  the  best  use  of  artificial  fertilizers  is 
to  supplement  farm  manures  is,  doubtless,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  correct." 

With  respect  to  the  requirements  of  different  crops,  a  very  accurate  estimate  can  be 
obtained  from  a  table  giving  their  analyses  by  a  competent  chemist.  Much  can  also  be 
learned  by  the  experience  of  the  most  successful  farmers  in  the  country,  given  in  the  best 
agricultural  works  and  newspapers,  which  will  render  valuable  assistance  to  the  farmer  in  all 
the  departments  of  agriculture;  but  since  soils  vary  so  widely  in  their  constituents,  the  best 
and  surest  test  in  determining  the  needs  of  certain  soils  is  found  only  by  careful  study  and 
experiment,  which  each  farmer  can  accomplish  for  himself  in  a  small  way  very  easily.     Having 


FERTILIZERS.  79 

once  determined  those  requirements  for  his  particular  lands,  important  information  has  thus 
been  obtained  and  much  been  accomplished  toward  successful  results. 

Prof.  Johnson,  of  Yale  College,  the  author  of  several  agricultural  works,  and  chemist  of 
the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  suggests  that  in  making  such  experiments,  it  is  better  to 
have  a  long  and  narrow  plot  of  ten  or  fifteen  square  rods  area  to  experiment  upon,  because 
the  inequalities  of  the  soil  are  less  liable  to  disturb  the  results.  The  land  being  prepared  for 
a  crop,  a  number  of  measured  plots  or  strips  are  laid  oS,  and  different  fertilizing  materials 
are  apphed  to  them  in  appropriate  quantities.  On  one,  for  example,  use  gypsum;  on  another, 
fresh  slacked  lime  ;  on  another,  a  superphosphate  made  from  bone-ash  or  bone-black,  or 
ground  bones  ;  on  another,  pulverized  blood  and  meat-scraps,  rich  in  nitrogen,  but  nearly- 
free  from  phosphates;  on  another,  sulphate  ammonia;  on  a  sixth,  muriate  of  potash;  seventh, 
a  nitrogenous  phosphate  or  a  fish  guano;  eighth,  stable  manure,  etc.  Two  or  three  plots  with 
no  manure  should  intervene  to  make  a  basis  of  comparison.  The  experiments  should  extend 
over  a  series  of  three  or  four  years,  the  same  plots  being  each  year  treated  with  the  same 
kinds  and  quahties  of  fertilizers,  but  cultivated  with  difierent  crops.  Different  fertilizing 
materials,  or  the  combination  of  certain  substances  to  form  special  fertilizers  for  special 
crops,  could  thus  be  tested.  Mr.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  states  that  in  order  to  obtain  large 
crops  he  would  use  artificial  fertilizers.  Prof.  Ville,  the  noted  French  agricultural  chemist, 
concurs  in  the  same  opinion  from  his  numerous  experiments.  For  speedy  results,  when 
skillfully  used,  and  for  restoring  partially-exhausted  lands,  rendered  so  by  over-cropping, 
commercial  fertilizers,  when  properly  used,  are  among  the  most  valuable  agents  of  the  farmer. 
By  combining  stable  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers,  we  think  the  result  in  all  respects 
will  prove  perfectly  satisfactory. 

Since  commercial  fertilizers  are  so  frequently  adulterated  with  worthless  substances,  it  is 
safe  to  purchase  only  those  manufactured  by  some  well-known  firm  of  reputed  integrity, 
whose  products  have  been  well-tested  in  the  markets,  or  after  a  sample  has  been  subjected  to 
chemical  analysis  by  a  competent  chemist.  The  principal  deficiencies  of  our  soils,  as  we  have 
previously  stated,  are  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen,  with  often  a  lack  of  sulphuric 
acid,  lime,  and  rarely  magnesia.  In  England,  according  to  Mr.  Lawes,  nature  has  furnished, 
generally,  a  sufficient  supply  of  potash,  and  consequently  the  soils  there  do  not  require  it 
artificially  to  the  extent  that  those  of  the  United  States  do,  the  principal  demand  there  being 
nitrogen  ;  consequently  the  tests  of  English  soils  will  not  always  apply  definitely  to  our  own 
in  the  production  of  certain  crops;  yet,  notwithstanding,  these  tests  of  foreign  soils  serve  to 
illustrate  the  potency  of  chemical  fertilizers  as  agents  in  successful  agriculture,  when  applied 
to  any  soil  deficient  in  the  elements  that  such  fertilizers  can  supply. 

Special  Fertilizers. — According  to  authentic  sources,  Prof.  Johnston,  of  Scotland, 
was  the  first  to  prescribe  special  fertilizers  in  detail  for  special  crops,  his  general  principle 
being  that  the  manure  apphed  to  the  soil  must  contain  all  those  inorganic  or  mineral  sub- 
stances which  the  crop  we  wish  to  grow  carries  off  the  soil,  and  in  the  relative  proportions  in 
which  they  are  respectively  found  in  the  ash  of  the  plant  (the  ashes  remaining  after  burning 
the  entire  plant),  the  exception  being  to  omit  from  the  application  those  elements  already 
abundant  in  the  soil.  He  also  favored  the  addition  of  organic  matter  to  the  soil,  in  the  form 
of  animal  or  vegetable  substances,  in  order  to  restore  the  elements  of  this  nature  that  the 
cultivated  crops  had  extracted  in  their  growth. 

Prof.  VUle,  of  Prance,  has  based  a  theory  of  fertilizing  upon  the  following  propositions: 

"  1st.  Give  the  earth  more  phosphates,  more  potash  and  lime,  than  the  harvests  have  taken 

from  it.     2d.  Give  it  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  they  contain."     He  has  also  given  various 

recipes  for  complete  fertilizers  for  special  crops,  based  upon  the  above  principles.     Prof. 

Stockbridge,   of   the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  CoUege,   has  arrived  at  the  opinion,  after 

various  and  repeated  experiments  at  the  agricultural  college  farm,  that  the  only  substances 
7 


80  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

generally  needful  to  be  supplied  artificially,  in  order  to  produce  good  crops,  are  nitrogen, 
potash,  and  phosplioric  acid,  and  that  to  compound  these  substances  in  the  proportion  in 
which  they  are  contained  in  crops,  according  to  an  average  of  many  of  tlie  most  reliable 
analyses,  will  make  a  special  fertilizer  for  each  crop,  which,  if  applied,  will  produce  the  best 
of  results  without  apparent  exhaustion  to  the  soil.  The  nitrogen,  as  given  in  Prof.  Stock- 
bridge's  formulas  for  special  manures  (known  as  the  Stockbridge  fertilizers),  is  supplied  in  the 
form  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  or  its  equivalent,  potash  as  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash,  and 
phosphoric  acid  as  super-phosphate  of  lime.  We  give  a  few  of  the  Stockbridge  formulas  for 
some  of  the  principal  crops,  which  show  how  small  a  quantity  of  each  ingredient  is  necessary 
when  supplied  in  the  proper  proportion.     With  regard  to  them,  Prof.  Stockbridge  says: — 

"  The  form  in  which  I  have  obtained  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  to  compound 
for  the  nutrition  of  plants,  in  these  experiments,  has  been  in  that  of  a  neutral  salt  for  the 
nitrogen  and  potash,  and  a  supei-phosphate  for  the  phosphoric  acid.  For  root-crops  aad 
beans,  I  have  used  the  potash  in  the  form  of  sulphate;  for  grain  and  forage  crops,  in  the 
muriate  form.  No  specific  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  quantity  of  the  compounds  to  be  used 
in  preparing  any  of  my  formulas,  because  the  percentage  of  nitrogen,  potash,  and  soluble 
phosphoric  acid  they  contain  is  quite  variable;  but  having  learned  the  percentages  of  the  com- 
pounds, the  required  quantity  is  easily  ascertained. 

WHEAT.— Fob  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       41  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  205  lbs. 

Potash,  ....       24  lbs.,       •'  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .       48  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  20  lbs.,       "  •'       Superphosphate,       .     160  lbs. 

The  crude  materials  for  the  above  will  comprise,  as  wiU  be  seen  by  the  table,  over  400 

lbs.,  and  axe  said  to  increase  the  crop  25  bushels  over  the  natural  yield  of  the  soil. 

INDIAN  CORN.— Fob  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       64  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  320  lbs. 

Potash,  ....       77  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .     154  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  31  lbs.,       "  "       Superphosphate,       '.     248  lbs. 

The  above  is  designed  to  increase  the  natural  product  of  the  soil  50  bushels. 

FODDER  CORN.— For  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,       .       .       .       20  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  1 00  lbs. 

Potash,   ....       66  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .     132  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  16  lbs.,      "  "       Superphosphate,        .     128  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  two  tons. 

RYE— For  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       25  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  125  lbs. 

Potash,  ....       24  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .       48  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  1 6  lbs.,      "  "       Superphosphate,       .     128  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  20  bushels. 

OATS.— Fob  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       23  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  115  lbs. 

Potash,   ....       20  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .       40  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  12  lbs.,      "  "       Superphosphate,       .       90  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  25  bushels. 

BUCKWHEAT.— For  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       37  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  185  lbs. 

Potash,  ....       50  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .     100  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  15  lbs.,      "  "      Superphosphate,       .     105  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  25  bushels. 


FERTILIZERS.  SI 

POTATOES.— For  One  Acre. 

Nitxogen,      .       .       .       21  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  105  lbs. 

Potash,  ....       34  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .     225  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  11  lbs.,       "  "       Superphosphate,       .       85  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  100  bushels. 

FIELD  BEANS.— For  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       53  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  265  lbs. 

Potash,   ....       33  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .     198  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  20  lbs.,      "  "      Superphosphate,       .     160  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  20  bushels. 

SWEDE  TURNIPS,  OR  RUTABAGAS.— For  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      .       .       .       1 1  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,    55  lbs. 

Potash,  ....       18  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .     118  lbs. 

Suluble  phosphoric  acid,     8  lbs.,       "  "       Superphosphate,        .       63  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  100  bushels. 

ONIONS.— For  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      .       .       .       11  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,    55  lbs. 

Potash,   ....         9  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,   .       54  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,     4  lbs.,       "  "       Superphosphate,        .       32  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  100  bushels. 

HAY. — Foe  One  Acre. 

Nitrogen,      ...       36  lbs.,  in  the  form  of  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  180  lbs. 

Potash,  .       .       .       .       31  lbs.,       "  "       Muriate  of  potash,    .       70  lbs. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid,  12  lbs.,       "  "       Superphosphate,        .       95  lbs. 

Increase  over  natural  yield,  one  ton. 

The  above  is  founded  on  an  average  of  the  formulas  for  red  clover,  white  clover,  English 
hay,  and  timothy. 

Having  never  used  the  above  special  fertilizers,  we  cannot  speak  of  their  merits  from 
experience,  but  from  what  we  have  been  able  to  learn  concerning  them,  they  seem  better 
adapted  to  any  other  soil  than  heavy  clays,  the  latter  giving  often  unsatisfactory  results.  If 
they  will  accomplish  what  is  claimed  for  them  on  other  soUs,  ii,  will  certainly  be  of  assistance 
to  the  farmer  to  leam  the  results  of  careful  experiments  by  others,  in  determining  the  quantity 
and  kind  of  fertilizers  suited  to  different  crops,  and  spare  him  the  trouble  of  experimenting 
for  himself  ;  however,  in  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  of  any  kind,  we  favor  the  applica- 
tion of  a  liberal  supply  of  barn-yard  manure,  occasionally,  as  that  is  a  complete  fertihzer,  and, 
hence,  contains  all  the  elements  of  plant-food,  and  will  greatly  aid  in  keeping  the  land  in  a 
high  state  of  fertiUty,  and,  at  the  same  time,  causing  it  to  yield  abundant  crops.  Special 
fertilizers  will,  without  doubt,  also  aid  m  restoring  lands  exhausted  by  excessive  cropping. 
As  we  have  previously  stated,  we  regard  barn-yard  manure,  of  the  best  quality,  the  most 
desirable  general  fertilizer  that  can  be  used  by  the  farmer,  and  commercial  fertilizers  as  sup- 
plementary to  that;  but  where  the  former  cannot  be  obtained  in  sufiScient  quantities,  as  is  the 
case  with  most  of  our  farms — the  farm-supply  not  being  adequate  to  the  demand,  where  the 
lands  are  fertilized  to  the  extent  that  high  cultivation  and  successful  farming  requires — com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  valuable  substitutes.  Fertihzers  of  all  kinds  should  be  made  very  fine, 
that  they  may  be  easily  taken  up  and  appropriated  by  the  plants,  and  their  fertiUty,  in  a  great 
measure,  depends  upon  the  fineness  to  which  they  are  reduced  before  being  applied. 

In  addition  to  the  above  formulas  for  fertilizers,  the  Mapes  Co.  of  New  York  have,  for 
sugar-cane  or  sorgo,  one  containing  from  two  to  three  per  cent,  of   ammonia,  from  ten  to 


82  THE  AMERICAN  FARMEK. 

twelve  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  from  six  to  eight  per  cent,  of  potash.  This  is  said  to 
prove  valuable  for  either  Southern  sugar-cane  or  sorgo,  and  to  greatly  increase  the  quantity 
of  saccharine  matter  produced  by  the  stalks. 

They  also  have  a  formula  for  cotton,  containing  from  three  to  four  per  cent,  of  ammonia 
and  from  ten  to  fourteen  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid. 

Dr.  Nichols  also  has  a  formula  for  imitating  barn-yard  manure  in  its  constituents  and 
results,  but  which  is  said  to  act  rather  more  slowly  than  that  substance,  yet  is  more  lasting  in 
its  effects.  It  is  as  follows: — One  cord  of  seasoned  muck,  sixt3'-five  pounds  of  crude  nitrate 
of  soda,  two  bushels  of  wood-ashes,  one  peck  of  common  salt,  ten  pounds  of  fine  bone-meal, 
two  quarts  of  plaster,  and  ten  pounds  of  Epsom  salts.  These  are  all  to  be  caref  uUy  composted 
before  applying  to  the  soil. 

The  manufacturers  of  nearly  all  special  fertilizers  make  use  of  the  same  materials,  but  in 
difierent  proportions,  some  giving  potash  a  larger  proportion  than  others,  while  some  rely 
more  upon  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  than  potash. 

Application  of  Manures. — Formerly,  it  was  the  custom  to  plow  in  farm  manure, 
even  on  sod  lands,  it  often  being  plowed  under  so  deep  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  most  of 
the  plant  roots  during  the  first  season  after  its  application,  while  so  large  a  portion  of  the 
fertilizing  elements  were  washed  still  lower  by  the  rains,  that  they  failed  to  benefit  subse- 
quent crops;  hence,  much  of  the  value  of  the  material  applied  was  wasted  and  lost  to  the 
crops  it  was  intended  to  benefit. 

Light  covering  and  surface  application  were  afterwards  practiced  with  more  satisfactory 
results,  and  at  the  present  time  we  find  none  among  the  more  intelligent  farmers,  who  would 
think  of  covering  manure  heavily  with  soil. 

The  reasons  for  receiving  the  most  benefit  with  manures  near  the  surface  are  obvious. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  vigorous  start,  plants  need  the  stimulus  supplied  by  this  plant-food  in  the 
early  stages  of  life;  and  in  order  to  be  benefited  by  it,  it  must  lie  near  them,  where  their  short 
and  tender  rootlets  can  reach  it.  If  it  is  beyond  their  reach,  they  cannot  be  nourished  by  it. 
By  having  it  near  the  surface,  they  can  grasp  it  readily,  otherwise  they  will  need  to  wait  until 
they  can  grow  to  the  depth  in  which  their  food  is  hidden,  before  they  can  be  benefited  by  it, 
and  this  may  be  a  slow  and  starving  process.  By  having  the  plant-nourishment  at  the  start, 
a  much  larger  crop  wiU  not  only  be  secured,  but  it  will  mature  earlier,  and  be  more  perfect 
in  its  development. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  manures  generally  to  sink  deeper  in  the  soil ;  this  fact  argues  in 
favor  of  surface  application.  The  principal  objection  brought  against  the  latter  is,  that  when 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  much  of  the  ammonia  contained  in  the  manure  is  evaporated  and 
lost.  This  may  be  true  to  a  certain  extent,  but  we  think  the  loss  occasioned  in  this  manner 
not  as  great  as  is  generally  supposed. 

When  stable  manure  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  lands,  the  moisture  dries  very  quickly, 
and  as  soon  as  dried,  all  evaporation  and  consequent  loss  of  ammonia  ceases;  it  is  then  left 
for  the  rains  and  dews  to  gradually  dissolve  and  take  to  the  soil,  where  the  rootlets  can  feed 
upon  it.  The  greatest  loss  to  manure  from  exposure  to  sun  and  air,  is  during  the  process  of 
fermentation;  that  occasioned  by  such  exposure  after  this  process  being  very  slight,  while 
the  benefits  resulting  from  surface  application  are  very  apparent,  and  many  times  counter- 
balance the  loss  occasioned  by  it. 

When  green  manure  is  applied  to  grass-lands,  many  of  our  most  successful  farmers  sow  a 
moderate  supply  of  plaster  upon  it,  as  soon  as  spread,  in  order  to  hasten  decomposition  and 
aid  in  preventing  the  escape  of  the  ammonia. 

Seeds  are  generally  mixed  with  unfermented  manure,  and  often  noxious  weeds,  that  may 
prove  very  troublesome  to  eradicate,  are  sown  by  its  application ;  they,  however,  will  not  take 
root  as  readily  on  grass  lands,   where  the  turf  is  compact,  as  on  a  pulverized  soil;  hence 


FERTILIZERS.  83 

for  all  crops  on  tilled  lands,  we  would  recommend  that  the  manure  be  partially,  if  not  wholly, 
fermented,  or,  as  is  commonly  termed,  rotted,  before  being  appUed.  This  may  be  done  by 
composting  it  with  soil,  as  we  have  previously  described,  which  process  will  have  a  tendency 
to  destroy  the  germs  of  any  seed  it  may  contain ;  or  it  may  be  occasionally  turned,  giving  the 
seeds  an  opportunity  to  sprout,  and  die  in  the  process,  but  the  former  is  the  surest  method  of 
destroying  them.  In  no  case  do  we  approve  of  applying  strong  manure  directly  to  the  seed 
of  crops.  The  safer  way  for  hoed  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  for  instance,  is  to  have  a  slight 
layer  of  soil  cover  the  manure  before  the  seed  is  dropped;  and  as  a  general  rule  for  all  soils, 
the  best  method  of  applying  it,  is  to  spread  it  on  the  surface  after  the  last  plowing,  and  har- 
row it  in  with  the  crop,  if  practicable. 

When  manures  are  covered  by  hea\y  clay  or  loam  soils,  they  remain,  owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  soU,  nearly  dormant,  and  as  no  decomposition  takes  place,  they  are  of  little  use 
to  the  growing  crop.  On  Ughter  soils  their  action  is  more  speedy,  but  in  any  case  they  are 
more  efficacious  when  near  the  surface,  or  upon  it,  as  we  have  previously  stated. 

For  grass  lands,  we  advise  that  the  application  of  farm  manure  be  always  in  the  late 
autumn  or  early  winter,  that  it  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  melting  snows  and  early  spring 
rains  in  dissolving  it,  and  the  finer  it  is  pulverized  when  applied,  the  better. 

Dr.  Nichols  says  on  this  subject:  ''I  have  had  considerable  experience  in  this  matter  of 
top-dressing  grass  lands,  and  feel  competent,  therefore,  to  advise  on  the  subject.  In  the  use 
of  stable  dung,  we  say,  apply  it  rather  late  in  autumn,  but  not  too  late,  that  is,  do  not  wait 
until  the  ground  freezes,  but  do  it  about  a  month  before  the  usual  time  of  the  advent  of  severe 
frosts.  If  appUed  too  early,  as  in  August  or  September,  in  the  Northern  parts  of  the 
country,  it  dries  hard  in  the  sun,  and  is  not  so  readily  acted  upon  by  frosts,  and  besides  it 
sinks  deep  into  the  growing  grass,  and  is,  therefore,  not  so  well  distributed  as  it  should  be. 
The  active  principles  have  time  enough  to  undergo  chemical  change  from  October  to  the  next 
April  or  May.  Concentrated  fertilizers  should  not,  under  any  ordinary  conditions,  be  apphed 
in  the  autumn.  The  reason  is,  that  by  the  rapidity  of  the  change  the  active  elements  of  food 
are  brought  almost  immediately  to  the  open  mouths  of  plants,  and  thus  by  absorption  they 
are  stimulated  to  growth  when  growth  is  not  desirable." 

Application  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — Respecting  the  appHcation  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  we  know  of  nothing  better  than  the  following,  from  the  Dkector  of  the 
Connecticut  Experiment  Station. 

"  The  fertilizers  may  be  applied  broadcast,  or  if  more  convenient,  they  may  be  put  in 
the  hill  or  drill,  provided,  they  are  well  diffused  through  the  soil.  To  accomplish  this,  they  had 
better  be  diluted  with  several  times  their  bulk  of  earth  before  using.  The  important  points 
are,  that  they  be: 

"1st.     Applied  evenly  over  the  plots  where  they  belong  and  not  allowed  to  get  outside. 

"  2d.     Well  distributed  through  the  soil. 

"  Experiments  with  concentrated  fertilizers  are  often  spoiled,  just  as  crops  are  injured  or 
lost  through  wrong  application.  Farmers  are  apt  to  think  that  the  manure  must  be  put  close 
to  the  seed  or  the  plant  will  not  get  the  benefit  of  it.  This  is  wrong.  It  is  not  the  just  ger- 
minated plantlet  that  needs  the  manure,  but  the  plant,  from  the  time  it  is  well  started  until 
its  growth  is  done.  We  want,  not  only  to  give  the  crop  a  good  start,  but  to  help  it  out  on 
the  home  stretch  as  well.  The  roots  and  their  branching  rootlets  run  out  in  all  directions  in 
search  of  food,  and  the  fertilizers  ought  to  be  where  as  many  of  the  rootlets  as  possible  can 
get  at  them.  If  we  distribute  the  fertilizers  as  well  as  we  can,  the  water  in  the  soil,  aided  by 
the  chemical  and  physical  forces  that  nature  keeps  in  operation,  will  do  the  rest.  In  illus- 
tration of  this,  remember  how  well  barn-manure  acts  when  applied  as  a  top-dressing  long 
before  the  seed  is  put  in. 

"  But  if  we  concentrate  the  fertilizers  in  one  place,  fewer  roots  will  get  them,  and  these 


84 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


may  be  injured  by  coming  in  contact  witli  them  or  with  their  concentrated  solutions  in  the 
soil.  Tlie  roots  will  find  their  way  to  the  manure  and  develop  more  where  it  lies,  it  is  true; 
still  we  should  not  oblige  them  to  huddle  together  in  one  place,  but  should  rather  encourage 
them  to  spread  around  where,  with  the  increased  capacity  the  fertilizer  gives  them,  they  can 
get  the  more  from  the  soil.  Roots  join  with  other  natural  agents  in  rendering  inert  stores  of 
plant-food  available. 

"  Above  all,  do  not  let  the  fertilizers  come  too  close  to  the  seed.  A  coarse,  dili;te 
material  like  yard  manure  may  do  the  plants  no  harm,  but  such  concentrated  fertilizers  as 
potash  salts,  dried  blood,  nitrate  of  soda,  or  high  grade  superphosphates,  may  kill  them." 

"  The  testimony  of  the  experiments  is  on  the  whole  against  applying  in  the  hill  or  drill. 
The  best  results  in  the  majority  of  cases  came  where  the  fertilizers  were  sown  broadcast. 
Several  of  the  very  best  were  where  the  materials  were  scattered  over  a  strip  a  couple  of  feet 
or  so  wide  along  the  rows.  Many  of  the  worst  results  were  where  the  fertilizers  were  put  in 
the  hill  or  drill.  The  nitrate  of  soda  and  potash  salts  thus  applied  often  injured  the  crops, 
especially  in  dry  weather." 

Prof.  Pendleton  of  South  Carolina,  on  the  contrary,  says  that  in  his  experiments,  super- 
phosphates never  produce  remarkable  results  sown  broadcast,  and  he  has  found  that  two 
hundred  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  will  produce  more  effect  in  the  drill  than  five  hundred 
pounds  sown  broadcast.  The  explanation  he  gives  for  this  effect  is,  that  the  superphosphates 
find  plenty  of  bases,  such  as  clay,  iron,  lime,  etc.,  in  the  whole  soil  to  reduce  the  solubility 
before  the  rootlets  of  the  plants  find  it;  while  in  the  drill,  sufficient  remains  in  direct  contact 
with  the  roots  to  give  the  plant  a  vigorous  start.  He  also  found  by  experiment,  that  equal 
parts  of  lime  and  superphosphate  produced  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pounds  of  cotton 
less  per  acre  than  the  same  quantity  of  superphosphate  alone. 

When  used  in  the  drill,  we  have,  in  our  experience  and  observation,  found  the  best 
results  only  to  be  attained  when  the  fertilizers  were  mixed  with  four  or  five,  or  more,  times 
their  bulk  of  earth  and  thus  diluted.  This  is  very  important,  as  the  strong  chemical  sub- 
stances contained  in  them  will  be  liable  to  injure  the  germs  of  the  seeds  or  the  rootlets  of 
the  young  plant.  When  applied  as  a  top-dressing  to  growing  crops,  artificial  manure  should 
be  applied  only  in  wet  weather. 

The  Fallow  System  was  formerly  much  practiced  in  England,  and  also  in  this  coun- 
try to  a  certain  extent,  but  at  present  is  partially,  if  not  almost  entirely,  discarded  by  the 
leading  agriculturists  of  both  countries.  It  is  a  very  ancient  custom  in  agriculture,  and  is  a 
means  of  enriching  lands  by  allowing  them  to  rest  for  one  or  more  seasons,  after  partial 
exhaustion  occasioned  by  continuous  production.  No  tillage  is  required  except  one  or  more 
plowings,  and  thus  exposing  the  soil  to  the  action  of  the  elements.  Such  lands  are  some- 
times termed  "naked  fallows."  This  system  is  founded  upon  the  principle  that  the  soil  has 
stored  up  within  it  vast  quantities  of  plant-food,  which  is  not  in  a  condition  to  be  available 
for  the  present  use  of  vegetation;  that  the  crops  which  the  soil  has  previously  produced  have 
exhausted  most  of  the  available  soluble  food,  such  as  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.,  and  unless 
these  elements  that  have  been  extracted  from  the  soil,  in  the  production  of  previous  crops,  can 
be  returned  to  it  in  some  form  of  fertilizers,  suited  to  the  immediate  support  of  plants, 
time  must  be  given  for  dissolving  (by  the  disintegrating  process  so  constantly  going  on  in 
all  soils)  such  elements  as  are  now  locked  up  in  the  soil,  and  which  will  become  available 
before  the  period  of  another  sowing.  The  advocates  of  this  practice  claim  that  it  not  only 
greatly  improves  the  condition  of  the  soil,  but  is  also  the  surest  means  of  destroying  noxious 
weeds;  while  the  objections  urged  against  it  are  not  only  a  loss  of  the  use  of  the  land  by  the 
period  of  idleness,  but  a  great  loss  of  much  of  the  fertilizing  element  of  the  soil  by  evapora- 
tion and  drainage,  exposed  as  it  is  during  the  summer  to  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun,  drying 
winds,  and  leaching  rains. 


FERTILIZERS.  85 

The  unlocking  of  the  mineral  elements  of  the  soil,  or,  in  other  words,  changing  its 
mechanical  condition,  as  well  as  the  destruction  of  troublesome  weeds,  can,  it  seems  to  us,  be 
accomplished  in  a  more  economical  way,  and  without  wasting  any  of  the  soil  elements;  and 
that  is  by  the  "green  fallow,"  which  has  generally  taken  the  place  of  the  old-time  fallow  sys- 
tem. Some  green  crop,  such  as  clover  or  buckwheat,  is  often  sown  after  the  plowing,  and 
allowed  to  grow  until  at  the  proper  stage  of  growth  for  plowing  under;  in  this  way  the 
advantages  of  vegetable  manuring  are  secured,  with  but  slight  expense  of  time  or  labor,  and 
the  soil  will  acquire  more  nutriment  and  benefit  by  the  vegetable  manure  than  if  allowed  to 
lie  idle,  while  all  troublesome  weeds  that  are  plowed  under  before  ripening  their  seeds  will 
not  be  self-sown.  Where  the  land  lies  idle,  some  recommend  that  the  plowings  be  about  six 
weeks  apart.  "We  consider  that  land  is  better  prepared  for  grain,  or  any  other  crop,  by  the 
use  of  vegetable  manures  as  above  described,  than  by  the  fallow  system. 

Fall  Fallowing. — The  old-time  practice  of  summer  fallowing,  or  -working  the  soil  for 
a  year  without  a  crop,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  larger  crop  the  second  season,  is,  as 
previously  stated,  regarded  as  nearly  obsolete  by  the  best  agriculturists  of  both  this  country 
and  Europe.  "Whatever  may  be  the  opinion  concerning  the  summer  fallow,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  whatever  of  the  value  of  fall  fallowing.  The  benefits  derived  from  the  latter  practice 
are  very  justly  set  forth  by  the  following  extract  from  one  of  our  leading  agricultural 
journals: — 

"  The  constant  turning  and  working  of  the  ground  during  the  fall  months  cost  nothing 
but  time  and  labor,  at  a  season  when  these  cannot  be  otherwise  employed,  and  so,  in  reality, 
cost  nothing.  But  the  benefits  to  the  soil  are  very  considerable.  Especially  is  this  the  case 
with  heavy  clay  soils,  and  less,  in  a  descending  ratio,  through  the  gradations  from  heavy  clay 
down  to  light  loams — at  least,  it  is  so  considered  by  many;  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  if  the  atmospheric  effects  upon  the  particles  of  a  clay  soil  serve,  to  some  extent,  to  dis- 
solve the  mineral  particles,  they  may  easily  do  the  same  service  for  a  sandy  soil,  and  help  to 
set  loose  some  of  the  potash  contained  in  the  granitic  or  feldspathic  particles  of  such  a  soil. 
The  mechanical  effects  of  the  fall-working  are  certainly  more  useful  upon  clay  than  a  light 
loam;  but  there  are  other  purposes  to  serve  than  merely  to  disintegrate  the  soil,  and  mellow 
and  loosen  it.  Tliere  are  weeds  to  destroy,  and  the  forwarding  of  the  spring  work  by  the 
preparation  of  the  ground  for  early  sowing.  These  services  are  useful  for  a  light  soil  as  a 
heavy  one,  and  as  it  is  reasonable  to  look  for  some  advantage  from  the  working  in  the  way 
of  gain  in  fertihty  on  light  as  well  as  heavy  soils,  it  is  advisable  that  owners  of  either  kind 
should  avail  themselves  of  whatever  benefits  the  practice  affords.  Fall  fallowing  consists  in 
plowing  and  working  the  soil  with  the  cultivator  or  the  harrow.  This  may  be  done  at  such 
intervals  as  may  be  convenient,  or  which  will  help  to  start  some  weeds  into  growth,  when 
these  may  be  destroyed  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator.  Heavy  soils  should  be  left  in  rough 
ridges  at  the  last  plowing,  with  as  deep  furrows  between  them  as  possible,  in  order  to  expose 
the  largest  surface  to  the  effects  of  frost  and  thaw.  Light  soils  may  be  left  in  a  less  rough 
condition,  but  the  last  plowing  should  be  so  done  as  to  throw  the  furrows  on  edge,  and  not  flat, 
leaving  the  field  somewhat  ridged.  A  very  little  work  in  the  spring  will  put  the  ground  into 
excellent  order  for  the  early  crops,  and  for  spring  wheat,  especially,  this  better  condition  of 
the  soil  will  be  of  the  greatest  benefit.  "When  thus  treated  in  the  fall,  the  soil  is  remarkably 
mellow,  and  is  dry  enough  to  work  much  earlier  than  the  compact  stubble-land  which  remains 
as  it  was  left  after  the  harvest.  As  to  the  time  for  doing  this  work,  the  sooner  it  is  begun 
and  the  oftener  it  is  repeated,  the  better.  It  is  not  too  late  to  finish  when  the  ground  is 
frozen,  or  there  is  an  inch  of  snow  on  the  ground." 


i^  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

TILLAGE. 

TILLAGE  has  been  defined  as  the  art  or  practice  of  preparing  land  for  seed,  and  keeping 
it  in  a  state  favorable  for  the  growth  of  crops.  The  object  of  tillage  is  defined  by 
another  to  be  that  of  extirpating  from  the  soil  the  growths  that  we  do  not  want,  and 
putting  it  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  the  growths  that  we  do  want.  The  means  employed 
and  the  nature  of  conducting  the  proper  tillage  of  the  soil,  together  with  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  thereby,  are  among  the  most  important  considerations  in  agriculture,  since  tillage  has 
relation  not  only  to  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  but  to  its  moisture,  warmth,  aeration, 
fertilization,  and  the  many  benefits  derived  from  the  mixing  of  different  elements  of  the  soil, 
and  setting  free  those  mineral  constituents  of  plant-food  that  are  locked  up  in  all  soils ;  hence, 
to  a  certain  extent,  judicious  tillage  is  equivalent  to  the  application  of  fertilizers  to  the  land, 
and  many  writers  have  placed  so  much  importance  upon  it  as  to  assert  that  if  lands  were  allowed 
to  lie  fallow  every  other  season,  producing  only  once  in  two  years,  manure  would  never  be 
required  to  produce  good  crops,  and  no  deterioration  of  the  soil  would  result.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  question,  there  are  those  who  take  the  opposite  extreme  view  of  the  subject,  and 
claim  that  tillage  has  a  tendency  to  make  land  sterile  by  the  exposure  of  its  elements  to  the 
air,  thus  permitting  the  fertilizing  properties  contained  in  the  soil  to  escape.  Either  extreme 
has  its  objections,  and  the  medium  position,  sometimes  denominated  "the  golden  mean,"  is,  in 
regard  to  this,  as  in  most  subjects,  the  most  desirable  coui'se  to  pursue.  By  following  the 
fallow  method,  the  farmer  woidd  require  twice  the  area  of  land  that  he  now  uses  in  order  to 
produce  the  same  amount  in  crops,  while  that  portion  of  his  land  which  produced  the  previous 
season  was  lying  idle;  besides,  we  very  much  doubt  whether,  even  with  this  rest  of  alternate 
seasons,  most  soils  woiild  not  suffer  a  gradual  deterioration  when  entirely  unsuppHed  with 
manvire.  The  other  theory  above  mentioned  sets  at  naught  all  the  experience  of  the  past 
with  its  important  teachings,  and  gives  but  a  partial  view  of  the  subject.  There  are  many 
good  reasons  for  believing  that  too  much  plowing,  as  well  as  too  deep  plowing,  is  injurious  to 
many  lands,  and  has  a  tendency  to  make  them  sterile;  the  former,  by  continuous  exposure  of 
the  fertilizing  matter  which  the  soil  contains  to  the  air,  involving  a  waste  of  these  elements, 
and  also  increasing  the  porous  condition  of  such  soils,  while  too  deep  plowing  throws  up  often 
a  gravelly  or  sandy  subsoil,  and  buries  the  rich  humus  of  the  surface  beneath,  where  it  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  consequently  is  lost  to  them;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  we  believe  the  loss  of  plant-food  occasioned  by  this  exposure  to  the  air  and  sun  to  be 
very  slight,  and  that  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  soils  are  greatly  increased  by  cultivation. 
As  almost  all  good  is  liable  to  be  perverted  to  a  wrong  or  injudicious  use,  so  the  good  results 
of  tillage  may,  in  some  cases,  be  perverted  by  the  farmer  plowing  his  fields  too  much,  but  we 
believe  such  cases  are  rare,  and  are  greatly  outnumbered  by  those  where  the  soil  is  not 
plowed  enough  to  produce  the  successful  results  that  might  be  obtained  by  a  thorough  and 
judicious  tillage  adapted  to  the  character  and  needs  of  the  soil  and  crops  to  be  produced. 
Because  an  overdose  of  the  proper  kind  of  medicine  might  prove  injurious,  and  perhaps  fatal 
in  some  cases,  is  no  reason  why  aU  medicine  should  be  discarded  and  denounced  as  positively 
injurious;  but  such  a  course  would  be  quite  as  reasonable  as  the  assertions  of  those  who  claim 
tillage  to  be  injurious  to  lands  because  it  is  sometimes  practiced  to  excess.  Success  in 
agriculture  requires  intelligent  thought  and  action  as  well  as  every  other  department  of 
business,  and  the  results  of  ignorance  and  carelessness  are  fully  as  disastrous  here  as  every- 
where else.  All  soils  contain  the  mineral  elements  of  plant-food  in  abundance,  while  the  crops 
produced  require  but  a  small  amoimt;  hence,  but  little  of  the  mineral  substance  of  the  soil  is 
extracted  by  the  growing  crops,  yet,  small  as  that  amount  may  be,  and  abundant  as  this  element 
may  be  in  the  soil,  it  is  almost  wholly  locked  up,  as  it  were,  beyond  the  reach  of  plants,  or 
rather,  is  not  in  the  condition  to  be  assimilated  by  them,  but  requires  the  agency  of  the  air. 
sunshine,  dew,  and  rain,  and  the  various  chemical  changes  that  are  constantly  being  produced. 


TILLAGE.    ■  87 

to  set  free  or  unlock  these  elements  suited  to  plant-growth.  But  these  agencies  are  slow  in 
their  work  of  preparing  these  elements,  and  do  not  generally  supply  them  with  sufBcieut  rapidity 
for  the  use  of  plants;  hence,  it  is  necessary  that  the  farmer  should  aid  the  soil  by  applyino-  the 
elements  needed  in  the  form  of  maniwe  of  some  kind,  and  also  in  hastening  these  chemical 
changes  by  tillage,  both  of  which  are  essential  to  the  highest  success  in  most  soils,  thus  adding 
to  the  materials  suited  to  plant-food,  and  also  putting  in  an  available  form  those  elements 
already  contained  within  it.  Both  are  essential  aids,  and  the  best  results  in  agriculture  are 
only  reached  when  they  are  combined.  Prof.  Johnson  explains  some  of  the  reasons  for  tillage 
as  follows  : — 

"  In  soils  which  have  long  lain  undisturbed  by  the  plow,  and  carry  an  inferior  growth  of 
vegetation,  grass  or  weeds — which  have  become  'bound  out, '  in  farmers'  language — chemical 
influences  doubtless  have  oftentimes  set  in  with  the  effect  of  gradually  filling  up  the  pores, 
and  solidly  cementing  together  the  particles  of  earth  by  the  very  processes  which,  operating 
through  long  periods  of  time,  have  converted  into  actual  rocks  what  once  were  soils,  either 
gravels,  sands,  or  clays.  The  red  rock,  so  abundant  in  the  central  parts  of  Connecticut,  at 
New  Haven  is  plainly  seen  to  be  a  petrified  gravel;  at  the  Portland  quarries  it  is  a  consolidated 
sand.  The  writing  and  roofing  slates  we  are  all  familiar  with  are  petrified  clays,  while  the 
limestones,  so  abundant  in  New  York  and  further  west,  were  once  the  dust  and  mud  of  shores 
and  sea-bottoms,  full  of  shells  and  lime.  Geologists  assure  us  that  there  is  evidence  to  show 
conclusively  that  all  the  rocks  of  New  England,  even  her  granites,  were  once  sediments  and 
soils.  In  exclusion  of  air  and  of  surface-water  oft  replenished  with  air,  soils  petrify  or  turn 
to  rocks,  while  in  free  contact  with  air,  and  water  charged  with  air,  rocks  decay  or  disinte- 
grate, and  crumble  into  soil.  Hard-pan,  in  many  or  most  cases,  is  clay  or  clayey  gravel 
cemented  in  this  manner,  and  many  soils,  even  sands  and  loose-textured  gravels  originally, 
have  been  made  comparatively  impervious  by  some  cementing  material.  That  which  acts  as 
cement  is  sometimes  carbonate  of  hme,  or  carbonate  of  iron  dissolved  in  water,  and  deposited 
by  the  evaporation  of  the  solvent.  In  other  cases  it  is  humate  of  iron,  the  same  as  bog  iron 
ore,  the  same  also  essentially  as  the  moor- bed  pan,  which  often  forms  a  thin  but  impervious 
bottom  to  peat  beds  and  muck  swamps,  even  when  situated  on  coarse  gravelly  sands.  In 
other  cases  silica  and  various  silicates  are  the  petrifying  agents,  as  in  the  geysers  of  Iceland 
and  the  Yellowstone.  They  form  in  the  soil  itself  by  the  chemical  interaction  of  the 
substances  there. 

'■  A  full  consideration  of  all  the  facts  makes  it  quite  evident  that  in  most  soils  there  are 
tendencies  constantly  exerted  with  more  or  less  vigor,  towards  mechanical  compacting  not 
only,  but  towards  chemical  induration  or  petrifaction,  and  one  of  the  important  offices 
of  tillage  is  to  counteract  these  tendencies.  Tillage  accomphshes  this  ofBce,  not  by  crushing 
of  solid  grains,  and  not  to  any  great  extent  by  any  direct  mechanical  reduction  of  lumps  of 
coherent  particles,  but  rather  by  lifting  up  masses  of  soil,  turning  them  and  letting  them  fall 
so  that  the  close  contact  produced  by  rest  and  moving  water  is  broken,  and  the  grains  of 
sand  and  the  minute  aggregations  of  loam  are  brought  into  new  positions  with  regard  to  each 
other,  and  to  greater  distances  from  each  other.  The  soil  ought  to  be  moist  when  plowed. 
Moist  sands  may  be  thrown  up  to  a  ridgey  surface,  and  the  mass  be  full  of  considerable 
cavities,  whereas  dry  sand,  if  plowed,  falls  into  nearly  its  original  level  and  compactness.  A 
mass  of  clay  soil  in  a  certain  stage  of  moisture  is  broken  by  the  plow  into  a  multitude  of 
small  lumps,  which  if  let  dry  a  little  more  will  yield  to  the  impact  of  the  harrow  teeth  and 
fall  to  smaller  lumps,  and  in  part  to  powder.  The  subsequent  drying  of  the  earth  thrown  up 
by  a  plow  has  much  to  do  with  its  loosening.  Some  heavy  clays  of  the  plastic  kind  require 
their  spring  tillage  to  be  done,  as  it  were,  "  on  the  wing."  If  a  trifle  too  wet,  the  plow  makes 
paste  of  them  where  its  pressure  is  felt,  and  the  upturned  soil  falls  to  putty-like  clods,  which 
harden  on  drying,  so  that  the  field  after  plowing  is  as  unfit  for  a  seed-bed  as  before  it  was 
touched.  If  let  stand  too  long  before  plowing,  such  clays  bake  at  the  surface  to  a  crust  that 
turns  up  cloddy,  and  is  difficult  to  reduce. 


88 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


"  "WTiat  really  loosens  clay  soils  by  detaching  the  particles  from  each  other  is  the  act  of 
drying.  The  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  impalpably  fine  real  clay  in  such  soils,  distended  by 
physical  hydration,  is  the  glue  which  sticks  their  coarser  parts  together.     As  the  water  dries 


GILPIN    SULKY    PLOW. 


TIMBER   LAND   PLOW 


out,  this  cement  shrinks  around  the  sand-grains,  and  must  either  bring  these  together  into 
closer  contact,  or  itself  crack  and  break.  It  does  both  in  fact.  A  brick  just  moulded  shrinks 
on  drying,  and  its  sides  move  together.     The  sides  of  a  field  of  clay  cannot  approach  each 


THE    CASSADAY  SULKY   FLOW. 

Other,  and  therefore  when  it  dries,  innumerable  cracks  form  over  all  its  surface,  and  penetrate 
downwards  as  the  drj-ing  deepens.  When  the  soil  is  so  dry  as  not  to  be  plastic,  so  that  water 
cannot  be  squeezed  out  of  a  ball  of  it  when  worked  in  the  hand,  and  so  that  when  thrown  up 


89 


by  the  spade  it  does  not  stick  to  the  tool,  then  plowing  throws  apart  the  granular  masses 
along  the  lines  of  the  dry -cracks,  and  the  soil  is  adequately  loosened. 

Some  clay-lands  are  very  difficult  to  till  at  all  in  spring  time.  In  drying,  they  form  not 
many  small,  but  a  few  wide  cracks,  and  when  they  are  dry  enough  below  to  crumble  as  the 
plow  passes,  the  surface  is  already  baked  to  clods,  so  that  after  plowing,  the  clod-crusher — a 
series  of  toothed  wheels  revolving  independently,  but  close  together,  on  a  common  axle — is 
needed  to  actually  pick  and  cut  to  pieces  these  tough  lumps. 

Other  clay  lands  that  are  very  close-textured  and  heavy  when  wet,  slack  or  fall  to  pieces 
as  they  dry,  and  on  such  soils  early  spring  tillage  may  be  practiced,  and  in  short  seasons  may 
be  necessary  to  dry  out  the  land.  This  class  of  clays,  and  many  heavy  loams  remain  for  a 
long  period  wet  at  the  surface  during  the  spring  rains,  as  they  retain  water  with  great  tenac- 
ity, and  although  they  dry  out  finally,  and  come  into  good  condition  after  a  time,  yet  time 
may  be  made  and  seed 
got  in  earlier  by  put- 
ting the  plow  to  work 
and  actually  raising 
the  earth  and  shaking 
it  in  the  air  (as  we 
would  lift  and  agitate 
a  wet  cloth),  for  the 
Bake  of  drying  out  the 
excess  of  moisture, 
which,  if  not  removed, 
would  cause  planted 
'  seed  to  rot.  This  dry- 
ing of  the  sou  is  an 
essential  preliminary 
to  warming  it  up  to  a 
point  favorable  for  the 
germination  of  seeds 
and  growth  of  young 
plants. 

The  best  time  to 
plow  heavy  clay  lands 
for  loosening  their 
texture  is  the  autumn, 
soon  after  the  crops 
have  been  removed, 
and  before  the  naked 

surface  hardens  under  the  late  rains.  Fall  plowing  may  be  done,  if  needful,  when  the  clay 
is  wet,  for  if  plowed  dry  it  will  become  wet,  and  wetting  is  an  essential  part  of  the  loosening 
process.  Alternate  freezings  and  thawings  of  wet  clay  wiU  loosen  it  as  no  other  agency  can. 
Water  in  freezing  expands  j'jth  its  bulk,  and  the  energy  of  its  expansion  is  enormous.  This 
energy  is  exerted  throughout  the  entire  mass  of  the  frozen  earth,  and  in  its  finest  pores. 
But  severe  frost  is  needful,  for,  under  sufBcient  pressure,  or  in  strong  capillary  tubes,  as  in 
the  fine  pores  of  brick  and  sandstone,  water  either  does  not  freeze  because  it  cannot  expand, 
or  it  requires  a  temperature  much  reduced  below  32°  Fahrenheit  for  its  congelation. 

The  act  of  freezing  not  only  effects  a  mechanical  separation  of  adjacent  particles  of  sand 
and  silt  between  which  the  water  expands  into  ice,  but  it  has  a  special  influence  on  the  real 
clay.     When  water,  turbid  from  suspended  clay  that  would  remain  without  settling  for  weeks 


TILLAGE    IN   INDIA. 


90  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

together,  is  frozen,  the  clay  particles,  before  so  attenuated  as  to  be  invisible  under  the  micro- 
scope, are  precipitated  in  distinct  flocky  masses,  which,  under  the  microscope,  transmit  much 
light  and  have  a  granular  or  cellular  appearance;  and  the  water  maybe  poured  off  quite  clear 
and  free  from  milkiness.  This  result  of  freezing  clay-water  appears  to  be  quite  analogous  to 
that  of  freezing  a  thin  starch  paste,  the  starch  being  separated  in  glutinous  clumps,  and  very 
like  the  action  of  rennet  or  vinegar  on  milk,  whereby  the  casein  is  coagulated  or  curdled. 
Freezing  thus  coagulates  clay,  causes  the  swollen,  gelatinous,  transparent,  clayey  substance,  so 
retentive  of  water  and  so  attenuated  with  water,  to  discharge  the  liquid  and  condense  to  a  visi- 
bly flocky  or  granular  matter. 

It  is  plain  that  tillage  may  modify  the  storage  of  water  in  the  soil.  If  a  compact  clay  or 
loam  be  loosened  in  its  texture,  subsequent  rains  will  more  readily  pass  through  the  loosened 
tilth  and  will  penetrate  and  remain  in  reserve  in  the  soil  immediately  underlying.  This  wUl 
be  advantageous  in  two  ways.  It  will,  first,  give  the  sowed  crop  an  aerated  and  therefore 
healthy  root-bed,  and  second,  it  will  tend  to  conserve  the  rain  against  time  of  drought. 

On  coarse-textured  soils,  deep  and  frequent  tillage  may  too  much  promote  the  descent 
of  rain,  and  therefore  be  detrimental  to  vegetation. 

Let  us  now  suppose  the  surface  of  the  several  soils  we  instanced,  after  being  fully 
charged  with  rain,  to  be  equally  exposed  to  the  prolonged  influence  of  sunshine  and  drying 
winds,  whereby  the  water  at  the  surface  and  to  a  certain  depth  evaporates.  At  the  very  sur- 
face the  soils  all  become  quite  dry.  At  some  distance  down  they  kept  moist,  because,  as  the 
water  escapes  above,  it  is  raised  by  capillary  action.  The  larger  the  pores  the  deeper  the  soil 
dries  out,  because  the  larger  the  pores  the  less  does  water  rise  in  them.  It  will  thus  happen 
that  so  long  as  there  is  water  in  the  deeper  layers  of  soil,  so  long  the  clay  will  remain  moist 
at  almost  the  surface,  while  the  quantity  of  moisture  wiU  decrease  from  soil  to  soil,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  coarseness  of  the  pores,  until  in  the  gravel  it  may  be  dry  almost  throughout. 

That  stratum  of  the  soil  which  is  subjected  to  loosening  tillage  is  always  dried  thereby. 
A  wet  soil  sometimes  may  be  advantageously  plowed  for  the  purpose  of  drying  it.  A  dry 
soil  may  be  made  too  dry  by  deep  and  repeated  tillage.  The  reasons  are — 1st.  By  loosen- 
ing, the  soil  is  made  to  expose  a  vastly  greater  evaporating  surface  to  the  atmosphere  than 
the  compact  soil  presents.  2d.  The  capillary  connection  of  the  loosened  earth  witii  the 
underlying  soil  is  impaired,  and  its  power  of  taking  up  and  distributing  bottom-water  is 
diminished.  3d.  The  rain  that  falls  upon  it  flows  more  freely  and  completely  into  the  sub- 
soil. Thus  its  rate  of  losing  water  is  increased,  and  the  sources  of  supply  are  rendered  less 
rapidly  effective.  It  is  evident  that  the  amount  (depth  and  frequency)  of  tillage  which  would 
benefit  crops  on  a  clay  soil  might  damage  those  on  a  sandy  one. 

To  conserve  the  water  of  a  loose-textured  soil  its  main  tillage  should  be  shallow,  so  that 
the  bulk  of  the  earth  remains  compact  enough  to  hold  the  rain  and  to  transmit  bottom-water 
steadily  from  the  subsoil  upwards  to  the  roots  of  crops.  The  surface  only,  which  has  been 
puddled  by  the  latter  and  early  rains,  need  be  disturbed  in  spring-time  to  prepare  a  seed-bed 
and  to  cover  in  manure.  That  surface,  as  often  as  it  settles  to  compactness  or  forms  a  crust, 
should  be  loosened  up  again  witli  the  horse-hoe,  so  as  to  maintain  over  the  water-conducting 
body  of  compact  earth  a  relatively  non-conducting  layer  of  loose  soil,  to  cut  off  the  escape  of 
moisture  into  the  asmosphere. 

Summer  tillage,  to  conserve  moisture,  should  be  shallow,  and  should  not  extend  to  the 
roots,  unless,  indeed,  with  the  object  of  compelling  them  to  develop  lower  down  and  nearer 
to  the  water  supply.  Generally,  however,  the  depth  of  the  well-manured  stratum  is  but  small, 
and  as  little  as  possible  of  it  should  be  withdrawn  by  frequent  stirring  and  consequent  drying 
from  serving  as  forage-ground  for  the  roots  of  crops. 

It  is,  however,  easy  to  see  that  the  efiects  of  surface  tillage  will  differ  according  to  the 


PLOWING.  21 

nature  of  the  soil.  If,  instead  of  sand  or  soil  made  up  of  solid,  coarse  particles,  it  is  a  loam 
which  spring  preparation  has  reduced,  not  to  dust,  but  to  lumps  like  sand-grains  in  size,  but 
themselves  porous  and  easily  broken  to  dust  or  made  finer  by  the  passage  of  the  cultivator, 
then  the  loosening  effect  of  tillage  on  the  mass  may  be  more  or  less  compensated  by  its  pul- 
verizing effect  on  the  lumps. 

Again,  unless  there  be  uninterrupted  capillary  communication  between  bottom-water 
and  the  surface  soil,  surface  working  wiU  not  prevent  the  inevitable  drying  out  of  the  tilth; 
nay,  it  may  in  the  later  stages  of  that  drying-out  hasten  the  result. 

A  light,  loamy  land,  underlaid  at  a  little  depth  by  coarse  sand,  and  deeper  still  by  a 
loose  gravel,  will  subject  the  vegetation  on  it  to  severe  extremes  of  water  supply,  for  when 
heavy  rains  fall,  the  fine  interstices  of  the  surface  will  remain  gorged,  because  the  coarse 
material  below  cannot  suck  the  water  down,  and  when,  in  drought,  the  surface-water  is 
exhausted,  there  is  no  capillary  connection  between  the  loam  and  bottom-water.  Subsoils  are 
not,  however,  necessarily  deficient  in  capillarity  because  they  contain  some  graveL  A  proper 
kind  and  amount  of  porosity  insures  the  ready  distribution  of  water,  whatever  be  the  name 
of  the  material. 

The  use  of  the  roUer  after  harrowing  in  seed,  and  of  striking  with  the  fiat  of  the  hoe 
upon  the  hill  after  planting,  is  obviously  to  facilitate  the  access  of  moisture  to  the  seed.  The 
capillary  connection  between  the  surface-soil  and  the  moist  earth  below  is  largely  interrupted 
by  putting  in  the  seed,  for  that  is,  in  itself,  a  loosening  process.  The  soil  must  be  compacted 
in  order  to  restore  that  connection  and  insure  to  the  seed  and  young  plant  a  steady  and 
sufficient  supply  of  water." 

We  therefore  see  that  proper  tillage — which  means  tillage  adapted  to  the  character  and 
conditions  of  the  soil — not  only  enables  the  land  to  retain  a  greater  amount  of  moisture  in 
time  of  drouth,  but  permits  the  air  to  penetrate  and  aerate  the  soil,  thus  increasing  the  vigor 
and  growth  of  plants,  and  in  various  ways  greatly  augmenting  its  productive  capacities.  The 
soil,  having  its  origin  in  the  solid  rock,  and  thus  being  abundantly  supplied .  with  mineral 
elements,  can  never  become  exhausted  of  these,  as  long  as  any  soil  remains  to  be  cultivated ; 
but  the  necessity  of  tillage  and  other  aids  will  probably  always  remain,  in  order  to  put  these 
elements  in  the  best  condition  to  be  taken  up  by  the  plants  and  used  as  plant-food. 


PLOWING. 

IT  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  the  agricultural  implements  used  by  a  nation  or  people 
are  a  sui'e  index  of  that  nation's  civilization  and  commercial  prosperity;  and  that 
where  the  best  are  in  general  use,  there  will  be  found  the  best  crops,  the  most  wealthy, 
enterprising,  and  intelligent  people.  The  principal  reliance  of  the  farmer  in  performing  the 
labor  of  tillage,  is  the  plow:  it  may  be  followed  by  a  variety  of  other  implements,  such  as  the 
harrow,  roller,  etc.,  to  complete  the  process,  but  the  primary  and  indispensable  utensil  is  this 
time-honored  implement;  hence,  plowing,  being  the  most  important  of  the  mechanical  opera- 
tions of  tillage,   should  always  be  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  crops  to  be 


92 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


produced.  Its  object 
may  be  simply  to  invert 
the  sod,  to  slightly  mel- 
low the  surface  of  the 
soil,  or  to  penetrate  into 
the  depths  of  the  sub- 
soil and  break  it  up 
without  bringing  it  to 
the  surface,  or  for  vari- 
ous other  purposes, 
therefore  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  plow 
should  be  adapted  to  the 
kind  of  labor  to  be  per- 
formed, and  the  depth 
and  time  of  plowing 
should  vary  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  the  crop  to  be  culti- 
vated. Light  or  shal- 
low plowing  cannot  be 
performed  with  a  plow 
designed  for  heavy 
work,  suited  to  that  of 
the  sub-soil  plow, 
neither  can  deep  plow- 
ing be  well  accomplished 
with  an  implement  de- 
signed for  light  surface- 
work.  Great  improve- 
ments have  been  made 
in  these  implements 
within  the  past  few 
years,  and  one  is  led,  in 
seeing  the  complete  suc- 
cess of  the  work  per- 
formed by  some  of 
them,  to  almost  believe 
that  perfection  has  at 
least  been  reached  in 
this  department  of  farm 
utensils;  but  as  progress 
and  improvement  are 
ever  inseparable  from 
intelligence  and  culture, 
probably  improvements 
will  continue  to  be  made, 
although  it  may  be  diffi- 
cult to  tell  how  it  could 
well  be  accomplished. 
Iron  plows  are  gen- 


TILLAGE. 


93 


erally  preferred  for  stony  lands,  but  the  steel  plow  is  better  adapted  to  soils  that  are  of  a 
sticky  character,  like  certain  clays,  or  soft,  mucky  soils,  that  adhere  to  the  share  in  turning  a 
furrow,  and  with  care,  will  prove  the  most  durable  for  general  use,  even  on  stony  fields.  The 
"  chilled  "  plows,  which  are  produced  by  pouring  a  fine  quality  of  iron  over  an  iron  chill  or 
mould,  giving  them  a  hard  temper  and  rendering  them  very  durable,  are  also  very  good  for 
all  uses. 


IRON  BEAM  PLOW. 


OSBORNE  PLOW  SULKY. 


The  sulky  and  gang  plows,  so  extensively  used  on  large  farms  in  the  "Western  States,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  in  New  England,  are  admirably  adapted  to  perform  the  most  perfect  work 
with  facihty  and  rapidity.  The  ease  with  which  the  operator  performs  his  task  with  one  of 
these  plows,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  work  accomplished  per  day,  forms  a  peculiarly-striking 
contrast  with  the  excessive  labor  and  rude  implements  with  which  our  forefathers  tilled  the 
soil,  and  are  an  index  of  our  nation's  progress  in  the  art  of  agriculture  since  that  time. 

Every  farmer  should 
have  farm-implements  adapt- 
ed to  the  different  uses  of 
his  avocation,  and  among 
none  of  such  implements  is 
this  adaptation  more  essen- 
tial than  in  the  choice  of 
plows,  since  the  yield  of 
crops  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  manner  and  thor- 
oughness with  which  the 
plowing  is  performed.  If 
the  plow  is  a  poor  one,  not 
adapted  to  the  kind  of  work' 
to  be  accomplished,  the  plow- 
ing will  be  very  poorly  done. 
It  should  be  of  the  proper 
form  and  good  material,  the  best  being  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  since  it  will  perform  better 
work,  and  last  longer  than  a  cheaper  implement  that  will  soon  wear  out  or  break.  Besides, 
a  plow  that  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  purpose  desired  will  not  only  perform  better  work, 
but  that  work  can  be  accomplished  with  less  labor  and  expense  than  with  a  poor  plow  or  one 
ill  adapted  to  the  kind  of  work  for  which  it  is  used.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  farmer 
have  good  plows,  and  those  of  different  styles  for  the  various  uses  in  tillage.     Some  farmers. 


FUSED    FOOT,    STEEL    POINT. 


94 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


even  on  small  farms,  claim  that  at  least  three  or  four  good  plows  of  different  styles  are  neces- 
sary while  on  larger  farms  a  greater  number  would  be  found  necessary. 

The  plow  which  is  to  invert  a  sod  in  the  best  manner  must  differ  from  that  designed  for 
a  loose  soil,  and  which  leaves  it  in  the  most  desirable  condition  for  seed  or  tender  plants; 
while  the  plow  designed  to  turn  a  deep  furrow  must  differ  widely  in  style  from  one  that 
turns  a  shallow  furrow.  Those  generally  considered  necessary  for  a  small  farm  are  a  sod- 
plow,  stubble-plow,  and  a  light,  one-horse  plow  for  marking  out  lands  for  planting,  etc.,  and 
for  various  other  purposes  that  can  be  accomplished  only  by  such  a  plow.  Additions  might 
be  made  to  these,  as  the  requirements  of  the  soil  and  crops  demand.     Good  implements  will 


ADAMANT    CABBAGE    PLOW,    OR    CORN    SUB-SOILEH. 

always  prove  a  paying  investment  to  any  farmer,  while  cheap,  inferior  ones  will  be  dear  in 
the  end,  in  the  failure  of  crops  for  lack  of  proper  tillage  of  the  fields,  hindrance  and  expense 
from  constant  breakage  and  repairs,  etc.,  all  of  which  will  prove  a  great  detriment  to  suc- 
cessful, farming. 

When  to  Plow. — Some  lands  will  be  more  benefited  by  fall-plowing,  others  by  plow- 
ing in  the  spring,  and  as  near  to  the  planting  season  as  possible.  Lands  that  should  be 
plowed  in  the  fall  are  stiff  clays,  clay  loams,  and  heavy  loams,  and  any  kind  of  soil  that  is 
inclined  to  become  more  compact  by  the  rains  and  become  what  is  termed,  in  farmers'  phrase, 
"puddled  in."     Fall  plowing  will  be  greatly  beneficial  to  such  soils,  on  account  of  tlie  action 


TILLAGE. 


95 


of  the  frost,  which  pulverizes  and  reduces  them  to  a  finer  condition  than  could  be  effected  in 
any  other  manner;  besides,  such  soils  become  thoroughly  aerated,  and  through  the  agency  of 
the  sun,  snow,  rain,  and  air,  these  wonderful  forces  of  nature,  such  chemical  changes  are 
wrought  by  the  blending  and  mingling  of  the  different  elements  contained  in  the  soil,  that 
these  elements  can  readily  be  taken  up  by  the  plants  as  their  proper  nourishment.  The  frost 
lifts  the  surface  of  the  soil,  rendering  it  more  open,  porous,  and  flexible  for  the  next  season's 
work,  as  well  as  increasing  its  fertility. 

Lands  that  should  be  plowed  only  in  the  spring,  and  not  until  wanted  for  planting,  are 
light,  sandy  soils,  such  as  dry  qmckly  in  the  wind.  If  such  lands  are  plowed  in  the  fall,  and 
thus  exposed  to  the  rains,  atmospheric  influences,  and  the  sun,  their  fertilizing  properties  are 
very  liable  to  be  washed  out  or  exhaled,  and  such  soils  derive  but  little  fertility  from  the 
atmosphere;   in  fact,  not  enough  to  compensate  for  the  loss  sustained  by  the  exposure. 

How  to  Plow. — In  plowing  in  the  fall,  it  is  always  well  to  so  turn  the  furrows  that 
they  will  lap  over,  one  upon  the  other,  forming  what  is  called  the  "lap-furrow,"  which 
will  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  by  forming  an  air-chamber  under  each  furrow  the 
entire  length  of  the  field.  By  this  means  a  better  drainage  of  the  land  will  be  secured,  the 
soil  aerated,  and  a  greater  benefit  derived  through  the  agency  of  the  frost,  since  not  only  the 
furrow-slice  will  be  frozen,  but  the  soil  beneath  it  to  quite  a  depth,  thus  breaking  it  up, 
thoroughly  pulverizing  it,  and  rendering  it  more  porous  and  friable.  Lands  plowed  in  this 
manner  are  in  good  condition  when  the  frost  leaves  the  soil,  and  are  ready  for  use  much 
earlier  than  when  plowed  in  the  spring.  Some  farmers  recommend  ridging  the  entire  field 
by  turning  two  furrows  together,  thus  exposing  a  larger  portion  of  the  surface-soil  to  the 
action  of  the  frost  than  by  the  previous  method.  Lands  tilled  in  this  manner  may  be  cross- 
plowed  and  cross-harrowed  in  the  spring  ;  or,  if  this  is  not  done,  the  furrows  should  be 
divided  by  running  a  plow  through  the  center  of  each,  and  afterwards  cross-harrowed. 

A.  W.  Cheever,  of  Boston,  a  practical  farmer,  and  editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer, 
gives  the  following  sensible  advice  on  the  manner  of  plowing  a  field: — 

"  If  the  field  to  be  plowed  is  of  regular  shape,  with  four  right-angle  corners,  and  with 
no  fences  to  obstruct  the  team  in  turning,  it  may  be  plowed  and  left  nearly  as  mellow  as  by 
spading,  and  without  leaving  the  track  of  a  single  hoof  upon  the  entire  field.  If  enclosed  by 
fences,  the  team  should  start  on  one  side  and  travel  to  within  a  convenient  turning-distance 
from  the  fence,  then  reverse  and  plow  back,  leaving  a  strip  of  uniform  width  at  either  end. 
The  plowing  should  go  on  back  and  forth,  till  a  strip  of  the  same  width  of  the  ends  is  left  at 
the  side  of  the  field,  when  the  team,  instead  of  coming  back  at  the  end  of  each  furrow, 
should  so  move  as  to  plow  on  the  three  sides  with  once  reversing  the  plow.  This  avoids  use- 
less turning  of  the  plow  at  the  corners,  and  prevents  excessive  tramping  of  the  furrows. 
Where  there  are  no  fences  in  the  way  at  the  ends,  if  the  first  furrow  turned  is  carted  across 
the  field  and  neatly  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  last  furrow,  the  field  will  be  as  level  and  as 
smooth  throughout  as  before  plowing.  In  plowing  sod -land  for  immediate  use,  whether  for 
planting  or  for  sowing,  it  is  very  important  that  every  foot  of  soil  is  completely  inverted  and 
the  furrow-slices  laid  regularly  in  their  appropriate  places,  and  the  furrows  should  be  of 
uniform  depth  and  width  throughout  their  entire  length.  If  the  furrow-sKce  is  too  wide  for  the 
preceding  furrow,  its  outer  edge  will  be  lapped  over  the  previous  furrow,  and  be  liable  to  be 
turned  back  during  the  after  cultivation.  If  the  plow  dodges  its  work  and  takes  more  land 
than  it  can  turn,  ugly  depressions  are  left,  which  cannot  be  properly  filled  by  any  amount  of 
subsequent  harrowing.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  plow  should  run 
steadily,  and  with  a  uniform  width  and  depth  of  furrow.  Many  farmers  use  too  short  a 
chain  between  plow  and  team.  With  a  long  chain  a  misstep  of  the  animals  is  less  felt,  and 
the  plow  less  liable  to  leave  its  place  than  with  a  short  hitch,  and  by  using  a  wheel  to  govern 
the  depth  of  furrow,  the  plow  will  run  just  as  easily  with  a  long,  as  with  a  short  hitch,  pro- 


96  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER 

vided  the  amount  of  work  done  is  the  same  in  both  cases.  A  long  yoke  or  whiffletree,  besides 
being  easier  for  the  team,  especially  among  rocks,  is  more  necessary  when  using  a  swivel  than 
a  landside  plow,  as  a  fuU  width  furrow  is  more  readily  obtained.  Farmers  have  sometimes 
condemed  swivel  plows  for  no  other  reason  than  because  they  used  too  short  yokes  and  chains. 
Farmers  also  make  a  great  mistake  when  they  neglect  to  use  a  good  sharp  cutter  when  run- 
ning plows  in  sod-land.  The  difference  between  plowing  with  or  without  a  good  cutter  is 
about  the  same  as  the  difference  between  cutting  and  tearing  cloth  or  paper.  "V\'ith  a  cutter 
running  from  two  to  three  inches  deep,  and  well  forward  of  the  rising  furrow-sUce,  the  latter 
is  brought  up  and  turned  over  with  a  smooth,  straight  edge,  which  folds  down  into  the  pre- 
vious fm-row,  leaving  no  ragged  or  unsightly  edges  to  be  hauled  back  by  the  harrow.  The 
cutter  is  also  useful  in  clearing  away  stubble  or  rubbish,  when  plowing  com  or  grain  fields, 
and  prevents  the  choking  and  obstructing  of  the  work  of  the  mould-board." 

Depth  of  Plowing. — With  regard  to  the  depth  of  plowing,  there  has  been  much  dis- 
cussion, and  varioiis  opinions  expressed ;  many  eminent  authorities  in  scientific  agriculture 
advocating  deep  plowing,  and  asserting  that  we  cannot  plow  too  deeply;  others — equally  good 
authorities — have  given  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  shallow  plowing.  "We  believe,  how- 
ever, that  the  majority  of  the  best  agriculturists  at  present  concur  in  the  opinion  that  the 
depth  of  plowing  must  depend  upon  certain  conditions,  which  may  be  as  various  as  the  char- 
acter of  the  soils  cultivated  and  the  crops  grown — some  soils  and  crops  requiring  much  deeper 
plowing  than  others;  hence,  each  farmer  must  be  "a  law  unto  himself"  in  such  matters,  and 
by  a  carefid  study  of  the  nature  of  his  soil,  and  by  experiment,  learn  the  depth  of  soil-stirring 
best  adapted  to  his  own  particular  farm.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  plowing  should  be 
as  deep  as  the  soil,  or  rather,  the  plowing  should  go  to  the  subsoil,  and  should  sometimes 
break  up  the  subsoil,  but  shovdd  rarely  bring  it  to  the  surface.  A  deep,  mellow  soil  is,  of 
course,  to  be  preferred  to  a  shallow  one  that  overhes  a  hard  subsoil. 

Mr.  Cheever  recommends  eight  inches  of  weU-pulverized,  rich,  mellow  top-soil,  as  a 
pretty  good  standard,  as  a  general  rule,  to  aim  for  on  most  farms,  and  quite  as  much  as  most 
farmers  have  sufficient  manure  for,  and  says  that  in  order  to  reach  the  eighth  inch  with  a 
common  plow,  he  has  found  great  benefit  from  the  use  of  the  steel  subsoil  plow,  without 
mould-board, — a  plow  that  simply  loosens  the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the  surface. 

To  turn  a  flat  furrow  eight  inches  in  depth,  the  width  should  be  from  foiuteen  to  sixteen 
inches.  The  principal  material  for  plant-food  is  to  be  f  oiind  in  the  surface  or  agricultural  soil ; 
hence,  it  is  always  safe  to  plow  as  far  down  as  that  soil  extends,  whether  it  be  four,  five,  six, 
or  even  twelve  inches  in  depth.  When  the  surface  soil  is  very  thin  and  it  is  desirable  to 
deepen  it,  it  will  be  well  to  plow  an  inch  or  so  deeper  each  year  into  the  subsoil,  mingling  it 
with  the  surface-soil  gradually  in  this  way,  together  with  the  application  of  manure,  until  the 
soil  attains  the  required  depth,  Asa  general  rule,  it  wUl  not  be  safe  to  deepen  it  much  more 
than  this  degree  each  year,  as  the  surface-soil  will  be  liable  to  become  deteriorated  by  the  mix- 
ture of  a  great  amount  of  the  raw  subsoil,  since  time  will  be  required  for  it  to  become  suited 
to  plant  growth.  Many  fields  have  been  rendered  sterile  by  too  rapid  deepening  of  the  soil 
in  this  manner,  and  required  years  of  culture  to  recover  from  the  effects.  The  reason  for  this 
is  very  evident:  suppose  we  have  a  surface-soil  of  five  inches,  rich  and  mellow,  overlying  a 
subsoil  of  coarse  gravel  or  hard  clay;  now,  if  we  attempt  to  plow  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  nine 
inches,  and  throw  up  this  coarse  gravel,  or  compact,  lifeless  clay  that  forms  the  subsoil,  we 
bury  the  principal  portion  of  the  soil  that  can  produce  vegetable  growth  deep  in  the  earth, 
away  from  the  reach  of  the  seed,  or  young  and  tender  plants,  and  have  upon  the  surface  a 
coarse  soil  unsuited  to  plant-growth,  and  in  which  the  plants  would  starve  and  die  for  lack  of 
proper  food ;  and  it  would  probably  require  several  years'  time  for  the  action  of  the  air,  rains, 
dews,  frost,  and  the  various  agencies  of  nature  that  aid  in  the  changes  and  decomposition 


97 


constantly  going  on  in  the  earth,  to  bring  that  soil  up  to  the  degree  of  fertility  that  it  had 
attained  before  the  plowing. 


ADVANCE   CHILLED    PLOW, 

It  is  sometimes  de- 

~ ,, sirable  to  break  up  the 

subsoil,  which  can 
easily  be  accomplished 
with  a  good  subsoil 
plow  without  bringing 
it  to  the  surface;  but 
the  instances  are  very 
rare  where  benefits 
will  be  derived  by 
mingling  it  to  any 
0Li\ER  cuiLLED  PLOW  great  extent  with  the 

surface-soil,  and  it  should  always  be  done  with  great  caution.  "When  the  surface-soil  is  very 
sandy,  with  a  subsoil  of  stiff  clay,  or  the  reverse,  such  soils  may  be  improved  bv  mixing  the 
clay  and  sand  as  thoroughly  as  prac- 
ticable, and  subjecting  them  to  the 
various  processes  of  proper  tillage. 
Soils  of  great  value  are  sometimes  pro- 
duced in  this  way  from  such  as  have 
previously  been  considered  of  inferior 
quality. 

Sometimes  the  subsoil  is  a  hard  clay, 
almost  impervious  to  water;  hence,  in 
rainy  seasons,  the  surface-soil  is  satu- 
rated with  a  surplus  of  water  that  can- the    GOODALL     SUB^^PLOW,    GRUB-HOOK,    STONE    AND 
not  make  its  escape  downward  through  root-pdller. 

the  impenetrable  layer  beneath,  and  the  land  must  depend  almost  wholly  upon  evaporation 
for  becoming  dry  enough  to  promote  the  growth  of  crops;  in  such  cases,  a  breaking  up  of 
the  hard  subsoil  will  materially  improve  the  condition,  as  it  furnishes  room  for  deep-rooted 
crops,  and  a  means  of  drainage  by  opening  a  way  of  escape  through  it  for  the  surplus  water 
in  the  soil,  and  also  admits  of  the  moisture  from  beneath  finding  access  to  the  roots  of  plants 


98 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


in  time  of  drought,  while  the  roots  also  can  penetrate  deeper  in  search  of  the  requisite  amount 
of  water. 

There  may  be  other  instances  where  the  breaking  up  of  the  subsoil  would  be  a  positive 
injury  to  crops,  such  as  certain  loams  or  any  kind  of  leachy  soil,  with  a  coarse,  sandy  sub- 
soil that  would,  if  undisturbed,  form  to  a  certain  extent  by  its  compactness,  a  barrier  to  the 
rapid  escape  of  water  and  fertilizing  properties  that  would  otherwise  wash  through  it  and  be 
wasted.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  breaking  up  of  such  a  subsoil  would  be  very  hazardous  to 
crops,  and  the  fertihzing  elements  contained  in  the  surface-soil  capable  of  being  washed  out 
by  heavy  rains.  On  old  fields  that  may  have  a  shallow  surface-soil,  and  have  been  plowed  to 
a  certain  depth  for  a  succession  of  years,  and  never  reaching  beyond  that  depth,  or,  on  certain 
soils  formed  from  the  fine  sediment  of  a  river,  a  hard  subsoil  is  often  found  which  seems  to 
resemble  hard-pan  in  compactness,  and  which  is  evidently  rendered  so  in  a  great  measure  by 
the  plow  always  going  to  a  certain  depth.  Such  soils  are  materially  benefited  by  breaking 
through  this  hard  crust  with  a  subsoil  plow. 


STUBBLE    PLOW. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  things  for  every  owner  of  a  farm  to  ascertain — 
aside  from  the  nature  of  the  surface-soil — is  the  character  and  value  of  the  subsoil  under- 
lying his  land.  In  many  instances  it  will  prove  of  little  value,  and  should  either  be 
left  undisturbed,  or  loosened  simply  for  the  purpose  of  giving  greater  capacity  for  supjjlying 
moisture,  according  to  the  conditions  and  nature  of  the  soil,  as  we  have  previously  stated. 
In  other  cases,  the  subsoil  has  been  known  to  materially  increase  the  value  of  the  agricul- 
tural soil  when  mixed  with  it,  but  as  we  have  before  stated,  it  should  be  done  very  cau- 
tiously and  gradually,   accompanied   with  a  mixture  of  manure  each  year. 

A  recent  authentic  writer  gives  the  following  striking  instance  of  benefits  derived  from 
a  mixture  of  the  surface  and  subsoils: 

"  An  open  ditch  two  feet  deep  was  cut  through  a  portion  of  a  field,  and  the  excavated 
subsoil  scattered  to  the  distance  of  a  rod  on  each  side.  The  field  was  afterwards  sown  with 
wheat,  the  season  for  which  was  so  unfavorable  that  the  field  averaged  only  five  bushels  per 
acre,  except  where  the  subsoil  from  the  ditch  had  been  scattered.  Here  the  product  was 
estimated  at  no  less  than  twenty  bushels  per  acre.  It  would  have  paid  well  to  dig  up  enough 
of  the  subsoil  to  scatter  over  the  whole  field.  A  farmer  in  one  of  the  wheat-growing  regions 
informed  us  that  he  increased  his  wheat  ten  bushels  per  acre  by  running  the  plow  two  inches 
deeper  than  it  had  ever  gone  before,  throwing  up  and  intermixing  a  small  portion  of  the  subsoil." 


PLOWING.  99 

Several  years  ago,  John  Johnston  of  Geneva  made  in  substance  the  following  statement: 
'■  1  had  some  800  oak  and  black  walnut  stumps  pulled,  bringing  up  earth  from  four  to  six 
feet  deep,  and  ten  feet  square  or  more  on  the  surface.  The  next  year  I  sowed  the  field  to 
wheat.  Where  the  stumps  stood,  the  wheat  was  not  so  good  as  elsewhere,  but  it  is  now,  after 
some  years,  in  wheat  again,  and  I  never  saw  such  wheat  as  where  the  stumps  were  pulled. 
You  could  see  where  every  stump  had  been;  the  wheat  is  all  of  ten  inches  taller,  stands  far 
stockier  on  the  ground,  and  looks  as  if  a  load  of  barnyard  manure  had  been  laid  down  and 
not  half  spread." 

"We  are  inclined  to  believe  such  instances  as  above  quoted,  rare,  and  as  being  the  excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule,  although  subsoils  of  value  are  common  in  some  localities. 

As  we  have  previously  stated,  no  definite  rule  can  be  given  with  respect  to  the  depth  of 
plowing.  We  have  specified  general  rules,  and  stated  various  conditions  and  circumstances, 
with  probable  results,  but  soils  differ  so  widely  in  character  that  different  methods  will  be 
required  for  different  fields,  and  each  farmer,  by  careful  experiment  and  observation,  will  be 
able  to  best  determine  for  himself  the  methods  most  suited  to  his  own  soils,  always  bearing 
in  mind  the  general  principles  relative  to  the  character  of  different  soils,  and  the  relation 
which  the  surface  or  agricultural  soil  bears  to  the  subsoil. 

Clay  soils,  heavy  loams,  or  heavy  soils  of  any  kind  are  best  pulverized  and  made  friable 
by  plowing  when  dry  or  nearly  so.  If  plowed  when  wet,  they  will  turn  over  in  smooth, 
compact  furrows,  which  will  dry  in  the  sun  into  hard  lumps  that  will  require  often  the  entire 
season  to  pulverize,  and  usually  will  remain  so  until  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  frost, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  separate  their  particles  and  reduce  them  to  a  pulverized  condition. 

Gravelly  soils  may  be  plowed  when  either  wet  or  dry.  The  accompanying  illustrations 
in  this  department  represent  several  of  the  standard  plows  at  present  in  use. 

The  Gilpin  Sulky,  Timber  Land,  Stubble  and  Iron  Beam  Plows  represent  cuts  made 
from  photographs  of  implements  manufactured  by  Deere  &  Co.,  Moline,  111. 

In  the  Gilpin  Sulky  Plow  one  lever  varies  the  depth  of  plowing,  levels  the  plow  at  all 
depths,  and  raises  it  out  of  the  ground  when  desired.  Sulky  plows  are  admirably  adapted  to 
large  farms  and  level  lands  free  from  stones,  and  are  much  used  in  the  Western  States.  The 
Deere  Gang  Plow, — an  illustration  of  which  will  be  seen  in  connection  with  another  depart- 
ment, on  large  farms  of  the  country,  where  twenty  of  them  are  employed  in  a  single  field, — is 
simOar  to  the  Gilpin  Sulky,  except  it  plows  two  furrows  at  once  instead  of  one,  and  is  more 
heavy  and  cumbersome  than  the  latter,  being  used  only  on  very  large  farms.  Its  use  requires 
three  or  four  horses  or  miiles.  It  is  very  strong  and  not  easily  broken  by  striking  large 
stones  or  other  obstructions.  The  Cassaday  Sulky  Plow,  and  Oliver  Chilled,  by  the  Whitte- 
more  Bros,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  are  also  fine  implements.  The  former  is  especially  adapted  to 
lands  where  there  are  stones  or  other  obstructions,  and  for  this  reason  is  proving  especially 
valuable  to  the  farmers  of  New  England.     Two  horses  are  sufiicient  for  its  use. 

The  Osborne  Plow  Sulky,  manufactured  by  Gregg  &  Co.,  Trumansburg,  N.  Y.,  has  a 
system  of  levers  by  which  the  driver  is  enabled  to  regulate  the  depth  and  width  of  the 
furrows  at  will. 

The  Green-sward  and  Subsoil  Eagle  Plow,  by  the  well-known  firm  of  Ames  Plow  Co., 
Boston,  Mass.,  may  be  made  to  turn  furrow  slices  from  nine  to  fourteen  inches  deep,  and  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  inches  wide  when  desired. 

The  Advance  Chilled,  and  the  GoodaU  Subsoil  Plow,  also  used  as  a  grub  hook,  stone  and 
root-puller,  and  manufactured  by  Joseph  Buck  &  Sons,  Boston,  Mass.,  are  too  well-known  to 
require  comment. 

The  Adamant  plows,  by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.,  of  New  York  City,  are  exceedingly 
durable,  being  made  of  metal  of  uniform  hardness.  They  are  so  constructed  as  to  be  fitted 
with  "slip  points"  of  steel, — of  which  we  give  an  illustration — by  means  of  which  the  plows 
can  be  kept  constantly  sharp,  while  the  cost  of  repairs  is  thus  greatly  reduced. 


100 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


HARROWING. 

THE  harrow  is  indispensable  to  any  fann,  however  small,  being  useful  in  various  ways, 
principally  for  pulverizing  the  soil,  and  covering  the  seed  when  only  a  slight  covering  is 
necessaiy;  it  is  also  often  valuable  for  exterminating  weeds.  Its  use  for  any  purpose  is 
most  effectual  when  the  soil  is  dry  and  capable  of  being  crumbled  cr  pulverized  mto  a  fine 
mellow  condition;  therefore,  a  field  should  never  be  harrowed  when  the  soil  is  wet.  But  a  few 
years  since,  the  straight-toothed  harrow,  in  the  form  of  a  triangle  or  letter  A,  was  the  only  har- 
row known  among  farmers;  although  a  useful  implement  in  many  respects,  it  was  a  very  un- 
satisfactory one  for  fitting  green  sward  for  planting  or  sowing,  as  well  as  for  some  other  pur- 
poses for  which  the  improved  harrows  in  use  at  the  present  time  are  so  admirably  adapted. 
A  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soO.  will  well  repay  the  labor  bestowed  in  rendering  it  so.  since 
a  soil  that  is  reduced  to  a  fine  and  mellow  tillage,  other  conditions  being  equal,  requires  less 
manure  than  one  that  is  not  thoroughly  reduced  to  this  condition,  besides,  it  is  an  important 


'^kJUl 


LA    DOW  S    PULVERIZING    HAKBOW. 


principle  in  agriculture,  that  the  more  thoroughly  the  soil  is  mixed  and  worked  over,  the 
better  are  the  crops.  Those  agricultural  machines  that  will  best  accomphsh  this  complete 
pulverization  of  the  soil,  are  of  course  the  best  implements.  For  reducing  hea\y  soils,  such 
as  sodded  or  stiff  clay  lands,  the  efficiency  of  the  harrow  is  increased  by  its  moving  quickly 
through  the  soil,  and  stiiking  the  larger  lumps  with  sufiicient  force  to  break  them  in  pieces  ; 
for  this  reason  an  active  team  is  better  then  a  slow-moving  one  for  this  purpose,  and  horses 
or  mules  are  often  preferred  to  oxen. 

The  above  illustration  represents  La  Dow's  jointed  pulverizing  harrow,  manufactured  by 
the  Wheeler  &  Melick  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y.  This  is  a  very  efiBcient  implement  for  pulverizing 
and  preparing  lands  for  seed,  as  the  discs  are  of  steel  and  very  sharp,  and  break  or  cut 
through  all  the  solid  portions  of  the  soil,  leaving  it  fine,  even,  and  mellow.  It  cuts  uniformly 
deep  the  entire  length  of  each  gang,  and  performs  very  thorough  work  by  once  going  over 


HAEROWING 


101 


tlie  groimd.  Eacli  disc  is  supplied  with  a  patent  scraper  bar  attachment,  which  obviates  all 
difficulty  in  sticky  soils  by  keeping  them  clean  from  any  earth  that  may  adhere  to  them ;  this 
scraper  being  controlled  by  the  driver  simply  moving  a  lever  toward  him.  The  number  of 
discs  or  wheels  in  the  different  sizes  of  this  harrow  range  from  twelve  to  twenty-four,  and  the 
width  of  the  cut  from  sis  feet  to  fifteen  feet. 


(.■m 


ACME    PULVERIZING    HARROW,    CLOD-CRCSHER,    AND    LEVELEB. 


The  Acme  harrow,  manufactured  by  Nash  &  Brother,  New  York  city,  is  a  combined 
liarrow,  clod-crusher,  and  leveler,  which  very  effectually  breaks  down  the  hard  portions  of 
the  soil,  and  levels  the  surface,  while  the  curved  steel  coulters  cut  and  pulverize  it  to  the 


SHARE  S    COULTER    HARROW. 


depth  of  four  or  five  inches,  leaving  it  mellow  and  fine.  It  can  be  made  to  effectually  pulver- 
ize a  field  of  com  stubble,  or  rim  light  enough  to  cover  grass  seed.  It  covers  seed  to  a 
uniform  depth,  and  will  also  thoroughly  mix  commercial  fertilizers  with  the  soil.  The  weight 
of  the  driver  while  riding  adds  to  its  efBciency. 


102 


THE   AMERICAN  FARMER. 


Share's  Coulter  Harrow,  by  the  firm  of  Belcher  k,  Taylor,  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  is  an 
implement,  the  merits  of  which  are  well-known. 

The  Thomas  and  Nishwitz  harrows,  manufactured  by  Joseph  Breck  &  Sons,  Boston 
Mass.,  have  also  been  extensively  used.  The  essential  principle  of  the  former  consists  in 
placing  the  teeth  at  a  double  angle,   both  backward  and  sidewise  in  the  bar,  so  that  the 


THK    TilUMAS    HARROW. 


THE  NISHWITZ  HABROW. 

position  of  each  shall  be  directly  backward  in  the  line  of  draft,  or  direction  in  which  the 
harrow  is  moving.  If  the  bar  in  which  the  teeth  are  placed  moved  directly  lengthwise,  all 
the  teeth  in  a  bar  would  follow  each  other;  and,  to  avoid  this,  the  bar  is  made  to  advance 
somewhat  diagonally  or  sidewise,  so  that  each  tooth  will  cut  a  slice  for  itself,  and  no  two 
teeth  foUow  each  other.     The  distance  between  the  teeth  is  a  little  less  than  one  inch  as  they 


•  USE  OF  THE  ROLLER. 


103 


work  in  tlie  ground,  or  about  one-third  the  distance  usual  in  most  harrows,  thus  securing  the 
perfect  and  minute  pulverization  of  the  entire  sui'face.  Owing  to  this  position  of  the  teeth, 
they  never  clog,  keep  themselves  scoured  clean  and  bright,  and  bury  any  rubbish,  such  as 
straw,  roots,  manure,  etc.,  completely  beneath  the  soil. 

The  latter  harrow  consists  of  a  series  of  revolving  concave  discs,  and  is  somewhat  similar 
in  its  construction  to  La  Dow's  harrow. 


USE  OF  THE  ROLLER. 

THE  field-roller  is  a  valuable  machine  for  every  farmer  to  possess,  although  it  is  more 
rarely  seen  on  farms  than  almost  any  other  farm  implement. 
It  is  very  useful  for  crushing  the  clods  and  lumps  that  are  left  by  the  harrow,  and 
for  pressing  down  stones  and  rendering  a  field  smooth  for  a  mowing  machine,  also  in  pressing 
the  soil  down  upon  the  seed,  which  produces  a  more  sure  and  quick  germination  by  the 
increased  moisture  thus  secured.  It  also  consolidates  soils  that  are  too  loose  in  texture.  All 
lands,  whether  seeded  down  in  the  spring  or  fall,  should  be  rolled  every  spring.  All  grass 
lands  even  are  greatly  benefited  by  its  use,  since  the  action  of  the  frost  has  a  tendency  to 
throw  up  the  ground;  the  tender  roots  are  thus  exposed  and  will  soon  dry  up  if  not  replaced. 
By  pressing  them  back  again  to  their  proper  places  with  the  roller,  an  increased  crop  of  grass 
will  result  which  will  abundantly  repay  for  the  labor.  Its  use  is  said  to  have  often  doubled 
a  crop  on  certain  sandy  soils  that  are  not  sufficiently  compact  to  hold  the  roots  of  plants  firmly, 
and  retain  sufficient  moisture  for  their  support. 


THE  FIELD  ROLLER. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  tillage  operations  of  the  roller,  as  well  as  those  of  the  harrow,  can 
be  performed  to  best  advantage  when  the  soil  is  not  wet. 

Rollers  are  made  in  various  ways,  the  material  of  which  they  are  constructed  being  of 
both  wood  and  iron;  but  the  iron  roller  is  the  most  approved  kind,  as  it  does  better  work 
and  is  more  durable  than  wood.  It  is  made  in  sections  of  cast-iron.  The  box  attachment  is 
very  servicable  for  holding  stones,  weeds,  roots,  etc.,  picked  up  in  the  field,  and  for  supplying 
weight  to  the  roller,  according  to  the  work  required. 

The  above  illustration  represents  one  of  the  best  iron  rollers  in  use. 

For  clay  lands  that  have  become  very  compact  and  hard,  a  heavy  iron  roller  which  has 
teeth  attached  to  the  external  surface  is  sometimes  used  in  breaking  up  the  soil,  but  such  an 


104  THE  AlVIERICAN  FARMER. 

implement  might  very  properly  be  superseded  by  the  use  of  some  of  the  most  approved  kinds 
of  harrows  for  stirring  and  pulverizing  the  soil,  which  might  be  followed  by  the  ordinary 
roller  for  crushing  the  smaller  clods  that  would  escape  the  harrow. 

How  to  ConstrHCt  a  Farm  Roller.  On  small  farms  where  often  the  moderate 
means  of  the  farmer  would  not  warrant  the  purchase  of  a  good  iron  roUer,  a  substitute  for 
hght  work  is  sometimes  found  in  a  log  drawn  over  the  ground  without  roUing. 

Some  farmers  use  a  square  piece  of  timber  for  this  purpose,  either  of  which  will  do  fairly 
well  where  the  lumps  are  not  very  hard,  as  in  some  clay  soils.  In  using  the  log  for  this  pur- 
pose, a  pair  of  shafts  will  be  needed  for  one  horse,  and  a  pole  like  that  of  a  wagon  for  two 
horses.  Of  course,  the  round  stick  of  timber,  or  log,  will  approach  nearest  the  roller,  and  will 
be  the  more  desirable  substitute,  as  it  is  less  liable  to  clog  and  become  obstructed  in  the  work. 

A  very  cheap  and  serviceable  roller  can  be  easUy  made  from  a  round  piece  of  timber  of 
suitable  size  and  length,  (which  should  be  eight  or  ten  feet ;  if  too  long  it  would  not  be  conve- 
nient to  manage  in  turning  round,)  and  inserting  irons  of  sufficient  size  and  strength  in  the 
center  of  each  end,  as  axles  on  wliich  the  log  shall  turn.  The  bos  attachment  can  also  be 
added,  and  a  roller,  simulated  after  the  common  iron  roUer  in  finishing,  be  made  to  answer 
the  requirements  of  a  small  farm.  Of  course,  it  will  be  necessary  that  the  log  of  wliich  it  is 
made  should  be  as  nearly  straight  and  as  near  the  form  of  a  perfect  cylinder  as  possible. 
Almost  any  farmer  can  find  such  a  log  in  his  woodland,  and  but  little  ingenuity  and  labor 
would  be  required  in  the  construction  of  such  an  implement,  which  would  be  found  very- 
serviceable  on  those  farms  where  the  iron  roller  is  not  used. 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE. 

FAEillNG  is  constantly  becoming  more  of  a  mercantile  business  than  formerly. 
In  the  earUer  days,  it  was  the  custom  for  farmers  to  raise  everything  for  home 
use,  even  the  clothing  worn  by  the  family,  and  scarcely  a  farmer  was  known  who 
did  not  produce  his  yearly  crop  of  flax  and  wool  for  this  purpose.  The  old  maxim  was, 
that  farmers  should  seU  and  not  buy.  At  present  this  idea  is  in  a  great  measure  ignored, 
and  although  it  is  customary  for  farmers  to  raise  what  is  used  on  the  fann,  as  far  as  practicable, 
there  is  a  tendency  towards  the  opinion  that  di\'ision  of  labor,  or  specialties,  are  as  applicable 
to  farming,  as  to  other  kinds  of  business. 

That  the  shoemaker  should  endeavor  to  make  clothes,  hats,  and  bonnets  for  his  family, 
would  be  thought  absurd ;  and  that  the  tailor  should  attempt  to  make  the  shoes,  furniture, 
etc.,  for  his  household  would  be  considered,  to  say  the  least,  very  poor  economy,  when  by 
working  at  his  trade  he  could  earn  many  times  as  much  as  those  articles  would  cost,  and  the 
purchased  goods  would  be  in  every  way  superior  to  any  that  he  could  manufacture.  That 
the  farmer  should  endeavor  to  cultivate  everything  consmned,  or  in  demand  upon  his  farm, 
without  regard  to  the  expense  attending  it,  the  nature  of  his  soil,  the  relative  market  value 
compared  with  other  crops,  the  demands  of  the  market,  and  other  considerations,  would  also 
be  very  poor  policy,  since  the  real  profits,  or  the  attainment  of  the  largest  possible  excess  of 
receipts  over  expenditures,  is  the  aim  of  the  farmer  as  well  as  those  engaged  in  other  depart- 
ments of  business. 

A  Judicious  Choice  of  Crops  Essential.  There  are  few  things  that  have  so  impor- 
tant a  bearing  upon  the  success  or  failure  of  the  farmer's  business,  as  the  choice  of  crops  to 
be  produced.  Of  course  his  success  also  depends  upon  many  other  considerations  in  connec- 
tion with  this  one  great  essential,  such  as  the  manner  of  cultivation,  judicious  management, 


WHAT  CROPS  TO  RAISE.  105 

and  other  things  too  numerous  to  mention,  which,  if  ignored,  would  fail  of  giving  success, 
even  with  the  most  desirable  choice  of  crops  that  might  be  made;  but  where  all  other  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  a  judicious  choice  is  one  of  the  first  essentials  to  success,  and  a  failure  or 
error  here  will  inevitably  lead  to  disastrous  results, — such  results  as  no  amount  of  labor  and 
care,  or  skill  in  culture,  can  to  any  great  estent  ameliorate. 

Choice  of  Crops  Modified  by  Demand.  It  will  be  generally  conceded  that  the 
choice  of  crops  is  to  the  farmer  what  the  selection  of  goods  is  to  the  merchant.  The  selection 
of  goods  is  to  the  merchant,  a  consideration  of  the  first  importance  in  his  success,  and  his 
study  must  be  to  learn  the  wants  of  his  customers  and  meet  their  demands,  both  in  kind  and 
quality  of  goods  with  which  to  continually  replenish  his  stock.  If  he  fails  to  do  this,  he  soon 
loses  custom,  for  no  one  would  think  of  bujdng  things  he  may  happen  to  have  on  hand,  simply 
to  accommodate  him,  when  they  were  not  what  was  wanted ;  and  if  he  did  not  have  the  goods 
desired,  his  customers  would  go  elsewhere  for  them,  and  other  merchants  would  gain  the 
trade  that  he  had  lost.  One  of  the  great  principles  of  mercantile  business  everywhere 
recognized  is  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  trade,  and  if  this  be  ignored,  failure  of  success 
must  inevitably  follow.  This  same  principle  is  equally  applicable  to  the  agricultural  pursuit, 
since  the  farmer  as  well  as  the  merchant  depends  upon  the  sales  he  makes  for  the  profits  in 
his  business,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  merchant  purchases  his  goods  for  sale,  and  the 
fanner  produces  his  from  the  soil  by  skill  and  labor  in  cultivation. 

If  the  merchant  requires  skill  and  judgment  in  determining  the  wants  of  his  customers, 
and  in  selecting  his  goods  with  a  view  to  meet  those  wants,  so  does  the  farmer  require  an 
equal  amount  of  skill  and  judgment  to  meet  the  demand  for  the  class  of  products  he  is  to 
supply.  And  if  in  the  mercantile  business,  there  is  constantly  a  demand  for  something  new, 
the  old  going  out  of  fashion  to  give  place  for  tlie  new, — so  in  farming,  is  there  no  permanency 
in  the  demand  for  certain  products.  What  is  most  in  demand  now,  may  not  be  required  by 
the  markets  a  few  years  hence. 

New  varieties  of  fruits  and  other  products  are  constantly  being  introduced,  some  of 
which  find  a  more  ready  market  than  those  formerly  cultivated,  and  it  is  the  farmer's  business 
to  learn  what  kinds  of  products  and  the  varieties  of  these  that  are  most  in  demand,  and  will 
consequently  bring  the  highest  price,  and  cultivate  these.  In  many  instances  the  varieties 
most  popular  with  the  purchasers  may  seem  no  better  to  the  farmer  than  the  old ;  but  since  it 
is  but  right  that  the  consumer  who  pays  his  money  for  the  products  should  be  the  one  to 
decide  which  he  will  buy,  the  farmer  will  find  it  for  his  interest  to  cultivate  the  kind  desLred. 
In  other  words,  the  farmer,  as  well  as  the  merchant,  must  keep  up  with  the  times  and  the 
demands  of  the  age  in  which  he  lives  in  order  to  be  successful.  The  farmer  then,  as  a  general 
rule,  must  keep  himself  informed  with  respect  to  the  state  of  the  markets  at  which  he  is  to 
dispose  of  his  crops,  and  raise  such  as  are  in  demand  there. 

Pl'iuciple  Sliould  be  Regarded.  There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  the  above  rule 
governing  the  choice  of  crops.  We  cannot  recommemd  it  only  as  far  as  it  does  not  involve  a 
violation  of  moral  principle.  Popular  demand  sliould  always  be  subservient  to  that,  and  no 
truly  honest  man  would  sacrifice  principle  for  the  profits  that  may  be  the  result.  We  have  a 
profound  respect  and  admiration  for  an  old  New  England  farmer,  who  in  a  time  of  general 
scarcity  of  apples,  being  offered  a  high  price  for  those  from  his  large,  well-bearing  orchards, 
for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  cider-brandy,  replied,  "No!  though  I  want  the  money, 
I'U  let  'em  rot  upon  the  ground  before  I'll  sell  'em  for  such  a  purpose!" 

If  all  farmers  were  equally  true  to  principle  with  respect  to  the  disposal  of  their  pro- 
ducts, there  would  be  less  perversion  of  the  good  and  useful,  and  what  the  Creator  designed 
for  man's  sustenance,  into  evil,  and  that  element  that  destroys  annually  morally,  mentally,  and 
physically,  so  many  of  the  human  race.     He  who  administers  to  an  evil  habit  or  depraved 


106  THE  AilERICAN  FARSrER. 

taste,  aids  in  debasing  his  fellow-man,  and  is  himself  debased  by  the  act.  To  all  farmers  we 
would  say, — in  the  cultivation  and  disposal  of  your  crops,  be  true  to  the  principle  of  right 
and  honor ;  let  that  be  the  standard  of  choice  always,  and  the  popular  demand  secondary 
to  this. 

Choice  of  Crops  Modified  by  the  Character  of  the  Soil. — Another  veiy  im- 
portant consideration,  in  determining  the  kind  of  crops  to  be  cultivated,  is  the  character  of 
the  soil.  No  farmer  can  be  very  successful  in  his  business  who  does  not  understand  the 
nature  of  his  soil  and  the  crops  to  which  it  is  best  adapted.  The  soil  of  some  farms  is  better 
suited  to  grass  and  the  rearing  of  stock;  others  for  grain,  roots,  and  other  cultivated  crops; 
others  still  for  fruit  culture  principally.  Some  farms  are  better  adapted  to  certain  particular 
kinds  of  stock — those  for  special  purposes;  others  still  for  specialties  in  farming,  while  many 
are  suited  to  a  mi-xed  husbandry,  or  the  cultivation  of  many  of  the  farm  products. 

In  making  a  choice  of  crops,  therefore,  the  farmer  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  under- 
stand the  character  of  the  soU  he  is  to  cidtivate,  as  well  as  the  demands  of  the  market,  and 
produce  those  for  which  his  lands  are  best  adapted.  If  he  attempts  to  cultivate  products  that 
are  best  suited  to  a  dry,  warm  soil,  in  a  cold  clay  or  wet  lands,  or  the  reverse,  he  will  generally 
meet  with  failure,  unless  by  imderdraining  the  wet  lands  or  otherwise  changing  the  condi- 
tion of  the  respective  soils,  they  become  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  plants  for  which  they  are 
not  naturally  adapted.  Again,  some  soils  may  possess  more  of  certain  kinds  of  elements  of  plant- 
growth  than  of  others;  for  instance.one  soil  may  be  more  deficient  in  phosphoric  acid  than 
the  other  desired  elements  of  plant-food;  another  may  have  an  abundance  of  phosphoric  acid, 
but  be  lacking  in  potash,  etc.,  the  same  principle  applying  to  a  deficiency  of  any  of  the 
elements  of  plant-food,  the  stores  of  which  may  be  capable  of  a  partial  or  complete  exhaustion 
in  a  soil.  Fortunately  for  the  farmer,  science  has  come  to  his  aid  and  pointed  out  to  him  the 
way  to  restore  the  elements  that  may  be  deficient  in  his  lands,  through  over-cropping  without 
sufficient  fertility  restored  to  the  soil,  or  for  other  reasons,  and  when  once  he  has  determined 
the  great  want  of  his  lands,  he  may,  by  applying  it  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers  or 
farm  manure,  so  change  its  nature  and  condition  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  successful  cultivation 
of  crops  that  it  would  not  otherwise  produce. 

He  may  use  special  fertilizers  for  special  crops,  or  he  may  use  barn-yard  manure,  if  it 
can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities,  since  it  is  a  complete  fertilizer  for  all  crops,  and  the 
commercial  fertilizers  are  not.  Special  fertilizers  that  are  complete  can,  however,  be  made 
for  certain  crops  by  a  proper  combination  in  kind  and  quality  of  commercial  manures,  which 
have  given  remarkable  results  even  in  soils  not  especially  adapted  to  their  production.  Barn- 
yard manure  is  more  slow  in  its  results  than  commercial  fertilizers,  since  it  requires  a  longer 
time  for  it  to  become  assimilated  to  plant-growth,  being  coarse  in  texture,  while  commercial 
fertilizers,  being  reduced  to  a  condition  to  be  readily  taken  up  by  the  plants,  act  more  quickly 
in  stimulating  the  growth  of  crops.  For  this  reason,  where  barn-yard  manure  is  applied 
alone,  the  yield  is  always  modified  more  largely  by  the  adaptation  of  the  land  for  the  particular 
crop  under  cultivation,  than  where  comiSiercial  fertilizers  are  used,  and  much  of  the  fertility 
in  the  soil  is  left  over  to  the  following  j'ear,  while  the  fertilizing  properties  of  commercial 
manures  are  usually  mostly  extracted  during  the  first  season.  "With  skillful  management 
with  special  fertilizers — those  adapted  to  certain  products — many  crops  may  be  grown  suc- 
cessfully on  lands  that  otherwise  were  not  well  adapted  to  their  production ;  still,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  best  permanent  results  are  attained  on  lands  naturally  suited  to  the  crop  to  be  culti- 
vated. It  is  well,  however,  for  the  fanner  to  bear  in  mind  that  one  of  the  most  important 
things  to  be  considered  is  the  necessity  of  thoroughly  understanding,  as  far  as  can  be,  the 
nature  of  the  soil  he  is  to  cultivate.  The  value  of  this  knowledge  cannot  well  be  over- 
estimated. The  soil  is  the  element  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  deal,  and  unless  he  possesses 
a  good  knowledge  of  it,  and  knows  the  crops  to  which  it  is  best  adapted,  he  cannot  expect  to 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 


107 


succeed.  If  he  meets  with  any  degree  of  success  wliile  working  in  ignorance,  it  is  by  mere 
chance  that  he  roaches  the  result — a  kind  of  "  guess  work  "  without  knowledge  of  the  facts 
.,  that  lead  to  it.  What  could  be  expected  of  a  mechanic  who  attempted,  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
business,  to  use  tools  constructed  in  a  complicated  manner,  when  entirely  ignorant  of  their 
use  and  construction?    Equally  presumptuous  would  it  be  for  the  farmer  to  expect  to  cultivate 

intelligently  and  with  successful  results  the  most  complicated  of  elements  combined the 

agricultural  soil — when  entirely  ignorant  of  its  composition,  or  of  what  it  was  best  adapted 
to  produce. 

Relative  Cost  in  Prodaction,  etc. — Another  important  point  to  be  considered  in 
the  choice  of  crops  is  the  relative  cost  in  production,  and  the  value  of  different  crops  when 
harvested.  There  may  sometimes  be  crops  in  popular  demand  in  the  market,  for  the  production 
of  which  the  soil  of  the  farmer  may  be  admirably  adapted,  but  the  expense  of  which  production 
may  so  far  exceed  that  of  other  crops  less  in  demand,  that  the  latter  may  be  found  to  be  the 
most  profitable.  When  it  costs  a  farmer  fifty  per  cent,  more  to  produce  a  bushel  of  potatoes 
than  it  does  corn,  for  instance,  or  any  other  crop,  and  the  former  brings  but  twenty-five  per 
cent,  more  profit  than  the  latter,  he  will  find  it  for  his  advantage  to  cultivate  the  latter,  since 
by  so  doing  he  realizes  a  larger  per  cent.  o£  profit;  that  is,  his  receipts  are  larger  in  excess 
of  his  expenditures  than  on  the  more  expensive  crop.  It  is  not  profitable  to  raise  large  and 
expensive  crops  that  do  not  bring  a  large  proportionate  profit  in  return.  The  fact  should  be 
kept  in  mind  that  that  farming  is  most  profitable  that  brings  the  largest  returns  for  what  is 
expended.  Farraei-s  should  keep  an  accurate  account  with  respect  to  the  expense  of  each 
crop  (including  cost  of  fertilizers,  expense  of  cultivation,  harvesting,  marketing,  etc.),  and 
determining  relatively  what  the  cost  of  production  and  receipts  of  their  sale  are,  they  will 
thus  learn  which  pays  best  and  which  are  the  most  unprofitable.  By  so  doing,  a  decision  as 
to  which  are  the  most  desirable  to  raise  can  easily  be  reached. 

Where  it  will  be  found  that  the  crops  for  home  consumption  on  the  farm  can  be  grown 
cheaper  than  they  can  be  purchased,  it  will,  of  course,  be  best  to  cultivate  enough  of  such,  at 
least,  as  are  necessary  for  that  purpose ;  but  where  certain  products  for  home  production  can  be. 
bought  for  less  money  than  the  farmer  could  grow  them  himself,  it  will  not  pay  to  cultivate 
such,  when  money  and  labor  could  more  profitably  be  expended  on  other  products.  By  giving 
due  thought  and  attention  to  the  subject  of  a  choice  in  crops,  and  taking  measures  to  so 
inform  himself  as  to  obtain  all  the  light  possible  on  the  subject,  the  farmer  will  be  liable  to 
make  a  more  judicious  choice  than  otherwise;  and  having  once  taken  such  steps  in  the  right 
direction — although  he  may  make  some  mistakes,  and  often  obtain  benefit  from  such  experi- 
ence— yet  he  will,  in  the  main,  with  other  favoring  conditions,  meet  with  success.  The 
farmer  who  profits  by  the  experience  of  the  past,  and  wisely  appropriates  to  his  use  the 
advantages  within  his  reach  that  the  present  affords,  must  win  success,  however  close  the 
competition  with  which  he  meets,  or  difficult  the  obstacles  he  has  to  overcome. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

IT  has  become  an  established  fact  in  agriculture  that  the  continued  growth  for 
successive  years  of  the  same  kind  or  family  of  plants  on  the  same  soil  is  one  of  the 
surest  and  most  speedy  means  of  impairing,  and,  in  many  instances,  rendering  that 
particular  soil  unfit  for  bearing  further  crops  of  that  kind.  More  especially  is  this  true 
if  the  crop  matures  and  ripens  its  seed,  like  the  various  kinds  of  grain,  etc.  It  has  also  been 
ascertained  by  long  practice,  that  if  a  proper  system  of  rotation  be  adopted,  exhaustion  of 
soil  win  be  greatly  deferred,  and  that  by  the  use  of  fertilizers,  which  will  return  an  equivalent 


108  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

for  the  elements  extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  production  of  crops,  the  exhaustion  can  be 
largely  prevented.  Yet,  even  in  such  cases,  it  is  found  that  for  aU  soils  a  change  by  way  of 
rotation  is  the  most  satisfactory  in  the  result  upon  both  the  soil  and  crops  produced,  most 
writers  on  the  subject  claiming  that  the  application  or  withholding  of  manures  onlj'  serves  to 
retard  or  accelerate  this  process  of  exhaustion. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  poorer  the  soU  the  greater  the  necessity  of  diversifying  the  crops, 
consequently  the  greater  the  necessity  of  a  rotation,  and  those  crops  that  are  wholly  removed 
from  the  soil  in  root,  branch,  and  seed,  wUl  exhaust  lands  sooner  than  those  that  permit  of  a 
portion  remaining  on  the  lands  to  fertilize  it,  euch  as  stubble,  etc.  Even  on  the  rich  lands  of 
the  West,  it  is  found  that  special  crops,  such  as  wheat,  cannot  be  cultivated  year  after  year  on 
the  same  soU  without  deteiioration.  Wlien  lauds  became  unproductive  among  the  earlier 
cultivators  of  the  soil,  it  was  concluded  that  it  was  because  such  lands  needed  rest;  hence, 
the  fallow  system  was  introduced,  which  was  a  common  practice  among  the  Romans.  Their 
usual  course  was  to  permit  the  land  to  rest  after  each  crop;  a  crop  and  a  year's  fallow 
generally  succeeding  each  other,  although,  where  manure  was  applied,  two  and  sometimes 
several  crops  were  taken  between  the  fallowing  peiiods.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  the 
fallow  system  was  almost  unknown,  since  their  agriculture  was  confined  to  the  banks  and 
lands  adjacent  to  rivers  having  an  annual  overflow,  which  inundation  caused  a  rich  deposit  of 
mud  to  be  left  upon  the  surface  yearly,  thus  furnishing  a  rich  top-dressing  sufficient  to  keep 
the  soil  Ln  constant  fertility.  The  practice  of  changing  the  crops  with  more  or  less  regularity, 
although  found  to  be  attended  with  beneficial  results,  has  never  been  quite  satisfactorily 
explained. 

Theories  Relative  to  the  Necessity  of  Rotation  of  Crops. — Various  the- 
ories have  from  time  to  time  been  advanced  relative  to  the  cause  of  the  failxire  or  depre- 
ciation of  the  same  kind  of  crops  produced  continuously  from  the  same  soil.  One  of  these 
theories  formerly  was,  that  plants,  in  growing,  exuded  or  threw  off  from  their  roots  waste 
substances,  wMch  rendered  the  soil  unfit,  to  a  certain  degree,  for  the  production  of  the  same 
variety  of  plants,  until  time  had  neutralized  the  deleterious  properties  thus  imparted,  but 
that  those  properties  given  ofE  were  not  injurious  to  other  kinds  of  plants.  This  theory  is 
now  generally  discarded.  Another  theory,  and  the  one  now  generally  adopted,  is  that  differ- 
ent kinds  of  plants  exhaust  certain  elements  from  the  soil  in  different  degrees,  and  that  this 
explains  why  a  change  in  the  production  of  crops  is  beneficial.  Tliis  may  be  a  tme  reason 
to  a  certain  extent,  but  it  does  not  fully  answer  the  question,  since  it  is  foimd  that  different 
crops,  requiring  about  the  same  elements  of  plant-food  in  similar  quantities,  do  not  affect 
the  soO.  in  the  same  manner,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  shght  difference  in  the  proportionate 
elements  of  plant-food  of  different  crops  does  not  account  for  the  great  difference  between 
the  alternation  of  these  crops,  and  the  successive  following  of  the  same,  as  is  the  case  with 
wheat  and  corn,  as  instanced  by  the  following  from  Prof.  Blount,  of  the  State  Agricultural 
College,  Colorado : — 

"  In  the  vegetable,  as  well  as  the  animal  kingdom,  it  is  the  infallible  law  of  nature  that 
constant  cropping  and  continual  feeding  of  one  thing  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  tend  to 
reduce  the  strength,  ^dgor,  growth,  and  product.  Kow  corn  takes  from  the  soil  only  about 
6^  pounds  of  its  whole  substance  when  dried,  and  wheat  7  pounds.  All  the  rest  of  the  mat- 
ter comes  from  the  atmosphere  in  the  shape  of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  etc.  If 
a  succession  of  croppings  be  made,  it  necessarily  takes  from  the  soil  these  elements  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree.  Both  wheat  and  com,  chemists  tell  us,  take  up  the  same  essential  ele- 
ments, but  they  fail  to  make  the  process  or  operation  clear  enough  to  show  why  one  crop 
following  itself  lessens,  and  following  another  does  not  lessen  the  jield.  Com  has  its  own 
natural  habit  of  extracting  food  from  the  soil ;  so  has  wheat.  The  operation  of  both  cannot 
be  aUke,  or  the  exhatistion,  lessening  of  the  yield,  and  the  same  condition  of  the  soil  wotdd 


ROTATION  OP  CROPS.  109 

follow  rotation.  It  is  very  evident  that  wheat  leaves  the  soil  in  a  better  condition  for  corn 
than  it  does  for  wheat  again,  and  corn  leaves  it  better  for  wheat.  Clover,  peas,  and  sweet 
potatoes  are  among  the  best  crops  for  preparing  or  leaving  the  ground  for  any  crop.  Wheat 
does  much  better  after  Irish  potatoes  and  tobacco  in  some  States,  than  after  any  other  grain 
or  vegetable. 

.  Several  instances  have  come  under  my  observation  where  sweet  potatoes  were  raised  for 
10  to  20  years  in  succession,  without  any  apparent  exhaustion,  but  with  great  fertility  to  the 
soil.  In  looking  into  the  chemistry  of  this  subject,  we  find  in  the  analyses  that  wheat  con- 
tains about  55  per  cent,  of  starch,  and  corn  70  per  cent.  The  gluten  in  the  former  runs  from 
10  to  19  per  cent.,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  about  12  per  cent.  Now  if  the  soil  contains  a  cer- 
tain average  supply  of  these  and  other  inorganic  substances  upon  which  the  plant  feeds,  and 
the  same  wheat  or  corn  crop  is  grown  in  the  same  soil  year  after  year,  the  crops  will  carry  off 
some  of  these  substances  in  a  greater  proportion  than  others,  so  that  they  will  become  rela- 
tively less  every  season.  The  result  is,  the  soil  will  become  so  impoverished  of  tiiese  sub- 
stances that  no  crop  of  the  same  kind  can  be  raised,  although  it  may  contain  a  large  store  of 
other  inorganic  substances.  When  these  crops  are  grown  one  after  the  other,  one  draws 
especially  upon  one  class  of  elements  and  the  other  upon  another,  thus  keeping  up  the  equi- 
librium of  fertility  necessary  to  support  either  plant. 

In  connection  with  these  operations  there  must  be  two  kinds  of  exhaustion — general  and 
special — the  former  consisting  of  gradual  extraction  of  all  the  essential  elements  upon  which 
each  crop  feeds,  and  the  latter  consisting  of  a  want  of  one  or  more  of  these  elements." 

There  evidently  are  other  reasons  for  the  difference,  in  connection  with  the  many  theories 
advanced,  which  are  not  yet  understood,  and  which  are  not  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  under- 
stand, since  he  has  to  deal  with  the  jacl  itself,  and  its  relations  to  agriculture.  He  can  afford 
to  leave  the  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  to  the  agricultural  chemists,  and  give  his  atten- 
tion to  the  benefits  that  may  be  derived  from  a  knowledge  of  the  facts.     "We  find  that 

Nature  Generally  Follows  a  Course  of  Rotation  in  her  various  departments  of 

vegetable  production.  Although  mowing  lands  part  with  their  annual  crop  of  hay,  and  by  a 
partial  rest,  or  a  pasturage  of  their  aftermath  or  "  rowen,"  will  remain  fresh  and  seem  to 
retain  the  original  plants  that  produced  the  crop,  yet  on  a  close  examination  it  will  be  ascer- 
tained that  the  varieties  of  the  grasses  and  other  plants  will  change  gradually  from  year  to 
year,  some  kinds  predominating  at  one  time  and  others  at  another,  in  a  continuous  round  of 
rotation. 

But  this  fact  of  change  is  more  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  succession  of  forest  trees, 
which  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  even  the  most  casual  observer.  We  distinctly 
recall,  among  our  chUdhood  memories,  a  grand  old  forest  of  oak,  walnut,  and  chestnut.  Many 
of  these  monarchs  of  the  forest  succumbed  to  the  fate  of  the  woodman's  axe.  Soon  appeared 
in  their  places  a  thick  growth  of  white  pine,  which  increased  with  remarkable  rapidity. 
These  pines  were  subsequently  cut  down,  and  maple,  chestnut,  and  oak  came  up  with  scarcely 
a  pine  tree  among  them.  And  thus  it  is  always  found  that  when  a  forest  is  cut  down,  and 
the  roots  destroyed,  another  growth  of  trees  succeeds  of  an  entirely  different  nature,  and 
these  are  followed  by  still  another  variety,  completing  in  time  a  rotation  all  probably  pro- 
duced from  seeds  that  may  have  lain  dormant  in  the  soil  for  centuries,  waiting  for  favoring 
conditions  to  germinate. 

It  is  often  found  that  when  a  soil  becomes  exhausted  to  a  certain  extent  by  one  particu- 
lar crop,  and  ceases  to  give  a  sufficient  return  of  it,  it  will  still  yield  a  large  crop  of  some 
other  kind  that  is  adapted  to  it,  and  which  calls  for  just  the  elements  of  plant  growth  that 
this  soil  may  contain ;  this  is  not  only  a  fact  concerning  field  crops,  but  the  same  is  true  of 
gardening,  and  the  culture  of  trees,  etc.  There  would  be  found  few  gardeners  of  experience, 
if  any,  who  would  think  of  cultivating  cabbages,  turnips,  or  peas,  on  the  same  piece  of  land 


110 


THE  AMERICAN  FARJIER 


Potatoes,  . 

in  the  same 

plot. 

in  different  plots. 

Flax, 

same, 
different. 

Beans, 

same,  . 
different. 

Barley,     . 

same,  . 
different, 

Tiirnips,  . 

same, 
different, 

Oats, 

same,  . 
different. 

without  an  interval  of  at  least  two  or  three  years;  and  although  in  some  special  cases,  they 
may  be  grown  successfully  on  the  same  soil  for  several  consecutive  seasons,  this  wotild  be  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule ;  the  general  and  most  successful  method  being  to  have  an  inter- 
val of  two  or  three  years  between  the  crops  and  this  interval  to  be  occupied  by  plants  entirely 
different  from  them. 

Dr.  Daubeny  has  experimented  by  cultivating  crops  on  the  same  and  different  plots  in 
successive  years,  and  given  the  average  taken  from  five  years  as  follows : 

72.9  lbs.  tubers. 
93.8 
15.0 
19.9 
32.8 
34.8 
30.0 
46.5 
104.0 
173.0 
28.0 
82.4 

This  shows  an  advantage  in  change,  which  varies  from  one  to  seventy-five  per  cent. 

A  JIassachusetts  nurseryman,  eminently  successful  in  hig  business,  says:  "I  have  wit- 
nessed the  most  extraordinary  effects  follow  the  carrying  out  of  the  principle  of  rotation  of 
crops.  To  illustrate  the  point.  I  will  say,  that  in  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  apple- 
trees,  for  instance,  we  are  obliged  to  prepare  it  very  nicely,  in  order  to  be  successful ;  as 
nicely  as  for  a  ^aneyard,  or  for  garden  vegetables.  "We  plow  deep,  manure  thoroughly,  and 
then,  in  setting  out  the  small  plants,  the  seedling  apples,  we  calculate  that  the  ground  is  in  a 
fit  condition  to  carry  those  trees  almost  to  their  maturity.  Now  you  wUl  see  that  the  grow- 
ing of  a  crop  of  apple-trees  successfully,  which  requires  three  or  four,  and  sometimes  five 
years,  exhausts  the  soil  of  all  its  ingredients  which  the  apple-tree  calls  for,  or  perhaps  any 
deciduous  tree  calls  for.  A  nurseryman  who  understands  his  business  knows  that  it  would 
be  folly  for  him,  after  he  has  taken  oS  that  first  crop,  to  attempt  to  put  a  second  crop  upon 
that  land,  even  if  he  manured  equally  as  well  as  he  did  the  first  time,  because  his  crop  has 
exhausted  the  soil  of  certain  things  which  are  peculiarly  necessary;  and  which  can  only  be 
found  in  newer  soil.  My  practice  has  been  this :  after  my  apple-trees  have  been  removed,  I 
find  the  land  admirably  adapted  to  the  growth  of  evergreen  trees,  such  as  spruce,  arbor  vita9, 
hemlock,  etc.  Without  remanuring  that  land,  without  any  repreparation,  almost,  except  it 
be  plowing,  I  can  set  out  evergreens,  and  get  an  admirable  crop,  because  the  elements  which 
the  evergreens  call  for  still  exist  in  that  soil;  because  the  elements  which  the  evergreens  call 
for  are  different  from  those  which  the  apple-trees  call  for.  I  grow  them  three  years,  and 
then  they  pass  away.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  soil  then?  It  is  exhausted  for  the  ever- 
green, it  is  exhausted  for  the  deciduotis  tree,  and  you  might  say  that  the  soil  was  entirely 
exhausted.  But  such  is  not  always  the  case.  I  may  plow  that  land  thoroughly  and  lay  it 
down  to  grass,  without  even  putting  any  manure  upon  it,  and  raise  a  splendid  crop  of  grass. 

We  believe  it  is  because  the  grass  calls  for  different  elements  in  the  soil  from  either  of 
the  varieties  of  trees  specified,  and  the  farmer  will  find  the  same  principle  true  respecting  his 
crops."  For  this  reason  orchards  plant-ed  upon  old  orchard  sites  seldom  do  well.  The  super- 
intendent of  gardens  and  grounds  for  the  department  at  Washington  states  that  the  same 
results  have  been  found  in  the  culture  of  the  grape.  For  a  number  of  years  past,  it  has 
been  customary  for  the  department  to  propagate  several  thousands  of  plants,  embracing  many 
varieties  of  native  grapes.  These  are  mostly  grown  from  single  eye  cuttings  in  sand  beds 
imder  glass,  and  placed  singly  in  pots  when  rooted.     About  the  end  of  May  they  are  turned 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  m 

out  of  the  pots,  and  planted  out  in  the  open  field  rather  closely,  in  rows  which  are  about 
three  feet  apart.  When  they  have  finished  growth  for  the  season  they,  are  lifted  and 
removed  from  the  field;  the  ground  receives  a  coating  of  rotted  manure,  which  is  either 
plowed  in  or  worked  with  a  spade,  leaving  the  surface  rough  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  frost. 
In  the  following  spring  the  surface  is  again  worked  over,  and  the  soil  placed  in  good  order 
for  planting.  At  the  proper  period  young  grapes  are  again  planted  as  before.  These  are 
removed  at  the  end  of  the  season,  and  the  ground  receives  similar  treatment  to  that  of  the 
previous  year.  Notwithstanding  this  treatment,  the  third  crop  is  very  indifferent,  and  if  a 
fourth  successive  crop  is  planted,  it  will  prove  to  be  an  entire  failure. 

Experience  shows,  that  by  selecting  a  field  which  has  never  been  occupied  with  grapes, 
the  young  plants  will  make  an  average  growth  of  about  four  feet  in  length  the  first  year;  the 
average  growth  of  the  second  year  wiU  reach  about  two  feet;  the  growth  of  the  third  year 
wiU  be  exceedingly  weak,  the  best  plants  reaching  to  about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  many 
weak  kinds  not  reaching  the  length  of  one  foot. 

This  result  of  diminishing  yearly  growths  has  not  been  sensibly  affected  by  the  applica- 
tion of  different  manures,  and  the  question  naturally  arises,  that  if  a  deterioration  of  growth 
becomes  so  marked  in  so  short  a  time,  and  with  such  attention  to  the  soil,  what  may  be 
expected  when  acres  are  closely  planted  with  grapes,  as  in  the  case  of  vineyards,  where  the 
entire  soil  speedily  becomes  filled  with  roots?  It  need  not  be  a  matter  for  surprise  if  vine- 
yards become  unproductive  after  producing  several  satisfactory  crops. 

It  is  a  fact  well-known  to  florists,  that  even  the  smaller  plants  require  a  change,  and  such 
small  growths  as  petunias  and  verbenas,  if  continued  for  a  few  years  on  the  same  ground, 
will  not  give  satisfaction,  however  richly  fertilized  with  different  manurial  applications,  and 
that  when  it  is  desirable  to  grow  these  plants  year  after  year  in  the  same  spot,  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  six  or  eight  inches  of  the  soU,  and  replace  it  with  fresh  earth  from  other  sources. 

Clover,  which  is  the  great  renovater  of  the  soil,  may  be  cultivated  upon  the  same  land 
until  it  becomes  "clover  sick,"  and  ceases  to  produce  it. 

In  his  experiments  at  Rothamstead,  Mr.  Lawes  found  that  with  occasional  variations  due 
to  the  character  of  the  seasons,  the  average  annual  produce  of  a  certain  field  for  twenty  suc- 
cessive years  without  manure  was  sixteen  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  and  sixteen  hundred 
weight  of  straw.  This  soil  was  a  strong  clay  loam  resting  at  a  depth  of  five  or  six  feet  upon 
chalk,  and  probably  produced  a  larger  yield  under  the  circumstances,  than  most  soils.  In  the 
case  of  turnips,  when  treated  in  the  same  manner,  he  found  that  after  a  few  years  they  ceased 
to  grow  larger  than  radishes,  and  he  could  not  afterward  by  the  application  of  any  kind  or 
quantity  of  manure  obtain  a  crop  equal  to  the  first.  The  result  was  very  different  with  the 
wheat  experiment  above  referred  to,  for  by  the  appHcation  of  four  hundred  weight  of  Peru- 
vian guano,  the  crop  was  at  once  doubled. 

Strawberry  plants  require  a  constant  change  of  ground,  in  order  to  do  well,  and  are 
constantly  seeking  to  occupy  new  territory  by  throwing  out  their  long  '■runners;"  and  it  is 
said,  by  those  familiar  with  the  cultivation  of  mushrooms,  that  they  never  rise  in  two  succes- 
sive seasons  from  the  same  spot. 

Nature  has  in  such,  and  various  ways,  sufiBcieutly  indicated  the  law  of  rotation  as  the 
law  of  successful  growth,  and  we  doubt  whether  any  agriculturists  can  improve  upon  it. 
Exceptions  to  this  law  are  found,  but  they  are  exceedingly  rare,  change  being  the  great 
demand  for  all  varieties  of  plant-growth. 

By  a  judicious  system  of  rotation,  the  soil  not  only  has  the  different  elements  of  plant- 
food  extracted  in  various  proportions  suited  to  the  growth  of  different  crops,  thus  preventing 
the  exhaustion  of  a  few  elements  suited  to  one  variety,  but  permits  certain  crops,  that  might 
be  injured  by  a  direct  application  of  manure,  to  have  the  benefit  of  that  which  has  become 
thoroughly  decomposed  and  blended  with  the  soil,  and  hence,  suited  to  its  successful  culturSv 


112  THE  iUHERICAN  FARMER. 

As  some  crops  require  more  cultivation  than  others — such  as  corn  and  potatoes,  for  instance, 
more  than  wheat  or  oats — which  cultivation  necessitates  the  stirring  up  of  the  soil  at  intervals, 
and  permits  the' air  to  permeate  it  more  effectually,  thus  hastening  the  changes  in  its  mechan- 
ical condition  and  bringing  its  elements  into  a  state  to  supply  plant-food,  and  also  clears  the 
soil  of  troublesome  weeds,  a  rotation  with  such  crops  is  exceedingly  beneficial.  Besides,  the 
destruction  of  the  weeds  also  cuts  off,  in  a  measure,  the  food  supply  of  noxious  insects,  and 
further  reduces  the  numbers  of  these  pests  by  disturbing  them  in  their  haunts,  and  in  autumn 
exposes  them  to  the  frosts,  all  of  which  have  a  tendency  to  destroy  them. 

Still  another  benefit  in  rotation  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  while  some  crops  are 
almost  wholly  removed  from  the  land  upon  which  they  have  been  cultivated,  others,  like 
oats  or  wheat,  leave  a  portion  of  their  product  in  the  form  of  stubble;  or,  like  clover,  leave  a 
wealth  of  fertility  in  their  long  roots,  all  of  which  supply  more  or  less  organic  material  to  the 
soil,  which,  when  suitably  decomposed,  greatly  aids  in  the  production  of  the  future  crop. 

Schemes  of  Rotation.  The  choice  of  crops  for  rotation  will  differ  with  different 
soils,  climates,  and  conditions;  consequently,  in  deciding  upon  a  scheme  for  any  particular 
farm,  various  considerations  must  be  regarded,  such  as  the  nature  and  capacity  of  the  soil  for 
production,  the  demand  of  the  markets  which  may  be  accessible  for  the  disposal  of  the  crop, 
and  the  quantity  and  kind  of  manure  to  be  applied.  Each  farmer  will  have  to  decide  these 
for  himself.  It  is  well  to  have  a  scheme  made  out  of  from  four  to  six  of  the  best  crops,  and 
the  lands  given  to  the  culture  of  these  in  successive  order.  In  all  cases  the  best  results  will 
be  attained  when  the  soil  is  abundantly  fed  with  fertilizers  of  some  kind  for  each  crop. 

The  general  rule  for  a  farmer  to  base  his  scheme  of  rotation  upon,  is  to  cultivate  as 
large  a  variety  of  crops  as  his  soil,  circumstances,  and  the  demand  of  the  market  will  render 
profitable,  and  to  have  the  scheme  so  arranged  that  the  same,  or  a  similar  species  of  plants, 
shall  occupy  the  same  ground  at  intervals  as  remote  as  practicable.  In  the  English  practice, 
called  the  "four-field  or  Norfolk  system,"  which  is  considered,  for  that  country,  one  of  the 
best  for  friable  soils  of  fair  quality,  in  which  half  the  lands  are  in  grain  and  half  in  cattle 
crops  annually,  a  great  variety  of  changes  may  be  introduced,  which  will  bring  the  interval 
between  the  same  kind  of  plants  on  the  same  soil,  one  of  eight  years,  instead  of  four,  for  one 
or  two  of  the  more  important  crops. 

This  is  described  by  Thornton  in  the  following,  which  we  insert  simply  as  an  illustration 
of  how  it  may  be  accomplished  :  "Instead  of  a  rigid  one-fourth  of  the  land  being  each  year 
under  turnips,  barley,  clover,  and  wheat  or  oats  respectively,  half  only  of  the  barley  division 
is  frequently  in  practice  now  sown  with  clover-seed,  and  the  other  half  cropped  on  the  fol- 
lowing year  with  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  or  vetches.  On  the  same  set  of  fields,  coming  round 
again  to  the  same  point,  the  treatment  is  reversed  by  the  beans,  etc.,  and  clover  being  made 
to  change  places.  An  interval  of  eight  years  is  thus  substituted  for  one  of  four,  so  far  as 
these  two  crops  are  concerned." 

Hon.  C.  C.  Andrews  gives  the  following  information  relative  to  rotation  in  agriculture 
in  Italy,  based  upon  personal  observations: 

"  The  system  of  culture  and  of  rotation  of  crops  is  not  everywhere  the  same  in  the  vr.lley 
of  the  Po.  The  most  fertile  land  is  never  left  in  fallow.  Above  Turin  the  rotation  is  usually 
Indian  corn  one  year,  then  wheat  two  years,  followed  with  clover  one  year.  Around  Milan 
the  rotation  is,  first,  white-bearded  wheat,  sown  in  November,  with  clover  sown  the  following 
February.  The  wheat  is  harvested  in  July;  the  next  month  some  clover  is  cut,  and  then 
cattle  are  allowed  to  feed  in  the  field.  The  second  year  four  crops  of  clover  are  cut,  the  land 
having  been  periodically  overflowed.  In  the  succeeding  winter  the  ground  is  manured,  and 
clover  is  cut  the  third  year.  The  fourth  year  the  ground  is  plowed  once,  harrowed  four 
times,  sown  with  hemp  in  March,  and  rolled.  The  hemp  is  cut  in  June,  during  which  month 
the  ground  is  again  plowed  once,  harrowed  once,  and  planted  with  Indian  corn,  which  is 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  II3 

harvested  in  October.  The  ground  is  then  plowed  again,  harrowed  once,  sown  in  November 
with  wheat,  which  is  harrowed  in.  The  soU  about  Milan  is  easy  to  work,  only  one  pair  of 
oxen  being  required  to  draw  the  plow,  while  toward  Mantua,  on  account  of  the  stiffness  of 
the  clay,  five  pairs  are  required. 

In  the  rich  rice  district  of  Verceil  a  three-years'  course  is  the  more  common,  but  the  best 
cultivators,  including  Mr.  Malinverni,  follow  a  six-years'  rotation,  as  follows:  First  year, 
wheat  (which  was  sown  the  preceding  October,  after  the  harvest  of  rice,  and  after  deep  cul- 
ture and  manuring  at  the  rate  of  one  cwt.  of  guano  per  acre.)  Clover  having  been  sown  in 
the  wheat  in  the  spring,  a  fair  crop  of  this  is  cut  in  August,  after  the  wheat  crop.  Second 
year,  the  clover  is  Hberally  manured,  irrigated,  and  cut  three  times.  Third  year,  Indian  corn 
manured  with  guano.  Fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years,  rice.  The  rice-fields  are  inundated  five 
months.  There  is  a  depth  of  4  inches  of  water  tiU  the  grain  is  up,  then  the  quantity  of 
water  is  lessened.  Some  sorts  of  rice  grow  to  a  height  of  4  feet,  others  less.  It  costs  20,000 
francs  a  year  to  supply  a  rice-farm  of  600  acres  with  water.  The  rice-crop  is  gathered  in 
September,  the  harvest  sometimes  running  into  October. 

In  the  country  above  Turin  it  is  a  practice  to  plow  twice  after  a  crop  of  wheat once  at 

the  time  of  manuring  and  again  at  the  time  of  sowing — and  but  once  after  a  crop  of  Indian 
com.  In  preparing  the  soil  for  hemp,  it  is  usual  there  in  the  autumn  to  cover  the  ground 
with  heaps  of  stubble  and  brush,  in  such  number  as  300  heaps  to  an  acre,  and  to  burn  them 
slowly.  This  is  called  half  manuring.  In  spring  some  manure  is  added,  the  ground  plowed, 
and  the  hemp  sown  in  April.  Among  the  smaller  farmers  on  hilly  laud,  the  rotation  is. 
wheat  two  years,  manured  each  year  with  stable-manure;  the  third  year,  rye,  with  clover  to 
a  part  of  it.     Timothy  is  not  used  in  the  Po  Valley." 

In  this  country,  it  is  generally  deemed  desirable  to  have  grass  for  one  of  the  principal 
crops  in  the  rotation  system.  It  is  thought  by  many  farmers  that  wheat  succeeds  better  after 
peas  and  corn  than  after  any  of  the  other  crops.  I'he  following  rotation,  practiced  by  Mr. 
Waring,  is  considered  by  those  that  have  followed  it  a  desirable  one  for  some  sections:  Grass 
is  followed  by  corn ;  the  next  year  the  land  is  occupied  by  either  potatoes,  carrots,  or  sugar  beets  ; 
then  follows  green  forage  crops  (generally  oats  or  corn),  and  when  the  land  is  cleared  of  these, 
winter  rye  is  sown  in  the  fall.  The  next  year  the  rye  is  sometimes  cut  while  green,  for  fodder, 
and  other  forage  crops  are  grown  upon  the  land  which  are  ready  to  be  cut  earliest.  In  the 
faU  of  the  same  year  wheat  is  sown,  and  the  land  seeded  with  timothy  and  clover.  When  the 
grain  is  harvested  the  following  season,  the  grass  remains  and  soon  shows  a  vigorous  growth. 

Peas  or  clover  plowed  under  is  thought  to  be  one  of  the  best  preparations  for  wheat; 
and  old  pastures,  plowed  under  in  the  fall,  are  generally  considered  precursors  of  fine  crops  of 
corn,  while  corn-fields  are,  in  turn,  followed  by  good  pastures. 

Grass  followed  by  corn,  then  a  green  fodder  crop,  and  this  followed  by  wheat,  and  after- 
ward grass  again,  is  recommended  by  some  agriculturists  as  a  good  rotation  for  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States.  Of  course,  as  a  general  rule,  each  crop  should  have  its  liberal  supply  of 
manure,  in  some  form. 

The  following  systems  have  been  adopted  by  many  in  this  country  and  found  admirably 
adapted  to  certain  soils :  Grass  is  followed  by  corn,  the  land  being  heavily  manured,  and 
ashes  and  Hme  added,  if  suited  to  the  soil.  Gypsum  is  applied  to  the  corn-plants  after  the 
first  hoeing,  which  is  as  soon  as  it  is  well  out  of  the  ground ;  the  second  year,  some  kind  of 
root  crop  occupies  the  ground ;  the  third  year,  either  wheat,  barley,  rye,  or  oats,  with  grass 
or  clover;  the  fourth  year,  grass  or  clover,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  rest  is  often  given  such 
lands  by  pasturing  for  a  year  or  two. 

Another: — Grass  followed  by  corn,  or  a  root  crop  of  some  kind;  second  year,  oats  or 
barley;  third  year,  peas  or  beans,  removed  early,  and  sown  in  the  autumn  with  wheat;  fourth 
year,  wheat,  which  can  be  followed  by  grass  or  clover,  or  both. 


114  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

Grass  may  also  be  followed  by  peas  or  com,  then  wheat;  some  root  crop,  followed  by 
barley,  with  grass  and  clover  seed,  which  will  produce  a  good  crop  of  grass  the  following 
year.  In  this  waj',  changes  can  be  made  in  rotation  almost  ad  infinitum,  and,  as  we  have 
previously  stated,  a  scheme  for  such  can  best  be  made  when  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  the 
crops  desired  are  known,  since  soils  differ  so  greatly  that  a  rotation  for  one  section,  or  farm 
even,  may  not  be  suited  to  another,  and  only  the  general  principles  of  rotation  can  be  given 
as  applicable  to  all.  We  have  aimed  to  lay  down  general  rules  simply,  the  details  of  which 
each  farmer  can  best  arrange  to  suit  his  indi\-idual  requirements  and  circumstances. 

It  has  been  found  by  long  practice  that  better  results  are  reached  when  two  crops  of 
grain  are  not  cultivated  in  succession  on  the  same  field,  though  corn  may  be  an  exception  to 
this  rule;  also,  that  certain  products  are  mutual  fertilizers,  being  so  mysteriously  related  that 
the  growth  of  one  is  the  best  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  other. 

The  following  rotation  for  wheat,  com,  oats,  peas,  and  clover,  is  recommended  by  the 
editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman : 

"  Two  modes  of  rotation  are  adapted  for  these  crops,  the  most  common  being  to  invert 
sod,  and  plant  com  on  it,  with  good  manuring  the  previous  autumn  or  winter  on  the  surface; 
follow  with  oats,  barley,  or  peas ;  and  the  same  autumn  sow  winter  wheat  with  a  moderate 
seeding  of  timothy,  and  the  nest  spring,  clover-seed.  The  field  may  remain  in  grass  any 
number  of  years,  according  to  the  number  of  your  fields.  This  rotation  is  modified  where 
the  brown  cut-worm  is  prevalent,  by  first  sowing  wheat  on  the  well-inverted  and  pulverized 
sod,  and  follow  this  with  com  and  the  other  crops  already  mentioned.  The  decaying  sod  and 
the  manure  which  is  apphed  give  a  good  crop  of  com." 

Of  course,  a  rotation  suited  to  one  portion  of  the  country  would  not  be  adapted  to  another 
portion  where  the  products  were  very  dissimilar,  such  as  the  Northern  and  Southern  States. 

"With  respect  to  rotation  of  crops  in  the  Southern  States,  Mr.  C.  "\V.  Howard,  of  Georgia, 
says: 

"A  great  defect  of  Southern  planters  is,  that  they  do  not  keep,  in  the  way  of  fertility, 
what  they  get.  That  is  to  say,  when  they  make  a  piece  of  ground  rich,  they  afterward  con- 
tinue to  work  it  in  exhausting  crops  until  all  the  richness  is  gone.  The  true  policy  is  not 
merely  to  keep  the  ground  rich,  but  to  make  it  richer.  To  illustrate :  If  a  piece  of  rich  land 
is  put  in  cotton,  it  may  be  followed  with  com,  small  grain,  with  clover  being  sowed  among 
the  com  in  August.  If  the  clover  is  allowed  to  occupy  the  ground  for  two  years  and  to  go 
to  seed,  even  under  a  longer  rotation  than  the  above,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  sow  it  again. 
As  soon  as  the  groxind  is  at  rest,  it  will  be  covered  with  young  clover.  Three  years  ago  a 
piece  of  ground  was  put  in  turnips,  manured  in  the  ground  with  farm-yard  manure.  The 
turnips  were  eaten  on  the  ground  by  the  sheep.  The  next  yeax  it  was  put  in  corn;  the  next 
in  cotton  worked  very  clean,  and  the  following  year  in  oats. 

After  the  oats  were  cut  a  fine  stand  of  red  clover  appeared.  This  seed  was  never  sown, 
but  must  have  been  in  the  manure  applied  three  years  since  to  the  turnips.  This  is  not  a 
solitary  case.  Many  similar  instances  have  occurred  wdthin  the  observation  of  the  writer.  It 
is  such  plants  as  clover  and  peas  that  not  only  hold,  but  increase  the  fertihty  of  the  soil. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  writer's  views  of  diversified  husbandry,  the  following  rotation 
of  crops  is  submitted  as  one  suited  to  the  agiicultural  condition  of  the  South. 

"We  will  suppose  a  farm  of  500  acres  of  open  land  under  fence.  Let  250  acres  be  devoted 
to  arable  purposes,  and  the  rest  to  grazing.  The  rotation  might  be  as  follows:  1.  Cotton  and 
corn  in  the  same  field  in  suitable  proportions.  2.  Oats  sown  in  August  on  the  cotton  and 
com  land.  3.  Rye,  or  rye  and  wheat,  sown  in  September,  the  land  having  been  twice  plowed 
in  order  to  kiU  the  germinant  oats.  4  and  5.  Clover,  if  the  land  is  in  sufficient  heart  to  pro- 
duce it;  if  not,  the  fourth  year  rest  ungi-azed,  and  the  fifth  year  sheep  and  cattle  penned  upon 
it  every  night  during  the  year,  using  a  portable  fence.     An  ordinary  farm  of  500  acres  will 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  115 

support  five  hundred  sheep,  besides  the  crop  in  the  above  rotation.  The  oats  and  rye  will 
feed  them  during  the  winter  nearly  or  entirely,  without  injury  to  the  grain.  Five  hands 
would  be  sufficient  to  work  such  a  farm  and  take  care  of  the  live-stock." 

During  the  first  year  with  this  practice,  the  same  authority  thinks  the  following  results 
might  be  expected  from  an  ordinary  farm. 

25  acres  in  cotton,       12  bales     at  $  .15,    .         .         .         $900. 

250. 


25  "     corn,        250  bushels  "     1.00, 

50  "      oats,         500       "        "       .80, 

25  "     rye,  200       "        "     1.00, 

25  "      wheat,     150       "        "     1.50, 

Increase  and  mutton  sales  of  500  sheep. 
Wool,  3  pounds  per  head  at  .33  per  lb.. 
Manure  at  $1.00  per  head,  . 


400. 
200. 
225. 
500. 
495. 
500. 


Total, $3,470. 

"When  taken  separately  each  of  these  estimates  in  production  is  small ;  they  however 
result  in  the  aggregate  to  more  than  $600  per  hand  employed.  Yet  this  is  about  three  times 
what  was  estimated  to  be  the  average  product  per  hand  in  the  cotton  states,  that  of  Georgia 
having  been  estimated  to  be  $209;  South  Carolina,  $202;  Virginia,  $211,  and  North  Caro- 
lina $214;  these  being  the  lowest  averages. 

In  the  case  above  supposed,  the  amount  given  is  the  result  of  the  first  year  of  the  rotation. 

"The  next  year  the  cotton  and  corn  would  be  more  than  double  by  penning  500  sheep  at 
night  on  50  acres.  It  is  the  writer's  experience  that  ten  sheep  regularly  penned  will  manure 
well,  one  acre  in  a  year.  Five  hundred  would,  therefore,  manure  well  fifty  acres.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  ground  would  not  indicate  this  high  manuring;  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  liquid  manure,  which  is  equal  in  value  to  the  solid,  is  not  visible.  If,  in  addition,  a 
stock  of  cattle  is  kept  and  penned  on  the  same  fifty  acres,  their  fertility  would  be  increased  in 
proportion.  It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  accumulating,  saving  and  applying  manure,  is 
as  important  a  business  of  the  farm  as  making  corn  or  cotton.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  of 
this  rotation,  the  change  in  the  farm  would  be  equal  almost  to  a  transformation,  the  crops  being 
doubled  or  trebled,  without  (which  is  a  most  important  point)  any  material  increase  of  labor 
or  other  expense. 

"  This  improvement  of  the  soil,  accompanied  at  first  by  moderate  profits,  and  with  a 
great  diminution  of  vexatious  and  unreliable  labor,  should  be  the  great  end  of  the  Southern 
planter.  It  involves  a  double  profit  from  increased  production  and  increased  salable  value  of 
the  soil." 

Prof.  Pendleton,  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  authorities  of  the  Southern  section,  recom- 
mends for  the  warm  lands  of  the  South,  a  rotation  of  cotton  for  two  years,  followed  by  corn 
on  the  most  productive  portions,  and  wheat  or  oats  on  the  rolling  lands,  with  a  fourth  year 
of  rest,  the  land  to  lie  fallow.  According  to  his  opinion,  cotton  will  give  better  results  for 
two  successive  years,  providing  the  soil  is  not  very  deficient  in  vegetable  material,  than  if  an 
intervening  crop  is  made  to  occupy  it.  For  lands  badly  exhausted  by  constant  cropping 
without  sufBcient  manure  to  return  an  equivalent  for  the  elements  exliausted,  this  fallow 
system  may  prove  quite  beneficial ;  but  as  a  general  rule  it  is  thought  by  most  writers  on  this 
subject,  that  the  plowing  under  of  green  crops,  such  as  clover,  peas,  etc.,  combined  with  the 
application  of  an  abundant  supply  of  manure  will  prove  more  beneficial  to  most  soils  than 
fallowing. 

Wherever  practicable,  pasturage  may  form  a  part  of  the  rotation  with  profit.  Especially 
so  on  farms  where  the  live  stock  interest  is  one  of  the  principal  features  in  the  management. 
By  using  a  portion  of  the  farm  for  keeping  cattle  and  sheep  a  few  years,  and  afterwards  till- 


116  THE  A3IERICAII  FARMER. 

ing  it  for  crops,  while  a  field  lately  tilled  is  in  turn  taken  for  pasturage,  tLe  various  tilled 
fields  may  often  be  utilized  with  profit  in  completing  the  rotation. 

Sheep  especially,  are  very  beneficial  in  improving  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  as  is  seen  in 
English  husbandry.  They  can  be  as  successfully  reared  at  the  South  as  in  other  sections  of 
the  country,  since  it  has  been  found  that  tliey  are  as  healthy  in  the  cotton-growing  states  as 
those  of  the  North,  while  the  time  of  grazing  is  much  longer  at  the  South  than  at  the  North, 
thus  giving  a  better  opportunity  to  utilize  pasturage  in  rearing  them. 

Besides,  cotton  seed  will  furnish  a  cheap  and  nutritious  feed  in  winter,  and  aside  from 
the  wool  product,  sheep  on  cotton  plantations  are  worth  their  keeping  simply  for  the  weeds 
and  briars  they  will  destroy,  and  the  fertilizer  they  furnish  to  the  soil.  We  believe  that  the 
proper  management  of  sheep  on  cotton  plantations,  will  prove  one  of  the  most  potent  aids  in 
restoring  fertility  to  pastially  exhausted  lands,  as  well  as  maintaining  the  fertility  of  such 
as  have  been  properly  tiUed. 

Dr.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  England,  found,  in  his  experiments  on  unmanured  rotation, 
extending  over  a  period  of  more  than  thirty  years,  that  upon  an  unmanured  soil,  where  the 
crops  were  entirely  removed,  such  cereal  products  as  wheat  and  barley  continued  to  give  a 
considerable  yield  after  what  are  commonly  described  as  restorative  crops  have  almost  ceased 
to  exist  on  the  land.     He  refers  to  them  as  follows: — 

"  Tlie  experiment  ma}'  be  described  as  a  struggle  for  existence — not  one,  however,  where 
the  fittest  survives,  but  rather  where  each  crop  is  allowed  to  get  what  food  it  can  from  an 
ordinary  unmanured  soil,  while  other  plants  are  prevented  from  interfering  with  its  opera- 
tions. Tliis  experiment  has  been  going  on  for  thirty-four  years,  and  adds  one  more  to  the 
many  proofs  we  possess  of  the  fact  that  the  graminaceous  plants  which  yield  the  cereal  crops 
have  a  far  greater  power  of  obtaining  food  from  an  unmanured  soil  than  any  other  description 
of  plants.  At  the  commencement  of  the  experiment  the  land  was  in  high  condition,  and  the 
first  crops  of  both  turnips  and  clover  were  large;  since  then  the  former  have  arrived  at  a 
point  where  they  resemble  weeds  rather  than  turnips;  while  the  red  clover,  when  repeated  at 
the  end  of  the  second  period  of  four  years,  died  off  altogether;  it  was  then  considered 
advisable  to  grow  in  its  place  beans,  which,  except  on  one  occasion,  have  proved  a  very  small 
crop,  amounting  to  not  more  than  about  eight  bushels  per  acre.  The  last  crop  of  barley — 
the  ninth  of  the  rotation — yielded  between  twenty-six  and  twenty-nine  bushels  per  acre,  and 
the  wheat  crops  have  also  continued  fairly  good.  "We  have,  therefore,  evidence  that  upon  an 
ordinary  soil  of  fair  qualit)',  the  cereal  crops  can  obtain  a  supply  of  food,  where  the  so-called 
restorative  crops  have  failed  to  do  so." 

Whatever  the  system  of  rotation  may  be,  or  whatever  the  nature  of  the  soU,  it  is  well 
for  the  farmer  to  bear  in  mind  that  good  crops  cannot  be  produced  without  proper  manage- 
ment, and  that  that  management  has  for  one  of  its  main  features,  a  sufiicient  supply  of  manure 
to  furnish  the  elements  of  plant  food  to  the  soil  that  is  expected  to  produce  so  abundantly.  If 
we  are  to  have  satisf actoiy  results  in  the  rearing  of  live  stock,  we  expect  to  feed  these  animals 
with  a  sufficient  supply  of  proper  food ;  but  many  farmers  seem  to  think  that  lands  can  con. 
stantly  produce  large  crops  with  only  a  meagre  supply  of  plant-food  furnished  for  this  pur- 
pose.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  as  any  farmer  whose  practice  involves  this  principle  will  leam 
sooner  or  later,  for  as  a  general  rule,  lands  wiU  produce  and  remain  in  a  state  of  fertility  and 
exempt  from  exhaustion,  only  in  proportion  to  the  proper  amount  of  fertilizing  material 
applied  to  furnish  the  elements  of  grow1;h  to  the  crops  they  produce;  and  if  they  are  con- 
stantly forced  by  successive  cropping  without  thi's  aid,  exhaustion  must  follow  as  a  natural 
result. 


IRRIGATION.  117 


IRRIGATION. 

WATER  is  not  only  one  of  the  sources  of  supply  of  plant  food,  since  all  the  materials 
that  promote  vegetable  life  must  be  in  a  soluble  form  before  being  available,  but  it 
also  furnishes  the  elements  essential  to  plant  life  and  growth.  Most  countries,  as  a 
general  rule,  receive  this  necessary  element  in  sufficient  quantities  to  favor  vegetable  growth  in 
the  supply  of  rain  and  dew;  but  in  many  sections  of  different  climates  irrigation,  or  the  arti- 
ficial application  of  water  to  growing  crops,  is  one  of  the  essentials  in  successful  agriculture. 
In  this  country,  crops  often  suffer  more  from  drought  than  from  all  other  causes  combined,  and 
this  evil  seems  to  be  extending,  especially  in  the  west  and  southwestern  portions,  where,  as  the 
forests  disappear  through  the  agency  of  the  axe  and  fire,  the  rains  are  less  frequent.  The  yearly 
amount  of  rainfall  may  not  be,  and  probably  is  not,  much  diminished,  since  this  cjiange,  but 
the  intervals  between  the  showers  are  more  prolonged,  and  to  the  extent  that  the  earth 
frequently  becomes  parched  and  the  crops  suffer  accordingly.  Besides,  the  rains  coming 
between  such  long  intervals  generally  descend  in  torrents,  and  although  a  portion  of  the  water 
will  be  absorbed  by  the  soil,  a  large  portion  flows  into  streams  and  is  lost  as  far  as  agricultural 
uses  are  concerned.  Forests  have  long  been  regarded  as  the  regulators  of  rainfall,  and  if  they 
could  be  in  a  measure  restored  by  tree-planting,  in  a  few  years  the  evil  would  be  largely 
remedied,  and  the  rain-storms  more  frequent  and  less  violent.  Irrigation  is  found  to  bo  one 
of  the  most  primitive  of  agricultural  arts,  the  remains  of  reservoirs  and  canals  for  this  purpose 
still  existing  in  those  regions  where  civilization  had  its  origin,  as  among  the  most  ancient 
human  relics.  Egypt  and  the  Barbaiy  States,  Syria,  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  other  portions  of  Europe  practiced  irrigation  extensively  hundreds  of  years  ago,  and  to 
this  means  may  be  traced  the  high  rank  in  agriculture  that  W(is  early  attained  in  these 
regions.  Lombardy  and  Piedmont  average  from  thirty -seven  to  thirty-eight  inches  of  rainfall 
during  the  year,  most  of  it  falling  between  March  and  October,  the  irrigating  months,  and 
yet  it  is  estimated  that  1,000,000  acres  in  Lombardy  are  irrigated  by  works  costing 
$200,000,000,  which  fact  explains  in  a  measure  why  that  section  should  be  one  of  the  most 
productive  of  all  Italy,  and  the  very  garden  of  that  region.  In  Italy  the  canals  for  irrigating 
purposes  are  owned  principally  by  the  government;  in  France  there  are  no  government  canals, 
they  being  generally  built  by  the  land-owners,  yet  are  periodically  inspected  by  government 
engineers.  In  our  own  hemisphere  there  are  many  portions  of  Spanish  America  where  irri- 
gation has  always  been  necessary  to  successful  agriculture;  beside,  there  are  vast  tracts,  both 
on  the  east  and  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  are  usually  considered  an  arid  desert, 
and  estimated  to  be  equal  to  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  productive  area  of  the  United  States, 
portions  of  which  have  been  irrigated  and  found  to  be  productive  in  an  astonishing  degree, 
especially  for  the  common  cereals,  and  we  believe  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  that  entire 
section  will,  by  artificial  watering — whether  it  be  by  artesian  wells  or  otherwise — be  made 
productive,  and  its  value  to  the  country  proportionately  increased.  Utah  furnishes  a  most 
remarkable  illustration  of  the  wonderful  effects  of  irrigation,  which,  since  the  year  184  "7,  has 
transformed  the  Salt  Lake  Valley,  then  a  barren  wilderness,  into  one  of  the  most  productive 
regions  in  the  world,  and  this  has  all  been  accomplished  by  means  of  irrigation  alone. 
Whatever  objections  we  may  have  toward  the  Mormons  in  their  religion  and  practices,  we 
must  give  them  the  credit  of  having  one  of  the  most  perfect  systems  of  agriculture  by  irri- 
gation known.  There  are  there  at  present  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  irrigating  canals, 
many  of  them  of  considerable  size  and  length,  and  these  have  not  only  completely  changed 
this  formerly  barren  desert  into  a  land  of  luxuriant  vegetation  and  beauty,  but  have  been  the 
means  of  producing  other  important  and  beneficial  results,  such  as  cooling  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  lessening  the  evaporation  of  the  water  of  the  lake,  etc.  Prof.  Paul  A. 
Chadbourne  gives  the  following  respecting  this  change: — 


118  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

"  We  find  now  the  valley  through  this  entire  territory,  instead  of  being  a  dry,  barren 
plain,  over  which  the  wind  used  to  pass  so  rapidly,  a  country  covered  with  vegetation, 
with  grass,  corn,  grain  of  various  kinds,  and  with  groves  of  trees,  so  that  the  wind,  in  the 
first  place,  moving  up  through  the  valley,  is  checked  by  the  trees,  and  when  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  probably  does  not  move  up  the  valley  with  half  the  rapidity  that  it  formerly  did. 
On  the  surface,  instead  of  passing  over  hot,  barren  sand,  it  passes  over  fresh  herbage,  so  that 
we  have  all  through  that  valley  a  layer  of  air  that  moves  comparatively  slow,  and  at  the  same 
time  is  charged  with  moisture,  and  when  it  strikes  the  great  Salt  Lake,  instead  of  being  a 
rapidly  moving  current  of  air,  hot  and  thirsty,  it  is  moving  comparatively  slow,  is  nearly 
saturated  -with  water,  and  has  no  longer  the  ability  to  take  up  the  waters  of  the  lake  as  it 
formerly  did.  Therefore  the  waters  accimiulate,  and  so  over  the  whole  surface  (and  this  is 
true  of  all  these  places)  evaporation  is  prevented  by  the  introduction  of  trees  to  prevent  the 
rapid  movement  of  the  currents  of  air,  and  also  by  covering  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth 
with  this  vegetation." 

The  moist  atmosphere  of  the  British  Islands  and  the  German  provinces,  and  the  generally 
plentiful  summer  rains  of  the  Atlantic  States,  have  thus  far  obviated  the  necessity  of  resorting 
"to  any  extent  to  artificial  watering  in  these  regions,  except  in  market-gardening,  but  it 
would  be  well  for  many  farmers  if,  during  certain  dry  seasons  especially,  they  possessed 
the  means  of  irrigating  some  of  their  crops,  and  thus  obviate  the  great  loss  often  sustained 
by  drought.  This  can  often  be  accomplished  with  slight  expense  where  the  lands  are  suited  to 
it  and  the  means  of  irrigation  convenient. 

All  waters  are  beneficial  for  irrigating  purposes,  except  those  that  contain  an  excess  of 
certain  mineral  substances  that  are  injurious  to  vegetation,  such  as  peat-swamp  drainage, 
water  from  saline  and  mineral  springs,  and  from  ore-beds  of  various  kinds,  these  often  con- 
taining a  solution  of  iron.  Waters  that  have  washed  other  soils  often  contain  a  vast  amount 
of  fertilizing  substances,  which  they  will  deposit  in  the  gradual  process  of  irrigation ;  conse- 
quently after  heavy  rains  and  floods,  the  brooks  and  rivers  are  usually  hea\aly  charged  with 
fertihzing  materials.  Dr.  Dana  estimated  the  quantity  of  humus  and  other  fertilizing  sub- 
stances which  were  borne  to  the  ocean,  past  Lowell,  on  the  Merrimac  river,  during  a  year  of 
unusual  freshets,  to  be  about  840,000  tons,  or  enough  to  have  sufficiently  enriched  100,000 
acres  of  land.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  sewage  of  cities 
in  previous  pages,  and  a  repetition  is  consequently  unnecessary  here;  suffice  it  to  say,  that 
when  such  water  can  be  utilized  for  irrigating  purposes,  the  results  on  vegetation  are  often 
almost  incredible.  In  any  case,  water  should  never  be  permitted  to  remain  stagnant  on  the 
surface  of  lands,  both  for  sanitary  reasons  and  on  account  of  its  injurious  effects  upon  the 
land  and  vegetation ;  saturating  the  soil  with  an  excess  of  water  being  equally  injurious  to  a 
drought.  These  injurious  results  are  often  seen  in  charging  the  sub-soil  with  water,  and 
rendering  it  cold  and  "sour,"  as  it  is  often  termed,  to  the  roots  of  plants  which  pierce  it;  it 
also  facilitates  the  decomposition  of  both  organic  and  inorganic  soluble  matter  contained  in 
soils;  and  carries  ofi  such  matter  from  it,  leaching  it  of  its  fertilizing  properties  to  a  certain 
extent.  This  is  sometimes  disputed,  but  it  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  constituents  of  vegetable 
growth  are  found  in  water  drained  from  cultivated  fields,  and  also  that  grounds  impregnated 
with  salts  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  incapable  of  vegetable  production,  have  been  made  fertile 
by  washing  with  fresh  water.  We  quote  the  following  on  the  advantages  of  irrigation  from 
a  treatise  on  that  subject  by  Hon.  George  P.  Marsh: — 

"  In  elevated  and  mountainous  districts,  water  is  usually  abundant,  and  its  sources  so 
numerous  that  almost  any  land-holder  may  secure  one  or  more  of  them  for  his  own  sole  use, 
without  clashing  with  the  rights  and  interests  of  his  neighbor.  Hence  the  division  of  the  soil 
into  comparatively  small  estates  is  promoted ;  for  though,  in  new  countries  like  ours,  moun- 
tain-lands are  thinly  inhabited  and  held  in  large  tracts,  yet  well-watered  hill-pastures  gradually 
rise  in  value,  and  these  at  last  become  the  homes  of  a  comparatively  dense  population,  each 


IRRIGATION.  119 

of  whom  is  the  lord — not  of  square  miles,  indeed,  but — of  acres  of  productive  soil. 

In  such  territories,  imgation  does  not  injuriously  affect  the  health  of  the  population. 
MaJarious  influences  are  exerted  not  by  flowing,  or  even  by  freely-percolating  water.  It  is 
only  when  the  fluid  stagnates  on  the  surface,  or  in  the  soil,  that  it  becomes  pernicious.  In 
the  hiUs,  the  inclination  promotes  the  swift  flow  of  water  over  the  ground,  or  along  the 
canals,  and  its  descent  by  infiltration  is  also  too  rapid  to  admit  it  to  become  a  cause  of  vege- 
table putrescence.  In  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  almost  all  the  surface  of  the  mountains 
which  has  not  been  swept  away  by  torrents  is  irrigated  through  the  summer;  but  fevers  and 
other  malarious  diseases  do  not  occur  in  those  regions,  and  they  are  regarded  by  many  Euro- 
pean physicians  as  especially  salubrious,  even  for  persons  affected  with  pulmonary  complaints. 

The  beneficial  efEects  of  irrigation  in  mountainous  countries  are  not  confined  solely  to 
the  watering  of  the  crops.  It  checks  the  too  rapid  flow  of  the  waters  of  precipitation,  and 
thus  exerts  an  important  geographical,  if  not  climatic,  influence.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
water  permitted  to  spread  over  the  surface,  and  meander  along  the  canals  in  the  upland 
meadows  and  pastures,  is  absorbed  by  the  earth  and  slowly  filtered  down,  refreshing  the  roots 
of  the  plants  it  encounters  in  its  passage,  until  at  a  somewhat  lower  level  it  bm-sts  out  in  the 
form  of  springs.  It  is  a  familiar  obsei-vation  in  all  the  older  American  States,  that  the  hills 
are  growing  constantly  drier  and  the  herbage  less  abundant,  and  that  the  springs  which  for- 
merly supplied  this  stock  are  disappearing.  The  principal  cause  of  this  disastrous  change  is 
undoubtedly  the  destruction  of  the  forests  which  once  clothed  the  crest  of  every  mountain, 
and  which,  it  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped,  will  soon  be  at  least  partially  restored.  The  replanting 
of  the  woods  is  a  slow  process,  and  the  continued  drying-up  of  the  soil  is  every  day  rendering 
it  more  and  more  difficult.  In  the  meantime,  the  introduction  of  a  general  system  of  irrigation 
at  the  highest  levels  where  water  can  still  be  found,  aided  by  the  excavation  of  simple  reser- 
voirs on  the  hill-tops,  and  at  other  higher  points  for  retaining  the  water  of  rains  and  melting 
snows  until  it  can  be  applied  to  the  surface  by  canals,  or  absorbed  by  the  earth,  would  do 
very  much  to  retard  the  unfavorable  change  which  is  now  taking  place  in  the  water-supply  of 
our  mountain  farms,  and  would,  at  the  same  time,  greatly  augment  the  product  of  our  grass- 
grounds,  and  often  of  our  plow-lands. 

It  has  been  observed  in  Europe,  that  draining  the  soU,  either  by  surface  or  by  under, 
ground  conduit,  tends  to  increase  the  suddenness  and  violence  of  inundations  by  promoting 
a  too  rapid  discharge  of  the  waters  into  river-channels.  Irrigation  in  the  mountains,  or  even 
on  the  plains,  has  the  contrary  effect  by  retaining  much  of  the  water  until  it  can  be  returned 
to  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  vapor.  Draining,  then,  deranges  the  harmony  of  nature  by 
interfering  with  her  methods  of  maintaining  a  regular  interchange  and  circulation  of  humidity 
between  the  atmosphere,  the  earth,  and  the  sea.  Irrigation  is  in  effect  a  partial  return  to  the 
economy  of  our  great  material  parent,  by  regulating  that  circulation  in  a  manner  analogous 
to  her  primitive  processes. 

Where  springs  are  numerous,  as  they  usually  are  in  hOly  countries,  only  small  and  cheap 
canals,  easily  accommodated  to  the  accidents  of  surface,  are  needed  for  the  diversion  of 
water  from  its  natural  channel?-,  to  flow  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  to  moisten  the 
roots  of  the  grass  by  infiltration  from  the  artificial  water-courses.  But  the  moderate  extent 
and  capacity  of  the  necessary  canals  is  not  the  only  advantage  of  an  inclined  and  undulating 
surface  in  the  supply  of  water  for  the  crops.  Hilly  and  winding  slopes  admit  of  a  simple 
and  efBcient  mode  of  irrigation,  or  rather  of  a  substitute  for  the  practice  which  is  not  available 
on  level  soils.  The  method  in  question  has  been  practiced  with  success  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  circling,  and  it  is  very  highly  recommended 
by  all  European  writers. 

It  consists  in  horizontally  terracing  the  slopes,  or  even  simply  furrowing  them  with 
the  side-hill  plow,  and  leaving  the  surface  permanently  in  this  condition.     The  rains  and 


120  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

melting  snow  are  arrested  by  the  little  platforms  and  ditches  thus  produced,  and  gradually 
sink  into  the  ground  instead  of  running  off  the  surface,  and  thus  supply  sufficient  moisture 
for  vegetation.  It  has  been  found  that  even  in  the  parched  provinces  of  Southern  France, 
soils  thus  treated  produce  a  vastly  increased  amount  of  herbage,  or  of  other  small  crops,  and 
this  system,  as  has  been  observed  in  regard  to  ordinary  methods  of  irrigation,  has  a  collateral 
advantage  of  serious  importance  in  countries  subject  to  inundation.  The  water  of  precipita- 
tion, which  soaks  into  the  ground,  instead  of  rushing  swiftly  into  the  tributaries  of  great 
rivers,  and  suddenly  swelling  them  into  raging  floods,  is  retained  long  in  the  soil,  and  finally 
carried  off  by  slow  subterranean  conduction,  or  restored  to  the  atmosphere  through  absorption 
and  exhalations  by  vegetables,  or  by  direct  evaporation  from  the  surface,  and  thus  equiUbrium 
is  restored^  In  a  large  part  of  our  territory,  then,  and  especially  in  that  best  suited  to  the 
important  branch  of  dairy  husbandry,  irrigation  would  not  only  be  unattended  with  many  of 
the  evils  which  are  in  some  degree  inseparable  from  it  on  soils  of  a  champaign-configuration, 
but  might  be  introduced  at  a  very  moderate  cost,  and  probably  with  very  beneficial  results, 
to  our  agricultural  and  other  social  interests." 

Methods  of  Irrigation. — Various  means  are  employed  for  irrigating  lands, 
depending  upon  the  surface  to  be  irrigated  and  the  water-supply,  the  usual  source  being  from 
springs  or  streams  from  an  elevation.  Sometimes  reservoirs  are  made  where  the  water  from 
rains  or  inundations  is  collected  and  utilized.  There  are  many  localities  where  an  adequate 
supply  of  water  can  be  obtained  without  resorting  to  streams  or  reservoirs.  Prof.  Marsh 
states  that  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  many  other  countries,  much  of  the  land  is  irrigated  with  water 
drawn  from  common  wells  by  cheap  machinery  worked  by  horse-power.  Artesian  and 
tubular  wells  are  also  largely  emploj'ed  for  the  same  purpose,  and  copious  springs  are  often 
reached  by  driving  short  tunnels  into  hiU-sides. 

In  Persia,  tunnels  for  this  purpose,  of  incredible  length  and  very  simple  construction,  are 
frequently  excavated.  Chardin  describes  these  tunnels  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Paris 
edition  of  his  travels,  1811,  and  states  that  they  are  carried  to  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
miles,  and  sometimes  much  more.  This  would  be  almost  beyond  behef,  were  not  Chardin's 
accounts  confirmed  by  the  recent  testimony  of  Colonel  Chesney.  On  sloping  grounds  in 
Lombard)',  which  receive  a  subterranean  supply  by  infiltration  from  mountain  lakes  and 
streams,  water  is  cheaply  obtained  by  what  are  called  fontanili.  These  are  small  reservoirs, 
excavated  to  a  moderate  depth,  and  connected  by  open  ditches  extending  up  the  slope  to 
small  springs,  whose  water  is  collected  in  barrels  sunk  in  the  ground  to  receive  it,  and  if  the 
supply  is  insufficient,  the  water  from  several  small  sources,  aided,  perhaps,  by  an  artesian  well 
of  little  depth,  is  united,  and  the  whole  conducted  to  a  common  receptacle. 

Another  excellent  method,  practiced  with  much  success  in  Prance,  is  that  of  conducting 
the  rain  and  snow  water  from  hollow  slopes  of  grass-ground  of  a  considerable  surface  into 
cisterns,  or  into  filtering-receptacles,  consisting  merely  of  a  relatively  small  extent  of  sand  or 
porous  earth  laid  over  a  pavement  or  bed  of  clay  some  fom-  or  five  feet  below  the  surface. 
In  this  way,  a  large  proportion  of  the  precipitation  received  by  the  slope  is  retained,  and 
perennial  springs  are  formed  at  a  less  expense  than  is  very  frequently  incurred  in  conducting 
water  from  only  a  moderate  distance.  Contributions  of  this  sort  deserve  encouragement, 
because  they  render  the  farmer  independent,  both  of  his  neighbor  and  of  the  public;  and  even 
if  the  first  cost  of  the  works  is  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  a  canal  from  some  source  not 
his  own,  he  will  generally  be,  on  the  whole,  a  gainer  by  procuring  a  supply  absolutely  at  his 
control. 

In  the  irrigation  of  the  Salt  Lake  valley  by  the  Mormons,  the  mountain  streams  were 
utilized ;  cjnals  being  dug  aU  along  towards  the  base  of  the  mountains,  which  prevented  the 
water  from  going  into  the  lake  until  it  had  first  permeated  the  soil.  These  canals  are  kept 
full  of  water,  and  have  small  canals  connecting  them  with  the  lands  to  be  irrigated  below, 


IRRIGATION.  121 

and  which  convey  the  -water  to  them.  Each  man's  land  must  have  a  supply  in  order  that  it 
be  perfectly  irrigated ;  consequently,  by  a  system  of  cooperation,  one  man  has  the  use  of  the 
canal  so  many  hours  on  a  certain  day,  and  another  man  the  length  of  time  allotted  him  when 
his  turn  comes,  and  so  on.     Prof.  Chadbourne  says,  respecting  their  system  of  irrigation: — 

'•Every  man  knows  the  time  when  he  can  turn  the  water  on  liis  land,  and  when  it  must 
be  turned  off;  and  no  matter  whether  it  is  midnight,  or  cock-crowing,  or  any  other  time, 
when  that  moment  comes,  he  must  be  ready  to  turn  the  water  on  his  land.  And  not  only 
that,  but  before  that  time  comes,  the  ditches  must  be  cleared  out,  and  everything  arranged, 
so  that,  when  the  water  is  turned  on,  it  will  go  where  it  is  needed.  There  is  no  time  to  lose. 
The  whole  system  makes  men  wary  and  watchful,  makes  them  look  out  beforehand.  A  man 
knows,  for  instance,  that  tonight,  at  twelve  o'clock,  he  may  turn  the  water  on  to  his  garden 
for  three  hours,  and  that  when  it  has  run  for  three  hours,  his  neighbor  can  turn  it  on  to  his 
garden,  and  if  he  oversleeps,  his  garden  must  go  dry;  there  is  no  help  for  him.  Or  if  his 
ditches  are  not  prepared,  so  that  the  water  can  run  along  readily,  his  crops  must  suffer.  You 
see,  the  man  must  have  everything  in  readiness,  the  ditches  all  airanged  properly,  and  when 
the  time  comes,  he  takes  the  water  from  the  large  canal,  and  it  passes  along  through  the 
smaller  canals  in  his  grounds  the  length  of  time  that  is  allowed  him,  and  then  the  nest  man 
takes  it.  It  is  so  arranged  that  each  man  shall  have  enough  for  the  particular  crop  that  he 
raises.  Nothing  but  the  most  perfect  cooperation,  under  a  rigid  system,  could  possibly  con- 
trol that  thing,  among  bo  many  people,  and  with  eo  many  interests." 

In  California,  artesian  wells  are  largely  used  for  iiTigatiiig  purposes  during  the  dry  sea- 
son. Hon.  Marshall  P,  Wilder,  in  a  visit  to  the  valley  of  Santa  Clara,  in  that  State,  saw  on 
the  premises  of  one  gentleman,  three  artesian  wells,  varying  from  320  to  340  feet,  which  gave 
a  constant  flow  of  water.  The  strawberry  grounds  there,  when  u-rigated,  produce  fruit  dur- 
ing the  entire  year;  the  irrigation  being  accomplished  by  carrying  the  water  along  the  head- 
lands in  wooden  flumes  about  eighteen  inches  square,  stoppers  being  inserted  opposite  the 
spaces  between  the  rows  of  strawberry  plants,  so  that  the  water  can  be  turned  on  or  shut  off 
at  pleasure.     These  grounds  were  supplied  with  a  mile  and  a  half  of  such  flumes. 

Dr.  A.  L.  Kennedy  gives  the  following  statement  relative  to  irrigation  in  Cahfornia: 
"  The  lessons  on  the  art  of  irrigation,  taught  by  the  experience  of  California,  have  a  value  far 
beyond  her  boundaries,  and  should  be  carefully  studied  by  the  farmers  in  not  a  few  of  her 
sister  States.  Having  the  lofty  Sierra  Nevada  just  inside  her  eastern  hue,  and  the  ridge  of 
hills  called  the  Coast  Range,  parallel  with  and  near  to  the  Pacific,  most  of  her  territory  is 
constituted  of  a  vast  interior  valley.  The  northern  half  of  this  great  hydrographic  basin  is 
drained  by  the  Sacramento;  the  southern  by  the  San  Joaquin,  its  lakes  and  branches.  These 
rivers  mingle  their  watei"s  in  the  bays  tributary  to  that  of  San  Francisco,  and  reach  the 
ocean  through  the  Golden  Gate.  During  the  summer,  drought  prevails  throughout  the  great 
valley,  and  in  its  southern  third,  south  of  the  Merced  Kiver,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Yosemite,  crops,  with  rare  exceptions,  cannot  be  raised  without  irrigation.  Passing  south, 
erly  over  the  low  rim  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  another  irrigated  region  is  reached,  watered 
by  the  Los  Angeles,  the  Santa  Ana,  and  the  San  Gabriel  Rivers.  These  rise  in  the  spurs  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada, — here  called  Sierra  Madre  and  San  Bernardino, — and  run  westerly  to  the 
sea,  cutting  through  the  Coast  Range.  Each  of  them  may  therefore  be  said  to  drain  two  val- 
leys— an  upper  and  a  lower  one;  the  former  lying  between  the  Sierra  Madre  and  the  Coast 
Range,  the  latter  between  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Pacific. 

The  number  of  acres  under  irrigation  in  these  upper  and  lower  valleys  at  the  close  of 
18'79  was  82,486;  in  the  San  Joaquin,  188,000;  in  that  of  the  Sacramento,  and  in  the  foot- 
hills east  of  it  and  the  San  Joaquin,  22,400.  As  the  streams  in  all  these  districts  descend 
from  hills  not  very  remote,  the  fall  is  sufficient  to  admit  of  the  water  being  diverted  from 
them  for  irrigating  purposes  without  resorting  to  the  mechanical  apphances  for  raising  water 


122  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

employed  in  Egypt,  and  in  Southern  Europe.  In  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  wing-dams  extend- 
ing obliquely  from  one  shore  towards  the  opposite,  at  an  acute  angle  up  stream,  generally 
afford  sufficient  head.  These  are  numerous  in  Kern  Eiver,  at  the  head  of  the  valley,  one  of 
the  most  thoroughly  irrigated  sections,  which,  being  crossed  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Eail- 
road,  is  readily  accessible.  Stone  being  scarce  here,  and  the  river  not  navigable,  the  head- 
works  at  the  entrances  of  the  canals  are  built  entirely  of  wood,  on  pile  foundations  well  driven 
down,  and  sheathed  on  both  sides  with  two-inch  plank.  The  wings,  which  are  similarly  piled 
and  sheathed,  extend  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  into  the  bank  on  either  side  of  the  canal,  and  at 
right  angles  with  it.  Gates  are  not  used,  but  posts  are  set  four  feet  apart,  either  vertically  or 
inclining  backwards  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  The  four  feet  bays  are  divided  and 
fitted  to  receive  the  weir-boards,  which  are  sis  to  eight  inches  wide,  and  slide  in  grooves. 
Over  the  tops  of  those  boards  the  water  flows,  and  the  height  is  regulated  according  to  that 
of  the  river  and  the  volume  desired  in  the  canal.  Where  necessary,  a  side  sluice  is  con- 
structed, by  opening  which,  sand  accumulated  in  front  of  the  head-works  may  be  scoured  or 
flushed  out.  The  natural  slope  of  the  ground  being  too  great  to  admit  of  the  diverted  water 
following  it,  at  intervals,  say,  of  a  mUe  on  the  canal,  weirs  or  "  drops  "  are  introduced.  These 
are  similar  in  construction  to  the  head-works,  and  by  means  of  sliding  weir-boards  the  water 
in  the  canal  is  kept  at  the  proper  height  to  supply  the  distributing  ditches.  Of  course  the 
utilization  of  the  water  power  afforded  by  these  weirs  is  not  neglected. 

One  of  the  most  important  irrigation  works,  near  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  bridge 
over  Kern  River,  is  the  Kern  Island  Canal,  eighteen  miles  long.  It  takes  its  water  from  the 
left  bank  of  the  stream,  where  the  head-works  have  a  clear  width  of  forty-eight  feet  and  a 
depth  of  four.  There  are  two  main  branches,  one  of  which  is  ten  miles  long,  width  at  bot- 
torn  20  feet,  depth  3  feet,  slopes  3  to  1.  The  other  branch,  two  miles  long,  supplies  the  vil- 
lage of  Bakersfield  and  vicinity,  and  at  the  village  is  a  fall  of  nearly  twenty  feet  perpendicu- 
lar, the  power  of  which  runs  a  large  flour-mill.  The  canal  and  its  branches  supply  thirty-one 
lateral  ditches,  owned  and  controlled  by  individual  land-owners,  and  having  a  total  length  of 
eighty  miles.  Besides  the  Kern  Island,  four  other  canals,  the  Old  South  Fork,  the  Farmers', 
the  Castro,  and  the  Stine,  divert  water  from  the  river  in  this  vicinity.  Their  total  length  is 
110  miles,  with  ditches  extending  an  additional  140  miles.  These  five  canals  are  capable  of 
supplying  895  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  and  the  area  irrigated  in  1879  was  22,750 
acres.     In  1873,  six  years  previously,  but  5,000  acres  were  under  irrigation. 

"Water  is  applied  to  all  crops,  but  not  at  the  same  time.  Some  farmers  prefer  to  irrigate 
in  November  before  sowing  their  wheat,  in  order  to  give  it  an  early  start,  while  others,  more 
hopeful,  wait  for  winter  rains,  and,  if  disappointed,  irrigate  during  the  last  of  January. 

Fields  of  Lucerne  are  watered  about  the  middle  of  that  month;  and  in  March  or  April 
wheat  receives  one,  or,  at  most,  two  additional  waterings.  In  May  the  application  to  Lucerne 
is  again  made;  Indian  corn  receives  a  shai-e,  and  the  process  is  repeated,  if  found  necessary, 
during  June  and  July.  After  that  month,  irrigation  is  not  practiced  except  for  Lucerne,  late 
potatoes,  and  garden  vegetables.  Twenty  pounds  of  Lucerne  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre,  and 
the  average  yield  during  the  first  year  is,  from  three  cuttings,  four  tons,  second  year  six  tons; 
in  subsequent  years,  before  putting  again  under  the  plow,  ten  to  twelve  tons.  An  acre  is 
capable  of  supporting  five  head  of  horses  or  cattle,  or  twenty  head  of  sheep,  during  the  nine 
or  ten  months  of  the  grazing  season.  The  average  yield  of  wheat  is  27^  bushels,  and  of  bar- 
ley 32  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  in  exceptional  instances  as  high  as  50  of  the  former  and  90  of 
the  latter  have  been  raised.  The  quantity  of  water  required,  which  depends  not  only  upon 
the  kind  of  crop,  but  also  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  is  supplied  to  consumers  at 
fixed  rates  by  the  Kern  Island  Irrigating  Canal  Company  above  referred  to,  and  by  other  com- 
panies in  the  valley.  Sometimes  the  irrigators  own  the  canals  themselves,  as  shareholders  in 
a  cooperative  company,  the  water  supply  being  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  sliares. 


IRRIGATION.  123 

The  gates  through  which  the  water  passes  from  the  canal  into  the  ditches  are  so  constructed 
as  to  allow  each  shareholder  his  due  proportion.  Again,  large  landed  proprietors  have  con- 
structed  canals,  erected  buildings,  planted  orchards,  and  leased  the  farms  to  tenants,  the  lat- 
ter having  rent  and  water  free,  the  owner  recei^^ng  one-fourth  of  the  crops.  The  leases  run 
for  five  years,  and  if  the  land  requires  cleaning  the  tenant  has  all  he  can  make  the  first  year. 
At  the  expiration  of  the  lease  he  has  the  privilege  of  purchasing  in  installments  at  an  agreed 
price. 

Methods  of  applying  water  to  crops  vary.  A  simple  one  is,  to  surround  the  fields  with 
ditches,  which  are  kept  full  of  water;  another  is  to  run  numerous  furrows,  called  carriers, 
with  the  plow,  these  by  percolation  to  distribute  the  water  to  crops  growing  between  them  on 
narrow  "lands."  The  flooding  of  the  fields  is  sometimes  effected  by  ditches,  which  foUow 
the  higher  ground.  From  these  the  waters  flow  in  a  thin  sheet  over  the  surface,  but  the 
uniform  application  of  the  water  is  difficult.  If  there  be  inequalities  in  the  surface  it  collects 
in  the  low  spots.  If  the  soil  or  stibsoil  be  unequally  retentive,  some  portions  will  be  too  dry, 
others  surcharged.  The  favorite  plan  is  to  divide  the  land  by  flat  embankments  or  levees, 
into  a  series  of  temporary  ponds,  the  size  of  which  is  larger  as  the  surface  is  more  level.  In 
laying  out  the  ground,  contour  lines  are  run,  each  level  being  taken  eight  to  twelve  inches 
below  the  next  preceding,  and  as  far  apart  horizontally  as  the  slope  of  the  land  will  allow. 
Along  the  contour  lines  are  thrown  up  flat  embankments  eighteen  inches  high,  and  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  broad  at  the  base.  Over  these,  farm  machines  can  be  driven  in  any 
direction,  crops  grow  on  them,  and  the  long  lines  of  gentle  swells,  winding,  it  may  be,  and 
more  or  less  parallel,  are  no  deformity.  Each  space  between  these  embankments  is  called  a 
check;  the  levees  are  therefore  check-levees,  and  the  system  the  check-levee  system.  Trunks 
with  gates  are  laid  from  check  to  check  through  the  levees,  and  the  water  from  canal  or  lat- 
eral is  first  let  into  the  highest  check  until  it  covers  it,  reaching  nearly  to  the  top  of  its  lower 
levee,  and  but  shghtly  higher  than  the  base  of  the  upper.  The  water  is  allowed  to  stand 
trntfl.  sufiiciently  absorbed,  when  what  remains  is  let  into  the  check  next  below;  this,  through 
its  own  connection  with  a  lateral,  is  filled,  and  the  process  is  repeated  throughout  the  series. 
James  D.  Schuyler,  assistant  State  engineer,  to  whose  able  report  we  are  mainly  indebted  for 
oui-  facts,  gives  the  cost  per  acre  of  check -levees  on  one-foot  contours  with  about  twenty  feet 
base,  as  follows:  Earthworks,  $1.64;  water  or  drainage  gates,  $0.51;  total,  $2.15;  average 
cost  of  lateral  canals,  including  necessary  regulators  and  side-gates  to  supply  the  lands,  $4 
per  acre — making  the  total  cost  of  preparing  ground  $6.15  per  acre. 

In  the  coimties  of  San  Bernardino  and  Los  Angeles,  the  orchards  and  vineyards  are  irri- 
gated by  ridging  the  land  into  small  compartments  by  means  of  the  plow.  The  water  is  first 
admitted  into  the  highest  compartment  and  retained  until  the  ground  is  sufficiently  soaked. 
The  ridge  between  it  and  the  compartment  below  is  then  broken  down  and  the  water 
admitted,  and  so  on  though  the  series.  The  supply  of  water  is  obtained  in  the  upper  valleys 
of  San  Gabriel,  Santa  Ana,  and  Los  Angeles  directly  from  streams,  although  the  country  is 
well  adapted  to  the  construction  of  storage  reservoirs,  but  in  the  lower  valleys,  near  the  sea, 
artesian  wells  are  the  source  of  supply.  These  three  valleys  constitute  what  is  called  the 
Artesian  Well  Belt,  a  strip  of  land  about  40  miles  long,  and  from  2  to  12  wide,  lying  between 
the  Coast  Range  and  the  Pacific.  There  are  about  600  wells  in  this  belt,  the  general  depth 
being  from  150  to  200  feet,  and  the  yield  0.2  to  0.3  cubic  feet  per  second.  Some  of  the  wells 
irrigate  from  100  to  200  acres  each,  but  a  well  which  will  irrigate  40  acres  is  considered  a 
very  good  one.  As  land  without  water  is  worth  little  or  nothing,  and  as  the  annual  yield  of 
an  irrigated  vineyard  is  considered  worth  $250  per  acre  when  the  grapes  are  grown  for 
wine,  and  much  more  when  they  are  grown  for  raisins,  the  value  of  a  good  well  assumes  large 
proportions.  Great  as  are  the  profits  from  irrigated  vineyards,  they  are  exceeded  by  those 
of  irrigated  orange  orchards,  each  tree  of  which,  when  in  full  bearing,  should  yield  from 


;[24  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

1,000  to  1,500  wanges  annually,  wortli  from  $15  to  $50  per  thousand,  according  to  size  and 
quantity." 

Windmills  are  sometimes  used  for  pumping  water  from  common  wells  for  the  artificial 
watering  of  lands.  Hydraulic  force,  in  the  form  of  the  common  hydraulic  ram,  can  also  be 
easily  utilized  for  the  same  purpose.  A  recent  writer  in  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  jour- 
nals,  gives  the  following  simple  method  of  irrigating  meadows  by  means  of  a  hillside  spring: 

"A  typical  instance  may  be  given:  A  hillside  field  is  flooded  with  water,  which  either 
flows  from  springs  above  it,  or  bursts  out  from  springs  upon  it.  The  water  lies  there ;  the 
land  has  been  poached  by  cattle,  turned  on  to  feed  down  the  coarse  grass  of  early  growth, 
when  other  pastures  were  still  bare,  and  the  surface  has  grown  up  into  bogs,  tussocks,  and 
bunches  of  reeds,  interspersed  with  muddy  pools.  Below  this  Hes  a  meadow  which  produces 
only  a  light  crop  of  hay  or  scanty  pasture  for  the  cows  when  they  are  tired  of  trampling  mud 
up  above.  Such  a  piece  of  land  it  was  once  my  lot  to  own,  and  my  business  to  renovate.  The 
process  was  as  follows:  As  I  could  not  control  the  land  above  the  wet  part  of  my  field,  I  dug 
a  drain  3  feet  deep  along  my  fence  and  laid  3 -inch  tile  in  it.  This  gathered  a  large  quantity 
of  waier  from  the  land  above,  and  partly  dried  the  land  below.  But  here  there  were  several 
strong  springs,  which  melted  the  snow  in  the  winter,  and  which  were  always  surrounded  with 
luxuriant  green  grass.  From  the  upper  drain,  one-inch  tiles  were  laid,  cutting  through  these 
springs  and  the  wettest  spots.  This  effectually  drained  the  wet  ground.  The  flow  from  these 
tiles  discharged  into  an  open  sodded  ditch  or  furrow  six  inches  deep,  and  about  eighteen 
inches  wide.  The  water  from  this  ditch  was  directed,  in  small  zigzag  channels,  over  the  dry 
ground  below;  and  here  and  there  it  was  forced  to  overflow  by  placing  stones  in  the  water- 
way to  arrest  part  of  the  water.  In  this  way  the  water  could  be  distributed  wherever  it  was 
needed,  and  it  furnished  a  steady  supply  until  late  in  the  summer.  The  effect  the  first  year 
was  to  give  two  heavy  crops  of  hay  from  each  piece  of  ground,  neither  of  which  had  given 
anything  of  any  value  whatever  before. 

Since  that  time,  I  have  improved  many  similar  pieces  of  ground  at  a  very  small  expense, 
as  compared  with  the  beneficial  results;  and  I  have  seen  a  much  larger  number  that  could  be 
improved  and  made  valuable,  if  the  owners  could  be  induced  to  do  the  work  for  themselves. 
The  full  reclamation  of  the  tussocky  ground  gives  the  most  trouble.  This  is  best  done  by 
cutting  off  the  bunches  of  roots  with  a  heavy  grub-hoe,  and  then  running  over  the  surface 
when  dry  with  a  disc-harrow,  by  which  the  sod  is  cut  up  and  fresh  earth  thrown  over  it,  and 
the  surface  smoothed.  Some  fresh  grass-seed,  and  a  dressing  of  ten  bushels  of  lime  or  two 
bushels  of  plaster  per  acre,  is  a  great  help  to  the  growth  of  the  better  kinds  of  grass.  I  do 
not  advise  such  ground  to  be  plowed ;  generally  it  breaks  up  very  rough,  and  gives  much 
trouble  to  reduce  to  a  fine  surface  again.  After  a  few  years  the  herbage  is  totally  changed, 
and  timothy,  red-top,  and  fescue  grass  come  thickly  into  both  the  drained  and  the  irrigated 
parts  of  the  ground."  _ 

Secretary  Gold,  in  one  of  his  Agricultural  Reports  of  Connecticut,  gives,  as  an  example 
of  the  value  of  irrigation,  the  farm  of  Albert  G.  Ayres  of  Preston,  New  London  County, 
Connecticut.  It  consists  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  land,  of  average  quality, 
when  compared  with  the  other  farms  of  that  vicinity,  and  has  been  the  homestead  of  the 
Ayres  family  for  at  least  three  generations.  "  The  beginning  of  the  system  of  irrigation  that 
prevails  upon  the  farm  dates  back  to  the  time  of  his  grandfather,  a  hundred  years  ago  or 
more.  Any  good  farmer  in  passing  by  would  notice  the  exceptional  greenness  and  fer- 
tility of  the  soutliern  slope  of  this  farm.  This  is  owing  entirely  to  the  free  use  of  water  for 
a  hundred  years  or  more  upon  about  forty  acres  of  the  farm.  The  system  of  irrigation  is  of 
the  simplest  and  most  inexpensive  kind,  just  such  as  any  enterprising  farmer  could  make  for 
himself  without  the  aid  of  stone-mason  or  engineer.  Near  the  north  end  of  the  farm  a  small 
trout-brook  comes  in,  never  big  enough  for  a  mill-stream,  and  in  summer  often  dwindling 


IRRIGATION.  125 

away  to  a  mera  rill.  It  is  fed  by  springs,  and  in  these  springs  the  trout  survive,  through 
t^ic  heats  of  summer.  This  brook  is  dammed,  near  the  spot  where  it  enters  the  farm,  with  a 
sligh  bank  of  earth  and  stone.  No  eiiort  has  been  made  to  accumulate  water  in  a  reservoir 
against  a  dry  time,  though  it  could  be  done  at  small  expense.  Only  a  part  of  the  natural  flow 
of  the  water  has  been  turned  out  of  its  channel. 

The  irrigating  ditches,  of  which  there  are  several  taken  from  the  main  stream,  are  small 
and  narrow,  and  have  a  very  slight  fall.  They  could  be  made  very  rapidly  with  a  plow  and 
ox-shovel.  The  forty  acres  put  under  water,  slope  gently  to  the  south  and  east.  The  water 
is  taken  out  of  these  irrigating  ditches  in  slight  rills,  and  passed  over  the  meadow.  Any  surplus 
water  falls  into  the  ditch  below,  or  is  returned  to  the  brook.  The  distance  for  which  the 
water  is  diverted  from  its  natural  channel  is  less  than  a  quarter  of  mUe.  The  water  is  kept 
flowing  summer  and  winter,  and  the  winter  flowage  carries  quite  as  much  fertilizing  matter 
as  that  of  summer,  and  perhaps  more.  The  refuse  vegetable  matter  gathered  in  the  swamp 
above,  floating  leaves,  wash  of  roads  and  cultivated  fields  and  brook  channel,  is  carried  down 
to  these  meadows. 

The  water  is  often  discolored  in  heavy  rains,  and  even  that  which  seems  to  be  pure  car- 
ries more  or  less  sediment  with  it.  The  liquid  manure  may  be  very  thin,  but  the  fact  is  well 
estabHshed  that  wherever  water  runs  over  well-drained  soil,  grass  springs  up  in  greatest  luxu- 
riance. The  purest  spring  water  makes  grass  wherever  it  flows.  Summer  and  winter,  while 
Mr.  Ayres  sleeps,  this  brook  is  making  money  for  him,  as  it  did  for  his  ancestors.  The 
only  expense  to  him  is  the  slight  labor  of  keeping  the  ditches  clear,  and  of  regulating  the 
flow  of  the  water.  The  soil  is  a  gravelly  loam,  and  slopes  so  much  that  thei'e  is  no  chance 
for  stagnant  water.  In  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Ayres  the  crop  of  hay  is  nearly  doubled  by  the 
i.-rigation  alone.'' 

The  advantages  of  this  system  of  irrigation  are  summed  up  as  follows:  — 

"  Besides  the  large  increase  of  the  grass  crop,  all  these  forty  acres  of  meadow  can  be  kept 
perpetually  in  grass,  which  is  probtbly  the  most  profitable  crop  upon  Connecticut  farms. 
There  need  be  no  more  plowing,  no  more  tillage  crops.  The  turf  may  thicken  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  and  produce  that  best  of  all  forage,  a  thick,  fine  hay  made  from  a  mixture 
of  grasses  growing  upon  an  old  sod.  Then  top-dressing,  when  applied  to  increase  the  year's 
crop,  can  be  used  to  the  best  advantage.  The  manure  is  carried  down  immediately  to  the 
roots  of  grasses,  by  the  large  supply  of  water  upon  the  surface.  There  is  no  loss  from  evap- 
oration. The  soil  is  kept  to  the  production  of  nearly  two  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre,  without 
top-dressing. 

Upon  this  the  calculation  is  based  of  the  value  of  irrigation  upon  this  farm.  "We 
suppose  the  natural  production  of  the  land  to  be  not  over  a  ton  to  the  acre.  A  ton  to  the 
acre  then  would  be  a  fair  estimate  of  the  hay  made  by  the  irrigation.  Hay  sells  in  the 
neighboring  city  markets  at  from  $15  to  $20  a  ton,  according  to  season  and  quality.  If  we 
call  the  hay  §10  a  ton  standing,  it  would  give  $400,  as  the  annual  dividend  declared  by  the 
brook.  The  investment  is  about  as  secure  as  government  bonds,  which  pay  four  per  cent, 
nearly;  the  income  is  about  the  same  as  $10,000  in  United  States  stocks.  Not  every  farm 
has  the  facilities  of  this  for  irrigation,  but  some  could  irrigate  on  a  much  larger  scale. 
Almost  every  farm  that  has  a  brook  running  thi'ough  it,  or  upon  its  borders,  could  have 
some  portion  of  its  acres  subject  to  irrigation." 

The  growth  of  large  forests  may  also  be  promoted  by  irrigation.  Damont  states  in 
Des  Travaux  Publics,  that  in  order  to  hasten  the  growth  of  wood  on  the  flanks  of  a  mountain, 
M.  Eugene  Chevandier  divided  the  slope  into  zones'  forty  or  fifty  feet  wide,  by  horizontal 
ditches  closed  at  both  ends,  and  thereby  obtained  from  firs  of  different  ages,  shoots  double 
the  dimensions  of  those  which  grew  on  a  diy  soil  of  the  same  character,  where  the  water 
was  allowed  to  run  off  without  obstruction. 


126  THE  AMERICAlf  FARMER. 

Irrigation  is  often  accomplislied  by  flooding  or  inundating  the  lands  for  a  few  days, 
when  tliey  are  so  situated  that  this  is  practicable  A  good  illustration  of  this  means  is  seen 
in  the  Grand  Pie  Marsh  in  Nova  Scotia,  which  contaia  the  most  fertOe  lands  in  the  province, 
and  is  often  called  the  garden  of  Nova  Scotia.  These  marsh  lands  are  enclosed  by  dikes, 
and  whenever  it  is  found  necessary  to  enrich  the  soU,  that  may  become  exhausted  by  constant 
cropping,  the  sluice  gates  are  opened  and  the  tide  is  allowed  to  overflow  the  meadows, 
which  leaves  a  rich  deposit  of  alluvial  matter  to  the  depth  of  one  or  more  inches  on  the 
surface,  by  which  means  they  are  kept  in  constant  fertility. 

Any  field  of  a  moderate  descent  can  be  irrigated  by  open  ditches  with  but  slight  expense, 
where  the  water  is  available  on  an  elevation.  In  Europe,  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  to 
crops  ordinarily  cultivated  on  tilled  lands,  is  from  twenty  to  forty  inches  during  the  season; 
though  the  rice-fields  of  Lombardy  require  a  considerably  larger  amount  than  this.  Expe- 
rience alone  can  best  detennine  the  proper  quantity  for  certain  soils  and  crops.  Much,  also, 
depends  upon  the  season  and  the  amoimt  of  rain-fall,  etc. 

When  to  Irrigate.  —  Evening,  as  a  general  rule,  is  the  best  time  for  irrigating  all 
crops.  Constant  watering  under  a  hot  sim  is  not  only  unnatural  to  aU  vegetation,  but  will 
often  prove  very  injuiious  to  many  plants.  All  plants  require  more  water  in  the  early  part 
of  their  growth  than  when  nearly  mature.  Many  crops,  such  as  grasses,  and  some  of  the 
grains,  for  instance,  would  be  injured  by  an  excess  of  irrigation  when  approaching  the 
ripening  process,  and  it  should  be  at  this  time  carefully  avoided.  Light,  porous  soils,  accord, 
ing  to  best  authority,  are  most  benefited  by  artificial  watering;  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  re- 
quiring it  most.  Clays,  being  naturally  moist  and  heavy,  are  less  benefited  by  it,  though  are 
said  to  be  improved  by  this  means  when  made  porous  by  under-draining.  Irrigation  often 
greatly  increases  the  quantity  of  grass  for  cattle  in  pastures  that  would  otherwise,  from  the 
condition  of  the  soil,  be  almost  worthless.  After  a  crop  of  grass  has  been  cut,  irrigation 
will  greatly  improve  the  quantity  and  quahty  of  the  aftermath,  besides  preventing  the  drying 
up  of  the  grass-roots  by  evaporation  in  the  hot  sun.  The  process  of  irrigating  should  begin  on 
grass  lands  very  early  in  the  spring,  in  order  to  give  the  herbage  a  good  start.  The  quantity 
of  water  thus  supphed  to  any  crop  should  be  adapted  to  the  kind  of  soil  and  the  crop  pro- 
duced, which  can  only  be  determined  by  experiment,  since  soils  vary  so  greatly  that  only 
general  rules  can  be  given  in  this  respect. 


DRAINAGE.  127 

DRAINAGE. 

DRAINAGE,  or  the  removal  of  the  surplus  water  from  the  soil  by  artificial  means, 
may  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  open  ditches,  covered  trenches,  plank  or  stone 
drains,  tiles,  etc.,  the  best  and  most  popular  method  being  tile  draining. 

Perhaps  no  part  of  farm  husbandry  pays  a  larger  per  cent,  of  profit  on  the  money 
invested  than  proper  and  judicious  drainage,  where  the  conditions  are  such  that  lands  will 
be  benefited  by  this  system,  since  it  not  only  removes  stagnant  water  from  lands,  but  relieves 
them  of  their  excess  of  moisture,  rendering  them  productive,  and  more  healthful  to  both 
vegetable  and  animal  life.  It  also  deepens  the  soil,  makes  it  more  friable,  and  by  drawing 
the  water  from  the  surface,  not  only  adapts  it  to  earlier  cultivation  in  the  spring,  thereby 
insuring  an  earlier  and  more  abundant  crop,  and  also  prepares  it  to  be  worked  advantageously 
in  the  autumn,  but  the  surface  rain-water,  being  warmer  than  the  soil,  such  drainage  increases 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  as  it  sinks  downward. 

Mr.  Parks,  the  English  Agricultural  Engineer,  found  by  making  simultaneous  obser- 
vations on  a  drained  portion  of  a  field,  that  from  a  mean  of  thirty-five  observations,  during 
the  spring  and  early  summer,  the  drained  soil,  at  seven  inches  depth,  was  ten  degrees 
warmer  than  the  undrained,  at  the  same  depth.  The  highest  temperature  of  the  undrained 
soil  was  forty-seven  degrees,  while  that  of  the  drained  went  up  to  sixty-six  degrees  at  seven 
inches,  and  forty-eight  degrees  at  thirty-one  inches,  after  a  thunder  storm.  A  wet  soil  can 
never  be  properly  pulverized,  hence,  cannot  be  well  tilled;  it  is  also  always  cold;  and  as  drain- 
age renders  the  land  warmer,  the  roots  of  plants  which  will  never  go  below  the  water-line, 
always  strike  deeper  in  under-drained  soils,  which  explains  the  fact,  often  surprisingly  mani- 
fest, why  lands  well  under-drained  should  endure  the  evil  effects  of  a  drouth  better  than  those 
not  drained  at  all.  Tliis  mystery  is  solved  when  we  consider  that  roots  in  such  soils  strike 
so  much  deeper  than  in  lands  not  drained,  that  they  are  constantly  in  a  moist  soil,  however 
dry  the  surface  may  be ;  besides  such  lands  are  more  porous  and  permeable  to  the  dews  and 
showers.  Under-draining  also  prevents  surface  washing,  by  allowing  the  water  to  percolate 
through  the  soil,  and  thus  whatever  fertilizing  material  it  contains  is  retained.  It  renders 
winter  kilHng  of  crops  less  liable,  and  preserves  a  more  uniform  degree  of  moisture  in  the 
soil,  since  it  not  only  causes  its  saturation  with  water  to  be  impossible,  but  keeps  it  in  such  a 
pulverized  and  porous  condition,  that  in  times  of  drouth  it  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air  and 
never  becomes  baked  and  hard,  thus  the  evil  effects  of  extremes  of  wet  and  dry  seasons  are 
avoidable.  Much  land  otherwise  almost  worthless  for  cultivation  has  become  by  this  means 
very  valuable.  Lands  well  under-drained  can  also  be  used  with  safety  in  hauling  loads  and 
are  less  liable  to  injury  from  the  treading  of  cattle,  &c. 

Thornton,  an  eminent  English  authority,  sums  up  the  benefits  of  drainage  as  follows: 
"  An  earlier  seed-time  and  harvest,  better  crops,  a  healthier  live  stock  and  an  improved  style 
of  husbandry,  are  the  usual  and  well-known  sequence  of  judiciously-conducted  drainage 
operations.  In  short,  the  most  experienced  and  skillful  agriculturists  now  declare  with  one 
consent,  that  good  drainage  is  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  good  cultivation." 

In  England  and  Scotland  the  improvement  of  lands  by  drainage  has  long  been  practiced, 
and  it  is  by  no  means  a  modern  improvement,  though  it  has  comparatively  but  recently  been 
reduced  to  a  system  based  upon  scientific  principles.  The  Romans  were  careful  to  keep  their 
arable  lands  dry  by  means  of  open  trenches,  and  there  are  some  indications  of  their  having 
used  covered  drains  for  the  same  purpose.  Enghsh  literature  shows  that  it  is  at  least  more 
than  two  centuries  ago  that  Captain  Walter  Blithe  wrote  the  following: 

"Superfluous  and  venomous  water  which  lyeth  in  the  earth  and  much  occasioneth  boggi- 

nesse,  mirinesse,  rushes,  flags,  and  other  filth,  is  indeed  the  chief  cause  of  barrenesse  in  any 

land  of  this  nature.     .     .     .     Drajoiing  is  an  excellent  and  chief  est  means  for  their  reducement; 

and  for  the  depth  of  such  draynes,  I  cannot  possibly  bound,  because  I  have  not  time  and  oppor- 

lU 


128  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

tunity  to  take  in  all  circumstances.  .  .  .  And  for  thy  draynmg  trench,  it  must  be  made  so 
deepo  that  it  goe  to  the  bottome  of  the  cold,  spewing  moyst  water,  that  feeds  the  flagg  and  the 
rush;  for  the  widenesse  of  it,  use  thine  owne  liberty,  but  be  sure  to  make  it  so  wide  as  thou 
mayest  goe  to  the  bottom  of  it,  which  must  be  so  low  as  any  moysture  lyeth  which  moysture 
usually  lyeth  under  the  over  and  second  swarth  of  the  earth,  in  some  gravel  or  sand,  or  else, 
where  some  greater  stones  are  mixt  with  clay,  under  which  thou  must  goe  halfe  one  spades 
graft  deepe  at  least;  yea,  suppose  this  corruption  that  feeds  and  nourisheth  the  rush  or  flagg 
should  lie  a  yard  or  foure  foot  deepe,  to  the  bottome  of  it  thou  must  goe,  if  thou  wilt  drayne 
it  to  purpose.  .  .  .  And  for  the  dreyning  trench  be  sure  thou  endeavour  to  carry  it  as 
neare  upon  a  straight  line  as  possible 

"  To  the  bottome  where  the  spewing  spring  lyeth  thou  must  goe,  and  one  spades  depth  or 
graft  beneath,  how  deep  so  ever  it  be,  if  thou  wilt  drayne  thy  land  to  purpose.  1  am  forced 
to  use  repetitions  of  some  things,  because  of  the  quitableness  of  the  things  to  which  they  are 
applyed;  as  also  because  of  the  slownesse  of  people's  apprehensions  of  them,  as  appears  by 
the  non-practice  of  them,  the  which  whenever  you  see  drayning  and  trenching  you  shall  rarely 
find  few  or  none  of  them  wrought  to  the  bottome 

"  Go  to  the  bottome  of  the  bogg,  and  there  make  a  trench  in  the  sound  ground,  or  else  in 
some  old  ditch,  so  low  as  thou  verily  conceivest  thy  selfe  assuredly  under  the  level  of  the 
spring  or  spewing  water,  and  then  carry  up  thy  trench  into  thy  bogg  straight   through  the 

middle  of  it,  one  foot  under  that  spring; but  for  these  common  and  many 

trenches,  oft  times  crooked  too,  that  men  usually  make  in  their  boggy  grounds,  some  one 
foot,  some  two,  never  having  respect  to  the  cause  or  matter  that  maketh  the  bogg  to  take 

that  way,  I  say  away  with  them  as  a  great  piece  of  folly,  lost  labour  and  spoyle 

After  thou  hast  brought  a  trench  to  the  bottome  of  the  bogg,  then  cut  a  good  substantial 
trench  about  thy  bogg;  and  when  thou  hast  so  done  make  one  work  or  two  just  over-thwart 
it,  upwards  and  downwards  all  under  the  matter  of  the  bogg.  Then  thou  must  take  good 
green  faggots,  willow,  alder,  elme  or  thorne,  and  lay  in  the  bottome  of  thy  works,  and  then 
take  thy  turfe  thou  tookest  up  in  the  top  of  thy  trench,  and  plant  upon  them  with  the  green 
sward  downwards;  or  take  great  pebbles,  stones,  or  Jiint  stones,  and  so  fill  up  (he  bottome  of  thi/ 
trench  about  fifteen  inches  high,  and  take  thy  turfe  and  plant  it  as  aforesaid,  being  cut  very  fit 
for  the  trench,  as  it  may  join  close  as  it  is  layed  downe,  and  then  having  covered  it  all  over 
with  earth,  and  made  it  even  as  thy  other  ground,  waite  and  expect  a  wonderful  effect  through 
the  blessing  of  God."  The  instructions  of  Blithe  do  not  seem  to  have  been  extensively  heeded 
"by  his  contempoBaries,  though  they  probably  were  to  a  certain  extent.  Since  that  time, 
various  systems  have  been  practiced  in  Great  Britain  and  other  portions  of  Europe,  the  moist 
'Chmate  of  the  former  rendering  drainage  more  essential  to  successful  agriculture  than  in  some 
other  countries.  In  our  own  country,  the  general  adoption  of  a  complete  system  of  drainage 
is  comparatively  of  recent  date,  but  enough  has  been  accomplished  in  this  direction  to  prove 
its  great  value  to  the  agricultural  interests  of  every  section,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
"'.when  it  will  doubtless  be  practiced  on  a  larger  and  more  extensive  scale,  and  many  of  the 
vast  tracts,  now  utterly  worthless,  will  be  converted  into  some  of  the  most  fertile  and  valuable 
of  its  agricultural  lands,  besides  rendering  such  localities  more  healthful. 

What  Lands  Require  Draining. — All  lands  containing  an  excess  of  water  are 
greatly  benefited  by  draining,  and  these  are  usually  heavy,  tenacious  clays,  those  soils  having 
a  hard  clayey  subsoil  that  will  not  admit  of  the  water  passing  through  them,  and  peaty  or 
swampy  lands.  A  large  proportion  of  the  lands  in  cultivation  are  suflSciently  drained  by 
nature.  No  land  with  a  subsoil  so  porous  as  never  to  retain  a  surplus  of  water  requires  an 
extensive  drainage.  Sometimes  a  farm  that  requires  no  thorough  draining  may  be  benefited 
by  a  partial  one;  for  instance,  many  farms  contain  small  swamps  or  swales,  so  located  in  a 
field  as  to  greatly  hinder  cultivation,  and  retard  the  growth  of  crops:  these  have  probably 
been  formed  by  the  water  that  has  passed  through  the  porous  soil,  meeting  with  an  obstruction 


DRAINAGE.  129 

in  the  form  of  an  impervious  stratum.  This  stratum  may  be  horizontal,  or  nearly  so,  and 
the  water  may  follow  it  out  to  the  surface  of  a  lower  level,  and  thus  the  swale  is  formed,  a 
permanent  nuisance  in  an  otherwise  valuable  tract  of  land.  In  such  cases  a  partial  drainage 
of  the  lands  will  entirely  remedy  this  evil.  In  the  United  States,  the  average  amount  of 
rain -fall  is  about  three  inches  per  month,  and  frequently  an  inch  of  rain,  —  which  is  equal  to 
a  httle  more  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  hogsheads  of  water,  —  falls  upon  an  acre  of  land 
in  a  single  shower.  The  question  arises,  "What  becomes  of  all  this  water?  It  must  either 
be  disposed  of  by  sinking  into  the  soil,  by  evaporation,  or  it  remains  upon  the  surface. 
Moist  land  conduces  to  good  cultivation,  but  not  luet  lands;  therefore,  if  the  soil  or  subsoil  is 
of  such  a  nature  that  this  water  does  not  percolate  through  it  readily,  and  leave  it  in  good 
condition,  drainage  is  the  only  remedy  for  the  evil.  When  the  land  is  very  level,  admitting 
of  no  surface  draining,  and  the  soil  retentive  and  clayey,  drainage  will  be  required  for  any 
improvement  in  the  conditions. 

Swamps  and  peat-beds  frequently  occur  in  a  hilly  country.  Sometimes  their  origin  is 
in  numerous  springs  from  adjoining  hills;  when  this  is  the  case,  often  a  ditch  dug  around 
the  entire  outer  edge  of  it,  where  it  meets  the  ascending  land,  will  cut  oil  the  water  supply, 
and  generally  remedy  the  evil;  but  open  ditches  are  very  objectionable  for  many  reasons, 
and  tiles  are  preferred.  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  John  Johnston,  of  Geneva,  New  York,  who  was 
tlie  first  farmer  to  use  tiles  for  draining  in  this  country,  once  drained  a  quagmire  so  that  it 
produced  eighty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  and  in  that  case  the  cost  of  draining  was  paid  by 
the  increase  of  one  crop.  The  draining  of  lakes  and  marshes  requires  great  capital,  and 
engineering  skUl,  and  is  sure  to  become  a  very  important  branch  of  agricultural  improve- 
ment in  our  Southern  and  "Western  States. 

The  reclaiming  of  the  Everglades  of  Florida  by  draining  Lake  Okeechobee  sufficiently  to 
prevent  its  overflow,  is  an  instance  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  this  means.  This  may  be 
done  by  a  canal  ten  miles  long,  connecting  Lake  Okeechobee  with  the  headwaters  of  the  Caloo- 
sahatchie  River,  which  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  mouth  of  which  is  twenty-three  and 
a  half  feet  lower  than  the  lake.  It  is  the  overflow  of  the  lake  which  causes  the  Everglades 
to  be  submerged  in  water,  the  lake  having  no  natural  outlet,  while  the  Everglades  are  sur- 
rounded by.a  limestone  ridge  which  acts  as  a  dam  to  the  water,  and  after  the  overflow  of  the 
lake,  it  can  only  be  reduced  by  evaporation,  which,  being  so  slow  a  process,  keeps  the  ground 
almost  constantly  under  water.  Should  the  above  drainage  not  prove  sufiicient  to  prevent  the 
over-flow  and  render  the  lands  reclaimed  suited  to  agricultural  purposes,  another  canal  to  the 
eastward,  cut  to  the  St.  Lucie  River,  twelve  miles  long,  which  will  carry  the  water  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  will  remedy  the  evil,  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lucie  River  being  twenty- 
five  feet  lower  than  the  basin  of  Lake  Okeechobee.  In  Holland,  steam-pumps,  wind-mills, 
and  tide-gates  are  used  extensively  in  drainage,  the  great  Haarlemer-meer  being  not  only 
drained,  but  is  kept  so,  by  steam-power.  Prof.  Pendleton  states  that  much  of  the  hilly  land 
in  some  of  the  best  farming  portions  of  the  Southern  States  has  become  impoverished  by 
unskillful  culture  and  by  continual  washings  of  soil  and  fertilizing  materials  which  have  been 
swept  into  the  valleys,  that  are  now  so  saturated  with  water  as  to  be  unfit  for  proper  tillage, 
and  that  in  this  way  many  valuable  lands  have  been  lost  to  cultivation,  and  rendered 
unhealthy  by  engendering  malarial  fevers,  etc. 

By  a  judicious  system  of  drainage,  these  lands  may  become  among  the  most  productive, 
as  well  as  profitable,  of  any  in  that  section  of  the  country.  Prof.  Cleveland,  of  Chicago, 
says:  —  ''The  necessity  of  drainage  is  not  to  be  determined  by  the  quantity  of  water  which 
falls  or  flows  upon  the  surface,  nor  upon  the  power  of  the  sun  to  carry  it  ofE  by  evaporation, 
but  upon  the  character  of  the  subsoil.  If  that  is  of  sand  or  gravel,  the  water  will  pass  off 
below  by  natural  drainage,  but  if  the  subsoil  is  clay  or  other  impen'ious  substances,  the 
water  is  checked  in  its  downward  course,  and  remains  stagnant  or  bursts  out  upon  the 


130  '      THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

surface  in  the  foiTQ  of  springs.  Most  of  the  prairie  lands  are  of  the  latter  character,  and 
wherever  such  subsoil  exists,  the  land  will  not  only  be  improved  by  tile  drainage,  but  it  may 
be  said  that  such  drainage  is  absolutely  essential  to  its  proper  development  and  culture.  To 
question  the  necessity  of  the  process  is  little  less  absurd  than  it  would  be  to  ask  whether  it 
would  be  improved  by  plowing,  instead  of  making  hills  for  corn  in  the  prairie-grass  with  a 
hoe  or  spade.  All  lands  require  drainage  which  at  any  season  contain  too  much  water,  — 
that  is,  which  hold  at  any  time  of  the  year  more  moisture  than  is  good  for  the  crops,  and 
causes  them  to  suffer,  either  by  freezing  out  in  winter,  or  having  their  roots  in  water  during 
the  growing  season." 

Drainage  has  been  appropriately  defined  as  "  the  art  of  rendering  land  not  only  so  free 
from  moisture  that  no  superfluous  water  shall  remain  on  it,  but  that  no  water  shall  remain 
long  enough  to  injure  or  retard  the  healthy  growth  of  such  plants  as  are  required  for  the 
sustenance  of  man  or  beast."  There  are  some  plants,  such  as  rice  and  cranberries,  which 
require  a  wet  soil,  but  most  of  those  which  are  useful  to  man  are  drowned  by  being  over- 
flowed for  a  short  time,  and  are  injured  by  any  stagnant  water  about  their  roots. 

"We  would  recommend  that  in  all  cases  of  drainage,  it  be  well  done,  as  the  most  care- 
ful and  permanent  work  of  this  kind  will  be  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  and  the  best-paying  in 
return  for  the  capital  invested,  while  work  of  this  kind  carelessly  and  indiferently  performed 
will  prove  very  expensive  eventually,  as  it  will  probably  fail  to  accomplish  the  end  sought, 
and  will  have  to  be  done  over  in  a  short  time  to  be  of  any  practical  benefit.  The  best 
method  is  to  establish  a  plan  for  complete  system  of  drainage  for  the  farm,  and  when  this  is  once 
done,  the  work  can  be  accomplished  from  time  to  time  as  opportunity  affords,  with  but  little 
or  no  interruption  to  the  regular  routine  of  farm  labor.  It  can  often  be  accomplished  in 
those  seasons  when  there  is  little  else  to  do  upon  the  farm,  hence  at  less  expense  than  other- 
wise. There  is  no  part  of  farm  labor  where  previous  calculation  and  careful,  systematic 
work  pays  better  than  in  under-draining.  Many  farmers  have  but  little  to  occupy  them 
during  the  late  autumn  and  winter  months,  and  could  devote  the  time  to  such  work  then 
with  no  interruption  to  the  other  farm  work,  and  with  less  expense. 

Tile  Draining. — This  is  the  best  method  of  draining  known,  being  the  most  effectual 
and  satisfactory  in  all  respects.  No  person  should  undertake  the  task  of  draining  with  the 
expectation  of  success  without  first  fully  informing  himself  with  respect  to  all  the  important 
details,  as  it  is  a  work  which  requires  much  scientific  skill  and  careful  planning  in  order  to 
reach  the  best  results.  A  nd,  as  we  have  previously  recommended,  we  woulil  advise  that  the 
plan  be  a  complete  one  for  the  farm,  which  plan  can  be  gradually  carried  out  from  time  to 
time  as  the  farmer  feels  able  to  accomplish,  either  in  expense  of  money  or  labor. 

Determining  the  Outlet. — One  of  the  most  important  steps  in  drainage  is  to  decide 
vipon  a  place,  or  the  places  of  outlet.  This  must,  of  course,  be  enough  lower  than  any  portion 
of  the  lands  that  are  to  be  drained  by  it,  to  admit  of  sufficient  fall  for  the  passage  of  water 
from  the  heads  of  the  most  distant  tributaries;  yet  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  high  enougli 
above  the  level  of  whatever  it  empties  into  to  prevent  the  danger  of  its  being  overflowed, 
and  the  drainage-water  dammed  back  in  the  pipes.  In  all  cases  where  tlie  inequalities  of  the 
surface  are  not  sufBcient  to  render  it  obvious  that  every  field  on  the  farm  that  it  is  desirable 
to  drain  can  be  drained  into  the  mains  without  difficulty,  the  most  important  point  to  deter- 
mine is  the  lowest  level  at  which  the  outlet  can  be  located  so  as  to  secure  a  free  and  constant 
outflow.  For  instance,  the  level  of  every  other  point  must  be  high  enough  above  the  outlet 
to  secure  a  grade  in  the  tiles  of  at  least  '2i  to  3  inches  per  100  feet,  though  from  6  inches  to 
12  is  better,  if  practicable.  Some  writers  claim  that  they  have  known  drainage  to  prove  a 
complete  success  where  the  grade  is  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  per  100  feet,  but  we 
should  fear  to  risk  the  cost  and  labor  of  constructing  drains  on  that  principle.     The  grade 


DRAINAGE.  131 

should  be  sufBcient  to  carry  off  any  silt,  sand,  or  other  obstructions  that  may  get  into  the 
pipes.  On  very  level  farms — the  prairies,  for  instance — it  may  often  be  difficult  to  secure  the 
necessary  grade,  without  bringing  the  upper  portions  of  the  drains  too  near  the  surface.  It 
is  better,  therefore,  to  have  tlie  levels  all  taken  before  the  work  is  begun  (which  can  be  done 
at  slight  expense  and  labor),  than  to  incur  the  cost  of  correctmg,  afterwards,  mistakes  that 
may  be  made  at  the  commencement.  We  therefore  advise  that  the  services  of  a  competent 
civil  engineer  be  secured,  and  that  these  levels  be  taken  on  cross  lines  about  fifty  feet  apart, 
and  marked  on  a  map  of  the  farm,  or  land  to  be  drained ;  and  when  this  is  done,  there  is  a 
map  for  guidance  marked  in  fifty-feet  st^ares,  where  the  relative  height  of  each  square  is 
marked  at  the  intersection  of  these  lines,  so  that,  having  the  Unes  for  drains  previously 
marked,  when  the  farmer  digs  his  drains  for  laying  the  tiles,  he  knows  precisely  the  depth  he 
must  go  at  each  point  to  give  a  uniform  fall,  and  thus  the  saving  of  labor  and  the  avoiding 
of  mistakes  will  well  repay  the  slight  expense  required  to  secure  this  knowledge.  By  this 
means  the  farmer  can  have  a  map  to  refer  to,  showing  the  exact  location  and  depth  of  every 
main  and  side-drain  on  the  premises;  and  he  can  go  on  from  year  to  year  doing  as  much  or 
as  little  an  amount  of  labor  as  he  chooses,  but  always  working  with  the  assurance  that  he  is 
on  the  correct  principle  and  knows  what  he  is  about,  and  that  he  is  working  out  one  definite 
plan.  This  same  plan  will  afterwards  enable  him  to  find,  without  any  difficulty,  any  point  he 
may  wish  to  obtain  access  to  for  repairs,  etc. 

In  England  there  is  an  accredited  profession  of  farm-engineering,  regulated  and  encour- 
aged by  the  English  agricultural  laws.  It  would  be  a  great  aid  to  the  agricultural  interests 
of  this  country  if  the  farmers  of  every  state  could  have  the  benefit  of  just  such  competent 
assistance,  based  upon  accurate  mathematical  knowledge  and  experience.  The  members  of 
this  profession  in  England  are  required  to  pass  a  severe  and  critical  examination,  proving 
themselves  to  be  thoroughly  competent,  both  theoretically  and  practically,  for  the  position, 
before  admission. 

Locating  the  Main  Drains  and  Tributaries. — Having  determined  where  the 
outlet  will  be,  which,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  is  a  very  important  question  to  decide, 
the  next  step  will  be  to  locate  the  main  drains;  and  this  can  be  properly  accomplished  only 
by  taking  into  consideration  the  surface  of  the  land.  If  the  surface  is  uneven  or  undulating 
the  main  receiving-drains  should  be  carried  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  land,  in  the  hollows, 
while  the  brantshes  or  parallel  drains,  running  in  the  Hne  of  the  greatest  ascent  of  the  ground, 
flow  into  them,  often  at  nearly  right  angles.  "Where  the  land  is  nearly  level,  and  a  fall  is 
obtained  only  by  increasing  the  depth  of  the  drains  at  the  lower  ends,  the  tiles  may  run  in 
any  direction  convenient.  The  conformation  of  the  land  may  often  be  such  that  a  single 
field  may  require  several  distinct  sets  of  drains,  lying  at  different  angles,  suited  to  the  various 
slopes  of  the  surface;  but  in  all  cases  where  slopes  occur,  the  pipes  should  be  laid  directly  up 
and  down  the  slope,  so  that  the  water  once  entering  at  the  joints  of  the  tiles  will  not  run  out 
again  at  other  joints,  but  will  follow  the  course  of  the  pipes  to  the  end.  In  an  irregular 
field,  where  the  slopes  are  in  different  directions,  of  course  it  will  be  impossible  to  have  the 
drains  run  directly  up  and  down  the  slope,  and  at  the  same  time  parallel  to  each  other,  which 
would  be  the  most  economical. 

In  varying  from  parallel  directions,  there  is  danger  of  getting  the  pipes  too  far  apart,  and 
making  the  drainage  incomplete,  or  of  crowding  them  so  near  together  as  to  be  quite  expen- 
sive; hence,  there  must  be  the  exercise  of  careful  judgment  in  laying  out  the  system  of 
drains,  in  order  to  arrange  the  slope  correctly,  and  yet  accomplish  the  desired  end  in  drainage 
without  incurring  unnecessary  expense. 

When  part  of  the  field  is  flat,  and  other  portions  have  a  considerable  slope,  the  best 
authorities  advise  placing  a  receiving-drain  near  the  bottom  of  the  slopes,  and  giving  the 
level  ground  an  independent  set  of  drains.     The  surface   of  the   ground,  convenience   of 


132  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

outlet,  and  character  of  the  soil,  all  have  to  be  taken  into  account,  consequently  the  plan  of  no 
two  fields  will  scarcely  ever  be  the  same.  The  roots  of  trees  and  shrubs  sometimes  obstruct 
drains,  therefore  it  is  well  in  laying  out  their  course  to  avoid  them  as  far  as  practicable. 
When  a  drain  must  of  necessity  pass  near  trees,  the  use  of  coal-tar  is  sometimes  found  beneficial 
in  excluding  the  roots.  Mixing  coal-tar  and  sawdust  to  the  consistency  of  mortar,  and  placing 
a  layer  of  this  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  at  such  places,  and  then  laying  the  drain-pipe 
upon  it,  and  covering  it  with  this  mixture  to  the  thickness  of  an  inch,  before  covering  with 
earth,  all  trouble  from  roots  will  be  obviated.  Some  writers  recommend  that  soft  and  porous 
tiles  (though  not  as  durable)  be  used  at  such  places  as  are  hable  to  trouble  from  roots,  with 
the  joints  laid  in  cement,  the  hard  tiles  being  ordinarily  used  for  drains,  as  they  are  more 
durable.  All  tiles  having  small  holes,  called  "pin-holes,"  should  be  carefully  avoided,  and 
aU  aquatic  trees  near  the  line  of  the  drain  should  be  kQled  before  the  drain  is  laid.  Mr.  "W. 
I.  Chamberlain,  of  Summit  County,  Ohio,  gives  the  following  statement  relative  to  the 
wandering  nature  of  roots,  and  their  tendency  to  obstruct  drains: — 

"  The  roots  of  aquatic  or  water-loving  trees,  like  the  willow  and  some  kinds  of  elm, 
seem  to  have  almost  no  hmit  to  their  growth,  either  horizontally  or  vertically;  and  they  seem 
to  go  in  search  of  moisture  or  richness,  as  if  by  instinct,  and  to  know  just  where  to  find  it. 
I  have  traced  the  roots  of  a  smalhsh  elm  some  twenty-five  feet  horizontally,  and  six  feet  ver- 
tically, to  their  feeding-place  in  a  grave  in  an  old  cemetery;  and  I  have,  in  plowing, 
traced  the  roots  of  a  large  ehn  one  hundred  feet  horizontally  by  measurement.  These  roots 
wUl  enter  even  a  '  pin-hole  '  in  tiles,  if  they  can  find  running  water,  ilr.  H.  B.  Camp,  of 
Cuyahoga  Fahs,  Ohio,  told  me  a  few  days  since,  that  he  once  helped  take  up  an  obstructed  drain, 
whose  joints  were  laid  in  cement,  I  think  he  said.  At  all  events,  a  willow  root  had  entered 
at  a  pin-hole  not  larger  than  a  small  darning-needle,  and  spread  into  a  fibrous  mass  and 
packed  the  tile  fun  ot  roots  for  several  feet — the  only  connection  with  the  upper  world  and 
their  lungs  (the  tree-leaves)  being  this  small,  thread-like  root,  that  entei'ed  at  the  pin-hole. 
It  is  better  to  cut  such  trees  down  when  they  are  near  a  damp  drain,  and  see  ihat  ihey  are  dead. 
Prof.  Townshend,  of  the  Columbus  (Ohio)  Agricultural  College,  exhibited  in  one  of  his 
lectures  recently  a  dark,  stiff,  fibrous,  sponge-like,  solid  cyhnder,  some  three  feet  long  and 
three  inches  in  diameter.  "WTien  the  class  had  done  guessing,  he  gave  its  history.  It  was 
the  wilhw-root  core  of  his  cellar-drain.  Knowing  the  nature  of  these  roots,  he  cut  the  willow 
down  before  he  laid  the  drain,  and  burned  the  stump  all  he  could ;  but  in  spite  of  that,  its 
roots  stopped  his  cellar-drain  at  a  depth  of  five  or  six  feet ! '' 

When  a  main  drain  has  parallel  drains  flowing  into  it  on  both  sides,  these  openings  into 
the  main  drain  should  not  be  exactly  opposite  each  other.  The  evU  effects  of  such  a  plan 
are  at  once  perceptible.  Some  prefer  to  have  two  main  drains  parallel  to  each  other,  each  to 
receive  the  subordinate  drains  from  its  side  only.  If  these  main  drains  are  located  as  far 
apart  as  the  other  tiles  in  the  field,  but  Uttle  additional  expense  wiU  be  incurred  by  ha\nng 
two  instead  of  one,  as  these  receiving-drains,  besides  taking  the  water  from  the  others,  also 
perform  the  same  office  as  the  other  drains  for  the  lands  through  which  they  pass.  One  of 
the  best  English  authorities  on  this  subject  says: — 

"  Much  of  the  success  of  draining  depends  on  the  skillful  planning  of  these  main  drains, 
and  in  making  them  large  enough  to  discharge  the  greatest  flow  of  water  to  which  they  are 
exposed.     Very  long  main  drains  are  to  be  avoided."' 

"  In  the  whole  process  of  draining,"  says  an  experienced  engineer,  "  there  is  nothing 
more  important  than  permanent  and  substantial  work  at  the  outlet."  It  is  a  place  where 
obstructions  are  most  liable  to  occur,  being  most  exposed  to  the  effects  of  frost,  while  reptiles, 
cattle  and  mischievous  boys  often  do  great  damage,  unless  it  is  sufficiently  protected.  The 
earth  everywhere  else  is  a  protection  to  the  tUes.  It  is,  therefore,  well  to  have  as  few  outlets 
aa  possible,  and  these  should  be  secured  by  a  heavy  frame-work  of  timber  or  stone,  and  an 


DRAINAGE.  3^33 

iron  grating,  or  heavy  wire  netting,  fine  enough  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  reptiles  or  other 
animals.  One  outlet  to  an  area  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  acres  is  usually  considered  a  good 
arrangement. 

A  uniform  grade  is  very  desirable,  for  if  any  portion  of  the  main  be  lower  than  the 
outlet,  there  will,  of  course,  be  a  permanent  stoppage,  as  the  water  wiU  stand  there  until 
there  is  a  deposit  of  mud,  and  it  will  not  be  forced  out  by  the  action  of  the  water.  All 
curves  and  angles  should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  as  they  are  the  places  where  obstructions 
will  be  liable  to  occur. 

Depth  of  Drains* — The  best  English  authorities  advise  that  the  drains  should  not  be 
less  than  four  feet  in  depth,  and  that  even  a  greater  depth  may  be  desirable;  it  depends  mainly 
upon  the  subsoil ;  but  they  are  often  made  very  serviceable  at  a  less  depth.  Sometimes  a 
seam  of  gravel  or  other  porous  material,  charged  with  water,  may  be  fovmd  underlying  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  ground  at  a  greater  depth  than  four  feet,  and  this  may  render  it 
necessary  to  dig  the  drain  sufficiently  deep  to  reach  that  seam.  When  such,  or  similar  cases 
occur,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  drains  quite  deep,  as  they  wiU  perform  more  efiicient  service 
in  draining  the  whole  area  under  which  this  strata  extends,  than  shallow  ones  placed  nearer 
together.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that  drains  three  feet  deep,  at  forty  feet  apart, 
are  not  so  effective  as  those  at  five  feet  deep  and  fifty  feet  apart.  The  depth  necessary  to  lay 
the  tiles  will  depend  much  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil.  As  a  general  rule,  it  will 
cost  as  much  to  dig  the  fourth  foot  as  the  other  three,  and  if  the  conditions  are  such  that  the 
benefits  arising  from  the  greater  depth  will  more  than  counterbalance  the  increased  expense, 
it  will  be  advisable  to  increase  to  the  fourth  or  even  fifth  foot  in  depth.  The  farmer  must 
take  into  consideration  the  various  conditions  of  soil,  and  be  his  own  judge  in  this 
respect.  Many  writers  advocate  three  feet,  and  some  even  two  and  a  half  feet,  as  sufficient 
for  all  practical  purposes  in  most  soils;  but  we  prefer,  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  depth  be  four 
feet.     Prof.  Shattuck  expresses  the  following  opinion  in  the  Drainage  Journal : — 

"They  must  be  deep  enough  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  frost;  they  must  give  sufBcient 
room  for  the  roots  of  plants  above  the  watec-table,  because  of  the  evil  effects  of  stagnant 
water  and  the  intrusion  of  roots;  deep  enough  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  water  arising  in 
the  soil  from  the  force  of  attraction,  or  at  least  to  reduce  it  to  a  small  amount.  Experiments 
show  that  capillary  attraction  operates  with  considerable  power  at  eighteen  inches.  They , 
have  also  shown  that  water  coming  from  a  thirty-inch  drain  is  two  or  three  degrees  colder 
than  that  taken  from  a  depth  of  four  feet,  and  that  this  is  a  little  cooler  than  that  from  a 
greater  depth.  We  must  draw  the  conclusion  that  evaporation  has  considerable  effect  at 
thirty  inches.  Four  feet,  then,  seems  to  be  the  standard  minimum  depth;  it  cannot  always 
be  had,  but  better  go  deeper  than  not  so  deep,  when  possible. 

The  above  statement  is  mainly  in  reference  to  the  requirements  of  the  crop  to  be  grown. 
I  admit  that  depth  and  distance  between  drains  should  bear  a  relation  to  each  other,  that  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  is  an  important  factor  in  the  question.  I  give  the  above 
as  a  general  guide.  There  is  a  feeling  with  many  that  thirty  inches,  or  three  feet  in  depth, 
is  sufficient.  I  know  that  drains  at  those  depths  will  do  good  service,  but  I  believe  one  at 
four  feet  will,  as  a  rule,  do  better.     Theory  indicates  this  and  practice  confirms  it. 

Of  two  drains  at  different  depths,  the  deeper  one  acts  first,  and  with  far  more  effect;  but 
the  greater  expense  is  objected  to,  though  without  sufiicient  reason  in  many  cases,  it  seems  to 
me.  The  tiles  cost  the  same  in  either  case,  and,  from  my  standpoint,  the  additional  labor  of 
the  deeper  one  is  of  little  account  to  the  general  farmer.  I  venture  to  say  that  the 
majority  of  Western  farmers  are  unemployed  one-half  of  the  time  during  three  or  more 
months  of  the  year,  and  at  that  season  when  the  work  of  drainage  could  go  on  with  the 
least  interruption  to  farm  culture. 

The  labor  of  the  farmer  is  an  important  part  of  his  capital,  and  with  proper  management 


134 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


it  will  not  grow  less  by  use.  The  improvement  of  the  farm  by  drainage  should  be  a  part  of 
the  regular  work  of  each  season;  when  thus  carried  out,  it  is  not  the  burden  that  many  make 
it,  in  order  that  the  work  of  years  may  be  put  into  one.  In  case  of  so-called  partial  drainage, 
the  depth  of  four  feet  is  even  more  strongly  recommended,  as  such  is  usually  made  with 
large-sized  tiles,  and  it  should  be,  with  the  view  of  making  in  the  future  the  drain's  main,  or  of 
a  system,  at  least,  of  getting  the  greatest  benefit  from  them." 

Scarcely  any  person  whose  experience  and  judgment  are  of  value  in  successful  agricul- 
ture, would  think  of  laying  tiles  at  a  less  depth  than  three  feet,  while,  comparatively  speaking, 
those  soils  of  clay  or  loam  having  a  clay  subsoil  will  receive  so  much  additional  benefit  from 
a  greater  depth  than  this,  that  we  might  almost  say,  no  man  can  afford  to  place  his  tiles  at  a 
less  depth  than  four  feet.  As  draining  is  generally  an  expensive  operation,  it  should  be  done 
with  care,  and  with  a  \-iew  to  permanency.  If  this  is  done,  the  work  will  remain  as  long  as 
the  tiles  will  last,  which,  if  they  are  of  the  proper  kind,  will  be  a  very  long  time.  Waring, 
as  well  as  many  others  of  our  best  writers  on  the  system  of  drainage,  states  that  tiles  are 
much  cheaper  than  stone  drains,  and  by  far  more  durable,  being  less  liable  to  fill  up  with 
sand,  mud,  or  other  obstructions.  In  constructing  the  drain,  it  is  important  that  the  bottom 
of  the  trench  be  cut  out  just  wide  enough  to  admit  the  pipe,  and  no  more,  as  tiles  fitted  ia 
that  way  are  less  liable  to  becctoe  displaced  than  if  it  were  cut  too  large  and  again  filled  up 
with  loose  earth.  Various  kinds  of  draining-tools  have  been  invented  for  this  purpose,  such 
as  trench-plows,  long,  tapering  spades  for  digging  out  the  middle  and  bottom  of  the  trenches, 
recurved  scoops  for  removing  the  earth,  and  pipe-layers,  by  means  of  which  a  workman  can 
hook  up  a  pipe  and  collar  and  put  them  in  place  in  the  trench  while  standing  on  the  margin 
of  the  drain.  "When  the  bottom  of  the  trench  is  clay  or  hard  gravel,  with  a  desirable  grade, 
there  is  no  trouble  in  placing  the  tile;  but  when  the  bottom  is  sandy,  peaty,  or  soft,  it  will  be 
found  advantageous  to  put  strips  of  rough  boards  at  the  bottom  to  place  the  tiles  on,  and 
prevent  them  from  setthng  beyond  the  common  depth  and  becoming  displaced. 

Size  and  Kind  of  Tile  for  Drainage^  etc.  —  In  the  selection  of  tiles  for  the 
mains  as  well  as  the  tributaries,  it  is  important  that  they  be  of  sufficient  size  to  take  the  water 
as  fast  as  the  soil  can  furnish  it  in  hea\'y  rains.  The  mains  had  better  be  too  large  than  too 
small,  as  economy  here  will  prove  poor  economy  in  the  end.  It  is  often  surprising  to  see  how 
soon,  in  a  shower,  the  water  will  percolate  through  the  soil,  be  collected  by  the  laterals,  and 
reach  the  mains,  and  how  perfectly  the  system  of  drainage  works,  when  everything  is  con- 
structed properly.  Considerable  expense  may  be  saved  by  having  the  upper  portion  of  the 
mains  smaller,  and  the  size  increased  as  the  surface  from  which  it  receives  the  water  is 
increased.  It  is  estimated  that  a  three-inch  main  will  answer  a  good  purpose  until  it  has 
received  the  water  from  the  laterals  of  two  acres,  then  add  a  four  inch  to  receive  the  water 
until  four  acres  are  drained,  a  five  inch  up  to  six  acres,  and  so  on. 

The  rule  to  find  how  many  acres  a  given  main  will  drain,  by  squaring  its  diameter,  thus, 
— a  3-inch  main  will  drain  9  acres  ;  a  4-inch.  16  acres,  a  5-inch  25  acres,  etc.,  may  do  very 
well  for  some  purposes,  like  a  limited  range  of  sizes  of  tiles,  and  variations  in  grade  ;  but  to 
make  allowance  for  variable  and  heavy  rain  storms,  this  would  give  too  many  acres  for  the 
size  of  main.  Mr.  Chamberlain,  of  Ohio,  gives,  we  think,  a  better  and  safer  rule  to  follow,  in 
what  we  subjoin  : — 

For  sizes  from  3  to  6  inches,  and  grades  less  than  three  feet  to  the  100,  square  the  diam- 
eter and  divide  by  4.     Thus 

A  3-inch  main  will  drain  2\  acres.  A  5-inch  main  will  drain  6^  acres. 

4        do.  do.        4      do.  6        do.  do.         9      do. 

For  heavier  grades  it  may  do  to  divide  by  3.     Thus 

A  3-inch  main  will  drain  3    acres.  A  5-inch  main  will  drain  8^  acres. 

4        do.  do,        5^    do.  6       do.  do.      12      do. 


DRAINAGE.  135 

But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  steeper  the  grade  the  greater  the  danger  of  sur- 
face wash,  which  often  causes  great  loss  of  manure,  and  even  of  soil  itself. 

As  to  the  proper  size  of  tiles  to  use,  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  rule  that  will  apply  to  all  cases, 
so  many  considerations  having  to  be  taken  mto  account  ;  but,  as  we  have  previously  stated, 
it  is  safer  to  have  the  mains  and  laterals  larger  than  necessary,  rather  than  too  small.  For 
this  reason  we  should  feel  more  inclined  to  follow  Mr.  Chamberlain's  rule  than  the  one  pre- 
viously given,  and  commonly  applied,  but  which  will  not  meet  the  requirements  of  all  cases. 
A  two-inch  pipe  tile  is  largely  used  for  laterals.  By  using  such  small  tiles  they  can  be  placed 
nearer  together  than  more  remote  larger  ones,  at  no  greater  expense,  hence  better  drainage 
can  be  secured  at  the  same  expense,  by  their  use. 

Among  the  various  kinds  of  tile  manufactured  and  in  use,  the  round  tile  seems  to  be 
most  in  favor.  In  many  sections  tiles  round  inside  and  octagonal  externally  are  quite  popu- 
lar, while  others  still  prefer  the  sole  tile  and  other  varieties.  Cylindrical  pipes  with  collars 
are  considered  the  best  by  English  authorities  ;  the  collars  being  simply  short  pieces  of  pipe 
just  wide  enough  in  diameter  to  admit  freely  the  smaller  pipes  that  form  the  drain  ;  hence, 
in  use,  one  of  these  collars  is  so  placed  as  to  receive  and  hold  the  end  of  each  tube  where 
they  join,  keeping  them  in  position  to  form  a  continuous  canal  for  the  free  passage  of  water, 
and  guarding  against  the  entrance  of  mud,  sand,  vermin,  or  other  obstructions.  These  joints, 
which  are  frequent,  also  admit  the  water  furnished  by  the  soil.  It  may  seem  almost  impossible 
that  lands  could  be  drained  by  the  water  entering  only  at  these  joints  in  the  tiles  thus  laid,  but 
it  is  proven  to  be  a  faet  ;  water  will  find  its  way  to  such  places  in  the  drains  and  make  them 
the  permanent  places  for  reaching  eventually  the  mains,  and  it  is  surprising  to  see  how  soon 
after  a  rain  commences  these  mains  will  begin  to  discharge  their  contents  received  from  the 
laterals,  and  often  to  their  fullest  capacity. 

Hard-burnt  tiles  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose  ;  those  having  any  defect  whatever 
should  be  discarded.  They  should  be  carefully  examined  before  being  laid,  and  whenever 
there  is  found  one  with  a  lump  of  unslacked  lime,  or  lime  pebbles,  or  any  small  hole,  it  should 
not  be  used.  To  determine  whether  there  is  unslacked  lime  in  the  tile,  immerse  it  in  water 
and  allow  it  to  remain  until  thoroughly  soaked  through  ;  if  it  contains  lime  it  will  break.  The 
breakage  of  such  a  tile  when  placed  and  covered  by  the  soil  might  make  an  obstruction  that 
would  cause  days  of  labor  and  expense  to  find  and  repair.  Waring  advises  that  each  tile  be 
examined  by  a  stroke  from  a  hammer,  and  every  one  be  rejected  that  does  not  give  a  clear 
metallic  ring.  Mr.  Chamberlain,  previously  referred  to,  recommends  the  glazed  tiles  as  most 
desirable,  and  describes  them  as  follows  : — 

"  They  are  made  of  fire  clay  or  second  quality  potter's  clay,  like  that  used  for  sewer  pipes, 
burnt  hard  and  glazed.  They  are  about  as  dark  colored  and  smooth  as  a  'little  brown  jug,' 
and  seem  likely  to  be  as  durable.     They  are  the  only  kind  I  shall  use  hereafter. 

I  think  tiles  made  of  ordinary  brick  clay  are  hable  to  soften  and  crumble  and  decay,  cer- 
tainly if  exposed  to  frost.  After  the  first  job  of  draining  1  did,  I  had  a  few  of  these  red 
brick  tiles  left.  They  lay  on  the  ground  through  one  of  our  changeable  winters,  and  the  com- 
bined action  of  moisture  and  frost  crumbled  most  of  them  to  pieces.  And  unless  burnt  very 
hard  indeed,  I  should  fear  the  same  result  in  time,  even  when  laid  below  frost,  for  we  have 
noticed  that  in  a  mass  of  brick,  even  buried  in  the  ground,  all  the  soft  ones  will  crumble  in 
time,  even  without  the  action  of  frost.  But  with  the  hard,  glazed  tiles  I  now  use,  with  their 
clear  metalUc  ring,  and  their  glazed  surface  inside  and  out,  impervious  to  water,  crumbling 
and  dissolution  seem  impossible.  I  have  tested  them  very  thoroughly  in  moisture  and  frost 
two  winters,  in  small  heaps  above  ground  ;  and  I  do  not  see  but  that  they  are  likely  to  last  as 
long  as  a  broken  bit  of  a  glazed  jug,  or  some  of  the  broken  tiles  or  bricks  of  ancient  cities, 
unearthed  after  centuries  of  oblivion. 

Now  this  seems  to  me  an  important  matter.     Drainage,  if  properly  executed,  is  a  perma- 


136  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

nent  improvement.  It  is  so  regarded  by  the  English  laws  authorizing  government  loans  in 
aid  of  drainage,  and  permitting  drainage  to  be  charged  for  gradual  payment  to  estates  which 
could  not  otherwise  be  burdened  with  debt  under  the  laws  of  the  entail.  If  every  tile  is  perfect 
and  the  work  done  thoroughly  and  well,  and  the  outlets  properly  constructed  and  kept  clear, 
I  see  no  reason  why  drains  should  not  remain  perfect  for  generations  and  centuries." 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  place  tiles  from  25  to  40  feet  apart,  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  soil  to  be  drained.  If  very  wet,  and  the  amount  of  water  to  be  discharged  be  great,  it 
might  be  necessary  to  place  them  nearer  than  25  feet.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  have  the 
trenches  dug  long  before  the  tiles  are  laid,  as  they  are  apt  to  cave  in,  especially  in  cold,  frosty 
weather.  If  the  work  is  done  in  winter,  it  may  be  facihtated  by  removing  the  sod  in  the  fall 
and  plowing  frequently  the  bottom  of  the  ditches  to  keep  them  from  freezing;  as  fast  as  the 
trenches  are  dug  to  the  proper  grade,  the  tile  should  be  laid  and  covered,  remembering  that 
it  is  very  important  that  the  grade  be  such  as  to  give  the  drains  a  continuous  fall  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  obstructions  in  the  pipe,  or  the  water  standing.  "Wliere  collars  are  not 
used,  the  pipes  are  often  secui'ed  against  displacement  by  two  small  flat  stones  placed  like  an 
inverted  letter  V  (in  this  form  A)  against  the  joints. 

Where  there  is  a  good  fall,  sand  or  mud  will  not  be  as  liable  to  obstruct  the  drain,  as  it 
is  more  readily  washed  out  by  the  swifter  current  of  water,  but  where  the  land  is  nearly  level, 
with  but  slight  fall,  obstructions  will  more  readily  accumulate,  hence  in  such  cases  it  is  often 
necessary  that  great  care  be  taken  to  pack  the  joints  well  with  clay  to  prevent  the 
sand  entering  and  forming  an  obstruction.  This  is  done  by  putting  directly  upon  the  joints 
of  the  tiles  the  finest,  most  compact  and  clayey  soil  that  can  be  found,  and  which  does  not 
contain  any  perceptible  vegetable  matter  whatever,  such  as  leaves,  grass,  straw,  or  humus, — 
nothing  but  the  hard,  clayey  soil.  This  should  be  put  in  to  the  depth  of  seven  or  eight  inches 
and  then  careftilly  beaten  down  around  the  tiles  to  hold  them  perfectly  in  place.  Mr.  Waring 
says,  that  he  believes  this  one  operation  has  more  to  do  with  the  permanence  of  a  well- 
laid  tile  drain  than  any  other  one  part  of  the  work.  As  fast  as  the  tiles  are  laid  and  joints 
properly  secured  in  place,  the  ditch  can  be  filled  up  with  a  plow  or  scraper,  or  in  any  other 
way,  as  is  found  most  convenient  and  economical. 

Stone  Drains  come  next  to  tile  in  value  for  drainage  purposes,  but  are  more  expensive 
in  the  end  than  tiles,  even  where  there  is  a  supply  of  stone  on  the  farm  to  be  disposed  of.  The 
labor  of  making  a  stone  drain  is  much  greater  than  laying  tiles,  and  the  process  a  slow  one, 
while  they  are  very  apt  to  fill  up  with  sand  and  mud  or  other  obstructions,  and  do  not  dis- 
charge the  water  as  readily  as  tile  drains.  With  great  care  they  can  be  made  serviceable  for 
years,  and  it  may  sometimes  prove  a  good  way  to  dispose  of  the  surplus  stones  on  the  farm, 
where  tiles  are  not  easily  procurable,  but  as  a  general  rule,  we  would  advise  that  tiles  be  used 
by  all  means  and  the  work  be  well  done,  with  a  view  to  permanency.  Mr.  Waring  says  that 
providing  the  stones  were  deHvered  free  of  cost  on  the  bank  of  a  ditch,  the  stone  drain  would 
be  more  expensive  than  tile,  and  that  where  plenty  of  stones  are  on  the  ground  for  making 
the  drain,  it  will  be  easier  and  cheaper  to  cart  them  off  and  put  them  by  the  side  of  the  road, 
or  dig  a  wide  deep  ditch  and  throw  them  into  it  to  dispose  of  them  and  use  tile,  rather  than 
to  utOize  the  stones  for  drainage  purposes,  he  having  tried  both  methods.  Dr.  Loring,  Com- 
missioner of  Agriculture,  states  that  he  has  both  tile  and  stone  drains  on  his  farm  ;  that  the 
tile  drains  were  laid  in  1857  and  the  stone  drains  in  1861,  and  that  there  is  not  a  stone  drain 
open  to-day,  while  there  is  not  a  tile  drain  that  is  obstructed,  all  being  in  good  order.  Farmers 
who  have  had  practical  experience  with  both  stone  and  tiles  almost  invariably  prefer  tiles. 
The  labor  of  getting  together  and  selecting  suitable  stones  for  the  purpose  involves  much  time 
and  expense,  while  with  the  greatest  care  they  cannot  be  made  as  close  and  free  from  obstruc- 
tions or  as  serviceable  as  tiles,  and  the  current  is  never  strong  enough  in  them  to  remove 
obstruction  as  it  does  in  tile  drains.    The  labor  and  expense  of  digging  the  trench  for  stone  is 


DRAINAGE.  137 

also  much  greater  than  the  former  ;  hence  tiles  are  not  only  better  for  the  purpose,but  cheaper. 
Where  the  soil  is  very  wet,  a  complete  system  of  drainage  could  not  well  be  established  by 
tlici  use  of  stone  drains  ;  but  where  a  partial  drainage  only  is  requii-ed.  and  the  fanner  may  be 
so  circumstanced  that  he  cannot  well  procure  the  tiles,  stone  may  be  utilized  for  the  purpose. 
There  are  various  methods  of  making  stone  drains.  Formerly  drains  were  often  made  by  dig- 
ging a  trench  about  three  or  four  feet  deep  and  then  filling  it  to  within  twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
of  the  surface  with  stones,  covering  the  whole  with  flat  stones  to  keep  out  the  earth,  before 
fiUing  in  the  soil,  thus  furnishing  a  means  for  the  water  to  escape  by  working  its  way  between 
the  stones;  but  this  method  is  rarely  employed  at  present.  Another  method  is  to  put  small 
stones  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  inches  ;  line  one  side  of  the 
trench  with  flat  stones,  and  by  placing  long,  flat  stones  against  the  opposite  side  on  the  pebbles 
or  small  stones  forming  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  and  leaning  the  top  of  them  against  the  top 
of  the  stones  forming  the  lining,  an  opening  or  throat  will  be  formed  through  which  the  water 
will  find  a  passage  ;  the  top  will,  of  course,  be  covered  with  fiat  stones,  followed  by  coarse 
gravel  before  covering  with  soil, — in  order  to  prevent  the  earth  falling  or  washing  in  between 
the  chinks  of  the  stones  and  obstructing  the  passage.  Some  care  will  be  necessary  in 
making  any  stone  drain,  to  fill  up  all  the  little  openings  with  smaller  stones,  as  far  as  possible, 
as  the  earth  will  be  very  liable  to  wash  in  and  obstruct  the  water  if  this  is  not  done.  The 
best  form  of  stone  drain  is  to  make  the  sides  of  the  ditch  slanting  and  place  the  stones  at  the 
sides  for  a  lining  so  as  to  form  an  acute  angle  at  the  bottom,  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  V,  and 
cover  the  top  with  fiat  stones,  the  opening  thus  formed  to  be  triangular.  Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  filling  up  the  trench  above  in  such  a  manner  that  the  sand  cannot  find  its  way 
into  it.  It  is  also  important  that  the  water  have  as  much  fall  as  practicable,  which  will  facili- 
tate the  drainage.  As  we  have  previously  stated,  such  drains  are  much  more  expensive,  owing 
to  the  labor  and  expense  of  constructing,  and  also  less  effective  than  tile,  but  are  the  best  sub- 
stitute for  tile  drains  that  are  known.  In  all  kinds  of  drains,  a  free  outlet  should  be  fm-nished 
for  the  water  to  escape.  Open  ditches  closed  at  the  end  with  standing  water  in  them  are  not  a 
very  effectual  means  of  draining  lands;  the  water  should  always  have  some  means  of  escape 
by  a  proper  outlet. 

Plank  Drains. — Planks  or  heavy  boards  are  sometimes  used  for  making  drains,  and  if 
properly  laid  will  last  many  years,  especially  where  they  are  kept  constantly  wet  ;  but  we 
would  not  recommend  them  for  this  purpose;  since  the  labor  and  cost  of  draining  is  so  great, 
more  durable  material  should  be  used. 

Turf  Drains. — The  same  could  be  said  of  turf  drains  with  respect  to  their  durability. 
They  are  constructed  by  making  the  sides  of  the  trench  very  slanting,  and  fitting  in  a  piece  of 
turf  for  a  covering  of  sufficient  size  to  go  within  a  few  inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  with- 
out settling  into  it.  This  forms  a  drain  that  is  not  at  all  durable,  being  very  liable  to  fill  up 
by  the  falling  in  of  the  turf  covering,  or  caving  in  at  the  sides.  Brush  and  rails  used  in  the 
construction  of  drains  have  so  long  been  in  disuse  that  they  have  become  among  the  obsolete 
things  and  scarcely  require  comment  here.  They  were  first  made  use  of  in  the  progressive 
steps  towards  improvement  in  drainage,  from  the  open  ditches,  which  are  such  a  nuisance  on 
the  farm, — and  have  long  since  given  place,  among  our  best  farmers,  to  the  more  complete  and 
perfect  system  of  tile  drainage. 

The  Mole  Plow  was  for  a  time  deemed  a  great  convenience  in  drainage,  but  experi- 
ence proved  that  it  would  not  work  except  in  a  subsoil  quite  uniform  and  entirely  free  from 
stones,  and  that  it  would  only  do  good  work  in  the  strong  clay  soils,  wliile  even  then  the 
trenches  soon  filled  up  with  earth,  so  that  no  permanent  results  could  be  accomplished  by  it. 
It  can  only  be  used  as  a  temporaiy  means  of  drainage,  and  to  do  service  until  a.  more  complete 
system  can  be  adopted. 


138  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

Open  Ditches  for  draining  are  very  objectionable,  since  they  are  so  liable  to  cave  in 
at  the  sides  and  fill  up  with  the  mud  that  is  washed  into  them,  and  by  the  treading  of  cattle 
over  them,  that  they  prove  only  a  temporary  means  of  drainage.  They  also  require  consid- 
erable land,  as  teams  cannot  be  driven  near  their  sides,  in  plowing  or  harrowing,  while  with 
the  use  of  tiles  no  land  whatever  is  rendered  useless. 

In  crossing  them  with  teams,  bridges  are  required,  causing  considerable  trouble  and 
expense  in  constructing,  or  subjecting  the  farmer  to  great  inconvenience  without  them. 
Besides  these  objections,  open  ditches  with  standing  water  are  unhealthy,  and  are  often  the 
cause  of  disease  in  those  sections  where  used.  The  digging  of  such  trenches  is  also  attended 
with  considerable  labor  and  expense.  The  soU  removed  from  them  is,  however,  often  valu- 
able for  mixing  with  manure,  and  when  dried,  for  bedding  for  stables  and  hog  pens,  since  it  con- 
tains more  or  less  of  the  fertOizing  properties,  and  forms  a  good  compost  with  both  the  Uquid 
and  solid  substances  from  these  sources. 

Furrow  Draining,  which  consists  of  cultivating  the  land  in  ridges  or  furrows,  by 
plowing  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  open  furrows  for  drainage  purposes  between  the  ridges 
of  earth,  and  planting  on  the  top  of  each  ridge,  was  formerly  practiced  in  England  and  other 
portions  of  Europe  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  has  generally  been  superseded  for  the  most 
part  by  under-draining. 

It  requires  considerable  labor  to  prepare  the  land  in  this  manner,  and  also  a  large 
area  of  surface  to  make  it  practicable,  besides  not  being  a  very  efficient  method,  is  conse- 
quently not  to  be  recommended  when  other  and  better  means  can  be  employed. 

Hon.  C.  C.  Andrews,  in  referring  to  the  peculiar  rigid  appearance  of  the  wheat  fields  in 
some  portions  of  Italy,  says  that  this  formation  comes  from  plowing  with  a  view  to  drain, 
ing.  The  furrows  are  turned  so  that  with  the  subsequent  harrowing,  and  use  of  a  wooden 
smoother,  the  ground  is  left  in  oval  ridges  or  beds  a  foot  high,  and  from  2  to  3  feet  wide. 
The  ditch  between  is  scarcely  wide  enough  to  place  the  foot.  What  is  striking  about  the 
ridges,  is  their  remarkable  regularity  and  precision.  Occasionally,  however,  and  apparently 
on  the  better-cultivated  farms,  the  drains  are  in  some  cases  10  feet,  in  others  30  feet,  apart — 
the  plowing  in  such  case  being  done  as  in  the  country  north  of  the  Alps. 

These  ridges  are  usually  formed  by  turning  two  furrows  together  from  opposite  direc- 
tions, which  gives  the  field  a  very  uniform  appearance.  As  we  have  previously  stated,  the 
most  effectual  method  of  draining  lands  is  by  the  use  of  tiles,  and  will  be  found,  all  things 
considered,  the  most  permanent,  economical,  and  satisfactoiy  means  that  can  be  employed  for 
this  purpose. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

GRASSES,  or  plants  constituting  the  order  Gramineae,  are  distributed  over  the  entire 
earth  and  constitute  one  of  the  largest  orders  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  This  order 
includes  all  the  cereals  of  temperate  climates,  together  with  the  grains  of  the  warmer 
zones,  and  the  bamboos  of  India  and  America — many  of  which  have  columnar  stems  reach- 
ing to  the  height  of  forest  trees — yet  are  all  formed  on  a  common  type,  and  therefore  belong 
to  th^  same  botanical  order  as  the  tiniest  spear  of  grass  beneath  our  feet. 

The  seeds  of  many  of  the  varieties  and  the  nutrition  of  the  herbage,  form  the  chief  por- 
tion of  the  sustenance  of  mankind,  and  the  more  valuable  of  the  domestic  animals.  Among 
these  are  wheat,  rye,  maize  or  Indian  corn,  barley,  oats,  rice,  sugar-cane,  sorghum,  broom- 
corn,  miUet,  etc.,  while  the  bamboo  is  indispensable  to  the  natives  of  India  in  the  construction 
of  their  dweUings,  the  making  of  mats,  cordage,  boats,  sails,  masts,  rafts,  and  even  musical 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS. 
(Poa  pratensis.) 


\s\wcx 


FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS. 
(Poa  serotina.) 


140 


TEXAS   MILLET 
(Panicum  Texanum.) 


141 


^(i.THi'Vli 


MOUNTAIN  RED  TOP-NORTHERN  RED  TOP. 

(Agi-ostis  exarata.) 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  143 

instruments  and  weapons.  A  large  number  of  grasses,  however,  seem  to  have  little  or  no 
agricultural  value,  and,  to  all  appearance,  are  but  little  better  than  weeds  on  a  farm,  causing 
the  farmer  considerable  labor  and  annoyance  in  keeping  his  lands  clear  of  them.  There  are 
also  probably  many  valuable  species  of  native  grasses  growing  wiid  in  different  sections  of 
our  country,  now  regarded  as  Uttle  better  than  worthless  weeds,  which  when  fully  tested  may 
be  found  to  be  of  great  agricultural  value.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  within  a  few 
years  past  made  special  efforts  in  a.scertaining  the  real  value  of  some  of  these  wild 
grasses,  the  results  of  which  investigations  have  been,  in  a  measure,  successful;  but  thus  far 
these  experiments  have  been  carried  on  in  this  country  to  only  a  limited  extent.  The 
English  are  far  in  advance  of  us  in  this  respect,  the  most  careful  experiments  there  being 
made  with  reference  to  the  value  of  the  various  grasses  for  different  soils,  situations,  and  cli- 
mate, as  well  as  in  relation  to  their  value  as  to  the  season,  etc. 

There  are  over  two  hundred  varieties  of  grasses  cultivated  in  England  for  the  use  of 
domestic  animals,  while  in  our  own  country  the  number  of  cultivated  grasses  is  very  much 
less,  although  there  is  probably  no  country  on  the  entire  globe  that  possesses  so  many  varie- 
ties of  native  grasses.  A  few  years  in  advance  of  the  present  will  doubtless  show  great 
improvement  in  this  department  of  our  agriculture,  and  the  proper  tests  afforded  by  science 
and  experience,  will  acquaint  us  with  the  true  value  of  many  varieties,  now  almost  imknown. 

What  render  grasses  so  peculiarly  nutritious,  and  hence  valuable  to  agriculture,  are  the 
large  proportions  of  sugar,  starch,  fatty  matter,  albumen,  and  fibrine  contained,  not  only  in 
the  seeds,  but  also  in  the  stems,  leaves,  and  joints  of  grass  before  the  seeds  are  fully 
matured. 

The  importance  of  grasses,  in  all  systems  of  agriculture,  can  scarely  be  over-estimated.  In 
fact,  the  proportion  of  meadow  and  pasture  lands  in  any  region  is  regarded  as  a  good  crite- 
'  rion  of  the  agriciiltural  wealth  of  that  region. 

"Wherever  the  importance  of  the  grass  crop  has  been  overlooked  in  the  desire  to  realize 
immediate  results  from  special  crops,  the  consequence  has  generally  been  an  impoverished 
soil,  and  an  impoverished  people;  while  the  fanner  with  an  abundance  of  pasturage  and 
meadow  lands,  has  in  his  own  hands  and  under  his  own  control,  the  very  elements  of  wealth, 
which,  if  judiciously  employed,  cannot  fail  of  good  in  the  result. 

It  is  not  to  any  one  species  of  grass,  or  a  few  species  only,  that  we  should  depend  upon 
for  the  sustenance  of  our  stock,  but  the  many  species  intermingled,  each  doing  its  part  in  the 
g^reat  economy  of  nature, — some  starting  and  maturing  early,  others  late;  some  preferring 
low,  wet  localities,  others  only  dry  soils;  some  seeking  the  shaded  situations  for  growth, 
others  the  most  exposed  localities,  such  as  the  broad  open  prauies  of  the  West,  or  the 
savannas  of  the  South.  Some  will  grow  only  in  the  water,  others  only  along  the  margin  of 
lakes  and  rivers;  some  only  in  fresh  water,  others  only  in  salt  water.  Thus  we  have  grasses 
suited  to  every  section  and  condition,  eveiy  soil  and  climate,  from  one  portion  of  the  conti- 
nent to  the  other,  and  no  creation  in  the  vegetable  world,  or  any  other  department  of  nature's 
vast  laboratory,  will  be  found  in  vain  or  useless,  however  man  may  regard  it. 

The  great  error  in  New  England  farming  has  formerly  been  the  practice  of  stinting  or 
robbing  the  grass  lands  to  feed  the  hoed  crops  and  the  arable  lands.  Although  there  is  at 
present  a  great  improvement  in  this  respect  over  the  old-time  method,  still  the  practice  is  not 
wholly  discarded,  and  more  attention  should  bo  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  grass  crop  than 
is  common  in  many  sections. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  department,  embracing  the  description,  cultivation,  and 
relative  value  of  the  different  grasses,  is  taken  from  "  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants,"  of  which 
the  editor  of  this  volume  is  the  author. 

As  the  general  appearance  of  plants  is  often  greatly  modified  by  climate,  soil,  and  modes 
of  cultivation,  it  is  important  to  fix  upon  certain  characteristics  which  are  permanent  and 


144 


THE  AMERICAN   FARMER. 


unaltered  by  circumstances,  by  means  of  which  the  particular  genus  and  species  may  be  identified 
with  ease  and  certainty.  It  is  evident  that  these  characteristics  could  not  be  simply  in  the 
leaves,  or  the  stems,  or  the  size  of  the  plant,  because  there  will  be  a  great  difference  between 
plants  growing  in  a  poor,  thin,  sandy  soil,  and  others  of  the  same  species  on  a  deep,  rich 
loam.  Botanists  have,  therefore,  been  compelled  to  resort  to  other  peculiarities  to  distin- 
guish between  different  species;  and  the  terms  used  to  express  these,  like  the  terms  used  in 
other  departments  of  natural  history,  are  technical;  and  hence,  in  detailing  the  natural  history 
of  the  grasses,  the  use  of  technical  language  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  cannot  be  avoided. 

The  flowers  of  the  grasses  are  arranged  on  the  stem  in  spikes,  as  where  they  are  set  on 
a  common  stalk  without  small  stalks  or  branches  for  each  separate  flower,  as  in  herds-grass 
(Phleum  pratense),  or  in  panicles,  or  loose  subdivided  clusters,  as  in  orchard  grass  {Dactylic 
glomerala).  A  panicle  is  said  to  be  loose  or  spreading,  as  in  redtop  (Aijrostis  vulgaris),  when 
the  small  branches  on  which  the  flowers  are  set,  are  open,  or  extended  out  freely  in  different 
directions;  it  is  said  to  be  dense,  or  crowded  or  compressed,  when  the  branches  are  so  short 
as  to  give  it  more  or  less  of  the  spike  form. 

In  different  parts  of  the  country  a  great  variety  of  grasses  are  known  by  different  com- 
mon names, — the  same  name  being  frequently  applied  to  grasses  entirely  different  from  each 
other;  or,  a  single  plant  may  be  known  by  several  different  names,  which  occasions  no  little 
confusion  where  the  common  or  local  name  is  wholly  depended  upon  to  distinguish  one  vari- 
ety from  the  other;  for  instance,  the  grass  that  is  commonly  called  "  cat's  tail "  in  England, 
is  known  as  timothy  in  some  sections  of  this  country,  and  herds-grass  in  others;  and  that 
which  is  called  red-top  in  one  locality,  is  known  as  herds-grass  in  another,  and  by  the  various 
terms  of  Burdin's  grass,  red  bent  grass,  summer  dew  grass,  small  red-top,  fine  red-top,  and 
fowl  meadow  grass  in  others.  "What  is  commonly  called  blue  grass  in  one  locality,  is  known 
as  green  grass  in  another,  etc.;  so  that  it  is  evident  that  were  the  common  name  to  be 
depended  upon  alone,  in  distinguishing  one  variety  from  another,  considerable  difficulty  would 
be  involved  in  arriving  at  a  correct  understanding  as  to  which  species  is  meant.  And  when 
we  take  into  further  consideration  the  fact  of  the  close  resemblance  of  many  of  the  different 
species  of  grasses,  especially  to  a  person  inexperienced  in  distinguishing  one  from  another, 
the  subject  becomes  a  more  puzzling  one  still,  and  it  could  hardly  be  expected  that  a  correct 
understanding  could  be  arrived  at,  when  depending  entirely  upon  the  common  or  local  name. 
We  therefore  see  the  necessity  of  the  use  of  the  Latin  name  of  the  species,  and  when  this  is 
once  known,  there  is  no  further  difficulty  in  this  respect,  since  the  same  Latin  or  scientific 
name  is  never  apphed  to  but  one  of  a  species. 

The  description  of  the  obnoxious  or  worthless  grasses  here  given,  will  also  be  of  use  to 
the  farmer  in  enabling  him  to  recognize  them  when  found,  and  hence,  to  take  measures  for 
their  extermination. 

Tiinotliy,  or  Herds-Grass  (Phleum pratense).  Generic  characters:  Panicle  spiked, 
spikelets  compressed,  palea  shorter  than  the  awned  glumes,  the  lower  one  truncate,  usually  awn- 
less;  styles  distinct,  filaments  hairy,  spike  dense,  rough,  or  harsh.  So  called  from  an  ancient 
Greek  term  signifying  cat's  tail,  the  name  by  which  it  is  still  most  frequently  known  in  Great 
Britain. 

Specific  characteristics:  Spikes  cylindrical  or  elongated;  glumes  hairy  on  the  back, 
tipped  with  a  bristle  less  than  half  their  length;  leaves  long,  flat,  rough,  with  long  sheaths; 
root  fibrous,  often  bulbous — perennial.  Grows  best  on  moist,  peaty  soils.  This  grass  is  uni- 
versally known  and  highly  valued.  It  is,  in  fact,  generally  considered  in  this  country  as  the 
best  grass  for  hay  that  can  be  produced.  It  is  commonly  grown  throughout  the  entire  North, 
and  flourishes  well  on  the  drained  lowlands  of  the  South.  It  is  said  to  have  received  its 
name  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  ago  from  one  Herd,  of  Piscataqua,  who  found  it  grow- 
ing in  a  swamp  there. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


145 


The  name  of  timothy,  by  which  it  is  more  generally  known  over  this  country  and  abroad, 
was  obtained  from  Timothy  Hanson,  who  cultivated  it  extensively,  and,  according  to  some 
accounts,  introduced  it  into  England,  from  whence  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
brought  to  this  country.    It  forms  a  large  proportion  of  what  is  called  English  hay. 

For  land  that  is  adapted  to  it,  there  is,  all  things  considered,  no  better  grass  than  timothy, 
and  it  is  probably  unsurpassed  for  hay  by  any  kind  now  cultivated.  If  allowed  to  stand  too 
long,  however,  it  will,  as  almost  every  farmer  knows,  become  hard  and 
woody,  and  its  nutritive  value  greatly  lessened,  yet  if  cut  when  in  bloom, 
it  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock, — especially  so  by  horses, — while  it 
possesses  a  large  percentage  of  nutritive  matter  in  comparison  with 
other  agricultural  grasses.  It  was  formerly  often  sown  with  clover, 
but  the  best  practical  farmers  have  discontinued  this  custom  on  account 
of  the  different  times  of  blossoming  of  the  two  crops;  since  timothy 
being  invariably  later  than  clover,  the  former  must  be  cut  too  green, 
before  blossoming,  when  the  loss  is  great  by  shrinkage,  and  when  the 
nutritive  matter  is  considerably  less  than  at  a  httle  later  period,  or 
the  clover  must  stand  too  long,  when  there  is  an  equally  serious  loss  of 
nutritious  matter  in  that.  It  grows  very  readily  and  yields  very  largo 
crops  on  favorable  soils.  We  have  known  instances  where  its  yield 
was  four  tons  to  the  acre  of  the  best  quality  of  hay,  the  timothy  con- 
stituting the  bulk  of  the  grass.  It  is  cultivated  with  ease,  and  yields 
a  large  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre,  varying  from  ten  to  thirty 
bushels  on  rich  soils.  This  grass  has  long  roots  which  extend  deep 
into  the  soil,  and  when  once  well  established,  it  will  withstand  drouth 
better  than  many  other  varieties.  When  a  good  growth  is  once  well 
started  on  a  mellow  surface-soil  overlaying  a  moist  subsoil,  this  cro]) 
is  quite  safe  against  any  ordinary  drouth.  It  only  requires  a  good 
start  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  occupy  and  protect  the  ground.  May  is 
the  best  month  for  the  grass  crop,  and  if  it  be  unusually  dry,  or 
cold  winds  prevail  then,  the  product  wiU  be  liable  to  be  affected 
accordingly;  but  such  grasses  as  have  a  good  soil,  and  deeply  penetrat- 
ing roots,  will  endure  without  permanent  injury,  the  effects  of  un- 
favorable weather  better  than  those  varieties  with  roots  lying  near 
the  surface,  as  they  can  draw  moisture  from  the  subsoil,  and  also 
passes  the  basis  for  a  good  crop  the  following  year. 

In  one  respect,  perhaps,  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  grass  is  in- 
ferior to  meadow  foxtail,  and  that  is,  in  the  quantity  of  its  aftermath ; 
for  while  that  of  the  latter  is  very  great,  the  aftergrowth  of  timothy 
is  but  slight,  and  if  allowed  to  stand  too  long  and  then  mown  in  a 
dry  time,  it  starts  so  slowly  as  to  leave  the  ground  exposed  to  the  timothy. 

scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  unless  there  happens  to  be  a  rapid  growth  of  clover  to  protect  it. 
It  is  frequently  attacked  by  an  insect,  apparently  just  before  the  time  of  blossoming,  which 
causes  the  stalk  to  die. 

When  pastured,  it  yields  abundantly  during  the  season,  starting  very  early  in  the  spring, 
and  is  greatly  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  It  may  be  sown  on  wheat  or  rye  in  August,  or 
later,  or  in  the  spring.  The  quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre  depends  largely  on  the  soil 
and  its  condition.  From  ten  to  fourteen  quarts  is  sufficient,  where  the  soil  is  fine  and  mellow, 
while  from  eighteen  to  twenty  might  be  required  in  heavy  clay,  when  sown  alone.  It  is  stated 
by  good  authority,  that  a  crop  of  pure  timothy  produced  three  tons  to  the  acre,  on  the  farm  of 
Mr.  George  Geddes,  near  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  also  that  Mr.  John  Fisher,  of  Carroll  Co.,  Md., 


146 


THE  A3IERICAX  FARMER 


cut  from  one  acre  five  tons  and  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty-two  pounds  of  dry  hay. 
The  proper  time  for  mowing  Timothy,  is  when  the  first  dry  appearance  is  seen  above  the  first 
joint;  if  mowed  earlier  than  this,  the  plant  is  injured;  if  left  to  a  later  period,  the  starch  and 
sugar  are  converted  into  indigestible  woody  fibre,  and  the  nitrogenous  compounds,  on  which 
its  value  chiefly  depends,  are  transferred  from  the  leaves  and  culm  to  the  seed,  which  mostly 
drop  out  before  they  reach  the  manger.  Timothy  is  not  well  adapted  to  hot  sands,  gravels, 
chalks,  nor  hard,  sterile  clays;  but  thrives  on  peaty,  damp  soils,  and  especially  on  most 
calcareous  loams,  where  it  exhibits  its  fullest  perfection. 

Meadow  Foxtail.  {Alopecwus  Pretmsis.) —  Generic  characteristics:  Spikelets,  one 
flowered,  glumes  compressed  and  keeled,  united  at  the  base,  lower  palea  awned  on  the  back, 
upper  palea  wanting,  stamens  three,  styles  generally  united,  stigmas  long,  panicle  compressed 
into  a  cylindrical  spike  like  the  tail  of  a  fox,  from  which  it  derives  its 
name.     Native  of  Great  Britain. 

The  specific  characters  are.  an  erect,  smooth  stem,  two  or  three  feet 
high,  with  swelhng  sheaths,  spikes  cylindrical,  obtuse,  equaling  the  sharp 
cone-like  glumes,  awn  twisted  and  twice  the  length  of  the  blossom.  The 
spike  not  so  long  as  that  of  Timothy.  Flowers  in  May,  in  fields  and 
pastures.     Perennial — introduced. 

The  meadow  foxtail  closely  resembles  Herds-grass,  but  may  be  distin- 
guished from  it  as  having  one  palea  only.  The  spike  or  head  of  meadow 
foxtail  is  soft,  while  that  of  Timothy  or  Herds-grass  is  rough.  It  flowers 
earlier  than  Timothy,  and  thrives  on  all  soils  except  the  dryest  sands  and 
gravels. 

It  is  valuable  grass  for  pastures,  on  account  of  its  early  and  rapid 
growth,  and  of  its  being  greatly  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  The  stems 
and  leaves  are  too  few  and  Light  to  make  it  so  desirable  as  a  field  crop.  It 
thrives  best  on  a  rich,  moist,  strong  soil,  and  the  quantity  of  its  nutritive 
matter  when  raised  on  such  soUs  is  considerably  greater  than  on  sandy 
soils.  As  a  pasture  grass,  its  luxuriant  aftermath,  being  in  value  nearly 
one  fourth  greater  than  its  first  spring  growth,  recommends  it  still  more 
highly.  In  this  respect  it  is  superior  to  Timothy,  the  aftermath  of  which 
is  generally  but  slight.  For  lands  designed  to  be  laid  down  to  permanent 
pasture  it  will  make  a  prominent  part  of  the  seed.  Where  it  occurs  in 
fields  it  loses  largely  its  nutritive  value  if  cut  in  the  blossom.  It  is 
regarded  in  England  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  native  pasture 
grasses,  forming  there  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  sward,  vegetating 
with  great  luxuriance,  and  starting  up  vigorously  when  eaten  off  by  stock, 
producing  seed  in  abundance,  and  enduring  any  amount  of  forcing  and 
irrigation.  It  does  not  acqiure  its  full  perfection  and  hold  of  the  soil 
until  three  or  four  j'ears  after  being  sown.  The  aftermath  exceeds  the 
flowering  crop  in  quantity  as  well  as  in  nutritive  matter.  The  grass  loses 
seventy  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying,  and  the  hay  contains  about  sixty- 
seven  hundredths  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

The  seed  of  meadow  foxtail  is  covered  with  the  husks  of  the  flower, 
soft  and  woolly,  while  the  larger  valve  is  furnished  with  an  awn.  There 
are  five  pounds  of  seed  in  a  bushel,  and  76,000  seeds  in  an  oimce.  An  insect  attacks  the 
seed  while  it  is  forming,  and  it  is  also  subject  to  blight,  and  hence  the  seed  is  somewhat  diflB- 
cult  to  procure  and  is  held  at  a  high  price.  We  have  many  grasses  superior  to  it  for  cultiva- 
tion, but  for  permanent  pastures  it  is  superior  to  Timothy,  which  is  not  a  suitable  pasture  grass. 
It  is  found  abundantly  in  our  best  pastures,  is  one  of  the  earliest  to  start  in  the  spring, 
and  the  first  to  mature  its  seeds. 


Meadow  Foxtail. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  147 

Orchard  Grass,  Rough  Cocks  Foot,  (Dactylis  glomerata.)~SY>ikeleta  several  flow- 
ered, crowded  in  clusters,  one-sided,  panicle  dense  at  the  top,  branching,  glumes  two,  herba- 
ceous, keeled,  long-pointed.  Stamens  three,  seed  oblong,  acute,  free.  Named  from  dadylus 
a  finger. 

Orchard  grass  flowers  in  dense  tufts.  Its  stem  is  erect,  about  three  feet  high.  Leaves 
linear,  flat,  dark  green,  rough  on  both  surfaces,  which,  with  the  fancied  resemblance  of  its 
loose  tufts  to  the  foot  of  a  barnyard  fowl,  have  given  it  the  common  name  in  England  of 
rough  cocksfoot.  Root  perennial.  Flowers  in  June  and  July.  Not  uncommon  in  fields  and 
pastures. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  widely  known  oi  all  the  pasture  grasses.  It  is  com- 
mon to  every  country  in  Europe,  to  the  north  of  Africa,  and  to  Asia  as  well  as  America. 
Its  culture  was  introduced  into  England  from  Virginia,  where  it  had  been  cultivated  some 
years  previously,  in  1 7  64.  It  forms  one  of  the  most  common  grasses  of  English  natural  pastures, 
on  rich,  deep,  moist  soils.  It  became,  soon  after  its  introduction  into  England,  an  object  of 
special  agricultural  interest  among  cattle  feeders,  having  been  found  to  be  exceedingly  pala- 
table to  stock  of  all  kinds.  Its  rapidity  of  growth,  the  luxuriance  of  its  aftermath,  and  its 
power  of  enduring  the  cropping  of  cattle,  commend  it  highly  to  the  farmer's  care,  especially 
as  a  pasture  grass.  As  it  blossoms  earlier  than  timothy,  and  about  the  time  of  red  clover, 
it  makes  an  admirable  mixture  with  that  plant,  to  cut  in  the  blossom  and  cure  for  hay.  As 
a  pasture  grass,  it  should  be  fed  close,  both  to  prevent  its  forming  thick  tufts  and  to  prevent 
its  running  to  seed,  when  it  loses  a  large  proportion  of  its  nutritive  matter,  and  becomes  hard 
and  wiry.     AU  kinds  of  stock  eat  it  greedily  when  green. 

It  is  a  grass  well  adapted  to  sow  with  clover  and  other  seeds  for  permanent  pastiires  or 
hay,  but  is  not  generally  sown  alone  except  for  seed.  It  exhausts  soil  less  than  timothy  or 
rye  grass,  and  will  endure  considerable  drouth.  It  has  been  known  to  grow  more  than  five 
feet  in  height,  and  has  produced  five  and  a  half  tons  per  acre.  It  contains  nearly  as  much 
of  the  fat  and  flesh-forming  material  as  timothy,  but  much  less  of  heat-forming  matter.  It 
flourishes  well  in  shady  places,  and  receives  its  name  from  its  being,  for  this  reason,  adapted 
to  orchards.  Its  disposition  to  grow  in  tufts  or  tussocks  may  be  prevented  by  good  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land,  and  thick  sowing.  Harrowing  and  rolUng  in  the  spring  wiU  also  remedy 
this  evil. 

It  flourishes  well  in  almost  all  soils  and  climates,  but  best  in  sandy  loam.  It  is  known 
in  England  as  cocksfoot.  In  this  country  it  is  most  common  in  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio.  It  is  good  for  both  orchards  and  pastures,  especially  for  the  latter, 
as  it  produces  good  milk,  beef,  mutton,  or  wool,  and  every  kind  of  stock  eat  it  freely  and 
thrive  well  upon  it.  After  being  mowed,  or  closely  grazed,  it  throws  up  a  new  growth  more 
readUy  than  most  of  the  other  grasses,  and  it  is  not  inclined  to  run  out  in  situations  where 
it  once  gets  a  good  root  and  the  soil  is  adapted  to  it,  although  as  easily  subdued  as  timothy 
by  plowing.  It  is,  however,  better  than  the  latter  to  mix  with  clover,  and  it  ripens  more 
nearly  at  the  same  time.  If  sown  too  thin  it  is  apt  to  be  rather  coarse;  hence,  to  secure  the 
best  results,  it  should  be  thickly  sown,  —  from  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre  being  a  liberal 
quantity,  —  if  sown  alone.  It  is,  however,  not  usually  sown  alone,  except  for  seed,  but  with 
a  variety  of  other  grasses  blossoming  about  the  same  time,  when  designed  for  hay,  and  witli 
both  early  and  late  grasses  for  pasturage.  Being  an  early  grass,  it  requires  early  cutting,  or 
much  of  its  nutritive  value  will  be  lost;  the  time  for  cutting  being  when  it  comes  into  blossom. 

Green  Meadow  Grass,  June  Grass,  Common  Spear  Grass,  Kentucky 
Blue  Grass,  etc.,  [Poa  pmtensis.) — The  characteristics  of  the  genus  Poa,  are,  ovate  spike- 
lets,  compressed,  flowers  two  to  ten  in  an  open  panicle,  glumes  shorter  than  the  flowers,  lower 
palea  compressed,  keeled,  pointless,  five-nerved,  stamens  two  or  three,  seed  oblong,  free, 
stems  tufted,  leaves  smooth,  flat,  and  soft. 

n 


J48  THE  AMERICAN  FAIOIER. 

Specific  characters:  Lower  florets  connected  at  the  base  by  a  web  of  long,  silky  fila- 
ments, holding  the  calyx;  outer  palea,  five-ribbed,  marginal  ribs  hairy,  upper  sheath  longer 
than  its  leaf;  height  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches,  root  perennial,  creeping,  stem  erect,  smooth, 
and  round,  leaves  linear,  flat,  acute,  roughish  on  the  edges  and  inner  surface;  panicle  diffuse, 
spreading,  erect.  The  plant  is  of  a  light  green  color,  the  spikelets  frequently  variegated 
with  brownish  purple.     Introduced.     Flowers  in  June. 

This  is  an  early  grass,  very  common  on  the  soils  of  New  England  in  pastures  and  fields, 
constituting  a  considerable  portion  of  the  turf.  It  varies  much  in  size  and  appearance 
according  to  the  soil  on  which  it  grows.  In  Kentucky  it  is  universally  known  as  Blue  grass, 
and  elsewhere  frequently  called  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  stiU  more  frequently,  June  grass. 
It  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pasture  grasses  known.  It  is  common  all  over  the 
noTthern  part  of  the  country,  growing  indigenously  in  all  limestone  countries  lying  between 
the  thirty-fourth  and  forty-fifth  parallels,  and  coming  to  its  highest  perfection  upon  the  rich, 
marly  blue  limestone  soils  of  some  of  the  central  counties  of  Kentucky.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  found  growing  there  when  the  region  was  first  discovered,  constituting  a  natural 
pasturage  that  attracted  vast  numbers  of  grazing  wild  animals,  countless  herds  of  buffalo, 
elk,  deer,  antelopes,  etc. 

This  grass  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  a  short  rotation,  and  is,  therefore,  less  suited  to  our 
mowing-lots,  from  the  fact  that  it  requires  three  or  four  years  to  become  well  set  so  as  to 
form  a  close  sward.  This  habit  of  growth  is  less  objectionable  as  a  permanent  pasture. 
When  a  soil  is  once  well  sodded  with  this  grass,  it  will  endure  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons — 
heat  and  cold,  sunshine  and  shade,  droughts  and  floods — with  wonderful  persistency.  It  is 
the  source  of  wealth  in  sections  adapted  to  it;  and  there  are  pastures  of  it  fifty  years  of  age, 
StiU  luxuriant  and  profitable.  It  throws  up  flower-stalks  but  once  in  the  season;  but  it  starts 
quickly  after  grazing  or  cutting,  and  forms  a  thick  green  growth. 

On  this  account,  it  is  highly  recommended  for  lawns.  It  thrives  equally  well  on  high  or 
low  lands,  but  is  not  adapted  to  a  thin,  poor  soil.  In  some  sections  not  adapted  to  its  growth, 
it  is  regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed.  Its  flower-stalk  is  short  and  matures  early.  It  is  not 
to  be  judged  in  value  by  this,  but  by  its  long  leaves,  abundantly  produced  throughout  the 
season,  which  form  a  rich,  sweet  herbage;  in  fact,  one  of  the  best  for  milch  cows,  the  dairy 
product  from  such  milk  being  of  the  best  quality.  On  rich  soil,  the  leaves  will  frequently 
attain  the  length  of  two  feet  when  allowed  to  grow. 

It  grows  well  in  rather  a  dry  soil,  but  will  grow  on  a  variety  of  soils,  from  the  dryest 
knolls  to  a  wet  meadow.  It  does  not  withstand  severe  droughts  as  well  as  some  other 
grasses.  It  endures  the  frosts  of  winter  better,  perhaps,  than  most  other  grasses;  and  in 
Kentucky,  where  it  attains  the  highest  perfection  as  a  pasture  grass,  it  sometimes  continues 
luxuriant  through  their  mild  winters.  As  it  requires  at  least  two  or  three  years  to  become 
well  set,  and  does  not  arrive  at  its  perfection  as  a  pasture  grass  till  the  sward  is  older  than 
that,  it  is  not  suited  to  alternate  husbandry,  or  where  the  land  is  to  remain  in  grass  only 
two  or  three  years  and  then  be  plowed  up.  In  Kentucky,  the  best  blue  grass  is  found  in 
partially  shaded  pastures. 

Meadow  Spear  Grass,  Nerved  Manna  Grass,  (Poa  nervata,)  is  the  fowl  meadow  of 

some  farmers,  while  the  grass  most  commonly  called  fowl  meadow,  (Poa  serotina,)  goes  with 
them  under  the  name  of  "bastard  fowl  meadow."  It  has  a  broad,  open  panicle,  six  inches  in 
length,  with  slender  branches;  spikelets  small,  ovate,  oblong,  green;  leaves  in  two  rows  like  a 
fan,  a  little  rough ;  stem  a  little  compressed,  one  to  three  feet  high.  It  is  a  native  American 
grass,  flowering  late  in  June.  It  is  a  hardy  grass,  grows  best  on  wet  or  moist  grounds,  and 
is  said  also  to  succeed  on  light  upland  soils.  It  is  somewhat  coarse,  and  not  particularly 
relished  by  cattle,  though  readily  eaten  in  winter.  It  would  be  a  valuable  ingredient  in  a 
mixture  for  moist  pastures.     It  is  not  very  common.     Native  of  North  America. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  149 

Blue  Grass,  or  Wire  Grass,  (Poa  compressa.')  —  Stems  ascending,  flattened,  the 
uppermost  joint  near  the  middle,  leaves  short,  bluish  green,  panicle  dense  and  contracted, 
expanding  more  at  flowering;  short  branches  often  in  pairs,  covered  with  four  to  nine 
flowered,  flat  spikelets;  flowers  rather  obtuse,  linear,  hairy  below  on  the  keel;  ligule  short 
and  blunt;  height  about  a  foot.  It  is  very  common  on  dry,  sandy,  thin  soils'  and  banks,  so 
hardy  as  to  grow  on  the  thin,  hard  soils  covering  the  surface  of  rocks,  along  trodden  walks, 
or  gravelly  knolls.  It  shoots  its  leaves  early,  but  the  amount  of  its  foliage  is  not  large, 
otherwise  it  would  be  one  of  our  most  valuable  grasses,  since  it  possesses  a  large  per  cent,  of 
nutritive  matter.  Flowers  in  July.  Most  grazing  animals  eat  it  greedUy,  and  it  is  especially 
relished  by  sheep.  Its  bluish  green  stems  retain  their  color  after  the  seed  is  ripe.  It  shrinks 
less  in  drying  than  most  other  grasses,  and  consequently  makes  a  hay  very  heavy  in  propor- 
tion to  its  bulk.  It  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  pasture  grass  on  dry,  rocky  knolls  and  should 
form  a  portion  of  a  mLxture  for  such  soils.  This  should  not  be  confounded  with  Kentucky 
blue  grass  alluded  to  above. 

Annual  Spear  Grass,  {Poa  annua,)  is,  perhaps,  the  most  common  of  all  our  grasses. 
Its  stems  are  spreading,  flattened,  panicle  often  one-sided,  spikelets  crowded,  three  to  seven 
flowered,  lower  palea  more  or  less  hairy  on  the  nerves  below ;  leaves  of  a  light  green,  sword- 
shaped,  flat,  often  crumpled  at  the  margins,  smooth  on  both  surfaces,  rough  at  the  edges. 
Florets  not  webbed,  and  this  distinguishes  it  from  the  June  grass,  (Poa pratensts,)  and  its  vari- 
eties. The  outer  or  lower  palea  of  this  grass  has  no  hairs  on  the  lateral  ribs  as  the  Poa 
pratensis  has.  This  modest  and  beautiful  grass  flowers  throughout  the  whole  summer,  and 
forms  a  very  large  part  of  the  sward  of  New  England  pastures,  producing  an  early  and  sweet 
feed,  exceedingly  relished  by  cattle.  It  does  not  resist  the  drought  very  well,  but  becomes 
parched  up  in  our  pastures. 

The  Rough  Stalked  Meadow  Grass,  {Poa  trivialis,)  though  not  so  common  as  the 
June  grass,  {Poa  pratensis,)  is  still  often  met  with,  and  is  found  to  have  webbed  florets;  outer 
palea  five-ribbed,  marginal  ribs  not  hairy,  hgule  long  and  pointed,  stems  two  to  three  feet 
high.  Distinguished  from  June  grass  by  having  rough  sheaths,  while  in  the  latter  the  sheaths 
are  smooth,  the  Hgule  obtuse,  and  the  marginal  ribs  of  outer  palea  furnished  with  hairs.  The 
rough-stalked  meadow  grass  has  a  fibrous  root,  that  of  the  June  grass  is  creeping.  It 
flourishes  in  moist  meadows,  where  it  flowers  in  July.     Introduced. 

This  is  a  valuable  grass  to  cultivate  in  moist,  sheltered  soils,  possessing  very  considerable 
nutritive  quahties,  coming  to  perfection  at  a  desirable  time,  and  being  exceedingly  relished 
by  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  For  such  soils  it  should  form  a  portion  of  a  mixture  of  seeds, 
producing,  in  mixture  with  other  grasses  which  serve  to  shelter  it,  a  large  yield  of  hay,  far 
above  the  average  of  grass  usually  grown  on  a  similar  soil.  It  should  be  cut  when  in  seed 
and  not  in  the  flower.  Seven  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  produce  a  good  sward.  The 
grass  loses  about  seventy  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying.  Its  hay  contains  about  one  and 
sixty  hundredths  per  cent,  of  azote,  and  the  nutritive  quahties  of  the  aftermath  exceed  very 
considerably  those  of  the  crop  cut  in  the  flower  or  in  the  seed. 

Wood  Meadow  Grass,  {Poa  nemoralis.)  —  This  grows  from  eighteen  inches  to 
two  feet  high,  has  a  perennial,  creeping  root,  an  erect  stem,  slender,  smooth,  the  upper  sheath 
no  longer  than  its  leaf,  with  a  very  short  ligule,  the  base  of  the  floret  having  a  silky  web 
suspending  the  calyx,  leaves  light  green.  It  is  common  in  moist,  shady  places,  and  appeals 
as  a  tall,  rank  grass,  with  a  long,  finely  arched  panicle.  It  flowers  in  June  and  ripens  its  seed 
in  July. 

It  is  certainly  to  be  classed  among  the  best  of  shaded  pasture  grasses,  furnishing  a  fine, 
succulent,  and  very  nutritive  herbage,  which  stock  of  all  kinds  are  very  fond  of.  Hay  con- 
tains one  and  sixty-four  one-hundredths  per  cent,  of  azote.  The  grass  loses  about  fifty-five 
per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying. 


150  THE  AMERICAN  FARJUER. 

The  Creeping  Sea  Meadow  Grass,  or  Sea  Spear  Grass,  {Poa  maritima,)  referred 

by  Gray  to  glyceria,  is  a  beautiful  grass  which  appears  in  and  around  salt  marshes,  growing 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  and  having  a  perennial,  creeping  root.  Stem  erect,  round, 
smooth,  leaves  mostly  folded  and  compressed,  roughish  on  the  inner  surface,  spikelets  linear, 
with  from  six  to  ten  florets  not  webbed,  the  outer  palea  or  lower  floret  terminating  in  an  acute 
point.     Flowers  in  July.     Grows  naturally  near  the  sea. 

The  Water  Spear  Grass,  or  Reed  Meadow  Grass,  {Poa  aquatka,)  grows  in  wet 

soils,  is  a  tall,  reedy  grass,  four  or  five  feet  high  with  a  panicle  nearly  a  foot  long,  diffuse,  with 
smooth,  flexuous  branches.  From  its  large  size  and  broad  leaves  it  can  hardly  be  mistaken 
for  any  of  the  other  species  of  Poa.  Its  root  is  perennial,  creeping,  stem  erect,  stout,  smooth, 
joints  seven,  smooth,  spikelets  numerous,  florets  not  webbed.  Flowers  in  August.  This 
grass  is  referred  by  Gray  and  others,  to  glyceria.  It  is  very  common  in  wet  meadows  and 
will  be  easily  recognized.  More  nutritive  when  in  flower  than  when  the  seed  is  ripe.  It 
contains  a  comparatively  large  per  cent,  of  sugar.  Makes  a  valuable  fodder,  and  cattle  are 
very  fond  of  it. 

Several  other  species  belonging  to  this  genus  are  frequently  met  with,  as  the  Branching 
Spear  Grass,  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  a  very  elegant  species,  vsdth  a  large  panicle  of  sea-green 
spikelets;  the  Hair  Spear  Grass,  also  an  elegant  grass  grovring  on  similar  soils,  with  a  hairy 
branching  panicle  over  a  foot  long,  leaves  linear,  nerved.  But  the  most  important  of  all  is 
the  Fowl  Meadow,  or  False  Eedtop. 

Fowl  Meadow,  or  False  Red t op,  (^oa  sentina.)  —  The  specific  characteristics  of 
this  species  are  two  to  four,  sometimes  five,  flowered  spikelets,  oval,  spear-shaped,  ligules 
elongated,  flowers  acutish,  green,  often  tinged  with  purple,  roots  slightly  creeping;  wet 
meadows  and  banks  of  streams,  very  common.  Flowers  in  July  and  August.  In  long- 
continued  moist  weather  the  lower  joints  send  up  flowering  stems.  The  panicle  is  erect  and 
spreading  when  in  flower,  but  more  contracted  and  drooping  when  ripe.  It  is  perennial. 
Native  of  Germany. 

It  early  commended  itself  to  the  attention  of  farmers,  for  Jared  Eliot,  writing  in  1749, 
says  of  it:  "  There  are  two  sorts  of  grass  which  are  natives  of  the  country,  which  1  would 
recommend,  —  these  are  Herds-grass,  (known  in  Pennsylvania  by  the  name  of  Timothy- 
grass,)  the  other  is  Fowl  Meadow,  sometimes  called  Duck-grass,  and  sometmies  Stoamp-idre 
grass.  It  is  said  that  Herds-grass  was  first  found  in  a  swamp  in  Piscataqua,  by  one  Herd,  who 
propagated  the  same ;  that  Fowl  Meadow-grass  was  brought  into  a  poor  piece  of  meadow  in 
Dedham,  by  ducks  and  other  wild  water-fowl,  and  therefore  called  by  such  an  odd  name. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  brought  into  the  meadows  at  Hartford  by  the  annual  floods,  and  called 
there  Swamp-wire  grass.  Of  these  two  sorts  of  natural  grass,  the  fowl-grass  is  much  the 
best;  it  grows  tall  and  thick,  makes  a  more  soft  and  pliable  hay  than  Herds-grass,  and  conse- 
quently will  be  more  fit  for  pressing,  in  order  to  ship  off  with  our  horses;  besides  it  is  a  good 
grass,  not  in  abundance  inferior  to  English  grass.  It  yields  a  good  burden,  three  loads  to 
the  acre.  It  must  be  sowed  in  low,  moist  land.  This  grass  has  another  good  quality,  which 
renders  it  very  valuable  in  a  country  where  help  is  so  much  wanting;  it  will  not  spoil 
or  suffer,  although  it  stand  beyond  the  common  times  for  mowing.  Clover  will  be  lost,  in 
a  great  measure,  if  it  be  not  cut  in  the  proper  season.  Spear-grass,  commonly  called  English 
grass,  if  it  stands  too  long,  wHl  be  little  better  than  rye  straw ;  if  this  outstand  the  time,  it  is 
best  to  let  it  stand  till  there  comes  up  a  second  growth,  and  then  it  will  do  tolerably  well; 
but  this  fowl-grass  may  be  mowed  any  time  from  July  to  October.  *  *  *  This  I  wondered  at, 
but  viewing  some  of  it  attentively,  I  think  I  have  found  the  reason  of  it.  When  it  is  grown 
about  three  foot  high  it  then  falls  down,  but  doth  not  rot  like  other  grass  when  lodged ;  in  a 
little  time  after  it  is  thus  fallen  down,  at  every  joint  it  puts  forth  a  new  branch;  now  to 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


151 


maintain  this  young  brood  of  suckers  there  must  be  a  plentiful  course  of  sap  conveyed  up 
through  the  main  stem  or  straw;  by  this  means  the  grass  is  kept  green  and  fit  for  mowing 
all  this  long  period." 

This  grass  grows  abundantly  in  almost  every  part  of  New  England,  especially  where  it 
has  been  introduced  and  cultivated  in  suitable  ground,  such  as  the  borders  of  rivers  and 
intervals  occasionally  overflowed.  It  wiU  not  endure  to  be  long  covered  with  water,  especially  in 
warm  weathei'.     It  is  well  to  let  a  piece  go  to  seed,  save  the  seed  and  scatter  it  over  low  lands. 

It  makes  an  excellent  grass  for  oxen, 

cows,  and  sheep,  but  is  thought  to  be 

rather  fine  for  horses.     It  never  grows 

so  coarse  or  hard  but  that  the  stalk  is 

sweet  and  tender,  and  eaten  without 

waste.     It  is  very  easily  made  into  hay, 

and   is  more  nutritive,   according   to 

Sinclair,  than  either   foxtail,  orchard 

grass,  or  tall  meadow  oat  grass.    Owing 

to  its  constantly  sending  forth  flower- 
ing stems,  the  grass  of  the  lattermath 

contains  more   nutritive   matter  than 

the  first  crop  at  the  time  of  flowering, 

hence  the  names  ferlilis  and  serotina, 

fertile    and    late    flowering    meadow 

grass.     It   thrives   best   when   mixed 

with   other   grasses,    and   deserves   a 

place  in  all  mixtures  for  rich,  moist 

pastures. 

This  species  is  most  common  in 

the  Northern  States,  particularly  north 

of  Pennsylvania.     It  is  a  good  grass 

for    moist    meadows.     In   Wisconsin 

and  some  of  the  other  Western  States, 

where  many  natural  meadows  of  this 

grass  occur,  it  is  highly  esteemed. 

The  Creeping  Meadow  Grass, 

{Eragrostis  reptans,)  is  frequently  found 
on  the  sandy  bank*  of  rivers,  and  is  a 
beautiful  and  delicate  grass.  Flower- 
ing in  July  and  August.  Its  leaves 
are  short,  nearly  awl-shaped,  spikelets 
smooth,  long  and  lance-shaped,  flowers 
acute,  sheaths  loose,  striate  and  a  little 
hairy  on  the  margin,  panicles  from  one  to  two  inches  long.     Not  a  cultivated  grass. 

Sheep's  FesCXie,  {Festuca  ovina,)  is  known  by  its  narrow  panicle,  short,  tufted, 
bristle-shaped  leaves,  of  a  grayish  color,  somewhat  tinged  with  red,  its  two  to  six  flowered 
spikelets,  awn  often  nearly  wanting.  It  grows  from  six  to  ten  inches  high  in  dense  perennial 
rooted  tufts.  It  forms  an  excellent  pasturage  for  sheep.  It  flowers  in  June  and  July,  in  dry 
pastures. 

Meadow  Fescue,  (Festuca  pratensis,)  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the  fescue 
grasses.     It  is  said  to  be  the  Randall  grass  of  Virginia.     Its  panicle  is  nearly  erect,  branched, 


sheep's  fescue. 


MEADOW    FESCUE. 


152  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

close,  somewhat  inclined  to  one  side ;  spikelets  linear,  with  from  five  to  ten  cylindrical  flow- 
ers; leaves  linear,  of  a  glossy  green,  pointed,  striated,  rough  on  the  edges;  stems  round, 
smooth,  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  roots  creeping,  perennial  Its  radical  or  root  leaves 
are  broader  than  those  of  the  stem,  while  in  most  other  species  of  fescue  the  radical  leaf  is 
generally  narrower  than  those  of  the  stem.  Flowers  in  Jime  and  July,  in  moist  pastures  and 
near  farm  houses. 

This  is  an  excellent  pasture  grass,  forming  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  turf  of  old 
pastures  and  fields,  and  is  more  extensively  propagated  and  diffused  by  the  fact  that  it  ripens 
its  seed  before  most  other  grasses  are  cut,  and  sheds  them  to  spring  up  and  cover  the  groimd. 
Its  long  and  tender  leaves  are  much  relished  by  cattle. 

It  is  generally  sown  in  mixture  with  other  grasses,  as  orchard  grass,  rye  grass,  or  com- 
mon spear  grass.  It  is  of  much  greater  value  at  the  time  of  flowering  than  when  the  seed  is 
ripe.     It  is  said  to  lose  a  little  over  fifty  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  drying  for  hay. 

Tall  Fescue  Grass,  {Fesluca  elatior,)  is  also  found  pretty  commonly  in  moist  mead- 
ows and  aroimd  farm  houses.  Its  panicle  is  contracted,  erect,  or  somewhat  drooping,  with 
short  branches,  spreading  in  all  directions;  spikelets  crowded,  with  five  to  ten  flowers,  rather 
remote,  oblong,  lanceolate;  leaves  flatish,  linear,  acute;  stems  two  to  four  feet  high,  root 
perennial,  fibrous,  somewhat  creeping  and  forming  large  ixdts.     Flowers  in  June  and  July. 

It  is  a  nutritive  and  productive  grass,  growing  naturally  in  shady  woods  and  moist,  stiS 
soils.     Cattle  are  very  fond  of  it.     Said  by  some  to  be  identical  with  the  meadow  fescue. 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,  {Festxica  duriu^cuh,)  is  also  found  to  some  extent,  though  not 
so  commonly  as  the  meadow  fescue.  It  is  by  some  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the  sheep's  fescue, 
taller,  and  with  a  panicle  more  open,  leaves  flat,  and  spikelets  four  to  eight  flowered.  It 
grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high.     Flowers  in  June,  in  pastures  and  waste  grounds. 

Red  Fescue,  {Fesluca  rubra,)  by  some  regarded  as  only  a  variety  of  the  preceding,  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  varieties  of  fescue.  Its  leaves  are  broadish,  flat,  root  extensively 
creeping,  and  throwing  out  lateral  shoots.  Found  in  dry  pastures  near  the  sea  shore,  in  sandy 
soils.  It  is  a  grass  of  better  quality  than  some  of  the  other  varieties,  but  never  cultivated 
here  as  an  agricultural  product.  The  color  of  its  leaves  is  somewhat  more  grayish  than  the 
preceding  and  often  tinged  with  red. 

Slender  Spiked  Fescue,  (Festuca  hUacea,)  is  a  species  nearly  allied  to  the  tall  fescue 
and  possesses  much  the  same  qualities.  It  grows  naturally  in  moist,  rich  meadows,  forming 
a  good  permanent  pasture  grass,  but  as  it  is  met  with  only  very  rarely  among  American 
grasses,  and  is  of  no  value  for  cultivation,  it  scarcely  deserves  a  more  extended  notice. 

Rice  Grass,  Cut  Grass,  False  Rice,  {Leersia  oryzoides,)  grows  very  common  in 
wet  swampy  places.  Stems  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  panicle  erect,  spreading  with  rough, 
slender  branches,  leaves  narrow  or  long,  sheaths  exceedingly  rough  and  sharp  to  the  hand, 
drawn  from  the  end  backward.  Florets  oval  and  white,  spikelets  flat.  Flowers  in  August. 
Native  of  the  Levant.     Name  from  Leers,  a  German  botanist. 

It  is  a  beautiful  grass,  said  to  be  useful  at  the  South,  where  it  is  cultivated  to  some 
extent,  and  may  be  cut  several  times  in  a  season.  It  is  said  there  to  make  a  valuable  hay. 
At  the  North  it  is  regarded  as  a  weed,  and  thorough  draining  will  destroy  it. 

Redtop,  Finetop,  Burden's  Grass,  Dew  Grass,  Herds-Grass  of  Pennsylvania 
and  Southern  States  (^Agrostis  vulgaris).  Plants  of  this  genus  have  one  flowered  spikelets  in  a 
loose  open  panicle;  glumes  nearly  equal,  the  lower  longer  than  the  paleee,  which  are  thin  and 
naked:  stamens  three — perennial. 

The  specific  characters  are,  stems  erect,  slender,  round,  smooth  and  polished;  roots 
creeping,  panicle  oblong,  leaves  linear,  hgule  very  short,  lower  palea  mostly  awnless  and  three 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


153 


nerved.  Flowers  in  July.  Pastures  and  moist  meadows  very  common — ^introduced.  The 
term  Agroslis  was  the  ancient  Greek  word  for  field,  and  was  applied  to  all  varieties  of  grass 
that  grew  there. 

This  valuable  grass,  so  common  in  all  our  cultivated  fields,  has  been  an  inhabitant  of  our 
soils  for  more  than  a  century.  It  was  called  simply  English  grass  by  Eliot,  Deane,  and  other 
early  writers,  and  by  the  English,  Fine  Bent.  Indeed,  the 
whole  genus  agrostis  is  commonly  known  in  England  as  "  Bent 
Grass."  This  grass  is  often  sown  with  timothy  and  clover,  in 
which  case  the  clover,  of  course,  soon  disappears,  being  biennial, 
when  timothy  follows,  after  which  redtop  usually  takes  its 
place,  and  with  some  wild  grasses  forms  a  close  sward.  In 
Pennsylvania  and  States  further  south,  it  is  universally  known 
as  Herds-grass — a  name  applied  in  New  England  and  New 
York  to  Phleum  pralense  alone.  It  is  of  somewhat  slow  growth, 
but  of  good  or  medium  quality.  It  is  suited  to  moist  soils, 
though  common  to  all.  This  grass  is  probably  rather  overrated. 
It  makes  profitable  crop  for  spending,  though  not  so  large  a 
crop  is  obtained  as  from  Herds-grass.  It  is  a  good  permanent 
grass,  and  consequently  well-suited  to  Northern  pastures,  as  it 
endures  that  climate  as  well  as  any  other  grass.  It  should  be 
fed  close  in  pastures,  for  if  allowed  to  grow  up  to  seed  the 
cattle  refuse  it;  and  this  fact  seems  to  show  that  it  is  not  so 
much  relished  by  stock  as  some  of  the  other  pasture  grasses. 
The  fact  that  cattle  eat  any  grass  greedily  in  the  spring,  is  no 
proof  of  its  excellence  or  nutritious  qualities,  since,  then,  all 
grasses  are  tender  and  full  of  juice,  and  many  varieties  of  both 
grasses  and  shrubs  are  readily  eaten,  which  at  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  growth  are  refused. 

This  grass  goes  by  various  names,  and  is  greatly  modified 
by  soil  and  cultivation.  On  a  moist,  rich  soil  it  grows  larger 
than  on  a  poor,  thin  soil,  and  not  only  larger  but  has  a  darker 
purplish  color,  with  a  stem  varying  from  eighteen  inches  to 
two  feet  or  two  and  a  half  feet  high;  while  on  thin,  poor, 
gravelly  soils,  it  seldom  grows  over  twelve  inches,  and  often  not 
over  five  or  six  inches  high,  while  it  has  a  lighter  color.  In  the 
latter  situations  it  goes  by  the  name  of  Finetop,  and  is  univers- 
ally seen  in  dry  pastures.  In  some  sections  of  Massachusetts, 
as  in  Bristol  County,  it  goes  by  the  name  of  Burden's  or  Bor- 
den's grass,  or  Rhode  Island  Bent,  and  is  highly  esteemed. 

Finetop  may  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  redtop,  produced  eedtop. 

by  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Dew  Grass,  White  Top,  White  Bent,  English  Bent,  Bonnet  Grass,  {Agrostis 
alba.)  Generic  characters  same  as  those  of  redtop.  Specific  characters:  Stem  erect,  round, 
smooth,  polished,  having  four  or  five  leaves  with  somewhat  rough  sheaths,  striated,  upper 
sheath  longer  than  its  leaf,  crowned  with  a  long,  acute,  ragged  ligule;  joints  smooth, 
branches  numerous,  recumbent,  rooting  at  the  lower  joints  where  they  come  in  contact  with, 
the  ground ;  panicle  somewhat  narrower  than  in  redtop,  lightish  green,  or  with  a  slight  tinge 
of  purple;  lower  or  inner  palea  one-half  the  length  of  the  upper,  and  shorter  than  the 
glumes;  five  nerved,  awnless — ^perennial.     Native  of  Europe. 


151 


THE   AilERICAN  FARMER. 


"\^Tiitetop  may  be  known  from  redtop  by  the  sheaths  being  rough  to  the  touch  from 
above  downwards,  and  the  ligule  being  long  and  acute,  and  the  keel  of  the  large  glume  of 
the  calyx  toothed  nearly  to  the  base.  In  Ajroftis  i-ulgan's  the  sheaths  are  smooth,  ligule 
short  and  obtuse,  and  the  keel  of  the  large  glume  toothed  only  on  the  upper  part. 

It  may  be  known  from  Brown  Bent,  {Agrostis  canina,)  by  having  an  inner  palea  in  its 
floret,  while  in  brown  bent  the  inner  palea  is  wanting.  This  grass  is  very  common  on  the 
Connecticut  Eiver  meadows  where  it  appears  to  be  indigenous,  and  is  there  called  the  English 
bent.     Fiorin,  {Agrostis  stolonifera,')  is  only  a  variety. of  the  white  top,  or  Agrostis  aiha,  which 

gained  great  notoriety  some  years  ago  in  Ireland  and 
England,  volumes  having  been  written  in  its  praise, 
while  it  received  the  execrations  of  those  who  found  it 
troublesome  to  eradicate  on  account  of  its  creeping  and 
stolonif  erous  roots.  It  belongs  peculiarly  to  moist  places 
which  are  occasionally  overflowed.  This  grass  has  often 
been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bonnets,  and  is  called 
Dew  grass  in  some  sections. 

Hair  Grass,  or  Fly  Away  Grass,  Tickle 
Grass,  {Agrostis  scabra,)  is  another  species  belonging  to 
this  genus,  with  a  panicle  very  loose  and  spreading, 
purplish.  Flowers  in  June  and  July.  Mainly  remark- 
able for  the  long  hairy  branches  of  its  extremely  loose 
panicle.  Common  in  old  fields  and  drained  swamps. 
It  is  of  no  particular  agricultural  value.  Very  common 
at  the  West,  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  about  Lake 
Superior.  The  large,  loose  panicles  are  exceedingly 
delicate  and  brittle  when  the  plant  is  ripe  and  dry,  and 
easily  break  away  from  the  stalk  when  they  are  blown 
about  by  the  wind,  scattermg  their  seeds  far  and  wide; 
and  hence  it  is  frequently  called  "  Fly  Away  Grass." 
This  illustrates  one  of  the  admirable  contrivances  of 
nature  for  the  distribution  of  the  seeds  of  grasses  and 
other  plants;  sometimes  by  means  of  birds,  sometimes 
by  a  sort  of  wing  attached  to  the  light  seed,  and  some- 
times by  the  force  of  the  wind  alone,  as  in  this  case, 
when  plants  start  up  where  no  seed  had  been  sown  by 
the  hand  of  man,  and  often  to  our  astonishment. 

Alpine  Brown  Bent,  Upright  Flowered 
Bent,  and  many  other  species  of  Agrostis  might  be 
mentioned.  Of  all  the  species  of  this  genus,  the  redtop 
and  white  top  are  the  most  common  as  agricultural 
grasses  among  us. 

The  Fiorin,  {Agrostis  alba,  var.  Stolonifera  lati- 
folia.)  or  Broad-leaved  Creeping  Bent,  has  been  more  highly  commended  in  Europe 
than  either  of  these.  In  experiments  this  last  has  been  found  to  be  inferior  in  nutritive  value 
to  orchard  grass  and  meadow  fescue,  {Festuca  pratensis,)  and  superior  to  meadow  foxtail 
{Alopecurus  pratensis). 

The  Sonthern  Bent,  {Agrostis  dispar,)  has  been  highly  extolled  in  France.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  United  States;  was  at  one  time  highly  commended  in  England,  but  was  very 
soon  discarded.      It  furnishes  a  hay  of  rather  coarse  quality,  yields  a  large   produce   on 


SOUTHERN    BENT. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


155 


DROP   SEED-NIMBLE   WILL, 

fMulilenbergia  diffusa.) 


156  THE  AMERICAN  FAR3IER. 

good,  deep  sands  and  calcareous  soils.  It  tillers  very  mucli,  and,  when  once  rooted,  is  very 
vigorous  and  lasting,  and  consequently  makes  a  good  pasture  grass.  It  is  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  some  of  the  broad-leaved  varieties  of  Agrostis  vulgaris,  and  is  said  to  yield  a 
larger  produce  than  that  commonly  known  as  redtop.  It  has  stronger  and  more  numerous 
creeping  roots,  broader  leaves,  and  more  upright  leafy  stems.  It  is  most  frequently  met 
with  in  the  southern  states  and  in  the  south  of  France. 

Mountain  or  Northern  Redtop.  {Agrostis  exafata.)  This  variety  is  a  native  of  the 
Rocky  ilountatn  region,  and  is  also  found  in  many  of  the  Western  States,  particularly  in  the 
low  grounds  of  Wisconsin.  It  is  more  slender  in  its  growth  than  the  common  cultivated 
redtop,  (Agrostis  vulgaris,)  and  varies  much  with  different  soils  and  climates.  It  is  said  to 
present  so  many  variations  in  form  and  size  on  the  Pacific  slope  that  it  has  received  several 
specific  names,  being  mistaken  for  different  varieties  of  grass.  The  analysis  of  this  plant 
proves  that  it  possesses  considerable  value,  and  we  doubt  not  that  it  would  prove  a' 
desirable  agricultural  product  if  cultivated  on  moist  meadows  and  bottom-lands. 

Brown  Bent,  or  Dog's  Bent  Grass,  (Agrostis  canina,)  another  variety  of  agrostis, 
has  for  its  specific  characters  a  floret  of  one  palea,  sheaths  smooth,  ligule  long,  and  grows 
from  one  to  two  feet  high,  awnless.  The  root  is  perennial  and  creeping.  The  stem  is  erect, 
slender,  leaves  flat  and  linear.  The  palea  shorter  than  the  glume  and  furnished  with  a  long 
awn  on  the  back,  bent;  spikelets  at  first  greenish,  afterwards  brown  or  slightly  purple. 
Meadows  and  pastures,  and  wet,  peaty  places.  Introduced.  Flowers  in  June  and  July. 
It  is  of  no  special  agricultural  value. 

Drop  Seed  Grass,  {Muhlenhergia  diffusa,)  is  a  grass  which  derives  its  generic  name 
from  Dr.  Henry  !Muhlenberg,  a  distinguished  American  botanist,  pupil  of  the  great  Linnreus. 
It  is  commonly  known  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  by  the  name  of  "  Nimble-wil!,"  and  there 
forms  a  pasture  grass  of  some  value.  Its  stems  are  diffusely  branched,  from  ten  to  eighteen 
inches  high ;  panicles  slender,  contracted,  glumes  minute,  awn  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the 
palea.  It  is  sometimes  found  on  dry  hills  and  in  woods.  Flowers  in  August  and  September. 
Perennial.     Cattle  eat  it  very  readily.     Not  very  common. 

There  is  another  species  of  this  grass,  the  Muhlenhergia  glomerata,  from  one  to  two  feet 
high,  much  more  common  than  the  preceding,  with  stems  upright,  somewhat  branched; 
panicle  oblong,  linear,  contracted  into  an  interrupted  glomerate  spike,  with  long  peduncles  or 
flower  stalks  and  awned  glumes.  Perennial.  Flowers  in  August  and  September.  Common 
in  swamps  and  low  grounds.     Of  no  agricultural  value. 

The  Mexican  Muhlenhergia,  (ifuhknhergia  Ifexicana,)  another  species  of  this  genus, 
has  been  mistaken  by  some  for  our  fowl-meadow.  It  has  an  erect  stem,  two  to  three  feet  high, 
much  branched ;  panicles  lateral  and  contracted,  branches  densely  spiked  and  clustered,  green 
or  purplish;  glumes  pointed,  awnless,  and  unequal.  It  is  perennial.  Flowers  in  August. 
Frequently  regarded  as  a  troublesome  weed  in  low  grounds;  somewhat  common  at  the  West, 
and  frequent  here  in  low  grounds,  the  borders  of  fields,  and  even  in  gardens,  where  its 
spreading  roots  are  difficult  to  eradicate.  Cattle  eat  it  very  readily,  and,  as  it  blossoms  late 
in  the  season,  it  is  of  some  value. 

The  Sylvan  Muhlenhergia.  {^fuhlenlergia  syh-atica.)  is  also  rather  common  in  low, 
rocky  woods.  Its  stem  is  ascending,  branched,  spreading  diffusely;  panicles  contracted, 
densely  flowered;  glumes  nearly  equal,  bristle  pointed,  lower  palea  one-awned,  twice  or  three 
times  the  length  of  the  spikelets.     Flowers  in  August  and  September. 

The  Awnless  Muhlenhergia.  (Muhlenhergia  sohoUfera.)  is  sometimes  found  in  open, 
rocky  woods,  from  New  England  to  Michigan,  and  farther  south.  It  grows  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  with  a  simple  contracted  panicle,  very  slender;  glumes  long,  pointed,  nearly  equal, 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  157 

root  perennial,  creeping,  woody,  leaves  pale  green,  sheaths  open,  ligule  wanting.     Flowers  in 
August  and  September. 

Still  another  species,  sometimes  called  hair  grass,  (^Muhlenhergia  capillaris,)  is  sometimes, 
though  not  often,  found  on  sandy  soils. 

Willdenow's  Muhleilbergia,  [Muhlenbergia  Willdenovii,)  is  also  not  uncommon  in 
rocky  woods,  growing  about  three  feet  high,  with  a  slender,  simple  stem,  contracted  panicle, 
loosely  flowered,  glumes  sharp-pointed,  half  as  long  as  lower  palea.  which  has  an  awn  from 
three  to  four  times  the  length  of  the  spikelet. 

None  of  the  grasses  of  this  American  genus  are  of  great  value  as  agricultural  grasses, 
except  as  they  add  considerably  to  the  mass  of  living  verdure  which  clothes  our  low  lands. 

Blue  Joint  Grass,  [Calamafjrostis  canadensis.)  The  general  characteristics  are,  one- 
flowered  spikelets,  open  panicle,  contracted  or  spiked;  glumes  keeled,  about  equal  to  the 
palese,  around  which,  at  the  base,  is  a  thick  tuft  of  white  bristly  hairs;  lower  palea  generally 
with  a  slender  awn  on  the  back. 

Specific  description:  Stems  three  to  five  feet  high,  grayish,  leaves  flat,  panicle  often 
purplish,  the  glumes  acute,  lanceolate,  lower  palea  not  longer  than  the  very  fine  hairs  bearing 
an  extremely  delicate  awn  below  the  middle,  nearly  equal  to  the  hairs.  Flowers  in  July. 
The  blue  joint  grass  is  very  common  on  low  grounds.  It  is  generally  considered  a  valuable 
grass.  It  is  ealen  greedily  by  stock  in  the  winter,  and  is  thought  by  some  to  be  as  nutritious 
as  timothy. 

The  GlauCOnS  Small  Reed,  (CaZajfiayros^zs  coarctala,)  is  also  somewhat  common  in 
our  wet  meadows,  open  swamps,  and  along  low  river  banks.  Its  stems  are  from  three  to  five 
feet  high,  seed  hairy,  crowned  with  a  bearded  tuft  ;  lower  palea  shorter  than  the  taper-pointed 
tips  of  the  lanceolate  glumes,  almost  twice  the  length  of  the  hairs,  with  a  rigid,  short  awn 
above  the  middle. 

Beach  Grass,  Sea-Sand  Reed,  Mat  Grass,  (Ammophila  anmdmacea,)  grows 
to  a  height  of  two  or  three  feet,  with  a  rigid  culm,  from  stout  roots  running  often  to  the  dis- 
tance of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  ;  leaves  wide,  rather  short,  of  a  sea-green  color  ;  panicle  con- 
tracted into  a  close  dense  spike,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  nearly  white.  It  is  found  in 
the  sands  of  the  sea-shore,  where  its  thick,  strong,  creeping,  perennial  roots,  with  many  tubers 
the  size  of  a  pea,  prevent  the  drifting  of  the  sand  from  the  action  of  the  winds  and  waves, 
thus  forming  a  barrier  against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea. 

This  grass  is  very  generally  diffused  on  sea-coasts  over  the  world,  and  is  found  inland  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  It  has  also  been  cultivated  by  way  of  experiment,  and  with 
success,  on  the  sands  at  Lowell,  and  still  farther  up  on  the  banks  of  the  Merrimack  River. 
Though  not  cultivated  for  agricultural  purposes,  it  is  of  great  value  in  protecting  sandy 
beaches.  It  is  preserved  in  England  and  Scotland  by  act  of  Parliament.  Flowers  in 
August. 

The  town  of  Provincetown,  once  called  Cape  Cod,  and  its  harbor,  still  called  the  harbor 
of  Cape  Cod. — one  of  the  best  and  most  important  in  the  United  States, — sufficient  in  depth 
for  ships  of  the  largest  size,  and  in  extent,  to  anchor  three  thousand  vessels  at  once, — owe 
their  preservation  to  this  grass.  To  an  inhabitant  of  an  inland  country  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive the  extent  and  the  violence  with  which  the  sands  at  the  extremity  of  Cape  Cod  are 
thrown  up  from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  left  on  the  beach  in  thousands  of  tons  by  every 
driving  storm.  These  sand-hills,  when  dried  by  the  sun,  are  hurled  by  the  winds  into  the 
harbor  and  upon  the  town.  A  correspondent  at  Provincetown  says  :  ■'  Beach  grass  is  said 
to  have  been  cultivated  here  as  early  as  1812.  Before  that  time,  when  the  sand  drifted  down 
upon  dwelling-houses, — as  it  did  whenever  the  beach  was  broken, — to  save  them  from  burial, 
the  only  resort  was  to  wheeling  it  off  with  barrows.     Thus  tons  were  removed  every  year 


158  THE  america:s'  faksier. 

from  places  that  are  now  perfectly  secure  from  the  drifting  of  sand.  Indeed,  were  it  not  for 
the  window-glass  in  some  of  the  oldest  houses  in  these  localities,  you  would  be  ready  to  deny 
this  statement;  but  the  sand  has  been  blown  with  such  force  and  so  long  against  this  glass  as 
to  make  it  perfectly  ground.  I  know  of  some  windows  through  which  you  cannot  see  an 
object,  except  to  remind  you  of  that  passage  where  men  were  seen  'as  trees  walking.'  " 

Congress  appropriated,  between  the  years  182  6  and  1839,  about  twenty-eight  thousand 
dollars,  which  were  expended  in  setting  out  beach  grass  back  of  the  village,  for  the  protection 
of  the  harbor.  From  the  seed  of  this  grass  it  is  estimated  that  nearly  as  much  ground  has 
become  planted  with  it  as  was  covered  by  the  general  government.  In  1854,  five  thousand 
dollars  were  expended  most  wisely  by  the  general  government  in  adding  to  the  work  so  nobly 
begun;  and  the  experience  of  former  years  was  of  great  value  to  the  efiBciency  of  this  latter 
effort. 

"  It  may  be  proper  to  state,"  says  the  same  writer,  "  that  this  town  does  much  in  the  way 
of  '  leach-grassing '  by  its  '  heach-grass  committee,'  whose  duty  it  is  to  enter  any  man's  enclosure, 
summer  or  winter,  and  set  out  grass,  if  the  sand  is  imcovered  and  movable.  By  this  means 
we  are  now  rid  of  sand-storms,  which  were  once  the  terror  of  the  place,  being  something  like 
snow-storms,  for  drifts  which  were  to  be  removed.  Our  streets  are  now  hardened  with  clay 
which  has  been  imported,  and  instead  of  its  being  buried,  as  it  would  once  have  been  in  a  few 
days,  I  notice  that  the  surveyors  have  to  resort  to  sprinkhng  it  with  sand  in  wet  weather,  so 
effectually  has  the  culture  of  beach  grass  answered  its  end. 

"  The  mode  of  culture  is  very  simple.  The  grass  is  pulled  up  by  hand  and  placed  in  a 
hole  about  a  foot  deep,  and  the  sand  pressed  down  about  it.  These  holes  are  dug  about  one 
foot  and  a  half  apart.  The  spring  is  the  usual  time  of  planting,  though  many  do  this  work  in 
the  fall  or  winter.  The  roots  of  the  grass,  from  which  it  soon  covers  the  ground,  are  very 
long.  I  have  noticed  them  ten  feet,  and  I  suppose  upon  high  lulls  they  extend  down  into 
wet  sand." 

Beach  grass  seems  to  require  the  assistance  of  some  disturbing  causes  to  enable  it  to 
attain  its  fuU  perfection.  The  driving  winds  in  some  localities,  are  sufficient,  while  in  other 
places,  where  it  does  not  thrive  so  well,  it  is  probable  that  an  iron  tooth  harrow  would  greatly 
improve  and  aid  its  growth.  It  has  beon  extensively  cultivated  or  propagated  from  the  seed 
on  many  parts  of  Cape  Cod,  on  Nantucket,  and  in  fact  to  a  considerable  extent  all  along  our 
coast.  It  comes  in  of  itself  along  Nantasket  Beach  from  seed  borne  by  the  tides,  probably 
from  the  Cape. 

The  Bristly  Foxtail,  {Setaria  verticiUata,)  is  a  grass  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
found  about  farm-houses.  It  has  cylindrical  spikes  two  or  thi-ee  inches  long,  pale  green, 
somewhat  interrupted  with  whorled,  short  clusters,  bristles  single  or  in  pairs,  roughened  or 
barbed  downwards,  short.     Not  cultivated. 

Bottle  Grass,  sometimes  called  Foxtail  [Osetaria  gJauca).  This  is  an  annual  with  a 
stem  from  one  to  three  feet  high,  leaves  broad,  hairy  at  the  base,  sheaths  smooth,  ligule 
bearded,  spike  two  to  three  inches  long,  dense,  cylindrical,  bristles  sis  to  eleven  in  a  cluster, 
rough  upwards,  perfect  flower  wrinkled.  The  spike  is  of  a  tawny  or  dull  orange  yellow  when 
old.     Flowers  in  July.     It  is  common  in  cultivated  grounds  and  barnyards.     Introduced. 

The  Green  Foxtail,  sometimes  also  called  Bottle  Grass,  {Setaria  viridis.)  has  a 
spike  cylindrical,  more  or  less  compound,  green,  bristles  few  in  a  cluster,  longer  than  the 
spikelets,  flower  perfect,  striate  lengthwise  and  dotted.     It  is  common  in  cultivated  grounds 

The  Bengal  Grass,  sometimes  called  Millet,  {Setaria  iialica.)  also  belongs  to  this 
genus.  It  has  a  compound  spike,  thick,  nodding,  six  to  nine  inches  long,  yellowish  or  pur- 
plish, bristles  two  or  three  in  a  cluster.     Introduced  from  Europe. 


GRASSES  AKD  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


159 


PIGEON   GRASS-BRISTLE   GRASS. 

(Setaria  Setosa.} 


160 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


"Vsu^u. 


BERMUDA  GRASS-WIRE   GRASS. 

(Cynodon  Dactylon.) 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  161 

Pigeon  Grass,  Bristle  Grass  (Setaria  setosa).  There  are  two  species  of  Setaria  which 
are  common  in  cultivated  fields  in  the  Northern  States,  iisually  springing  up  after  the  cutting 
of  grain,  and  often  yielding  a  fair  crop  for  mowing.  In  some  of  the  Southern  States,  and 
particularly  in  Texas,  there  is  another  species  that  is  of  longer  and  stronger  growth.  Its  habit 
is  much  like  that  of  the  Itahan  millet  [Setaria  italica,),  and  its  value  is  also  much  the  same  as 
that  species. 

Quaking  Grass,  {Briza  media,)  is  sometimes  met  with  in  pastures,  especially  in  some 
portions  of  New  England.  Panicle  erect,  with  very  slender  spreading  branches,  and  large, 
purplish,  tremulous  spikelets  from  five  to  nine  flowered,  inner  glume  finely  fringed,  entire  at 
the  end.  It  is  a  very  beautiful,  light,  slender  grass,  about  a  foot  high,  perennial.  Flowering 
in  June  and  July.  There  is  an  annual,  the  Large  Quaking  GraSS,  {Briza  maxima,)  with 
large  many-flowered  spikes,  cultivated  in  gardens  for  ornament. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass  common  Darnel  {LoUum  perenne).  Generic  characters — 
spikelets  many-flowered,  solitary  on  each  joint  of  the  continuous  rachis,  placed  edgewise. 
Specific  characters — stem  erect,  smooth,  fifteen  inches  to  two  feet  high,  root  perennial,  fibrous, 
joints  four  or  five,  smooth,  often  purplish,  leaves  dark  green,  lanceolate,  acute,  flat,  smooth 
on  the  outer  surface  and  roughish  on  the  inner,  glume  much  shorter  than  the  spikelet,  flowers 
six  to  nine,  awnless.     Flowers  in  June. 

This  grass  has  had  the  reputation  in  Great  Britain,  for  many  years,  of  being  one  of  the 
most  important  and  valuable  of  the  cultivated  grasses.  It  is  probably  much  better  adapted  to 
a  wet  and  uncertain  chmate  than  to  one  subject  almost  annually  to  droughts,  which  often 
contmue  many  weeks,  parching  up  every  green  thing.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  grass,  the  char- 
acteristics of  which  vary  so  much  from  the  influences  of  soil,  climate  and  culture,  as  perennial 
rye  grass.  Certain  it  is  that  this  grass  has  been  cultivated  in  England  since  1674,  and  in 
the  south  of  France  from  time  immemorial.  It  is  admitted  to  be  inferior  in  nutritive  value 
to  orchard  grass,  [Bactylis  glomerata,)  when  green. 

Whenever  it  is  cut  for  hay,  it  is  necessary  to  take  it  in  the  blossom,  or  very  soon  after, 
since  otherwise  it  becomes  hard  and  wiry,  and  is  not  rehshed  by  stock  of  any  kind  ;  and  it 
changes  very  rapidly  after  blossoming,  from  a  state  in  which  it  contains  the  greatest  amount 
of  water,  sugar,  etc.,  and  the  least  amount  of  woody  fiber, — into  the  state  in  which  it  possesses 
the  least  amount  of  water,  sugar,  etc.,  and  the  greatest  amormt  of  woody  fiber  and  other 
insoluble  solid  matter.  A  specimen  analyzed  about  the  20th  of  June,  and  found  to  contain 
81^  per  cent,  of  water  and  18|  per  cent,  of  solid  matter,  was  found  only  three  weeks  later 
to  contain  only  69  per  cent,  water,  and  31  per  cent.  soUd  matter.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  valu- 
able grass,  and  worthy  of  attention;  but  it  is  not  to  be  compared,  for  the  purposes  of  New 
England  agriculture,  to  Timothy  or  to  orchard  grass.  It  produces  abundance  of  seed,  soon 
arrives  at  maturity,  is  relished  by  stock,  likes  a  variety  of  soils,  all  of  which  it  exhausts  ; 
lasts  six  or  seven  years  and  then  dies  out. 

Italian  Rye  Grass  {LoKum  itaUcum)  differs  from  perennial  rye  grass  in  the  florets 
having  long,  slender  awns,  and  from  bearded  darnel,  [LoKum  temulentum  )  in  the  glumes  being 
shorter  than  the  spikelets.  It  turfs  less  than  the  perennial  rye  grass,  its  stems  are  higher,  its 
leaves  are  larger  and  of  a  lighter  green,  it  gives  an  early,  quick  and  successive  growth  till 
late  in  the  fall. 

It  has  the  credit  abroad  of  being  equally  suited  to  all  the  climates  of  Europe,  giving 
more  abundant  crops,  of  a  better  quality,  and  better  relished  by  anunals  than  the  perennial 
rye  grass.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  gluttons  of  all  the  grasses,  either  cultivated  or  wild,  and 
will  endure  any  amount  of  forcing  by  irrigation  or  otherwise,  while  it  is  said  to  stand  a 
drought  remarkably  well.  The  soils  best  adapted  to  it  seem  to  be  moist,  fertile  and  tenacious- 
or  of  a  medium  consistency  ;  and  on  such  soils  it  is  said  to  be  .one  of  the  best  grasses  known 
to  cut  green  for  soiling,  affording  repeated  luxuriant  and  nutritive  crops. 


162  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

It  is  sometimes  sown  in  autumn,  but  those  who  have  had  the  fullest  experience  in  its 
cultivation  give  a  preference  to  spring  sowing.  As  a  proof  of  the  fondness  of  sheep  for  this 
grass,  it  has  been  observed  that  when  mixed  with  red  clover,  and  sheep  have  been  turned 
into  the  field  after  it  is  mowed,  they  will  eat  down  the  Italian  rye  grass  in  preference  to  the 
clover. 

Its  comparative  value  is  well  known  from  the  thorough  and  reliable  analyses  of  Prof. 
Way.  By  these,  it  appears  that  100  parts  of  timothy  grass,  as  taken  from  the  field,  contain 
57.21  percent,  of  water,  4.86  percent,  of  albuminous  or  flesh-forming  principles,  1.50  per 
cent,  of  fatty  matters,  22.85  per  cent,  of  heat-producing  principles,  such  as  starch,  gum, 
sugar,  etc.,  11.32  per  cent,  of  woody  fiber,  and  2.26  of  mineral  matter  or  ash,  while  100  parts 
of  Italian  rye  grass  taken  from  the  same  kind  of  soil,  and  in  the  same  condition,  green,  con. 
tained  75.61  per  cent,  of  water,  2.45  of  albuminous  or  flesh-forming  principles,  .80  of  fatty 
matters,  14.11  of  heat-producing  principles,  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  4.82  of  woody  fiber,  and 
2.21  of  mineral  matter  or  ash.  Of  these,  the  flesh-forming  principles,  fatty  matters,  and 
heat-producing  principles,  are,  of  course,  by  far  the  most  important;  and  in  all  these  our 
favorite  timothy  very  far  excels  the  Italian  rye  grass,  showing  a  nutritive  value  nearly 
double.  Nor  has  the  Italian  rye  grass  any  advantage  over  timothy  or  herds-grass  in  the  dried 
state,  though  the  difference  is  by  no  means  so  marked,  the  former,  dried  at  212°  Fahrenheit, 
containing  10.10  per  cent,  of  flesh-forming  principles,  the  latter  11.36;  the  former  containing 
3.27  per  cent,  of  fatty  matter,  the  latter  3.55;  the  former  containing  57.82  per  cent,  of  heat- 
forming  principles,  the  latter  53,35. 

There  are  432,000  seeds  in  a  pound  of  Italian  rye  grass,  and  from  thirteen  to  eighteen 
pounds  in  a  bushel. 

Conch  Grass,  Quitch  Grass,  Twitch  Grass,  Dog  Grass,  Chandler  Grass,  etc. 

(Triticum  repens).  The  chief  generic  marks  of  this  grass  are,  three  or  several  flowered  spikelets, 
compressed,  with  the  flat  side  towards  the  rachis;  glumes  nearly  equal  and  opposite,  nerved, 
lower  palea  like  the  glumes  convex  on  the  back,  awned  from  the  tip,  upper  flattened,  stamens 
three;  mostly  annuals,  but  others  are  perennials,  to  which  the  couch  grass  belongs.  The  spe- 
cific characters  of  couch  grass  are,  roots  creeping  extensively,  stem  erect,  round,  smooth, 
from  one  to  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  striated,  having  five  or  six  flat  leaves  with 
smooth,  striated  sheaths ;  the  joints  are  smooth,  the  two  uppermost  very  remote,  leaves  dark 
green,  acute,  upper  one  broader  than  the  lower  ones,  roughish,  sometimes  hairy  on  the  inner 
surface,  smooth  on  the  lower  half.  Inflorescence  in  spikes.  Flowers  in  June  and  July. 
Introduced  from  Europe. 

This  plant  is  generally  regarded  by  farmers  as  a  troublesome  weed,  and  efforts  are  made 
to  get  rid  of  it.  Its  long,  creeping  roots,  branching  in  every  direction,  take  complete  posses- 
sion of  the  soil  and  impoverish  it.  Wlien  green,  however,  it  is  very  much  relished  by  cattle, 
and  if  cut  in  the  blossom  it  makes  a  nutritious  hay.  I  have  seen  acres  of  it  on  the  Connecti- 
cut River  meadows,  where  it  had  taken  jDossession  and  grew  luxuriantly,  and  is  called  wheat 
grass,  from  its  resemblance  to  wheat.  It  goes  in  different  sections  by  a  great  variety  of  names, 
as  quake  grass,  quack  grass,  squitch  grass.     It  is  important  to  destroy  it  if  possible. 

The  Downy  Oat  Grass  (  Triselum  pubescms)  is  a  very  hardy  perennial  grass,  naturalized 
on  chalky  soils,  and  on  such  soils  its  leaves  are  covered  with  a  coating  of  downy  hairs,  which 
it  loses  when  cultivated  on  better  lands.  It  is  regarded  as  a  good  permanent  pasture  grass 
on  account  of  its  hardiness  and  its  being  but  a  slight  impoverisher  of  the  soil,  and  yielding  a 
larger  per  cent,  of  bitter  extractive  than  other  grasses  grown  on  poor,  light  soils.  It  is  there- 
fore recommended  abroad  as  a  prominent  ingredient  of  mixtures  for  pastures.  It  flowers 
early  in  July.     Formerly  classed  as  Arena  pubescens. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  163 

Meadow  Oat  Grass  {Arena  pratensis)  is  a  perennial  grass,  native  of  tte  pastures  of 
Great  Britain,  growing  to  the  height  of  about  eighteen  inches.  It  furnishes  a  hay  of  medium 
quality.     Flourishes  best  on  dry  soils.     Flowers  in  July. 

Tlie  Yellow  Oat  Grass  {Arena  flavescens,  now  generally  classified  as  Trisetum  fiavescens) 
can  scarcely,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  naturalized  here.  It  is  a  perennial  plant  of  slow  growth 
and  medium  quality,  furnishing  a  hay  containing  about  1.79  per  cent,  of  azote  or  nitrogen; 
suitable  for  dry  meadows  and  pastures.  It  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  weed,  growing  about 
eighteen  inches  high.  It  fails  if  cultivated  alone,  but  succeeds  with  other  grasses,  and  is  said 
to  be  the  most  useful  for  fodder,  of  the  oat  grasses.  It  grows  best  with  the  crested  dog's 
tail  and  sweet  scented  vernal.  It  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  bitter  extractive  than  most 
other  grasses,  and  for  that  reason  is  recommended  by  some  English  writers  as  a  valuable 
pasture  grass.     It  flowers  in  July. 

Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass,  or  Tall  Oat  Grass  {Arrenatherum  avenaceum)  is  the  avena 
elatior  of  Linnaeus.  Specific  characters:  Spikelets  open  panicled,  two-flowered,  lower  flower 
staminate,  bearing  a  long  bent  awn  below  the  middle  of  the  back;  leaves  flat,  acute,  roughish 
on  both  sides,  most  on  the  inner ;  panicle  leaning  slightly  on  one  side,  glumes  very  unequal ; 
stems  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  root  perennial,  fibrous,  sometimes  bulbous.  It  is  readily 
distinguished  from  other  grasses  by  its  having  two  florets,  the  lower  one  having  a  long  awn 
rising  from  a  little  above  the  base  of  the  outer  palea.  Introduced.  Flowers  in  June  and 
July. 

This  is  the  Ray  grass  of  France.  It  produces  an  abundant  supply  of  foliage,  and  is  val- 
uable either  for  hay  or  for  pasture,  and  has  been  especially  recommended  for  soiling  purposes, 
on  account  of  its  early  and  luxuriant  growth.  It  is  often  found  on  the  borders  of  fields  and 
hedges,  woods,  and  pastures,  and  sometimes  very  plenty  in  mowing-lands.  After  being 
mown,  it  shoots  up  a  very  thick  aftermath,  and  on  this  account,  partly,  is  regarded  as  nearly 
equal  for  excellence  to  the  common  foxtail  {Alopemrus  pratensis). 

It  grows  spontaneously  on  deep,  sandy  soils,  when  once  naturalized.  It  has  been  culti- 
vated to  some  extent  in  New  England,  and  is  esteemed  by  those  who  know  it,  mainly  for  its 
early,  rapid,  and  late  growth,  making  it  very  well  calculated  as  a  permanent  pasture  grass. 
It  will  succeed  on  tenacious  clover  soils. 

Bermuda  Grass,  Wire  Grass  {Cynodon  dactyhn). — A  low,  creeping  perennial  grass, 
with  abundant  short  leaves  at  the  base,  sparingly  sending  up  slender,  nearly  leafless  flower- 
stalks,  with  3  to  5  slender,  diverging  spikes  at  the  summit.  The  flowers  are  arranged  in  a 
close  row  along  one  side  of  these  spikes.  The  spikelets  are  one-flowered,  with  a  short  pedi- 
celled  rudiment  of  a  second  flower.  The  glumes  are  pointed,  but  without  awns;  the  lower 
palet  boat-shaped. 

This  grass  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is  abundantly  naturalized  in  many  other  countries. 
It  is  said  to  be  a  common  pasture  grass  in  the  West  Indies.  In  the  Southern  States  it  has 
long  been  the  chief  reliance  for  pasture,  and  has  been  extravagantly  praised  by  some,  and 
cursed  by  others,  who  find  it  difBcult  to  eradicate  it  when  once  established.  Mr.  C.  Mohr 
speaks  of  it  thus : — 

"  It  thrives  in  the  arid,  barren  drift-sands  of  the  sea-shore,  covering  them  by  its  long, 
creeping  stems,  whose  deeply-penetrating  roots  impart  firmness  to  a  soil,  which  else  would 
remain  devoid  of  vegetation.  It  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  our  grasses,  either 
in  the  pasture  or  cured  as  hay." 

Col.  T.  C.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  says:  "The  desideratum  to  the  South  is  a  grass  that  is 

perennial,  nutritious,  and  adapted  to  the  climate.     While  we  have  grasses  and  forage  plants 

that  do  well  when  nursed,  we  have  few  that  live  and  thrive  here  as  in  their  native  habitat. 

The  Bermuda  and  crab  grasses  are  at  home  in  the  South.     They  not  only  live,  but  hve  in 

12 


164  TECE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

spite  of  neglect,  and  when  petted  and  encouraged  they  make  such  grateful  returns  as  astonish 
the  benefactor." 

It  seems  that  it  rarely  ripens  any  seed,  and  the  usual  method  of  reproducing  it  is  to  chop 
up  the  roots  with  a  cutting-knife,  sow  them  broadcast,  and  plow  imder  shallow.  Col.  Lane 
states : — 

"  Upon  our  ordinary  uplands  I  have  found  no  difiBculty  in  destroying  it  by  close  cultiva- 
tion in  cotton  for  two  years.  It  requires  a  few  extra  plowings  to  get  the  sod  thoroughly 
broken  to  pieces." 

Professor  Killebrew,  of  Tennessee,  states  that — "  In  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  the  South  gen- 
erally, it  is,  and  has  been,  the  chief  reliance  for  pasture  for  a  long  time,  and  the  immense 
herds  of  cattle  on  the  Southern  prairies  subsist  principally  on  this  food.  It  revels  on  sandy 
soils,  and  has  been  grown  extensively  on  the  sandy  lulls  of  Virginia  and  North  and  South 
Carolina.  It  is  used  extensively  on  the  southern  rivers  to  hold  the  levees  and  the  embank- 
ments of  the  roads.  It  will  throw  its  runners  over  a  rock  six  feet  across,  and  soon  hide  it 
from  view,  or  it  will  run  down  the  sides  of  the  deepest  gully  and  stop  its  washing.  Hogs 
thrive  upon  its  succulent  roots,  and  horses  and  cattle  upon  its  foliage.  It  has  the  capacity 
to  withstand  any  amount  of  heat  and  drought,  and  months  that  are  so  dry  as  to  check  the 
growth  of  blue  grass  wiU  only  make  the  Bei-muda  greener  and  more  thrifty." 

Mr.  WaU,  of  Mississippi,  says  of  it:  "It  is  a  most  valuable  grass,  and  is  destined  to  be  the 
salvation  of  the  hill  land  in  Mississippi.  "With  us  it  has  no  seed,  but  can  be  easily  propagated 
by  dropping  the  cuttings  in  a  furrow,  two  or  three  feet  apart.  It  does  not  endure  shade,  and 
can  be  destroyed  by  sowing  the  land  with  oats,  followed  by  peas.  It  throws  out  runners 
down  the  sides  of  the  deepest  guUy^,  and  stops  its  washing.  Hogs  thrive  upon  it  and  its 
succulent  roots,  and  horses  and  cattle  upon  its  fohage." 

Crow-foot,  Yard-grass,  Dog's-tail  {Eleusine  indica). — This  is  an  annual  grass  belong- 
ing to  tropical  countries,  but  now  naturalized  in  most  temperate  climates.  In  the  Southern 
Slates  it  is  found  in  every  door-yard,  and  in  all  waste  places.  The  culms  or  flowering  stems 
rise  from  6  to  18  inches  high,  and  are  usually  coarse  and  thick;  the  summit  is  crowned  with 
from  2  to  6  spikes,  resembhng  those  of  common  crab  grass,  Panicum  sanrjuinah,  but  much 
thicker  and  heavier.  It  makes  a  thick  bed  of  rather  coarse  but  rather  long  and  wide  leaves, 
and  takes  such  a  firm  hold  on  the  soil  that  it  is  diflScult  to  puU  up  a  clump  by  hand.  The 
spikelets  are  crowded  on  one  side  of  the  flattened  spikes,  2  to  6  flowered,  and  with  pointless 
glumes. 

It  is  said  to  form  a  good  and  lasting  pasturage  for  stock  at  the  South,  although  it  does 
not  appear  to  be  very  highly  recommended  for  cultivation  in  that  section. 

Oama  Grass  {Tripsacum  dactyhides).  A  tall  perennial  grass,  with  solid  clums,  broad, 
flat  leaves,  and  with  flower-spikes  from  4  to  8  inches  long,  produced  from  the  side  joints 
or  from  the  top,  either  singly  or  two  or  three  together.  The  upper  portion  of  these  spikes 
is  staminate  or  male,  and  the  lower  portion  pistillate  and  producing  the  seeds.  It  grows  from 
three  to  six  feet  high,  with  large  broad  leaves  resembling  those  of  Indian  com.  The  upper  or 
male  portion  of  the  flower-spikes  drops  ofi  after  flowering,  and  the  fertile  portion  easily  breaks 
up  into  short  joints.  These  joints  are  thick  and  polished,  and  the  flowers  and  seeds  are 
deeply  imbedded  in  them. 

Mr.  Howard,  in  his  "  Manual  of  Grasses,"  says:  "This  is  a  native  of  the  South,  from  the 
mountains  to  the  coast.  The  seed  stem  runs  up  to  the  height  of  five  to  seven  feet.  The  seeds 
break  off  from  the  stem  as  if  in  a  joint,  a  single  seed  at  a  time.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of 
com.  When  cut  before  the  seed  stems  shoot  up  they  make  a  coarse  but  nutritious  hay. 
It  may  be  cut  three  or  four  times  during  the  season.  The  quantity  of  forage  which  can  be 
made  from  it  is  enormous.     Both  cattle  and  horses  are  fond  of  the  hav.     The  roots  are 


'\n.(5)rx 


YARD,  GRASS-CROW  FOOT.-DOG'S  TAIL. 

(Eleusine  Indica.)  165 


GAMA   GRASS. 

{Tripsacum  dactyluides.; 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  167 

almost  as  laxge  and  strong  as  cane  roots.  It  would  require  a  team  of  four  to  six  oxen  to 
plow  it  up.  It  can,  however,  be  easily  killed  by  close  grazing,  and  the  mass  of  dead  roots 
would  certainly  greatly  enrich  the  land.  As  the  seeds  of  this  grass  vegetate  with  uncertainty, 
it  is  usually  propagated  by  setting  out  sKps  of  the  roots  about  two  feet  apart  each  way.  On 
rich  land  the  tussocks  wiU  soon  meet.  In  the  absence  of  the  finer  hay  grasses  this  grass  will 
be  found  an  abundant  and  excellent  substitute.  The  hay  made  from  it  is  very  like  corn 
fodder,  is  quite  equal  to  it  in  value,  and  may  be  saved  at  a  tithe  of  the  expense." 

Rattlesnake  Grass,  ( Glyceria  canadensis.)  The  generic  characteristics  of  glyceria  are, 
many-flowered  spikes;  mostly  flattish;  glumes  two-pointed,  nearly  equal,  awnless,  the  lower 
one  obtuse,  seven-nerved;  roots  creeping.  Perennial.  Wet  places  and  standing  water.  The 
name  of  the  genus  is  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  sweet. 

Rattlesnake  grass  has  an  oblong,  pyramidal,  spreading  panicle,  with  beautifully-drooping 
spikelets,  six  or  eight  flowered,  and  long,  roughish  leaves,  which  together  make  it  an  object 
of  interest  and  search  for  bouquets  and  vases.  It  is  very  common  in  wet,  boggy  places,  grow- 
ing from  two  to  three  feet  high,  but  possesses  little  or  no  agricultural  value.  Flowers 
in  July. 

The  Obtuse  Spear  Grass,  {Glyceria  oltusa,)  has  a  dense,  narrowly-oblong  panicle; 
spikelets  six  or  seven  flowered,  erect,  swelling;  lower  palea  obtuse,  leaves  smooth,  as  long  as 
the  stem.  This  is  an  aquatic  grass,  found  occasionally  on  the  borders  of  ponds.  Flowers  in 
August.     Of  no  agricultural  value. 

Long  Panicled  Manna  Grass,  {Glyceria  dongata,)  is  a  very  distinct  species;  stems 
one  to  three  feet  high,  panicle  branching,  narrowly-elongated,  recurving,  the  branches 
appressed,  spikelets  pale,  erect,  three  to  four  flowered,  lower  palea  obtuse,  rather  longer  than 
the  upper;  stamens  two,  stigmas  compound,  leaves  very  long  and  rough.  Flourishes  in  wet 
woods  and  swamps.  Flowers  in  June  and  July.  Perennial.  Of  no  special  agricultural 
value. 

Mountain  Rice,  (Orygopm  metonocorpa,)  is  a  grass  common  in  rocky  woods;  the  large 
white-grained  mountain  rice,  ( Oryzopsis  asperifolia,)  common  on  steep  and  rocky  hill-sides  and 
dry  woods,  and  the  Smallest  Oryzopsis,  {Oryzopsis  canadensis,)  are  sometimes  found.  These 
grasses  are  easily  distinguished  from  each  other.  The  first  has  an  awn  thrice  the  length  of 
the  blackish  palea;  the  second,  an  awn  two  or  three  times  the  length  of  the  whitish  palea;  the 
third,  an  awn  short,  deciduous  or  wanting.  The  first  grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  the 
second  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches. 

Feather  Grass,  or  Black  Oat  Grass,  {Stipa  avenacea,)  is  sometimes  met  with  in 
dry,  sandy  woods,  and  is  collected  for  vases  and  ornaments,  but  is  of  no  agricultural  value. 
It  rises  from  one  to  two  feet;  its  panicle  is  open,  leaves  almost  bristle  form,  palea  blackish, 
nearly  as  long  as  the  almost  equal  glumes,  awn  bent  above,  twisted  below.     Flowers  in  July. 

POTCrty  Grass,  or  Three  Awned  Grass,  {Aristida  dichotoma,)  and  Slender  Three 
Awned  Grass,  {Aristida  gracilis,)  are  found  in  old,  sandy  fields,  dry,  sterile  hill-sides  and 
pine  barrens,  but  are  of  no  value  for  cultivation.  One  or  two  other  species  of  three-awned 
plants  also  occur  on  similar  soils,  as  the  Aristida  purpurascens  and  the  Aristida  tuberculosa. 
None  of  these  species  are  of  importance  in  agriculture. 

Fresh  water  Cord  Grass,  {Spartina  cynosuroides.)  This  is  found  on  the  banks  of 
streams  and  lakes,  rising  to  the  height  of  from  two  to  four  feet,  with  slender  clum,  narrow 
leaves  two  to  four  feet  long,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  spikes  of  a  straw  color.  Flowers  in 
August. 

The  Salt  Reed  Grass,  {Spartina  polystachya,)  has  a  stout  culm  from  four  to  nine  feet 
high,  broad  leaves,  roughish  underneath  and  on  the  margins;  spikes  20  to  50  in  number, 
forming  a  dense,  oblong,  purplish  cluster.     It  is  found  on  the  salt  marshes. 


168  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Rush  Salt  Grass,  (Spartina  juncea,)  grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  stems  slender, 
leaves  narrow,  rush-Kke,  and  very  smooth.  It  is  common  on  salt  marshes  and  sandy  sea- 
beaches,  and  flowers  in  August. 

Salt  Marsh  Grass,  (Spartina  stricta,  var.  glabra,)  grows  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  has 
from  five  to  twelve  spikes  from  two  to  three  inches  long;  spikelets  crowded  and  lapping  over 
each  other.     It  is  common  on  the  coast. 

Sand  Grass,  {Tricuspis  purpurea,)  is  also  found  on  dry,  sandy  soUs,  along  the  coast; 
flowering  in  August  and  September.  It  is  acid  to  the  taste,  grows  from  six  inches  to  a  foot 
high,  and  has  numerous  bearded  joints. 

Tall  Red  top,  {Tricuspis  sesleroides.)  This  grass  grows  from  3  to  5  feet  high.  It  is  very 
smooth;  the  leaves  are  long  and  flat,  the  lower  sheaths  hairy  or  smoothish.  The  panicle  is 
large  and  loose,  at  first  erect,  but  finally  spreading  widely;  the  branches  in  pairs  or  single, 
naked  below,  flowering  toward  the  extremities  and  becoming  drooping.  The  spikelets  are  5 
to  6  flowered,  3  to  4  lines  long,  purple,  on  short  pedicels.  The  glumes  are  shorter  than  the 
flowers,  unequal,  and  pointed;  the  lower  palet  is  hairy  toward  the  base,  having  3  strong  nerves 
which  are  extended  into  short  cusps  or  teeth  at  the  summit.  It  is  a  large  and  showy  grass 
when  fully  matured,  the  panicles  being  large,  spreading,  and  of  a  handsome  purplish  color. 
Instead  of  being  called  Tall  Red-top  it  would  be  much  more  properly  called  Purple-top. 

It  grows  in  sandy  fields  and  on  dry,  sterile  banks,  from  New  York  to  South  Carohna, 
westward  to  the  prairies,  and  southwestward  to  Texas,  where  several  other  species  also  occur. 

It  is  not  considered  very  valuable,  but  is  however  cut  for  hay  and  eaten  by  cattle  and 
other  stock  in  those  locahties  where  it  grows  without  cultivation,  as  in  the  mountain  meadows 
of  Pennsylvania.  It  is  said  to  be  very  harsh  and  wiry,  and  probably  would  not  be  eaten  by 
stock  if  they  could  have  access  to  hay  of  a  better  quality. 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,  Velvet  Grass,  {Holcus  lanatus,)  has  its  spikelets  crowded  in  a 
somewhat  open  panicle,  and  an  awn  with  the  lower  part  perfectly  smooth.  The  generic  char- 
acters are,  two-flowered  spikelets  jointed  with  the  pedicels,  glumes  boat-shaped,  membran- 
aceous, inclosing  and  exceeding  the  flowers;  lower  flower  perfect,  its  lower  palea  awnless  and 
pointless,  upper  flower  staminate  only,  bearing  a  stout  bent  awn  below  the  apex.  Stamens 
three;  grain  free,  slightly  grooved. 

This  species  grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  stem  erect,  round,  root  perennial,  fibrous, 
leaves  four  or  five,  with  soft,  downy  sheaths,  upper  sheath  much  longer  than  its  leaf,  inflated, 
ligule  obtuse,  joints  usually  four,  generally  covered  with  soft,  downy  hairs,  the  points  of  which 
are  turned  downwards;  leaves  pale  green,  flat,  broad,  acute,  soft  on  both  sides,  covered  with 
delicate  slender  hairs.  Inflorescence  compoxmd  panicled,  of  a  greenish,  reddish,  or  pinkish 
tinge;  hairy  glumes,  oblong,  tipped  with  a  minute  bristle.  Florets  of  two  palese.  Flowers 
in  June.     Introduced. 

This  beautiful  grass  grows  in  moist  fields  and  peaty  soils,  but  I  have  found  it  on  dry, 
sandy  soils  on  Nantucket,  and  specimens  have  been  sent  me  from  Boxford  and  other  places 
where  it  grew  on  upland  fields,  and  was  cultivated  with  other  grasses.  It  is  productive  and 
easy  of  cultivation.  It  is  of  but  little  value  either  for  pasture  or  hay,  cattle  not  being  fond  of 
it.  When  once  introduced  it  will  readily  spread  from  its  light  seeds  which  are  easily  dis- 
persed by  the  wind.  It  does  not  merit  cultivation  except  on  poor,  peaty  lands,  where  better 
grasses  will  not  succeed.  This  grass  loses  about  .63  of  its  weight  in  drying,  and  the  hay 
contains  about  1.92  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

Sweet  Scented  Yerual  Grass,  {Anthoxanthum  odoratum.)  Specific  characteristics: 
Spikelets  spreading,  three -flowered,  lateral  flowers  neutral,  with  one  palea,  hairy  on  the  out- 
side and  awned  on  the  back;  glumes  thin,  acute,  keeled,  the  upper  twice  as  long  as  the  lower; 


ai.ajtXA& 


TALL   RED  TOP. 

(Tricuspis  sesleroides.) 


BROOM  SEDGE. 

(Andropogou  furcutus.) 


170 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  171 

seed  ovate,  adhering  to  the  palea  which  incloses  it;  root  perennial.  Flowers  in  May  and 
June.     Stems  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  high.     Introduced  from  Europe. 

This  is  one  of  the  earliest  spring  grasses,  as  well  as  one  of  the  latest  in  the  autumn.  It 
is  almost  the  only  grass  that  is  fragrant.  It  possesses  a  property  peculiar  to  this  species,  or 
possessed  by  only  a  few  others,  known  as  benzoic  acid.  It  is  said  to  be  this  which  not  only 
gives  it  its  own  aromatic  odor,  but  imparts  it  to  other  grasses  with  which  it  is  cured.  The 
green  leaves  when  bruised  give  out  this  perfume  to  the  fingers,  and  the  plant  may  thus  be 
known.  It  possesses  but  little  value  of  itself,  its  nutritive  properties  being  slight;  nor  is  it 
much  relished  by  stock  of  any  kind,  but  as  a  pasture  grass  on  almost  all  soils,  and  with  a 
large  mixture  of  other  grasses,  it  is  very  valuable  for  its  early  growth,  and  this  gives  it  the 
character  of  a  permanent  pasture  grass. 

It  is  not  uncommon  in  New  England  pastures  and  road-sides,  growing  as  if  it  were  indi- 
genous.    I  have  found  fine  specimens  of  it  on  dry  soils  at  Nantucket  and  elsewhere. 

The  aftermath  or  fall  growth  of  this  beautiful  grass  is  said  to  be  richer  in  nutritive  qual- 
ities than  the  growth  of  the  spring.  Though  it  is  pretty  generally  diffused  over  the  country, 
it  is  only  on  certain  soils  that  it  takes  complete  possession  of  the  surface  and  forms  the  pre- 
dominant gross  in  a  permanent  turf,  as  it  is  said  to  do  in  some  sections  around  Philadelphia. 
The  flavor  of  the  spring  butter  sold  in  that  city  is  ascribed  by  some  to  the  prevalence  of  this 
grass.  There  seems  to  be  nothing  inconsistent  in  this  supposition,  since  it  is  well  known  that 
disagreeable  flavors  are  often  imparted  to  the  milk  and  the  butter  by  the  substances  taken  as 
food  by  the  cow,  as  turnips,  for  instance,  or  cabbages,  or  cauliflowers;  and  if  an  objectionable 
flavor  may  be  imparted  by  one  substance,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  an  opposite  flavor  may 
be  given  by  another. 

Dr.  Emerson,  of  Philadelphia,  found  by  experiments  in  flavoring  other  grasses  with  a 
slight  addition  of  benzoic  acid  in  the  form  of  an  essence,  previous  to  feeding  them  out  to 
milch  cows,  that  the  flavor  of  the  best  Philadelphia  spring  butter  was  thus  imparted  to  the 
butter  made  from  them. 

A  curious  and  beautiful  peculiarity  is  exhibited  in  the  seeds  of  this  grass,  by  which  they 
are  prevented  from  germinating  in  wet  weather  after  approaching  maturity,  and  thus  becom- 
ing abortive.  The  husks  of  the  blossom  adhering  to  the  seed  when  ripe,  and  the  jointed  awn  by 
its  spiral  contortions,  when  affected  by  the  alternate  moisture  and  drjmess  of  the  atmosphere, 
acts  like  levers  to  separate  and  lift  it  out  from  the  calyx  even  before  the  grass  is  bent  or  lodged 
and  while  the  spike  is  still  erect.  If  the  hand  is  moistened  and  the  seeds  placed  in  it,  they 
will  appear  to  move  like  insects,  from  the  uncoiling  of  the  spiral  twist  of  the  awns  attached 
to  them. 

There  are  923,200  seeds  in  a  pound,  and  eight  pounds  in  a  bushel.  It  cannot  be  said  to 
belong  to  the  grasses  useful  for  general  cultivation. 

Reed  Canary  Grass.  (Phalaris  arundinacea.)  Generic  characteristics:  Spikelets 
crowded  in  a  dense  or  spiked  panicle,  perfect  flower,  flattish,  with  two  neutral  rudiments  of 
flowers,  one  on  each  side  at  its  base,  awnless,  two  shining  paleae,  closely  inclosing  the  smooth 
flattened  grain;  stamens  three.  Specific  description:  Panicle  very  slightly  branched,  clus- 
tered, somewhat  spreading  when  old,  glumes  wingless,  rudimentary  florets  hairy,  stem  round, 
smooth,  erect,  from  two  to  seven  feet  high,  leaves  five  or  six  in  number,  broad,  lightish 
green,  acute,  harsh,  flat,  ribbed,  central  rib  the  most  prominent,  roughish  on  both  surfaces, 
edges  minutely  toothed,  smooth,  striated  sheaths.  Flowers  in  July.  Grows  on  wet  grounds 
by  the  sides  of  rivers  and  standing  pools,  best  suited  to  somewhat  tenacious  soils. 

A  beautiful  variety  of  this  species  is  the  Ribbon  or  Striped  grass  of  the  gardens,  familiar 
to  every  one.  It  will  bear  cutting  two  or  three  times  in  a  season,  but  if  not  cut  early  the  foli- 
age is  coarse.  Cattle  are  not  fond  of  it  at  any  stage  of  its  growth,  but  if  cut  early  and  well 
cured,  they  will  eat  it  in  the  winter  if  they  can  get  nothing  better. 


172  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

This  grass  is  common  in  low,  rich  soils  where  the  water  is  either  standing  or  sluggish, 
and  is  not  unfrequently  produced  by  transplanting  the  roots  of  the  striped  grass  into  suitable 
soils.  In  one  instance  within  my  knowledge,  it  came  in  and  produced  an  exceedingly  heavy 
crop,  simply  from  roots  of  ribbon  grass  which  had  been  dug  up  from  a  garden  and  thrown 
into  the  brook  to  get  them  out  of  the  way.  Several  other  instances  of  a  similar  nature  have 
also  come  to  my  notice.  One  farmer  has  propagated  it  extensively  in  his  wet  meadows  by 
forcing  the  ripe  seed  panicles  into  the  mud  with  his  feet.  As  the  stripe  of  the  ribbon  grass  is 
only  accidental,  dependent  on  location  and  soil,  it  constitutes  only  a  variety  of  the  reed  canary 
grass,  and  loses  the  stripe  when  transferred  to  a  wet  and  muddy  soil. 

The  panicles  of  this  grass,  if  allowed  to  stand  after  the  time  of  flowering,  become  filled 
with  ergot,  or  long,  black  spurs,  issuing  from  between  the  glumes,  and  occupying  the  place 
of  grain.  This,  if  there  were  no  other  reason,  would  be  sufBcient  to  determine  that  it  should 
be  cut  at  or  before  the  time  of  flowering.  I  have  never  seen  rye  worse  affected  than  my 
specimens  of  this  grass  are.  The  effects  of  this  mysterious  disease  are  well  known.  The 
noxious  power  it  exerts  on  the  system  of  animals  which  receive  even  a  small  portion  of  it,  is 
oftentimes  dreadful,  producing  most  horrible  gangrenes,  rotting  of  the  extremities,  internal 
tortures  and  agonizing  death ;  it  has  been  known  to  slough  and  kill  not  a  few  human  beings 
who  have  accidentally  or  inadvertently  eaten  grain  or  flour  infected  with  it. 

The  variety  called  striped  grass,  (colorata,)  is  exceedingly  hardy,  and  may  be  propagated 
to  any  extent  by  dividing  and  transplanting  the  roots.  In  moist  soil  it  spreads  rapidly  and 
forms  a  thick  mass  of  fodder  which  might  be  repeatedly  cut  without  injury,  though  it  is  of 
httle  value  for  feeding  stock. 

The  Common  Caiiary  Grass,  (Phalaris  canariensis,)  is  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  to 
some  extent  in  fields  and  waste  places,  for  the  sake  of  the  seed  for  the  canary  bird.  It 
has  a  spiked,  oval  panicle,  glumes  wing-keeled;  rudimentary  flowers  smooth  and  half  the 
length  of  the  perfect  one.     Flowers  in  July  and  August. 

Millet  Grass,  (MilUum  effusum,)  is  found  growing  commonly  in  moist,  shady  woods, 
mountain  meadows,  and  on  the  borders  of  streams.  Panicle  widely  diffuse,  compound, 
glumes  ovate,  very  obtuse,  leaves  broad  and  flat,  thin,  root  perennial,  flower  oblong.  Flow- 
ers in  June.  Introduced.  Of  no  value  for  cultivation,  the  foliage  possessing  but  slight  nutri- 
tive qualities.     The  seeds  are  sought  by  birds.     It  will  thrive  transplanted  to  open  places. 

Feather  Grass,  (Leptochha  mucronata,)  is  an  annual  grass  growing  in  many  of 
the  Southern  States.  It  reaches  the  height  of  from  two  to  three  feet,  the  flowers  being 
arranged  on  numerous  slender  spikes  in  a  long-panicled  raceme.  They  are  very  minute,  from 
three  to  four  in  a  spikelet,  the  uppermost  one  usually  imperfect;  the  glumes  pointed.  When 
full  grown  it  is  a  beautiful  grass,  the  panicles  on  thrifty  specimens  sometimes  becoming  two 
feet  long,  the  slender  branches  arranged  along  the  main  stem  in  a  feathery-like  manner,  from 
whence  it  takes  its  name.  It  grows  in  fields  and  pastures,  and  as  it  is  less  affected  with 
drought  than  some  other  varieties,  affords  a  small  amount  of  grazing  during  the  hot  months, 
when  the  regular  pasture  grasses  are  parched  and  dry.  It  is  not  considered  of  much  agri- 
cultural value. 

Water  Grass.  {Paspalum  laeve.)  There  are  a  large  number  of  species  of  this  genus 
which  are  to  all  appearance  so  nearly  alike  as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable.  They  resemble 
in  their  flower  structure  the  Panicum,  from  which  they  chiefly  differ  in  the  want  of  a  lower 
glume.  The  flowers  are  spiked  or  racemed  in  two  or  more  rows  on  one  side  of  a  flattened 
stalk,  while  the  spikelets  are  one-flowered,  or  with  the  rudiment  of  a  second.  The  flowers 
are  ovate  or  roundish. 

Mr.  Phares,  of  Mississippi,  says  of  this:  "  It  is  not  called  water  grass  because  it  grows 
in  and  about  water,  for  it  does  not,  but  probably  because  it  is  very  succulent.     It  is  trouble- 


FEATHER  GRASS. 

(Leptocliloa  mucronata.) 


173 


Vsa.^Vj 


"WATER  GRASS. 

(Paspalum  lasve.) 


m 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  175 

some  in  crops ;  live  stock  are  very  fond  of  it  in  all  stages  of  growth  and  as  dry  hay.  A 
neighbor  has  a  meadow  of  it  from  which  he  mows  every  summer  about  two  tons  of  hay  per 
acre.     It  is  very  easy  to  set  land  with  it." 

Smut  Grass.  {Spariholixs  indicus.)  This  grass  is  a  native  of  India,  but  is  now 
spread  over  many  countries,  and  is  found  more  or  less  abundantly  in  all  the  Southern  States. 
It  is  called  ''Smut  grass,"  on  account  of  its  heads  becoming  affected  with  a  blackish  smut 
after  flowering.  It  is  said  to  grow  luxuriantly  on  uncultivated  lands,  and  is  eaten  by  cattle 
and  norses  with  evident  relish,  and  seems  a  valuable  plant.  Dr.  Gattinger,  of  Tennessee, 
says  of  it:  — 

"  All  parts  of  the  plant  are  equally  phant  and  succulent.  It  sprouts  again  after  being 
pastured  down,  with  niimerous  new  culms,  and  its  growing  season  lasts  from  May  till  frost. 
The  culms  stand  about  two  feet  high,  and,  as  far  as  I  have  observed,  I  found  it  always  grow- 
ing in  patches.  It  grows  in  low  and  small  tufts,  and  sticks  firmly  to  the  soil.  I  would  very 
earnestly  recommend  to  try  it  under  cultivation."  The  flowers  are  borne  in  a  long,  narrow, 
spike-like  panicle.     The  spikelets  are  single  flowered,  with  unequal  glumes. 

Wild  Fescue.  (  Uniola  latifolia.)  —  This  is  a  beautiful  grass  with  very  large  spikelets; 
in  form  they  are  somewhat  hke  those  of  the  Bromus  xmioloides,  and,  like  them,  are  very  flat 
and  compressed.     Mr.  Charles  Mohr,  of  Alabama,  says  of  it:  — 

"  A  fine  vernal  grass,  with  a  rich  foliage,  blooming  early  in  May,  two  to  three  feet  high; 
frequent  in  damp,  sandy  loam,  forming  large  tufts.  This  perennial  grass  is  certainly  valuable, 
affording  an  abundant  range  early  in  the  season;  if  cultivated  it  would  yield  large  crops 
ready  for  cutting  from  the  1st  of  May.  It  is  called,  by  some,  wild  fescue  or  oat  grass.  It  is 
not  found  near  the  coast,  consequently  I  had  no  chance  to  observe  its  growth  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  and  in  the  winter  season,  and  therefore  am  not  able  to  judge  of  its 
value  as  a  pasture  grass."  It  grows  as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania,  but  it  is  less  vigorous  in 
growth  as  it  advances  northward. 

Smooth  Brome  Grass,  or  Upright  Chess,  {Bromus  racem.o»us,)  has  a  panicle  erect, 
simple,  rather  narrow,  contracted  when  in  fruit.  Flowers  closer  than  in  the  preceding 
lower  palea  exceeding  the  upper,  bearing  an  awn  of  its  own  length.  Stem  erect,  round, 
more  slender  than  in  chess,  sheaths  slightly  hairy.  In  other  respects  it  is  very  much  hke 
Willard's  bromus,  but  may  always  be  distinguished  from  it  as  well  as  from  Bromus  arvensis, 
in  the  summit  of  the  large  glume  being  half-way  between  its  base  and  the  summit  of  the 
third  floret,  on  the  same  side;  whereas  in  "Willard's  bromus  the  summit  of  the  large  glume  is 
half-way  between  its  base  and  summit  of  the  second  floret.  This  character  is  constant,  and 
offers  the  surest  mark  of  distinction.  It  is  common  in  grain  fields.  Flowers  in  June.  It 
is  worthless  for  cultivation. 

Soft  Chess,  or  Soft  Brome  Grass,  (Bromus  mollis,)  is  sometimes  found.  I  pro- 
cured beautiful  specimens  of  it  at  Nantucket,  where  it  was  growing  in  the  turf  with  other 
grasses  on  a  sandy  soil  near  the  shore.  Its  panicle  is  erect,  closely  contracted  in  fruit,  spike- 
lets conical,  ovate,  stems  erect,  more  or  less  hairy,  with  the  hairs  pointing  downwards  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  high,  joints  four  or  five,  slightly  hairy,  leaves  flat,  striated,  hairy 
on  both  sides,  rough  at  the  edges  and  points;  summit  of  the  large  glume  midway  between 
its  base  and  the  apex  of  the  third  floret,  by  which  it  is  always  distinguished  from  Willard's 
bromus.  Flowers  in  June.  Birds  are  fond  of  the  seed,  which  are  large  and  ripen  early. 
Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

The  Wild  Chess,  (Bromus  kalmii,)  is  another  species,  found  often  in  dry,  open 
wood-lands.  It  has  a  small,  simple  panicle,  with  the  spikelets  drooping  on  hairy  peduncles, 
seven  to  twelve  flowered  and  silky;  awn  only  one-third  the  length  of  the  lance-shaped  flower, 


176 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


SMUT    GRASS. 
(Sporoliolus  Iiulious.) 


■WILD  FESCUE. 

(Uniola  latifolia.) 


177 


SCHRADER'S  GRASS-RESCUE  GRASS. 

(Biumus  uuioloide.s.) 


VANILLA  GRASS 

(Hierochloa  borealis.) 


BROOM  G-RASS.-BROOM  SEDGE. 

(Andropogon  scoparius.) 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  181 

stem  slender,  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  high,  leaves  and  sheaths  hairy.     Flowers  in  June 
and  July.     Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

Schrader's  Grass,  Rescue  Grass  (Bromus  unioloides).  The  description  of  this  grass 
is  taken  from  a  recent  report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture: 

"This  is  one  of  the  so-called  winter  grasses;  that  is,  it  makes  a  large  share  of  its  growth 
during  the  winter  months.  It  belongs  to  the  Chess  or  Cheat  family.  In  its  early  growth  it 
spreads  and  produces  a  large  amount  of  leaves.  Early  in  the  spring  it  sends  up  its  flower 
stalks,  which  grow  about  3  feet  high,  with  a  rather  large,  open,  spreading  panicle,  the  ends 
of  the  branchlets  bearing  the  large  flattened  spikelets,  which,  when  mature,  hang  gracefully 
upon  their  stems,  giving  them  quite  an  ornamental  appearance.  These  spikelets  are  from  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  composed  of  two  acute  lanceolate  glumes  at  the 
base,  and  from  7  to  1 0  flowers,  arranged  in  two  rows  alternate  on  each  side  of  the  axis.  The 
flowers  are  lanceolate,  or  ovate  lanceolate,  the  lower  palet  extending  into  a  fine  point  or  short 
awn. 

During  several  years  past  this  grass  has  been  sent  to  this  department,  chiefly  from  Loui- 
siana and  Texas,  and  has  been  much  commended.  Many  years  since  the  same  grass  was  dis- 
tributed and  experimented  with  under  the  name  of  AustraUan  oats,  or  Bromus  schraderi.  It 
is  not  adapted  to  use  in  a  country  with  severe  winters,  and  hence  did  not  give  satisfaction  in 
all  places.     Mr.  C.  Mohr,  of  Mobile,  says  of  it : 

"  Only  of  late  years  found  spreading  in  different  parts  of  this  state  ;  makes  its  appearance 
in  February,  grows  in  tufts,  its  numerous  leafy  stems  growing  from  2  to  3  feet  high  ;  it  ripens 
the  seed  in  May  ;  affords  in  the  earlier  months  of  spring  a  much-relished  nutritious  food,  as 
well  as  a  good  hay." 

Mr.  Williams  writes  from  San  Antonio,  Texas,  describing  the  introduction  and  spreading 
of  a  patch  of  this  grass.  He  says  :  "  Inasmuch  as  Western  Texas  is  the  great  stock-producing 
section  of  the  Southwest,  and  considering  the  fact  that  pasturage  is  scanty,  particularly  in 
February,  stimting  the  growth  of  young  cattle,  this  seems  wonderfully  adapted  to  supply  just 
what  is  greatly  wanted,  both  for  milch  cows,  calves,  colts,  and  ewes  just  dropping  lambs ;  and 
besides,  this  grass  grows  well  on  the  thinnest  soil  and  crowds  out  weeds,  maturing  in  March 
and  early  April,  while  not  interfering  with  the  native  mesquite.  I  therefore  regard  this  grass 
as  a  wonderful  and  most  important  discovery." 

This  grass  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Georgia  by  General  Iverson,  of  Columbus, 
and  by  him  called  Rescue  grass.  The  favorable  opinion  which  it  at  first  received  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  well  sustained  in  that  state. 

Fringed  Brome  Grass,  {Bromus  dliatus,)  is  often  foimd  in  woods,  and  on  rocky  hills 
and  river  banks.  It  has  a  compound  panicle,  very  loose,  nodding,  spikelets  seven  to  twelve 
flowered,  flowers  tipped  with  an  awn  half  to  three-fourths  their  length,  stem  three  to  four 
feet  high,  with  large  leaves.     Flowers  in  July  and  August.     Of  no  value  for  cultivation. 

The  Meadow  Brome  Grass,  {Bromus  pratensis,)  is  a  perennial  weed  in  the  corn-fields 
of  England,  and  is  only  recommended  in  any  part  of  Europe  for  dry,  arid  soils,  where  nothing 
better  will  grow. 

The  brome  grasses  generally  have  not  been  found  worthy  of  much  attention  as  cultivated 
agricultural  grasses,  and  the  cleaner  the  farmer  keeps  his  fields  of  them,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
better. 

Tanilla  or  Seneca  Grass  {Hierochha  horealis).  This  is  a  grass  growing  in  the  northern 
latitudes,  in  moist  meadows  near  the  coast,  also  in  low,  marshy  ground  in  some  parts  of  Illinois 
and  other  Western  states,  bordering  on  the  great  lakes,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Colorado  and 
further  north.  It  derives  its  generic  name  Hierochloa,  from  two  Greek  words,  which  signify 
sacred  grass,  so  called  because  it  was  custoraary  to  strew  it  before  the  doors  of  the  churches 


182  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

on  festive  and  saints'  days  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It  is  said  to  be  sold  in  Sweden  to  be  hung 
up  over  beds,  where  it  is  supposed  to  possess  some  mysterious  properties  of  inducing  sleep. 

The  culms  grow  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  with  short  lanceolate  leaves  and  an  open  pyra- 
midal panicle  from  two  to  five  inches  long.  The  spikelets  are  three-flowered  ;  the  flowers  all 
with  two  palets.  The  spikelets  are  chestnut-colored  and  rather  ornamental.  It  is  very  fra- 
grant and  flowers  in  May.  It  has  not  much  practical  value  for  cultivation  on  account  of  its 
powerful  creeping  roots,  and  slight  spring  foliage. 

Broom  Grass,  Broom  Sedge  {Andropogon  scoparius).  This  is  a  perennial  grass, 
with  tough,  wiry  stems,  growing  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  with  narrow  flower-spikes  com- 
ing out  from  the  side  joints  and  also  at  the  top.  The  spikelets  are  in  pairs  on  each  joint  of 
the  slender  axis;  one  of  the  flowers  is  sterDe  and  fringed  with  soft  spreading  hairs,  the  other 
perfect  and  with  a  small  twisted  awn. 

It  grows  mostly  in  dry,  sterile  soil,  and  is  considered  a  great  pest  if  it  takes  possession  of 
meadows  ;  but  it  is  also  considerably  valued  as  a  pasture  grass  before  it  shoots  up  its  culm,  or 
stem,  after  which  stock  will  touch  it  no  more.  It  is  said  to  be  very  common  at  the  South, 
especially  in  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  other  of  the  Gulf  States,  where  it  covers  old  fields  and 
fence  rows,  and  grows  extensively  in  the  dry  sandy  soil  of  the  pine  woods.  Though  much 
despised  by  many  as  an  unsightly,  troublesome  weed,  it  is  nevertheless  valuable,  while  green 
and  tender,  as  sustenance  for  stock,  of  which  it  affords,  in  its  season,  a  considerable  share.  It 
blossoms  in  August. 

Andropogon  Furcatus,  Andropogon  Tirginicus,  Andropogon  Macronrus 

(sometimes  called  Indian  Grass),  (A.  nutans,)  and  other  species  of  this  genus,  which  have  sim- 
ilar characters  with  the  preceding,  form  an  important  quantity  of  the  native  grasses  of  the 
great  prairie  region  of  the  West.  They  are  useful  as  a  resource  for  stock  having  an  exten- 
sive range  over  uncultivated  fields,  but  their  places  should  be  filled  with  more  valuable  grasses, 
as  early  as  practicable. 

Means,  Johnson,  or  Egyptian  Grass  (Sorghum  halpense).  This  is  a  perennial 
grass,  with  strong,  vigorous  roots  and  rather  broad  leaves.  The  flowers  and  seeds  closely 
resemble  those  of  broom-corn,  but  the  panicle  is  finer  and  more  spreading.  Its  stems  attain 
the  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  with  a  very  broad  spreading  panicle.  It  is  much  cultivated  in 
the  Southern  States,  where  it  is  valued  both  for  forage  and  hay.  It  is  difBcult  to  exterminate 
when  once  the  ground  is  occupied  by  it,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  only  objection  to  it.  It  has 
been  found  that  plowing  the  field  and  leaving  the  roots  exposed  to  the  frost  wiU  eradicate  it. 
It  is  quite  nutritious,  wiU  grow  on  ordinary  land  and  yield  abundantly.  The  following  history 
of  its  introduction  into  the  Southern  States  is  given  by  Mr.  "Wall,  of  Mississippi,  in  his  recent 
official  report  as  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  : 

"  A  few  years  before  the  war,  Captain  Means,  of  South  Carolina,  who  commanded  a 
trading  vessel  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  brought  from  Egypt  a  lot  of  seeds,  from  which  he 
obtained  a  spoonful  of  seeds  of  an  unknown  kind.  He  handed  them  to  a  friend  with  the 
request  that  they  be  sown  in  his  garden.  They  came  up  and  proved  to  be  the  grass  named 
above  ;  but  little  attention  was  paid  to  it  until  it  nearly  took  his  garden.  He  had  the  plants 
dug  up  by  the  roots  and  thrown  into  a  neighboring  gully,  where  they  soon  began  to  grow, 
stopping  the  wash  and  spreading  all  around.  It  was  now  seen  for  the  first  time  that  it  was 
greedily  eaten  by  stock.  This  was  suggestive  in  a  country  where  all  the  hay  had  to  be 
imported,  and  so  the  seeds  were  gathered  and  sown.    Thus  the  Means  grass  derived  its  name." 

In  1860  Captain  Johnson  of  Marion  Station,  Alabama,  paid  a  visit  to  some  relatives  in 
South  Carolina  and  heard  of  this  grass,  that  had  in  the  meantime  acquired  a  great  reputation, 
and  on  his  return,  carried  home  with  him  a  bushel  of  seeds  and  sowed  them  on  his  plantation. 
Soon  after  this  he  went  into  the  Confederate  service  and  was  kdUed,  leaving  two  little  girls. 


MEANS.    JOHNSON,    OR   EGYPTIAN  GRASS. 

(Sorghum  Lalapense.)  183 


INDIAN  GRASS-WOOD  GRASS. 

(Sorghum  nutans.) 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  185 

These  gu'ls  were  sent  to  school  at  Tuscaloosa,  but  having  no  guardian  and  no  means,  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  college  had  a  gentlemen  appointed  guardian  who  went  to  Marion  Station  to  see  if 
his  wards  had  anything.  In  the  meantime  the  plantation  was  left  alone,  no  one  caring  for  it, 
and  it  was  unrented.  He  found  it  a  large  place  and  almost  covered  with  the  "  Means  grass," 
the  winds  and  stock  having  set  it  everywhere.  Being  a  shrewd  man,  he  saw  its  capability  and 
at  once  advertised  it  as  a  stock  farm,  and  soon  rented  it  to  Messrs.  R.  C.  Gardner  and  J.  C. 
Copeland,  of  NashviUe,  Tennessee.  They  saw  their  opportunity  at  once,  and  securing  a 
number  of  baling  presses,  set  to  work  cutting  and  baling  hay  for  the  Southern  market. 

The  hay  proved  popular  and  sold  wherever  tried,  stock  delighted  in  it,  leaving  all  other 
kinds  to  eat  it.  Applications  naturally  poured  in  for  some  of  the  grass,  and  so  they  sold 
immense  quantities  of  the  seed,  and  also  of  the  roots,  getting  large  prices  for  both.  So  great 
was  its  popularity  that  at  the  end  of  their  five  years'  lease  a  company  of  Northern  men  out- 
bid them,  and  have  resorted  to  steam  to  assist  in  baling  hay  for  the  market. 

Egyptian  sugar-cane  (is  its  proper  name)  is  a  native  of  the  Nile,  where  it  grows  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet  high.  So  great  is  its  luxuriance  there,  that  it  has  filled  all  the  upper  Nile  so 
that  a  boat  can  not  be  driven  through  it.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  and  wild  animals  resort  to 
it,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  the  chief  food  of  ruminants  in  that  country. 

When  young,  it  is  very  tender  and  sweet,  the  sap  being  full  of  sugary  juice.  It  is  a  peren- 
nial plant  and  so  vigorous  that  when  once  planted,  it  is  a  difiBcult  matter  to  eradicate  it,  so 
care  must  be  taken  to  plant  it  where  it  can  be  kept  in  bounds.  The  roots  are  creeping  and 
throw  out  shoots  from  every  joint.  It  is  a  fine  fertilizer,  and  sown  on  a  piece  of  poor  washed 
land,  will  in  a  few  years  restore  it  to  feriility.  But  there  is  really  not  much  difference  where 
it  is  sown,  for  a  farmer  once  getting  a  good  stand  will  not  want  to  destroy  it.  It  will  bear 
cutting  three  or  four  times  a  year,  and  in  fact,  this  has  to  be  done,  for  when  it  matures  seed, 
the  stem  and  leaves  are  too  coarse  and  woody  for  use. 

The  ground  must  be  prepared  as  for  other  grasses,  and  in  September,  the  earlier  the  bet- 
ter ;  it  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre.  It  can  bei  propagated  also 
by  the  roots,  by  laying  off  the  rows  each  way  and  dropping  a  joint  of  the  root  two  feet  apart 
and  covering  with  a  harrow. 

It  gives  the  earliest  pastures  we  have,  preceding  blue  grass,  or  clover,  a  month.  Hogs 
are  fond  of  the  roots,  and  any  amount  of  rooting  will  not  injure  it.  In  fact,  it  is  a  stick 
tight. 

For  soiling  purposes  it  is  not  equaled  by  any  grass  in  our  knowledge,  as  it  can  be  cut 
every  two  or  three  weeks.  There  is  a  vast  amount  of  land  in  Mississippi  now  devoted  to 
gullies,  that  do  not  now  pay  their  taxes,  which  would  richly  remunerate  the  owner,  if  set  in 
this  grass.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  land  should  be  broken  up  to  start  it;  a  few  sprigs  set 
out  here  and  there  in  the  richest  spots,  will  soon  secure  a  stand.  ' 

Many  farmers  object  to  it  on  account  of  its  great  tenacity  of  life,  matting  the  soil  in 
every  direction  with  its  cane-like  roots,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  will  spread  over  a 
field,  and  the  difficulty  of  eradicating  it;  but  these  very  objections  should  be  its  recommenda- 
tion to  the  owners  of  worn-out  fields.  To  destroy  it  and  keep  it  down,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
pasture  it  closely  one  year,  and  then  in  the  fall,  turn  the  roots  up  with  a  big  plow  to  the 
freezes  of  winter,  renewing  the  plowing  once  or  twice  during  the  winter,  and  then  cultivating 
the  land  in  a  hoed  crop  the  next  spring.  There  certainly  would  be  no  risk  in  sowing  it  upon 
those  worn-out  hillsides,  so  many  of  which  form  unsightly  scars  upon  the  face  of  nature  in 
Mississippi."     The  illustration  which  is  given  is  a  very  correct  representation  of  this  grass. 

Indian  Grass,  Wood  Grass  {Sorghum  nutans).  This  is  a  perennial  grass,  having  a 
wide  range  over  all  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  stalks  are  smooth,  hol- 
low, and  straight,  and  grown  from  three  to  five  feet  high,  having  at  the  top  a  narrow  pani- 
cle of  handsome  straw-colored  or  brownish  flowers,  drooping  when  mature.  It  flowers  in 
August 


186  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

This  grass,  though  not  usually  considered  of  much  agricultural  value,  forms  an  import- 
ant part  of  the  native  grass  of  the  Western  prairies,  and,  if  cut  early,  makes  a  good  and  nutri- 
tious  hay.  In  the  Southern  States  there  are  two  additional  species,  or  varieties,  which  are 
not  materially  different.     These  varieties  are  very  common  in  Texas. 

Indian  Millet,  (^Sorghum  vulgare,)  is  a  cultivated  species,  which  has  many  varieties,  one 
of  which  is  the  broom-corn.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  forage  plant,  and  when  raised  on  good 
soil,  and  under  favorable  circumstances,  is  said  to  yield  abundantly.  It  is  called  guinea-corn 
in  the  West  Indies,  dourah  in  Arabia,  and  Nagara  in  the  north  of  China.  When  raised  on 
good  soil,  it  is  said  to  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre  than  any  other  cereal  grass 
known,  its  nutritive  quality  being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  wheat. 

Texas  Millet  (Panicum  Texanum). — The  branches  of  the  panicle  of  this  variety  are  rough, 
spikelets  oblong,  somewhat  pointed,  lower  glume  half  or  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  upper; 
sterile  flower  with  two  palets,  the  lower  five  to  seven,  curved,  much  like  the  upper  glume, 
and  the  upper  palet  thin  and  transparent.  It  is  an  annual  grass  growing  from  two  to  four 
feet  high,  sparingly  branched,  at  first  erect  and  becoming  widely  branched ;  margin  of  leaves 
rough ;  leaf  blades  from  six  to  eight  inches  long  and  a  half  to  an  inch  wide,  the  upper  leaves 
reaching  nearly  to  the  base  of  the  panicle,  which  is  from  six  to  eight  inches  long.  The  leaves 
are  broad,  and  rather  thin.  It  is  a  grass  of  vigorous,  rapid  growth,  and  is  capable  of  yield- 
ing a  large  amount  of  food.  Mr.  Pryor  Lea  of  Texas,  who  has  cultivated  it  for  several  years, 
says  of  it: — 

"1  consider  it  far  superior  to  any  grass  that  I  ever  saw  for  hay.  It  is  a  much  more 
certain  crop  than  millet,  and  cultivated  with  less  labor,  and  all  kinds  of  stock  prefer  it.  I 
expect  to  report  a  good  second  crop  on  the  same  ground  this  year.  In  this  region  this  grass, 
in  the  condition  of  well-cultivated  hay,  is  regarded  as  more  nutritious  than  any  other  grass. 
It  grows  only  in  cultivated  land;  it  prospers  best  in  the  warmest  fourth  of  the  year;  its  luxu- 
rious  growth  subdues  other  grasses  and  some  weeds,  with  the  result  of  leaving  the  groimd  in 
an  amehorated  condition."     (See  illustration,  Page  140). 

Barnyard  Grass,  Cock's-Foot  Grass  {Panicum  crusgalU). — This  is  an  annual  grass, 
with  thick,  stout  culms  branching  from  the  base  two  to  four  feet  high.  It  varies  greatly, 
sometimes  being  awnless  or  nearly  so,  and  sometimes  with  long  awns,  especially  in  some  of 
the  coarser  varieties.  It  is  very  common  in  all  parts  of  the  country  in  waste  places.  It  is, 
however,  cultivated  in  many  sections,  especially  in  some  of  the  Southern  States.  A  writer 
in  Northern  Mississippi  states  that  the  hay  from  this  grass  is  very  highly  esteemed  by  many 
farmers,  and  large  fields  of  it  are  often  mowed.  It  should,  however,  be  cut  early,  while  it  is 
most  juicy  and  nutritious,  which  will  be  when  the  flowers  first  make  their  appearance.  In 
the  latter  stages  of  growth,  or  about  the  time  of  ripening  its  seed.  The  long  and  stifE  awns  of 
its  spikes  tend  to  make  it  undesirable  for  stock  food. 

Crab  Grass  {Panicum  sanguinale). — This  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  has  become  natu- 
ralized in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  springs  up  quickly  in  both  cultivated  and  waste 
grounds,  and  sends  out  roots  from  the  lower  joints,  which  take  firm  hold  of  the  soil  and 
spread  rapidly  in  all  directions.  In  the  Northern  States  it  is  very  troublesome  in  corn-fields, 
it  being  difficult  to  keep  them  clear  of  it.  In  the  Southern  States  it  is  used  for  hay  crops, 
giving  a  large  yield  of  hay  of  excellent  quality  if  cut  in  proper  time,  which  is  before  the 
ripening  of  its  seeds.  It  also  furnishes  very  desirable  pasturage  during  August  and  Septem- 
ber, when  the  spring  grasses  are  old  and  dry.     Prof.  Killebrew  of  Tennessee  says  of  it: — 

"  It  is  a  fine  pasture  grass,  although  it  has  but  few  base  leaves  and  forms  no  sward,  yet 
it  sends  out  numerous  stems,  branching  freely  at  the  base.  It  serves  a  most  useful  purpose 
in  stock  husbandry,  and  the  Northern  farmers  would  congratulate  themselves  very  much  if 
they  had  it  to  turn  their  cattle  on  while  the  clover  fields  and  meadows  are  parched  up  with 


BARNYARD   GRASS-COCK'S  FOOT  GRASS. 

(Panicum  iTusgalli.) 


CRAB   GRASS.. 

(Ptiiiicum  sanguinalc.) 


188 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  189 

summer  heat.  It  fills  all  our  corn  fields,  and  many  persons  pull  it  out,  which  is  a  tedious 
process.  It  makes  a  sweet  hay,  and  horses  are  exceeding  fond  of  it,  leaving  the  best  hay 
to  eat  it." 

Tall  Panic  Grass,  SyvitchGr-ASS  {Pamcumvirgatum). — A  tall  perennial  grass  growing 
mostly  in  clumps  in  wet  or  damp  soil,  especially  near  the  sea-coast.  It  grows  from  three  to 
five  feet  high,  and  furnishes  very  good  feed  for  stock  if  cut  when  juicy  and  tender.  If  cut 
when  ripe,  it  is  very  harsh  and  unpalatable.  It  forms  a  considerable  portion  of  the  native 
grasses  of  the  prairies,  especially  in  those  localities  where  the  soil  is  unusually  moist. 

Slender  Crab  Grass  (Panicum  fiUforme). — A  native  species  of  crab  grass.  It  is  an 
annual,  growing  with  erect  slender  culms,  which  terminate  with  from  three  to  five  slender 
spikes  of  flowers;  leaves  from  one  to  two  inches  long.  The  stems  are  thin  and  wiry,  the 
leaves  small  and  scanty,  furnishing  but  little  herbage,  and  for  this  reason  it  has  little  or  no 
agricultural  value.     It  grows  mostly  in  dry  sandy  soil. 

Obtuse — Flowered  Panic  Grass  [Panieum  obtitsom). — This  is  similar  to  the  Paniciun 
Texanum,  or  Texas  millet,  although  it  does  not  grow  as  high  as  the  latter,  and  is  less  vigor- 
ous. It  is  found  in  many  of  the  Southern  States,  but  has  never  been  used  very  extensively 
for  agricultural  purposes. 

Guinea  Grass  {Paniciun  jumentorum). — This  grass  is  a  native  of  Africa,  and  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  tropic  sections.  Mr.  C.  Mohr  of  Mobile  says  of  it:  "It  is  planted  with  us 
in  the  beginning  of  April;  admits  the  first  cutting  during  the  last  week  of  May;  it  makes 
very  large  bunches,  and  is  to  be  cut  before  extending  to  the  height  of  about  eighteen  inches. 
In  that  stage  it  is  very  sweet,  tendei',  and  as  easily  cured  as  hay.  In  moderately  fertilized  land 
and  favorable  seasons,  it  can  be  cut  every  five  or  six  weeks,  yielding,  by  its  throwing  out 
numerous  stolons,  increased  crops  until  killed  down  by  frost.  The  roots  are  easily  protected 
during  the  winter  by  a  good  covering  with  ground,  like  the  rattoons  of  sugar-cane,  and 
allowing  of  a  manifold  division,  afford  the  best  means  of  propagation.  These  root-cuttings 
are  set  out  in  March  or  the  beginning  of  April."  This  grass  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  Sorghum  halapense  or  Johnson  grass,  which  is  often  improperly  called  Guinea  grass,  from 
its  similar  habit  and  appearance." 

Agrostis-like  Panic  Grass  (Panicum  agrostoides). — This  grass  has  its  stems  flattened, 
upright,  two  feet  high,  leaves  long,  sheaths  smooth,  spikelets  on  the  spreading  branches 
crowded  and  one-sided,  ovate,  oblong,  acute,  purplish.  It  is  common  on  wet  meadows  and  bor- 
ders of  rivers.     Flowers  in  July  and  August. 

Prolific  Panic  Grass  {Panicum  proUferum)  grows  on  brackish  marshes  and  meadows, 
and  is  common  along  the  coast.  It  sometimes  appears  on  dry  places.  Cattle  are  fond  of  it. 
It  differs  from  the  preceding  in  having  culms  thickened,  succulent,  branched  and  bent, 
ascending  from  a  procumbent  base,  and  spikelets  appressed,  lance-oval,  of  a  pale  green 
color. 

Hair  Stalked  Panic  Grass  {Panicum  capillare)  grows  in  sandy  soils  and  cultivated 
fields  everywhere.  Its  culm  is  upright,  often  branched  at  the  base,  and  forming  a  tuft, 
sheaths  flattened,  very  hairy,  panicle  pyramidal,  hairy,  compound  and  very  loose,  spikelets 
scattered  on  long  pedicels,  oblong,  pointed.     Flowers  in  August  and  September. 

Broad-Leaved  Panic  Grass  {Panicum  latifoUum). — This  is  a  grass  with  a  perennial, 
fibrous  root,  and  stem  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  and  leaves  broad,  long,  taper-pointed, 
smooth  or  slightly  downy,  branches  of  panicle  spreading,  spikelets  long,  obovate,  downy. 
Flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  is  common  in  moist  thickets  and  woods.  Of  no  value  for 
cultivation. 


;I90  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Hungarian  Grass  or  Hungarian  Millet,  {Panicum  Germanicum),  is  an  annual  grass 
cultivated  as  a  forage  plant,  and  is  a  variety  of  Setoria  Germanica,  the  common  millet.  It 
was  introduced  into  France  in  1815,  where  it  has  been  considerably  cultivated.  It  germinates 
readily,  has  a  quick  luxuriant  growth,  and  is  remarkable  in  withstanding  drought,  remaining 
green,  even  when  other  vegetation  is  parched  and  dry,  while  if  its  growth  is  arrested,  in  a 
measure,  by  dry  weather,  the  least  rain  will  restore  its  vigor.  It  is  much  relished  by  horses 
and  cattle,  as  well  as  all  other  kinds  of  stock;  when  fed  in  too  large  quantities,  it  will  act  as  a 
diuretic,  and  hence,  in  such  cases,  injurious;  but  if  fed  in  moderate  quantity  is  very  nutritious 
and  harmless.  It  makes  most  excellent  hay,  of  good  weight,  flourishing  on  light  and  dry  soils, 
though  it  attains  its  greatest  luxuriance  in  soils  of  medium  consistency,  well  manured,  and  may 
be  sown  broadcast  and  cultivated  precisely  like 
other  varieties  of  millet.  When  blown  down  by 
storms  and  violent  winds,  it  readily  recovers  its  i 
upright  growth.  A  farmer  recently  mentions  the 
fact  of  his  field  having  been  blown  down  three 
times  in  succession  by  storms,  and  each  time  it 
recovered  its  upright  position  very  readily.  It 
has  been  known  to  attain  the  height  of  three  and  a  half  feet  on  rich  i 
This  grass  does  well  on  the  rich  lands  of  the  "West,  though  it  will  exhaust 
soil  quicker  than  some  other  products.  It  is  sown  abovit  the  time  of 
planting  corn,  at  from  two  to  three  pecks  per  acre,  and  should  be  cured 
the  same  as  Timothy  grass.  The  editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman 
expresses  the  following  opinion  relative  to  this  grass 

"  Hungarian  grass  will  grow  on  any  soil  of  sufficient  richness  and 
condition  to  raise  good  corn  and  potatoes,  the  richer  the  better,  provided 
the  manure  has  been  applied  to  previous  crops.  Sow  when  the  ground 
is  warm  and  dry,  or  immediately  after  corn  planting.  If  portions  of 
the  field  are  sown  with  a  few  days'  interval  between,  it  will  not  be  ready 
to  cut  all  at  once,  which  may  prove  a  convenience  in  a  large  field.  The 
ground  before  sowing  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  by  harrowing,  and 
made  smooth  and  level,  so  that  the  small  seed  may  not  be  buried  too  deep. 
Three  pecks  broadcast  are  enough  for  an  acre.  Gaboon's  sower  is  well 
adapted  to  doing  the  work  evenly.  Cover  the  seed  with  a  fine  or  smooth- 
ing harrow,  and  then  roll  the  surface.  In  two  months  the  heads  will 
appear,  at  which  time,  if  intended  for  hay,  it  should  be  cut  with  a  mowing 
machine.  Two  or  three  days  may  be  required  for  thorough  curing, 
including  turning  or  shaking  up  before  raking,  and  opening  the  cocks. 
Good  land,  well  managed,  will  give  two  or  three  tons  of  good  hay  per 
acre.  It  is  best  as  a  fodder  for  cows.  The  crop  is  too  dense  in  growth 
to  sow  clover  or  grass  seed  with  it. 

Common  Millet.  {Panicum  Milliaceum.)— In  growth  and  manner 
of  bearing  seeds,  the  common  millet  resembles  broom-corn.  Its  foliage 
is  broad  and  abundant;  heads  open;  branching  panicles.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet,  according  to  the  „  , 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  makes  excellent  forage  for  cattle,  though  not  equal  '^^'''•^'''■^*'  illet. 
to  the  German,  Golden,  or  the  Pearl  millet.  Allen  states  that  from  eighty  to  a  hundred 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  have  been  raised,  with  straw  equivalent  to  one  and  a  half  or  two 
tons  of  hay,  but  an  average  crop  may  be  estimated  at  about  one-third  this  quantity.  Birds 
are  usually  troublesome  in  destropng  the  seed  when  ripened,  as  they  are  very  fond  of  it, 
consequently  it  is  more  profitable  to  cut  it  for  the  seed  before  all  the  heads  have  matured.     It 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  191 

is  cured  the  same  as  hay,  and  yields  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  tons  per  acre.  All  kinds  of 
grazing  stock  are  fond  of  it.  The  seeds  are  glossy,  oval,  and  somewhat  flattened.  Wten 
cut  in  the  seed  it  is  a  very  rich  food,  consequently  should  be  mixed  with  other  hay  in  feeding. 

CuItiTation. — A  rich,  dry  soil,  well  pulverized,  is  the  most  desirable  for  the  best 
results,  although  it  will  grow  on  thin  soils.  It  can  be  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills.  From  the 
first  of  May  to  the  first  of  J  uly  is  the  usual  time  for  sowing  at  the  North,  the  best  time  being 
generally  conceded  to  be  in  June,  when  the  soil  is  warm.  At  the  South,  it  can  of  course  be 
sown  much  earlier.  From  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  per  acre  is  considered  a 
fair  quantity,  if  sown  broadcast;  if  sown  in  drills,  from  eight  to  ten  quarts  per  acre  will 
suffice.  It  wiU  ripen  in  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  days  after  sowing.  It  should  be  cut,  if  for 
fodder,  while  the  seed  is  in  the  milky  state,  which  will  be  in  about  six  weeks  after  sowing. 
It  can  be  cut  with  a  mowing  machine,  and  cured  the  same  as  hay. 

For  green  food,  it  can  be  cut  during  its  various  stages  of  growth,  and  will  produce  a 
quick  after-growth  when  cut  at  any  stage,  and  is  not  liable  to  be  easily  affected  by  dry 
weather. 

It  is  especially  valuable  to  supplement  the  hay  crop,  as  a  farmer  can  wait  until  he  can 
determine  the  yield  of  his  hay  or  ensilage  crop  before  sowing,  consequently  can  calculate  the 
amount  of  millet  required  to  be  cultivated  to  insure  his  usual  amount  of  feed  for  his  stock  for 
the  year,  while  nearly  all  other  crops  require  an  earlier  planting  or  sowing. 

Golden  Millet,  called  in  some  sections  German  mUlet,  is  considered  by  many  as  greatly 
superior  to  common  millet,  both  as  a  forage  plant  and  for  hay.  It  grows  to  the  height  of 
from  three  to  five  feet ;  the  heads  are  closely  condensed;  the  spikes  very  numerous.  The 
seeds  grow  in  rough,  bristly  sheaths,  and  are  round  and  golden  yellow.  It  requires  a  rich, 
fertilized  soil,  which  should  be  well  pulverized  and  mellow.  It  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  in 
drills,  and  is  cultivated  the  same  as  the  common  millet,  previously  described.  It  requires  a 
warm  soil  to  thrive  well,  and  should,  therefore,  not  be  sown  at  the  North  until  the  middle  or 
last  of  June.  When  used  for  hay.  it  is  cut  and  cured  the  same  as  common  millet.  It  is 
greedily  eaten  by  all  kinds  of  stock,  that  thrive  well  upon  it. 

Pearl  Millet  (Penicillaria  spicata).  This,  as  a  forage  plant,  has  been  cultivated  for 
several  years  with  success  in  many  of  the  Southern  States,  where  it  is  known  as  "  African 
Cane,"  "  Egyptian  Millet,"  "Japan  Millet,"  "Cat-tail,"  "East  Indian  Millet,"  and  in  some 
localities  as  "  Horse  Millet." 

But  Kttle  has  been  known  of  it  at  the  North  until  recently.  It  closely  resembles  Setarta 
in  appearance,  and  the  genus  is  allied  to  Pennisetum. 

Mr.  P.  Henderson  of  New  Jersey  thus  gives  his  experience  in  experimenting  with  this 
plant:  "  A  piece  of  good  strong  loamy  ground  was  prepared,  as  if  for  a  beet  or  turnip  crop, 
by  manuring  with  stable  manure  at  the  rate  of  ten  tons  to  the  acre,  plo^dng  ten  inches  deep, 
and  thoroughly  harrowing.  The  millet  was  then  sown  in  drills,  eighteen  inches  apart,  at  the 
rate  of  eight  quarts  to  the  acre.  We  sowed  on  the  15th  of  May,  about  the  date  we  plant 
corn ;  in  twelve  days  the  plants  were  up  so  that  a  cultivator  could  be  run  between  the  rows, 
after  which  no  further  culture  was  necessary,  for  the  growth  became  so  rapid  and  luxuriant 
as  to  crowd  down  every  weed  that  attempted  to  get  a  foothold.  The  first  cutting  was  made 
July  1  st,  forty-six  days  after  sowing ;  it  was  then  seven  feet  high,  covering  the  whole  ground, 
and  the  crop,  cut  three  inches  above  the  ground,  weighed,  green,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  tons 
per  acre;  this,  when  dried,  gave  six  and  a  half  tons  per  acre  as  hay.  After  cutting,  a  second 
growth  started,  and  was  cut  August  15th — forty-five  days  from  the  time  of  first  cutting.  Its 
height  was  nine  feet ;  it  weighed  this  time  at  the  rate  of  fifty-five  tons  to  the  acre,  green,  and 
eight  tons  dried.  The  third  crop  started  as  rapidly  as  the  second,  but  the  cool  September 
nights  lessened  its  tropical  luxuriance,  so  that  this  crop,  which  was  cut  on  October   1st,  only 


192 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


TALL  PANIC  OR  SWITCH-GRASS. 

(Panicum  virgatum.) 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  193 

weighed  ten  tons  green,  and  one  and  a  half  tons  dried.  The  growth  was  simply  enormous, 
thus:  First  crop,  in  forty -five  days,  gave  thirty  tons  green,  or  six  and  a  half  tons  dry;  second 
crop,  in  forty-five  days,  gave  fifty-five  tons  green,  or  eight  tons  dry;  third  crop  in  forty -five 
days  gave  ten  tons  green,  or  one  and  a  half  tons  dry, — the  aggregate  weight  being  ninety- 
five  tons  of  green  fodder  in  135  days  from  date  of  sowing,  and  sixteen  tons  when  dried  to 
hay.  This  exceeds  the  clover  meadows  of  Mid-Lothian,  which,  irrigated  by  the  sewage  from 
the  city  of  Edinburgh,  and  cut  every  four  weeks,  gave  an  aggregate  of  seventy-five  tons  of 
green  clover  per  acre. 

"  There  is  httle  doubt  that  pearl  millet  is  equally  as  nutritious  as  corn  fodder,  which  it 
resembles  even  more  than  it  does  any  of  the  other  millets.  We  foimd  that  all  our  horses 
and  cattle  ate  it  greedily,  whether  green  or  dry.  If  sowing  in  drills  is  not  practicable,  it  may 
be  sown  broadcast,  using  double  the  quantity  of  seed — say  sixteen  quarts  per  acre.  The 
ground  should  be  smoothed  by  the  harrow,  and  again  lightly  harrowed  after  sowing;  if 
rolled  after  harrowing,  all  the  better.  I  know  of  no  farm  crop  that  will  better  repay  high 
manuring,  but  so  great  is  its  luxuriance  that  it  will  produce  a  better  crop  without  manure 
than  any  other  plant  I  know  of.  In  those  parts  of  the  Southern  States  where  hay  cannot  be 
raised  this  is  a  substitute  of  the  easiest  culture,  and,  being  of  tropical  origin,  it  will  luxuriate 
in  their  long,  hot  summers.  Even  though  our  Northern  seasons  may  be  too  short  to  mature 
the  seeds,  our  experiments  in  New  Jersey  this  summer  show  what  abundant  crops  may  be 
expected  if  the  similar  conditions  are  secured.  Pearl  millet  as  a  fodder  plant  presents  a  new 
feature  in  our  agriculture,  and  I  feel  sure  that  within  ten  years  we  shall  wonder  how  we  ever 
got  along  without  it.  Besides  our  own  testimony  given  above,  we  have  received  the  most 
satisfactory  letters  from  experienced  men  in  different  parts  of  the  country  to  whom  we  sent 
seeds  of  pearl  millet  for  trial,  and  all  are  unanimous  as  to  its  enormous  productiveness  and 
great  value.  From  all  we  have  seen  and  can  learn,  we  are  fully  convinced  that  pearl  millet 
is  to  be  one  of  the  great  fodder  plants  of  the  future." 

Farmers  should  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  a  tender  annual,  and  must  not  be  planted  until 
the  weather  is  settled  warm.  Wherever  and  whenever  corn  flourishes,  it  will  yield  bountiful 
crops  of  fodder,  which  cows,  horses,  and  other  farm  stock  are  exceedingly  fond  of.  It  is 
equal  in  nutritive  value  to  corn  fodder,  while  its  yield  is  greater.  The  fodder  is  in  the  best 
condition  for  cutting  and  curing  when  the  stalks  are  five  or  six  feet  high ;  but,  if  used  for 
soiling,  it  may  be  cut  earher  or  later,  at  the  convenieace  of  the  cultivator ;  the  stumps,  sprout- 
ing and  throwing  up  a  new  growth,  continue  to  grow  until  killed  by  frosts.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  at  the  time  of  sowing  corn  (and  not  earlier),  in  drills  four  feet  apart.  Sown  in  this 
way,  two  pounds  of  the  seed  will  plant  an  acre. 

From  all  we  have  been  able  to  learn  concerning  pearl  millet,  we  judge  it  to  be  a  desir- 
able acquisition  to  our  forage  plants,  and  that  with  suitable  soil  and  proper  cultivation  it 
will  abundantly  repay  the  farmer  for  the  care  bestowed  upon  it,  in  those  sections  where  the 
climate  is  well  adapted  to  its  luxuriant  and  rapid  growth,  and  even  as  far  north  as  some  por- 
tions of  New  England  will  prove  a  profitable  crop  for  cultivation. 

Favorable  reports  of  experiments  in  its  cultivation  have  reached  us  from  portions  of  the 
country  farther  north  than  New  England  even,  and  from  the  vicinity  of  Montreal,  Canada; 
but  we  doubt  whether  in  the  latter  latitude  it  will  prove  a  generally  profitable  crop  to  the 
farmer,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  season,  and  the  cooler  temperature. 

Indian  Corn  or  Maize  as  a  Forage  Plant  {Zea  mais.)  Though  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant and  abundant  of  the  cereals,  this  plant  belongs  to  the  order  Gramineae,  or  grasses ;  and 
while  we  shall  speak  of  it  elsewhere  as  a  cereal,  we  refer  to  it  in  this  connection  merely  as  a 
forage  plant,  which,  when  cultivated  as  such,  is  extremely  valuable,'  being  very  nutritious, 
and  an  almost  indispensable  crop,  not  only  in  summer  when  the  drought  may  greatly  reduce 
the  supply  from  the  pastures,  but  also  to  be  cut  and  cured  for  winter  use.  Cattle,  and  in 
13 


194  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

fact  all  kinds  of  stock,  are  very  fond  of  it,  wMle  at  the  same  time  they  thrive  well  on  such 
fodder. 

The  varieties  recommended  for  this  purpose  are  those  with  the  largest  and  most  succulent 
leaves.  Some  farmers  prefer  some  of  the  varieties  of  sweet  corn  for  sowing  in  this  way. 
The  early  varieties  of  dent  com,  as  well  as  Stowell's  evergreen  sweet  com,  are  excellent  for  this 
purpose,  sowing  from  one  to  two  bushels  per  acre,  according  to  strength  of  the  soil,  etc. 

There  is  a  diversity  of  opinions  among  farmers  relative  to  the  comparative  value  of  com 
fodder  thickly  and  thinly  sown,  some  preferring  as  much  as  three  bushels  per  acre,  others 
less  than  a  bushel.  The  thickly-seeded  fodder  does  not  grow  as  tall  as  the  thin,  and  to  first 
appearance  the  latter,  to  a  superficial  observer,  would  be  pronounced  the  heavier  product  of 
the  two.  The  more  numerous  stalks  of  the  thick  seeding,  however,  more  than  make  up  the 
deficiency  in  height,  and  when  the  product  of  an  equal  area  of  each  is  weighed,  the  thick 
seeding  is  always  found  to  be  the  heavier  of  the  two.  On  the  other  hand,  the  thick  sowing 
bears  no  ears,  and  the  stalks  are  more  difficult  to  cure  than  those  of  the  thin  sowing,  which 
bear  small  ears.  The  advocates  of  thin  sowing  claim  that  the  quality  thus  produced  more 
than  compensates  for  the  lack  in  weight  when  compared  with  the  thick  seeding.  However, 
it  is  always  admissible  that  the  fine  hay  from  thickly-seeded  mowing  lands  is  superior  to  the 
coarse  hay  from  poorly-seeded  lands. 

We  should  recommend  rather  thick  seeding,  the  quantity  to  be  regulated  lay  the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil,  and  to  be  from  one  to  two  bushels  per  acre,  as  previously  given;  poor  soils 
requiring  more  seed  than  rich. 

"We  believe  it  is  conceded  by  the  majority  of  farmers,  that  it  is  preferable  to  cut  the  com 
for  fodder  before  the  ears  get  to  any  considerable  size,  and  as  a  general  practice,  it  is  most 
valuable  as  a  forage  plant,  when  sown  so  thickly  that  the  ears  are  not  liable  to  form  at  all. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  earlier  the  com  is  sown,  the  better;  depending,  of  course,  some- 
what upon  the  season.  In  latitude  as  far  south  as  Maryland,  its  growth  is  more  rapid  and 
luxuriant  in  May  and  June  than  in  July  and  August.  Sowing  in  drills,  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  apart,  will  admit  of  after-culture.  The  crop  should  be  worked  twice  with  a  cultivator 
to  remove  weeds  and  loosen  the  soil,  and  when  in  tassel,  should  be  cut  with  a  mowing- 
machine.  It  requires  from  forty-five  to  sixty  days  to  ripen  it  into  tassel,  therefore  can  safely 
be  sown  up  to  the  15th  of  July.  If  the  land  is  in  good  condition,  it  will  j'ield  twenty  tons 
to  the  acre;  and  by  the  use  of  superphosphates,  the  crop  can  be  doubled;  but  this  is  a  matter 
subject  to  the  will  of  the  farmer.  It  should  be  well  cured  before  stacking  or  storing  in 
barns,  as  the  thickly-sown  stalks  contain  more  juice,  proportionately,  than  those  cultivated  in 
hills,  and  require  considerable  time  for  drying,  so  as  to  be  perfectly  preserved  in  large  masses; 
otherwise  it  will  mould  and  ferment,  and,  of  course,  become  useless  as  animal  food.  By  the 
ensilage  process,  so  commonly  practiced  in  France  and  other  European  countries,  and  which 
is  now  being  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent  in  this  country,  the  curing  process  of  corn- 
fodder  would  be  entirely  obviated,  and  thus  an  entire  change  be  instituted  in  this  department 
of  agriculture,  which  experiments  thus  far  have  shown  would  be  of  immense  advantage  to 
the  agricultural  interests  of  the  country. 

Japan  Clover,  [Lespedeza  striata.)  This  is  a  low,  perennial  plant,  not  rising  much 
above  the  ground,  but  spreading  widely  on  the  surface.  It  belongs  to  the  leguminous  family 
of  plants,  which  includes  the  common  clover,  bean,  pea,  etc.  It  has  small  trifolate  leaves 
growing  numerously  upon  the  stems.  The  flowers  are  small,  and  are  produced  in  the  axils 
between  the  leaf  and  stem ;  the  fruit  a  kind  of  flat  pod.  It  seems  to  be  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  Southern  States,  and  proves  a  very  valuable  plant  there  for  grazing.  Sheep  are  very 
fond  of  it.  It  will  grow  on  soils  that  are  almost  unfit  for  anything  else,  furnishing  good 
pasture,  and  also  supplies  a  good  green  crop  for  turning  under  and  improving  the  land.  Mr. 
"Wall  says,  it  should  be  sown  in  January  or  February,  in  the  proportion  of  one  bushel  of  seed 


'Vwy-kv  *- 


JAPAN  CLOVER. 

(Lespeduza  striata.) 


MEXICAN  CLOVER. 
(Richardsonia  scabra.)  ■ 


196 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  197 

to  ten  acres,  to  secure  a  good  start  the  first  year.  It  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  renovator  of 
old  fields,  and  restores  fertility  in  an  incredibly  short  time. 

Prof.  Killebrew  says  concerning  it:  "About  the  year  1849  it  was  noticed  in  the  vicinity 
of  Charleston,  S.  C,  the  seeds  having  probably  been  brought  from  China  or  Japan  in  tea 
boxes.  A  short  time  afterwards  it  was  discovered  at  a  distance  of  forty  miles  from  Char- 
leston, and  still  later  near  Macon,  Ga.  It  seems  especially  adapted  to  the  Southern  States, 
not  flourishing  above  36°,  growing  with  great  luxuriance  on  the  poorest  soils,  and  retaining 
vitality  in  its  roots  in  the  severest  droughts.  It  is  said  to  be  a  fine  plant  for  grazing,  and, 
being  perennial,  needs  no  resowing  and  but  little  attention.  On  soils  unfit  for  anything  else 
it  furnishes  good  pasturage,  and  supplies  a  heavy  green  crop  for  turning  under  and  improv- 
ing the  land." 

Mr.  Samuel  McRamsey,  of  Warren  County,  Tennessee,  says:  '-This  clover  made  its 
appearance  in  that  locahty  in  1870.  It  is  fast  covering  the  whole  country;  it  supplies  much 
grazing  from  the  first  of  August  until  frost.  It  is  short,  but  very  hard.  Sheep  are  very 
fond  of  it,  and  cattle  will  eat  it." 

It  is  said  to  supply  grazing  from  the  first  of  July  until  frost,  and  to  root  out  any  other 
plant  growing  among  it.  It  is  found  in  the  South  from  the  Atlantic  slope  to  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi.     (See  illustration.) 

Mexican  Clover,  (Richardsonia  scabra.)  This  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  South  America, 
and  has  only  within  a  few  years  been  naturalized  in  some  parts  of  the  South.  It  is  an  annual 
plant  of  the  order  Rubiacea,  which  includes  coffee,  cinchona,  and  ipecacuanha  plants.  It 
grows  rapidly,  under  favorable  circumstances,  has  succulent,  spreading  stems,  which  have  small 
flowers  in  heads  or  clusters.  The  flowers  are  white  and  about  half  an  inch  long.  The  leaves 
are  oblong,  or  elliptical,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  long.  In  some  parts  of  the  South  it  is 
called  Florida  clover,  in  others,  water  parsley,  Spanish  clover,  and  bell  fountain.  It  contains 
considerable  water,  and  therefore  is  as  difficult  to  cure  as  hay.  It  was  formerly  regarded  as  a 
troublesome  weed  by  farmers,  but  is  now  valued  for  the  purpose  of  green  soiling. 

Mr.  Coleman,  of  Florida,  says  of  it:  "It  is  called  in  this  locahty  Spanish  clover.  The 
tradition  is  that  when  the  Spaniards  evacuated  Pensacola,  this  plant  was  discovered  there  by 
the  cavalry  horses  feeding  upon  it  eagerly.  Five  years  ago,  hearing  of  it,  I  procured  some 
of  the  seed,  and  have  been  planting  or  cultivating  it  in  my  orange-grove  from  that  time  to 
the  present,  as  a  forage  plant  and  vegetable  fertilizer.  I  find  it  ample  and  sufficient.  It 
grows  on  thin  pine  land,  from  four  to  six  feet,  branches  and  spreads  in  every  direction,  form- 
ing a  thick  matting  and  shade  to  the  earth,  and  affords  all  the  mulching  my  trees  require. 
One  hand  can  mow  as  much  in  a  day  as  a  horse  will  eat  in  a  year;  two  days'  sun  will  cure  it  ' 
ready  for  housing  or  stacking,  and  it  makes  a  sweet,  pleasant-flavored  hay ;  horses  and  cattle 
both  rehsh  it.  The  bloom  is  white,  always  open  in  the  morning  and  closed  in  the  evening. 
Bees  and  all  kinds  of  butterflies  suck  the  bloom." 

Dr.  Rohmer,  of  Spring  Hill  College,  Mobile,  gives  the  following  account  of  its  medicinal 
value:  "I  was  the  first  discoverer  of  the  plant  in  Blakely,  Baldwin  County,  Alabama,  in  1858. 
When  the  war  broke  out  1  was  appointed  by  the  Confederate  government  botanist  for  the 
department  of  the  gulf,  for  the  purpose  of  having  such  medicinal  plants  collected  as  in  my 
judgment  might  be  rendered  useful  in  the  treatment  of  disease,  and  subsequently  I  received 
the  appointment  of  superintendent  of  a  laboratory  established  at  Mobile  for  the  manufacture 
of  medicinal  preparations  for  the  use  of  the  army.  The  idea  suggested  itself  to  me  that  the 
Richardsonia  might  be  made  to  supersede  the  commercial  ipecac,  instead  of  using  the 
Euphorbia  corollata,  as  had  been  suggested.  In  the  fall  of  1863  I  had  the  roots  collected, 
dried,  and  powdered,  and  then  delivered  to  the  medical  purveyor.  From  the  testimony  of 
surgeons,  the  Richardsonia  answered  every  purpose  when  given  in  increased  doses." 

It  is  quite  nutritious,  and  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are  very  fond  of  it.    It  is  also  valuable 


198  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

as  a  fertilizer  when  plowed  under  while  green,  and  a  great  benefit  to  the  farmers  of  the 
lower  pine  regions.  The  illustration  which  we  give  is  a  very  correct  representation  of  the 
plant,  and  the  best  we  have  seen. 

Red  Clover,  ( TrifoUum  pratense.)  —  Although  not  properly  included  in  the  family  of 
grasses,  red  clover  is  one  of  the  most  valuable,  economical,  and  nutritious  of  forage  plants. 
It  belongs  to  the  family  Leguminosae,  which  includes  the  larger  portion  of  forage  plants, 
commonly  called  artificial  grasses,  in  distinction  from  the  Gramineae,  the  true,  and  usually 
called  natural  grasses.  The  coramon  red  clover  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  varieti€;g  of 
clover,  and  is  a  native  of  some  portions  of  Europe,  growing  in  meadows  and  pastures.  It 
was  introduced  into  England  about  the  year  1633,  and  has  since  that  time  been  extensively 
cultivated  in  that  country,  where  it  forms  the  staple  crop  for  soiling.  We  read  of  the  natural 
grasses  having  been  cultivated  in  this  country  some  time  previous  to  the  year  1750,  especially 
the  timothy,  although  clover  was  not  cultivated  to  any  extent  until  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when,  as  is  the  common  fate  of  aU  new  departures  under  the  sun.  it 
met  with  great  prejudice  at  first,  which  time  alone  could  overcome. 

The  great  value  of  the  different  clovers,  as  forage,  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
were  extensively  cultivated  by  the  early  Romans.  Although  the  nutritive  quality  of  clover 
is  relatively  less  than  that  of  some  of  the  grasses,  yet  in  the  average  amount  to  the  acre  it  is 
fully  equal  to  that  of  any  other  forage  crops,  produced  at  the  same  expense,  and,  when 
properly  cured,  is  a  most  valuable  food  for  milch  cows,  calves,  and  sheep.  It  matures  early, 
is  raised  cheaply,  and  is  generally,  in  this  country,  a  sure  crop  under  proper  treatment,  pro- 
ducing two  crops  during  the  year,  and  is  liable  to  few  casualties  or  injury  by  destructive 
insects. 

Although  the  common  red  clover,  ( TrifoUum  pratense, )  is  a  biennial  plant,  and  conse- 
quently two  years'  growth  is  all  that  should  be  expected  of  one  seeding,  yet  Mr.  J.  S.  Gould 
states,  in  his  extended  and  valuable  treatise  on  Forage  Crops,  that  there  is  a  variety  of  it, 
(TrifoUum  pratense  perenne,)  that  is  truly  perennial,  though  he  never  saw  a  whole  field  of  this 
variety;  that  it  is,  however,  frequently  met  with  in  permanent  pastures,  on  soils  naturally 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  clover.  It  may  be  distinguished,  in  general,  at  a  glance,  by  its  deeper 
bluish-green  color,  the  greater  narrowness  of  the  leaves,  its  more  straggling  growth,  and  the 
greater  number,  greater  length,  and  greater  stiffness  of  its  hairs.  The  root  of  this  variety  diifers 
considerably  from  the  biennial  kind;  being  somewhat  creeping  and  very  fibrous;  whereas  the 
perennial  has  an  almost  fusiform  root.  (Fusiform,  spindle-shaped,  as  in  the  radish,  having 
comparatively  few  fibers.)  Yet,  after  all,  these  characters  are  sometimes  interchangeable.  He 
has  seen  undoubted  perennial  clover  with  a  light  green  color,  and  very  sparsely  furnished 
with  hairs,  and  has  occasionally  found  equally  undoubted  biennial  clover  that  was  of  a  very 
dark  color  and  quite  abnormally  hairy.     In  doubtful  cases,  the  root  is  the  best  test. 

The  color  of  the  flower  varies  very  much  in  the  species  and  in  the  variety;  in  general, 
the  perennial  has  much  the  deepest  red,  but  both  kinds  are  met  with,  in  which  the  color  of 
the  flower  is  of  a  pale  pink,  and  rarely  of  a  pure  white.  The  heads  of  the  perennial  are  gener- 
ally less  crowded  with  flowers,  the  flower  stalks  more  slender,  and  with  a  greater  tendency 
to  curve.  When  young,  the  flower  head  presents  a  much  more  woolly  appearance  than  the 
biennial. 

In  the  present  condition  of  our  seed  markets,  he  thinks  that  the  seeds  of  this  variety 
could  not  be  obtained  with  any  certainty ;  but  when  farmers  become  well  acquainted  with 
the  distinction  between  them,  an  imperative  demand  for  reliable  seeds  will  arise,  which  will 
then  be  met  by  seedsmen.  Mr.  Sinclair  says  that  this  variety  is  found  in  the  greatest  abund- 
ance in  Lincolnshire,  and  recommends  that  the  seeds  should  be  first  selected  from  thence,  and 
then  be  cultivated  until  the  demand  is  fully  supplied.  It  flourishes  better  on  clayey  or  peaty 
soils  than  the  common  red  clover,  or  TrifoUum  pratense  proper. 
I 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  199 

There  are  two  varieties  of  red  clover,  known  among  farmers  as  "the  large"  and  "small 
clover."  The  large  is  considered  less  valuable  for  hay  or  pastures,  and  is  little  cultivated,  as 
it  yields  but  a  single  crop  of  hay  in  a  season ;  but  where  wanted  for  manure  only  it  is  often 
preferred  to  the  smaller,  on  account  of  its  heavy  growth. 

Clover  has  been  used  as  human  food  for  generations  by  some  tribes  of  Indians.  The 
Digger  Indians  of  California  eat  it  raw,  and  also  cook  it  by  placing  a  thick  layer  of  green 
clover  between  stones  that  had  been  previously  heated.  When  young  onions  or  chives  and 
grasshoppers  are  mingled  with  the  clover,  the  dish  is  considered  a  great  luxury  I  The 
Apaches  make  what  to  them  is  a  very  savory  and  palatable  dish,  by  mixing  together  clover, 
pigweed,  and  dandelions  in  a  vessel,  which  is  afterward  fiUed  with  water.  Heated  stones  are 
then  put  into  the  vessel,  and  taken  out  as  soon  as  their  surplus  heat  is  imparted  to  the 
water;  this  process  being  repeated  until  the  mass  is  sufficiently  cooked. 

Cultivation  of  Cloyer.  —  Red  clover  will  grow  on  almost  all  soUs,  except  those 
that  are  too  wet.  It  will,  however,  not  prove  a  very  profitable  crop  on  very  light,  sandy  soils. 
"When  it  is  desirable  to  enrich  such  soils  by  green  manuring,  it  is  well  to  sow  some  other 
crop  for  the  purpose.  Clover  is  a  lime  plant,  and  the  soils  best  adapted  to  its  production  are 
tenacious  or  stiff  loams. 

The  analysis  of  Prof.  "Way  found  35.39  per  cent,  of  lime  in  the  inorganic  constituents 
of  red  clover,  that  of  Boussingault  32.80  percent.,  while  the  term  "clover  soils"  is  now 
almost  universally  employed  to  denote  a  tenacious  loam  containing  more  or  less  Ume  in  its 
composition. 

A  great  advantage  in  its  cultivation,  aside  from  its  superior  nutritive  properties,  consists 
in  its  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth,  but  a  comparatively  short  time  being  required  from  the 
time  of  sowing  the  seed  before  it  yields  an  abundant  crop,  that  is  greatly  relished  by  stock 
of  all  kinds. 

Mr.  Gould  says:  —  "The  best  soils  for  red  clover  are  the  best  wheat  soils;  where  the  one 
will  grow  luxuriantly,  there  will  the  other  grow  luxuriantly  also.  There  are  loams  and 
friable  clays  with  some  admixtures  of  calcareous  matters  to  which  it  is  well  adapted,  thougli 
it  wiU  grow  in  tolerably  stiff  clays,  if  they  are  not  too  wet.  In  thin,  sandy  soils  it  is  much 
more  liable  to  freeze  out  than  in  stiffer  ones,  and  there  seems  also  to  be  less  of  its  natural 
specific  food." 

The  growth  of  clover  is  known  to  differ  very  widely  upon  soils  of  the  same  geologic 
formation,  and  to  be  equally  luxuriant  upon  soils  of  very  different  geologic  characters.  The 
richest  clover  region  of  Ohio  is  in  a  belt  running  east  and  west  near  the  latitude  41.° 

The  best  portion  of  this  belt  is  in  Monroe  County,  upon  the  Hamilton  shales,  but  it  grows 
in  equal  perfection  further  west,  on  the  cliff  and  carniferous  limestone  of  Marion  and  Han- 
cock Counties. 

One  of  the  finest  clover  regions  of  New  York  is  on  the  Onondaga  limestone,  which  is 
precisely  the  same  as  the  Helderberg  limestone,  being  the  same  deposit;  yet  the  clover  grow- 
ing on  the  same  rock  around  the  Helderberg  mountains  is  much  less  luxuriant.  Some  of  the 
finest  clover  that  can  be  grown  is  found  on  the  Moscow  shales  in  the  town  of  Romulus. 

Clover  grows  better  when  it  is  sown  in  connection  with  some  other  cultivated  plant 
which  will  give  it  shade  during  the  early  period  of  its  growth;  hence,  it  is  generally  sown  on 
winter  wheat  or  rye  in  the  spring.  The  best  way  of  doing  this  is  to  sow  it  on  a  freshly  fallen 
snow  in  the  latter  part  of  March,  which  soon  melts,  and  thus  leaves  the  seed  to  sink  into  the 
ground  as  deep  as  is  desirable  without  any  other  care  or  attention.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to 
sow  it  on  winter  grain,  it  is  put  in  with  oats  or  barley  in  the  spring,  the  latter  being  decidedly 
preferable. 

In  the  latter  case  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bury  the  seeds  too  deeply,  as  they  will  be 
assuredly  lost,  if  such  is  the  case.     Mr.  Stirling,  of  Glenbervie,  in  Scotland,  experimented 


200  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

very  carefully  upon  this  point  with  the  following  results,  which  are  embraced  in  a  report  to 
the  Highland  Society:  — 

"The  seeds  weighed  sixty-f our  pounds  to  the  bushel.  There  were  16,000  seeds  in  an  ounce 
(the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound  may  of  course  be  found  by  multiplying  this  number  by  sixteen, 
and  if  the  number  of  seeds  in  a  bushel  is  required  it  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  latter 
product  by  sixty-four).  From  0  to  -J-  inch  in  depth  the  greatest  number  of  seeds  sprouted. 
When  covered  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  one  inch  and  a  half  only  half  of  the  seeds  came 
up;  and  when  they  were  covered  two  inches  deep  none  of  them  came  through  the  surface. 
When  the  seeds  cannot  be  sown  on  a  snow  on  winter  wheat  or  rye,  as  above  recommended, 
it  will  be  advisable  to  stir  up  the  wheat  with  a  Hght  harrow  before  sowing  it,  as  it  germi- 
nates so  much  more  freely  in  fresh-stirred  soil.  All  that  will  then  be  necessary  for  this,  or 
in  case  of  sowing  with  spring  crops,  is  to  go  over  the  seeds  with  a  light  roller. 

"  In  nothing  is  there  a  greater  difference  of  opinion  and  of  practice  among  farmers  than 
with  regard  to  the  amount  of  seed  required  for  an  acre.  Some  sow  only  four  pounds,  and 
some  go  as  high  as  sixteen  pounds.  I  have  seen  crops  of  clover  sufficiently  large  to  satisfy 
any  farmer  grown  from  four  pounds  of  seed ;  but  in  this  case  the  circumstances  were  all 
favorable;  the  seeds  were  all  full  of  vitality;  the  soil  was  exactly  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
clover;  the  temperature,  at  the  time  of  sowing,,  and  the  succession  of  showers  after  it,  were 
exactly  adapted  to  promote  its  growth,  and  it  was  not  infested  with  injurious  insects. 

"  But  such  a  combination  of  favorable  circumstances  is  very  rare,  and  to  provide  for  con- 
tingencies it  will  always  be  safe,  even  on  good  soils,  to  sow  eight  pounds  to  the  acre,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  poverty  of  the  soil  we  may  go  up  to  sixteen  pounds.  In  all  cases  the 
greatest  amount  of  seed  must  be  sown  on  the  poorest  soils." 

The  best  time  to  sow  clover  seed  in  New  England,  is  in  the  spring.  It  is  frequently 
sown  upon  the  late  snows  in  March  or  April,  by  the  gradual  melting  of  which  it  finds  its  way 
to  the  soU,  where  the  moisture  soon  causes  it  to  germinate  and  take  root. 

Clover  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast  in  August  or  September,  but  the  best  results  are 
usually  attained,  other  conditions  being  favorable,  when  sown  in  the  early  spring.  It  may 
be  sown  with  grains,  cultivated  grasses,  or  by  itself.  The  quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre 
varies  according  to  the  kind  of  soil.  Clay  soils  require  more  than  loams.  The  usual  amount 
for  well-prepared  loams  is  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  per  acre;  for  heavy  clays,  from  fourteen 
to  sixteen  pounds.  When  sown  with  grasses,  the  proportionate  quantity  of  clover-seed  is 
from  a  third  to  one-half  of  the  amount  sown.  The  larger  the  amount  of  seed,  as  a  general 
rule,  with  any  of  the  grasses  or  forage  plants,  the  greater  the  number  of  stalks;  consequently 
the  finer  the  quality  of  the  product. 

The  sowing  should  be  liberal,  but  not  so  large  as  to  cause  the  crowding  of  plants,  which 
will  prevent  as  heavy  and  strong  growth  as  would  otherwise  be  secured.  The  covering,  as 
has  been  previously  stated,  should  be  very  slight.  When  sown  early  in  the  spring  on  weU- 
pulverized  soil,  it  will  germinate  freely  without  the  use  of  the  harrow.  Rolling  the  field  will, 
iowever,  press  the  seed  into  the  soil,  and  cause  it  to  germinate  quicker  than  without  this  pro- 
cess. Gj^sum,  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  three  or  four  bushels  per  acre,  is 
very  beneficial  to  the  crop,  when  the  soil  on  which  it  is  grown  is  suited  to  its  use.  This 
sliould  be  done  in  the  spring,  just  as  the  leaves  are  developed. 

When  grown  too  frequently  on  the  same  soil,  land  will  sometimes  become  incapable  of 
^producing  a  good  crop,  and  will  become  what  is  commonly  termed  by  farmers,  "clover-sick." 
In  such  cases  other  crops  should  follow  for  four  or  five  years,  for  the  benefit  of  a  change. 

It  is  stated  by  good  authority  that  little  interest  had  been  taken  in  the  cultivation  of 
•clover  in  this  country  until  the  wonderful  effects  of  gypsum  in  stimulating  its  growth  was 
discovered. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  seems  to  have  been  among  the  first  to  recognize  in  this  country 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


201 


this  wonderfiil  power  in  gypsum,  wliicli  had  been  first  discovered  as  a  fertilizing  agent  by  a 
Protestant  pastor  by  the  name  of  Mayer,  in  the  principal  city  of  Hohenlohe,  and  was  the  first 
to  call  the  attention  of  farmers  here  to  its  fertilizing  power.  Franklin  simply  traced  the  letters 
of  his  name  in  powdered  gj-^sum  upon  a  patch  of  clover,  and  in  a  short  time  his  name  could  be 
easily  read  by  all  the  passers-by.  It  stood  up  three  times  as  high  as  the  surrounding  plants, 
and  was  equally  distinguished  by  the  dai-k-green  stems  and  leaves,  and  the  vivid  red  blos- 
soms, from  the  unplastered  portion,  which  was  much  smaller  and  less  luxuriant,  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  a  yellowish  green,  while  the  blossoms  were  of  a  pale  pink  hue,  some  of  them 
degenerating  to  an  almost  white  color.  Great  multitudes  flocked  to  see  the  miraculous  hand- 
writing on  the  field,  and  sometimes  the  roads  aromid  it  resembled  a  county  fair  from  the 
number  of  vehicles  and  horses  that  were  collected.  The  doctor  soon  afterwards  published 
an  account  of  the  experiment,  written  in  his  most  attractive  manner,  that  was  read  by  almost 
every  one,  and  thus  it  was  diffused  over  the  whole  country.  Every  one  was  talking  about  it, 
and  a  few  tried  the  experiment,  and  from  that  time  the  culture  of  clover  has  been  extending 
even  to  the  present  day. 

Time  of  Cutting,  and  Method  of  Curing  Clover. — Of  course  the  time  of  cutting 
clovers,  as  well  as  grass,  differs  with  different  latitudes,  and  can  only  be  determined  by  the 
condition  of  the  crop.  The  opinion  formerly  prevailed  that  this  crop  should  be  cut  after  hav- 
ing fully  blossomed  and  assumed  a  brownish  hue,  or  as  soon  as  the  earliest  heads  showed 
signs  of  ripening;  but  it  has  been  ascertained,  by  many  and  repeated  experiments,  that  the 
proper  time  for  cutting  it  is  just  as  it  is  coming  into  full  bloom,  as  it  then  has  the  maximum 
amount  of  nutritive  matter  in  a  condition  best  fitted  for  assimilation. 

The  amount  of  loss  sustained  by  cutting  clover  at  improper  times  was  determined  by  Dr. 
Voelcker  in  his  admirable  experiments  made  at  the  agricultural  college  at  Cirencester. 

The  plot  upon  which  the  experiments  were  tried  was  a  good  calcareous  clay  soil,  and  was 
subdivided  into  plots,  each  of  which  was  sixteen  and  a  half  feet  square.  Plot  No.  1  was  cut 
six  times,  at  intervals  of  a  fortnight.  The  total  amount  yielded  per  acre  was  five  tons,  eight 
cwt.  and  sixty-four  pounds  of  green  clover,  and  one  ton,  four  cwt.  and  seventy-six  pounds 
of  hay  dried,  and  contained  388.8  pounds  of  nitrogenous,  and  1,646.4  of  non-nitrogenous 
matters.  Plot  No.  2  was  cut  a  fortnight  later,  and  so  each  successive  plot  was  cut  a  fortnight 
after  the  preceding  one.  The  clover  began  to  blossom  on  the  twentieth  of  May.  Plot  No.  7 
was  cut  June  sixteenth,  and  again  on  the  second  of  July.  These  two  cuttings  yielded 
eleven  tons,  seventeen  cwt.  and  sixteen  pounds  of  fresh  grass,  and  three  tons,  thirteen  cwt. 
and  ten  pounds  of  dry  hay,  780  pounds  of  nitrogenous,  and  5,680  pounds  of  non-nitrogenous 
matters.  This  was  the  maximum  yield;  each  successive  plot  had  given  a  richer  yield  up  to 
this  point.  After  this,  the  amount  steadily  receded,  until  the  last  cutting,  which  was  on  the 
twenty -eighth  of  July,  when  the  fresh  produce  was  four  tons,  ten  cwt.;  the  dry  hay,  two  tons, 
four  cwt.  and  ninety  pounds.  The  loss  between  the  cutting  of  June  sixteenth  and  that  of 
July  twenty-eighth  was,  of  dry  hay,  one  ton  nine  cwt.  and  ten  pounds;  of  nitrogenous  mat- 
ters, of  480.8  pounds,  and  of  non-nitrogenous  matters,  1,315.2  pounds.  The  steady  decrease 
of  nitrogen  is  shown  in  the  following  table: — 

Per  cent  of 
Nitrogen. 

1.81 

1.49 

1.33 

1.27 

1.06 

.97 

The  above  figures  speak  for  themselves,  and  require  no  comment.  When  farmers  gen- 
erally understand  better  what  the  real  losses  in  nutriment  are  which  are  occasioned  by  cut- 


June  16, 

June 

33, 

June  30, 

July 

7, 

July 

18, 

July 

28, 

202  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ting  grass  or  any  of  the  forage  crops  at  improper  seasons,  they  will  be  less  carelsss  and  indif- 
ferent with  respect  to  it. 

In  actual  practice,  the  evil  effects  of  rain  upon  clover,  and  of  too  early  or  too  late  cutting, 
are  more  apparent  than  would  appear  from  the  results  of  a  chemical  analysis.  When  prop- 
erly cured,  animals  eat  the  hay  with  avidity,  increase  in  flesh,  are  healthy,  and  give  milk  in 
abundance,  but  when  fed  on  hay  cut  too  late,  or  imperfectly  cured,  they  cease  to  make  fat 
and  diminish  in  their  milk.  It  is  conceded  by  the  best  authority  that  in  order  to  secure  the 
perfect  cuiing  of  clover  hay,  two  things  must  necessarily  be  kept  in  view:  first,  the  clover 
must  be  cut  when  it  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  nutriment,  and  second,  it  must  have  the 
water  that  is  contained  in  its  stalks  and  leaves  evaporated  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  first 
will  be  accomplished  by  cutting  it  when  in  full  bloom;  the  second,  by  not  cutting  it  until 
every  vestige  of  dew  and  rain  has  been  dried  off  from  it.  After  it  has  been  wilted  by  two 
or  three  hours  sunshine,  it  should  be  tedded  with  great  care,  or  the  leaves  will  be  almost 
entirely  whipped  off,  and  the  stalks  bruised,  which  would  be  a  great  injury  to  the  hay;  those 
tedders  being  the  best  that  do  not  strike  with  great  violence,  but  lift  it  from  the  ground  and 
toss  it  into  the  air.  It  must  be  raked  and  cocked  so  as  to  shed  rain  before  the  dew  begins 
to  fall,  and  if  there  is  a  prospect  of  rain,  it  should  be  capped.  The  next  day  the  cocks  must 
be  opened  as  soon  as  the  sun  becomes  warm,  and  be  deposited  in  the  barn  before  night. 

Well  made  clover  hay  furnishes  one  of  the  most  nutritious  articles  of  food  for  stock, 
while  that  which  is  badly  cured  is  about  as  poor  diet  for  animals  as  could  well  be  found. 

When  clover  is  simply  dried  in  the  sun  without  bruising  the  tissues  or  beating  off  the 
waxy  covering  that  envelopes  it,  it  is  as  nutritious  as  it  is  when  green,  since  in  such  a  pi'ocess 
it  loses  nothing  in  curing,  but  simply  water. 

When  clover  is  cut,  it  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  sugar,  gum,  mucilage,  albumi- 
nous and  some  other  soluble  compounds,  all  of  which  are  liable  to  be  washed  away  by  rains 
or  dews  when  exposed  to  their  action. 

All  feeders  of  stock  have  invariably  found,  that  while  domestic  animals  will  fatten  on 
well-made,  bright  clover  hay,  they  remain  stationary  or  go  backwards  on  clover  hay  that  has 
been  injured  by  exposure  to  dews  and  rains. 

Dr.  Voelcker  ascertained  the  composition  of  clover  hay  that  produced  such  unsatisfac- 
tory results  in  feeding,  by  analysis,  and  found  that  it  contained: — 


Of  moisture,  . 

Nitrogenous  organic  matter, 
Non-nitrogenous  substances, 
Mineral  matter  (ash), 


20.45 
8.50 

64.27 
6.78 


1.; 


Containing  nitrogen,       ..... 

The   composition   of  well-made  clover  hay,    as  ascertained   by  Professor  Way,  is 
follows: — 

Moisture,        ........••  16.60 

Fatty  Matters,            ........  3.18 

Albumen  and  similar  nitrogenous  compounds  (flesh-forming  matters),              .  15.81 

Gum,  sugar,  mucilage,  and  carbon  hydrates  readily  convertible  into  sugar,      .  34.42 

Indigestible  woody  fiber  (cellulose),            ......  23.47 

Mineral  matter  (ash),            .            .            .           .            .            .            .            .  7.52 

100.00 


Containing  nitrogen,      .  .  .  .  .  •  •  •  3.03 

On  comparing  the  above  figures,  it  will  be  seen  that  exposure  to  rain  caused,  in  this 
experiment,  a  loss  of  7.31  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  substance,  or,  we  may  say,  that  nearly 
one-half  of  the  nitrogenous  matters  are  wholly  lost.     Clover  hay  that  is  badly  cured  in  the 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  203 

field  will  also  lose  more  weiglit  in  the  stack  than  well-cured  hay,  as  well  as  more  of  its  nutri- 
tive qualities,  the  loss  being  occasioned  by  the  conversion  of  the  sugar  and  other  nutritive 
■  compounds  into  those  which  are  innutritions. 

Conditions  Favorable  to  Fermentation  in  Clover  Hay. — Air  is  always  essen- 
tial at  the  beginning  of  the  process  of  fermentation,  but  after  it  has  been  once  commenced, 
this  process  may  be  continued  even  after  the  air  has  been  subsequently  excluded.  To  illus- 
trate this  principle,  the  reason  why  grapes  will  not  ferment  until  the  juice  has  been  expressed, 
or  the  skin  broken,  is  because  the  air  is  excluded  by  the  close,  tight  covering  or  skin  which 
envelops  the  pulp. 

Fermentation,  which  is  that  decomposition  or  decay  which  acts  to  all  appearance  sponta- 
neously, upon  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  generating  heat  and  throwing  off  gas  in  the  pro- 
cess, is  caused  by  a  microscopic  fungi ;  hence  ferments  always  contain  the  germs  of  fungi 
which  are  more  and  more  fully  developed  during  the  process.  Moisture  and  heat  will  cause 
any  organic  body,  not  living,  to  ferment.  From  sixty-five  to  eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  a 
temperature  most  favorable  to  rapid  fermentation.  "When  reduced  much  below  this,  it  is  slow 
in  its  operation. 

Fermentation  is  also  largely  affected  by  the  amount  of  water  present.  In  the  process  of 
fermentation,  the  elements  of  sugar  and  other  carbonaceous  compounds  are  re-arranged  ;  the 
carbon  uniting  with  the  hydrogen  to  form  alcohol,  and  with  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid. 
It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  chemists,  that  if  one  part  of  sugar  is  dissolved  in  three  or  four 
parts  of  water,  with  the  addition  of  yeast,  fermentation  will  not  occur  even  in  a  warm  room  ; 
but  if  an  equal  weight  of  water  be  added  to  the  solution,  fermentation  will  soon  commence  ; 
and  that  if  the  water  is  increased  to  the  extent  that  the  proportionate  quantities  are  as  one  of 
sugar  to  sixteen  or  twenty  of  water,  it  will  either  ferment  very  slowly  or  turn  acid.  This 
proves  that  too  large  or  too  small  a  proportion  of  water  is  unfavorable  to  fermentation. 
Appl}'ing  this  principle  to  the  curing  of  hay,  and  we  can  readily  understand  the  reason  why 
grass  or  clover  freshly  cut  does  not  ferment  as  readily  as  that  which  is  partially  cured.  When 
grass  is  freshly  cut,  its  vitality  has  not  wholly  left  it,  consequently  fermentation  is  deferred. 
It  also  contains  too  large  a  proportion  of  water  compared  with  that  of  the  sugar  and  gum  of 
its  composition,  and  the  albuminoids  have  not  at  this  period  begun  to  change  into  ferments. 

But  after  the  evaporation  of  the  water  contained  in  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  the  clover  or 
grass  has  continued  for  a  time,  the  relations  of  the  different  combinations  become  such  as  to 
favor  fermentation,  and  if  at  this  stage  the  drying  process  is  arrested  by  any  means,  such  as 
cloudy  or  rainy  weather,  the  hay  will  undergo  a  process  of  fermentation  in  the  field  which 
destroys  its  nutritive  properties,  and  leaves  httle  else  than  the  indigestible  woody  fibre. 

If  the  former  condition  (that  of  drying)  be  continued  without  arrest,  long  enough  to 
exhaust  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  the  clover,  beyond  the  point  where  fermentation 
can  take  place,-  the  hay  remains  exempt  from  fermentation  and  is  nutritious. 

The  bruising  of  hay  during  the  curing  process  has  a  tendency  to  produce  fermentation, 
therefore  the  less  it  is  stirred  or  tedded  beyond  the  point  of  sufficient  exposure  to  air  and  sun- 
shine, the  better. 

How  Fermentation  May  be  Prevented  in  the  Mow. — Fermentation  and  mold 
are  often  prevented  in  the  mow  by  mixing,  as  evenly  as  possible,  from  ten  to  twenty  quarts  of 
salt  per  ton  with  the  hay  when  storing  it,  which  can  be  done  by  alternate  layers  of  hay  and 
salt.  Although  salt  has  a  tendency  to  make  hay  moist,  it  is  a  preserving  agent,  and  also  ren- 
ders it  more  palatable  to  stock.  Another  method  employed  by  farmers  with  success,  is  that 
of  mixing  alternate  layers  of  dry  grass,  hay  or  straw  with  the  clover,  which  absorbs  the  mois- 
ture of  the  clover  and  thus  prevents  fermentation,  while  the  juices  of  the  clover,  permeating 
the  straw  or  hay  thus  placed  in  layers  between,  improve  the  flavor  of  the  latter  for  fodder. 


204 


THE  AMERICAN  FARlfER 


Hay  that  is  packed  compactly  in  the  mow,  excluding  the  air  as  far  as  possible,  is  less  liable 
to  ferment  than  where  this  precaution  is  not  observed. 

Cultivatill"'  Clover  Seed, — Some  farmers  pasture  the  clover-field  till  June,  and  then 
leave  it  to  mature  a  full  crop  of  seed ;  others  mow  it  early,  and  leave  the  second  crop  to  ma- 
ture the  seed;  but  when  this  is  done,  the  first  cutting  should  be  done  before  blossoming  and 
seed-forming,  as  the  plant  wiU  become  too  much  exhausted  to  produce  a  second  crop  of  seed, 
the  seed-forming  substance  having  been  used  up,  in  a  measure,  in  the  first  crop.  It  is  of  more 
importance  to  place  more  value  upon  the  seed  to  be  raised,  than  the  hay  first  secured,  as 
this  will  prove  most  profitable  in  the  end.  The  early  mowing  has  the  benefit  of  remo^angthe 
weeds,  while  the  second  growth  of  clover  will  be  so  rapid  that  the  weeds  will  be  smothered 
and  the  clover  is  then  saved  comparatively  free  from  other  seeds. 

An  application  of  plaster  to  the  clover-field  in  the  spring  wiU  secure  a  better  crop  of  seed 
when  matured,  while  its  application  to  the  field  freshly  mowed,  after  its  first  crop,  will  make 
the  second  growth  very  luxuriant  and  rank  in  hay,  to  the  detriment  of  the  seed-crop. 

Harvesting  Clover  Seed. — The  best  time  for  cutting  clover  for  seed  is  when  about 
three-fourths  of  the  heads  are  brown  ;  at  this  time  there  is  less  hability  to  loss  from  shelling 
while  handling;  besides,  clover  heads  will  ripen  considerably  after  cutting,  and  those  heads  not 


CLOVER    HULLER   AND    CLEANER. 


WHEELERS    CLOVER   HULLER. 


sufficiently  advanced,  at  this  period  of  ripening  process,  would  be  of  but  little  value  for  seed 
production  if  allowed  to  stand  till  dead-ripe.  The  hay  is  also  of  greater  value  for  fodder  ii 
cut  at  this  period  than  later.  It  can  be  mowed  with  a  scythe  or  mowing-machine,  but  what 
is  better  still  is  a  reaper,  arranged  as  for  reaping  grain,  with  a  board  at  the  back  to  retain  a 
large  amount  of  the  clover,  which  can  be  pitched  off  in  heaps. 

Some  recommend  cutting  quite  high,  as  it  saves  time  in  curing  and  labor  in  handling, 
and  leaves  the  dryer  and  coarser  portions  of  the  stalk  upon  the  field.  It  shoald  be  well-cured 
and  handled  with  care  to  prevent  loss  of  heads;  still,  it  is  less  liable  to  injury  from  lack  of 
curing  than  either  hay  or  grain.  When  thoroughly  dried,  the  seed  can  be  threshed  out  with 
a  threshing-machine,  or  light  flails,  which  can  best  be  done  in  extreme  cold  weather,  when 
there  is  no  dampness  in  the  seed  or  air.  The  calyx  of  the  clovers  is  very  firmly  attached  to 
the  seed,  often  rendering  the  separation  difficult.  A  clover-huller,  of  which  there  are  several 
kinds,  is  a  good  machine  for  this  purpose,  in  rubbing  the  seeds  out  from  the  chaff,  by  passing 
through  it  several  times,  until  the  separation  is  complete.  The  first  two  cuts  of  clover 
machines  represent  implements  manufactured  by  the  Wheeler  &  Melick  Company,  Albany, 
N.  Y.  The  first  is  somewhat  similar  to  a  grain  thresher  and  cleaner,  except  that  it  is  under 
instead  of  overshot,  and  fed  from  a  hopper  over  the  cylinder,  instead  of  in  front  of  the  cylin- 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


205 


der.  Over  the  cylinder,  in  the  hopper,  is  a  revolving  shaft,  with  arms,  to  prevent  clogging 
and  to  stir  up  the  seed  and  cliatl.  The  cleaned  seed  is  discharged  in  a  large  drawer  under- 
neath the  machine  to-be  put  into  bags  or  barrels.  The  unthreshed  seed -bolls  fall  at  the  back 
end  of  the  machine,  and  are  to  be  put  into  the  hopper  to  pass  through  the  machine  again.  It 
can  be  run  with  a  two-horse  railway,  or  three  or  four  horses  to  a  sweep-power,  and  is  said  to 
clean  from  ten  to  twenty  bushels  of  clover-soed  per  day. 

The  second  represents  a  compact  and  simple  machine  which  can  be  used  with  one  horse. 
A  fan-mill  will  be  required  with  this  machine,  as  it  does  not  separate  the  seed  from  the  chafE. 


VICTOR   OLOVEK    MACHINE. 


The  Victor  Clover  Machine,  manxifactured  by  the  Hagerstown  Agricultural  Implement 
Manufacturing  Company,  of  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  has  an  under-shot  six-beater  open  cylinder, 
which  has  important  advantages  over  the  closed  or  drum  cylinder,  and  over  the  over-shot  cyl- 
inder. This  cylinder,  being  open,  the  dust  is  taken  through  into  the  separator,  where  it  is 
confined  and  carried  out  at  the  rear  end  of  the  machinery. 

The  seed  is  rubbed  out  by  the  diminishing  of  the  space  between  the  front  edges  of  the 
rubbers  and  the  corner  of  their  backs  as  they  pass  each  other  with  their  fluted  sides  by  the 
revolution  of  the  cylinder.  The  process  is  one,  as  is  readily  seen,  that  will  rub  out  the  seed 
very  effectually.  It  is  said  by  those  who  have  used  them  to  thresh  very  rapidly,  and  to  do 
the  work  very  satisfactorily,  and  can  be  run  with  either  horse  or  steam  power. 

Clover  as  a  Fertilizer. — Clover  is  not  only  extremely  valuable  as  a  forage  plant,  but 
also  as  a  fertilizer  of  any  soil  on  which  it  grows.  It  is  often  stated  that  the  introduction  of 
clover  into  England  produced  an  entire  revolution  in  her  agriculture;  we  know  its  import- 
ance to  the  agricultural  interests  of  our  own  country  are  beyond  estimation,  and  we  wonder 
how  our  ancestors  could  have  gotten  on  in  farming  without  it. 


206  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Clover  acts  as  a  fertilizer  in  various  ways.  Its  long  roots  not  only  penetrate  the  soil, 
loosening  it  and  admitting  the  air,  thus  improving  its  mechanical  condition,  but  also  serve  to 
fix  in  the  soil  those  elements  important  to  enrich  it.  "When  these  roots  decay,  they  contribute 
their  substance  to  further  increase  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  land.  The  heavy  foliage  of 
clover  also  serves  to  choke  out  the  weeds  that  would  be  liable  to  spring  up  on  newly  seeded 
land.  It  also  heavily  shades  the  surface,  which  tends  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by 
this  means.  It  has  been  found  that  while  clover  takes  out  of  a  soil  probably  as  much  of  some 
of  the  elements  of  fertility  as  many  of  the  farm  crops,  even  more  than  wheat  or  other  cereals, 
it  leaves  in  it  a  much  larger  portion  of  nitrogen  and  nitrogenous  elements  than  any  other 
crop.  And  it  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note,  that  a  crop  of  grain  will  grow  better  after  a  crop  of 
clover  than  it  will  after  any  other  crop.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  left  in  the  soil  by  a  crop  of 
clover  was  found   (as  we  have  previously  stated),   by  the  careful  investigations  of  Prof. 

Voelckcr, who  is  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  agricultural  chemisty  the  world  has  ever  known, 

— to  be  equal  to  two  and  a  half  to  three  tons  per  acre.  He  also  found,  that  on  soils  where  clover 
had  been  grown,  not  only  is  all  that  nitrogen  collected  and  stored  up  in  the  soil  by  the  clover, 
but  it  is  left  when  spring  returns  in  a  much  better  condition  to  produce  a  grain  crop  than  any 
other  fertilizer  that  could  be  applied.  These  investigations  wei-e  made  at  different  depths  of 
the  soil,  taking  six  inches  at  a  time  until  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  was  reached.  From 
the  thorough  investigations  thus  made.  Prof.  Voelcker  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  That  a  good  crop  of  clover  removes  from  the  soil  more  potash,  more  phosphoric  acid, 
more  lime,  and  other  mineral  matters  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  ashes  of  our 
cultivated  crops,  than  any  other  crop  usually  grown  in  the  country. 

2.  There  is  fully  three  times  as  much  nitrogen  in  a  crop  of  clover  as  in  the  average  pro- 
duce of  the  grain  and  straw  of  wheat  per  acre. 

3.  Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  nitrogenoiis  matter,  and  of  the  ash  constituents 
of  plants  in  the  produce  of  an  acre,  clover  is  an  excellent  preparatory  crop  for  wheat. 

4.  During  the  growth  of  clover,  a  large  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  accumulates  in 
the  soil. 

5.  This  accumulation,  which  is  greatest  in  the  surface-soil,  is  due  to  decaying  leaves 
dropped  during  the  growth  of  clover,  and  to  an  abundance  of  roots,  containing,  when  dry, 
from  one  and  three-quarters  to  two  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

C.  The  clover-roots  are  stronger  and  more  numerous,  and  more  leaves  fall  on  the 
ground,  when  clover  is  grown  for  seed,  than  when  it  is  mown  for  hay.  In  consequence,  more 
nitrogen  is  left  after  clover-seed  than  after  hay,  which  accounts  for  wheat  yielding  a  better 
crop  after  clover-seed  than  after  hay. 

7.  The  development  of  roots  being  checked  when  the  produce  in  a  green  condition  is 
fed  off  by  sheep,  in  all  probability  leaves  still  less  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  soil  than  when 
clover  is  allowed  to  get  riper,  and  is  mown  for  hay.  Notwithstanding  the  return  of  the  pro- 
duce in  the  sheep-excrements,  wheat  is  generally  stronger,  and  yields  better,  aftei'  clover 
mown  for  hay,  than  when  the  clover  is  fed  off  green  by  sheep. 

8.  The  nitrogenous  matters  in  the  clover-remains,  on  their  gradual  decay,  are  finally 
transformed  into  nitrates,  thus  affording  a  continuous  source  of  food,  on  which  cereal  crops 
specially  delight  to  gi'ow. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  clover  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  known  for  preceding  almost  any 
crop.  Clover  is  also  a  most  valuable  agent  in  restoring  the  fertility  of  exhausted  lands  by 
being  plowed  under  when  green.  The  leaves  gather  food  from  the  atmosphere,  and  this 
food  it  stores  up  in  its  roots  and  stems,  which  by  their  decomposition  afford  a  peculiar 
nitrogenous  element  to  crops.  The  texture  of  many  soils  is  also  greatly  improved  by  the  use 
of  clover  as  a  green  manure.  This  subject  of  manuring  with  green  crops  will  be  found  more 
fully  treated  in  connection  with  Fertilizers,  and  hence  does  not  require  a  further  considera- 
ation  here. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE   PLANTS.  207 

"  Clover  Sickness."  —  When  soils  have  for  a  series  of  years  borne  luxuriant  crops 
of  clover,  it  sometimes  happens  that  they  seem  suddenly  to  be  unable  to  continue  its  produc- 
tion longer,  which  is  evinced  by  the  plant  being  found  stunted  in  growth  and  scattered  here 
and  there  in  small  patches,  surrounded  by  the  bare  soil.  Sometimes  the  plant  has  a  yellowish 
tinge  and  is  covered  with  brown  spots,  which  are  found  to  be  a  minute  cryptogamic  parasite. 
When  these  indications  occur,  the  land  is  said  to  be  "clover  sick." 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  fully  understood,  various  opinions  being  entertained  re- 
specting it.  It  is  the  general  opinion,  however,  that  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  evil  is  the 
exhaustion  from  the  soU,  by  the  continual  growth  of  the  clover  crop,  of  some  of  the  elements 
which  are  essential  to  its  growth. 

Dr.  Grouven,  after  a  careful  study  of  this  subject  in  Germany,  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  chief  cause  of  the  clover  disease  is  attributable  to  a  change  in  the  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  plant,  which  change  is  caused  by  an  altered  condition  of  the  soil.  The  difference 
between  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  healthy  and  diseased  clover  is  seen  by  the  following 
analysis,  which  shows  in  the  latter  a  remarkable  deficiency  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid: 


Potash 

Soda 
Lime 


Healthy  clover 

Diseased  clover. 

Wolff. 

Grouven. 

35.5 

3.23 

0.7 

0.87 

32.8 

55.71 

8.4 

13.08 

8.5 

2.76 

3.3 

13.46 

8.4 

5.99 

7.0 

4.88 

Chlorine  . 
Sulphuric  acid 
Phosphoric  acid 
Silicic  acid 

99.6  100.07 

Prof.  Buckman  refers,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  to  the  fact  that  our  clover  is  a 
derivative  plant  that  has  been  forced  in  growth  until  it  is  now  many  times  larger  than  the 
wild  plant  from  which  it  sprung,  and  that  this  growth  demands  the  continuance  of  those -ele- 
ments from  the  soil  which  were  originally  the  cause  of  its  enlarged  growth ;  hence  the  lack  of 
a  sufficient  supply  of  those  elements  may  be  one  of  the  causes  of  the  disease.  Insects  injurious 
to  clover  are  constantly  increasing,  and  this  may  be  one  of  the  causes  of  the  evil.  It  has  been 
found  that  one  of  the  best  remedies  in  this  disease  yet  discovered  is  paring  and  burning  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  which  destroy  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  insects  injurious  to  it,  and  also  aU 
the  undecomposed  vegetable  matter  that  it  may  contain.  A  rotation  with  other  crops,  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  to  change  the  properties  of  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  soil,  will 
also  prove  highly  beneficial. 

Alsike  Clover,  {TrifoUum  hyhridum.) — This  plant  is  a  native  of  Sweden,  and  is  often 
known  by  the  name  of  "  Swedish  clover."  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Sweden 
to  Scotland  by  a  professional  land-drainer  of  Edinburgh,  Mr.  George  Stephens,  and  sown  in 
the  Meadowbank  nursery  on  the  17th  of  April.  It  blossomed  on  the  25th  of  August,  and 
the  seeds  ripened  in  the  early  part  of  the  following  October,  when  the  plant  was  twenty-two 
inches  high.  In  the  year  1835,  the  plants  were  in  full  flower  on  the  18th  of  June  and  ripened 
their  seed  in  the  early  part  of  August,  when  the  plant  was  about  two  feet  high.  From 
thence  it  spread  gradually  into  England  and  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  about  the 
year  1855,  where  in  some  portions  it  became  quite  popular.  It  is  a  perennial,  and  endures 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil;  on  good  soils  it  will  do 
well  for  four  or  five  years.  It  is  more  like  the  white  clover  than  the  red,  in  its  growth  and 
blossom,  and  is  considered  a  valuable  addition  to  the  forage  crops.  The  color  of  the  flower 
IS  white  with  pink  markings  when  fresh  blossomed,  but  which  fade  out  to  white  before  drop- 
ping.    The  general  appearance  of  the  stem  is  more  smooth  than  that  of  the  red  clover.     The 


208  'fHE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

lower  part  of  the  leaf  is  sharply  serrate,  the  serrations  diminishing  in  running  upwards,  and 
the  upper  portion  is  almost  entire.  The  leaf  is  of  uniform  light  color,  having  no  pale  spots 
like  the  red  clover,  and  grows  a  darker  green  with  age.  It  will  do  well  in  many  soils  where 
the  red  clover  will  not  grow  luxuriantly,  and  makes  a  good  substitute  for  it. 

A  stiff,  clayey  soil  is  best  adapted  to  its  growth,  particularly  a  marly  clay  that  is  quite 
moist,  and  it  is  thought  that  it  thrives  best  in  such  soils  as  the  red-top  grass  most  prefers.  It 
will  also  do  moderately  well  on  cultivated  fens  and  marshes,  where  the  red  clover  woiild  scarcely 
grow  at  all.  It  is  more  slender  than  red  clover,  as  well  as  finer  in  its  growth,  also  more 
nutritious  and  sweet.  Cattle  and  other  stock  are  exceedingly  fond  of  it.  It  is  more  hardy 
than  any  of  the  other  varieties  of  clover,  and  is  rarely  winter-killed.  On  such  soils  as  heave 
in  frosty  weather,  so  that  red  clover  would  be  entirely  killed,  the  Alsike  will  do  very  weU. 
It  yields  only  one  crop  in  a  season,  and  of  less  weight  per  acre  than  red  clover,  although 
growing  about  the  same  height,  but  the  hay  is  of  better  quality,  hence  what  it  falls  short  in 
weight,  when  compared  with  red  clover,  it  seems  to  make  up  in  nutrition.  When  sown  on  a 
dry  or  exposed  knoU,  and  cattle  are  allowed  to  graze  it  too  closely,  it  will  be  liable  to  be  in- 
jured and  doubtless  will  not  make  its  appearance  the  next  year;  but  when  sown  on  soils 
fairly  suited  to  its  growth,  it  will  bring  good  returns  for  at  least  four  or  five  years. 

As  it  throws  out  many  stalks  from  one  root,  it  should  be  sown  thin  in  order  that  the  roots 
and  branches  may  have  sufBcient  room  for  growth,  and  the  roots  to  strike  deep  into  the  sub- 
soil.    It  bears  cropping  weU,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to  pasturage. 

It  continues  longer  in  condition  to  be  cut  than  any  other  forage  plant,  and  throws  a  large 
number  of  heads  from  one  stalk,  coming  into  bloom  successively  for  four  or  five  weeks. 
Even  when  the  heads  are  nearly  ripe,  the  stalks  and  leaves  are  stUl  in  condition  to  make  very 
good  hay.  The  seed  crop  will  make  very  excellent  fodder  when  the  seed  has  been  threshed 
out.  The  seed  is  about  half  the  size  of  that  of  the  red  clover,  consequently  from  five  to 
seven  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  sufBcient  in  sowing.  The  seed  is  somewhat  oval  in  form, 
and  of  a  dark  color,  nearly  violet  when  ripe;  when  of  a  yellow  green  they  are  not  ripe,  and 
will  -not  germinate.  It  is  one  of  the  best  plants  known  for  bees,  as  the  blossoms  are  pecuharly 
sweet.     Mr.  Gould  says  of  it: — 

"  I  believe  it  to  be  the  best  honey -plant  in  the  world.  Much  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  habits  of  the  honey-bee  in  regard  to  its  choice  of  flowers,  and  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  honey  stored  in  different  portions  of  the  season.  "We  often  see  a  new  plant  recom- 
mended for  cultivation  specially  for  the  bees.  I  think  now  that  bee-keepers  generally  agree 
that  the  surplus  honey  is  aU,  or  very  nearly  aU,  stored  during  the  bloom  of  the  white  clover. 
From  aU  other  flowers,  including  buckwheat,  but  Uttle  more  is  gathered  than  is  consumed 
daily.  I  have  for  several  years  had  on  my  place  a  plat  of  AlsLke  clover,  besides  one  of  the 
white.  I  have  often  called  the  attention  of  people  to  the  working  bees  on  the  plats,  and  it 
was  always  easy  to  see  that  the  Alsike  had  the  greater  attraction.  Equal  areas  usually  show 
twice  the  number  of  bees  on  the  Alsike.  The  blooming  season  is  longer  on  the  Alsike;  the 
heads  are  also  more  numerous.  A  field  of  Alsike  clover  is  the  best  patronized  bee-pasture 
that  I  have  ever  seen,  exceeding  that  of  an  orchard  in  full  bloom.  I  am  sure  that  in  a  neighbor- 
hood of  Alsike  clover-fields,  bee-keepers  would  not  be  searching  for  other  plants  for  their  use. 

The  Alsike  resembles  the  white  clover  ia  its  creeping  habits,  hence  it  is  better  to  sow  it 
with  some  stiff  grass,  such  as  orchard  grass,  when  intended  to  cut  it  for  hay,  as  it  wiU  then 
grow  upright,  and  is  ready  to  be  cut  at  the  same  time  with  the  orchard  grass. 

In  comparing  Alsike  with  red  clover,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  former  grows  very 
little  after  mowing,  and  that  it  never  yields  a  second  crop. 

Alsike  clover-seed  is  more  easily  threshed  than  red  clover.  When  threshed  together, 
the  Alsike  always"  comes  out  first  from  the  pods,  and,  therefore,  when  it  can  be  avoided,  it  is 
better  not  to  thresh  them  together,  as  the  more  threshing  it  receives  the  more  is  the  straw 


In  natural 
state. 
76.67 

Dried  at  212 
deg.  F. 

21.27 

91.18 

2.06 

8.22 

.      ■      .               .77 

3.31 

4.82 

20.69 

GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  209 

injured  for  fodder.  The  heads  of  the  Akike  are,  moreover,  much  more  likely  to  drop  off 
than  those  of  red  clover;  hence,  when  it  is  gathered  for  seed,  still  greater  care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  the  loss  of  the  seed.  When  ripe,  it  should  always  be  mowed  either  early  in 
the  morumo-  or  late  in  the  evening,  when  wet  with  dew.  A  canvas  lining  should  be  used  in 
the  carts,  so  that  the  seed-pods  may  not  be  lost. 

The  heads  are  sometimes  threshed  in  the  ordinary  machines,  but  the  seeds  are  so  small 
that  very  many  of  them  are  blown  away  and  lost.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  thresh  them  with 
a  flail,  and  farmers  who  raise  their  own  seed  almost  invariably  do  so." 

The  following  is  Dr.  Voelcker's  analysis  of  Alsike  clover: — 

Water,     . 

Organic  matters. 

Ash, 

Percentage  of  nitrogen, 

Equal  to  protein  compounds, 

As  compared  with  red  clover,  it  has  3.31  pounds  more  of  solid  matter  to  the  hundred 
pounds  in  the  green  state,  1.95  pounds  more  of  protein  substances,  and  0.31  pounds  more  of 
nitrogen. 

White  Clover,  (TrifoUum  repens,)  which  is  well  known  in  some  locahties  as  Dutch 
clover,  honeysuckle,  trefoil,  and  white  creeping  clover,  is  said  to  be  also  the  shamrock  of  the 
modern  Irish.  It  is  indigenous  to  both  Europe  and  America,  and  is  widely  diffused  over 
both  countries.  It  is  so  natural  to  our  soil  that  it  is  rarely  sown,  except  on  lawns,  to  which 
it  is  admirably  adapted.  Its  principal  value  is  as  a  pasture  grass,  as  its  dwarf  character  ren- 
ders it  less  adapted  to  mowing  than  the  clovers  of  higher  growth.  Sometimes  it  is  seen  fully 
two  feet  high,  though  this  is  very  rare,  its  usual  growth  not  being  over  ten  inches;  while  its 
creeping  branches  will  often  lie  so  flat  upon  the  ground  as  to  be  scarcely  recognized  without 
particular  attention.  It  is  very  hardy,  nutritious,  and  self -propagating,  springing  up  almost 
everywhere,  in  all  kinds  of  soils  and  climates.  It  grows  very  rapidly  after  being  grazed 
by  the  cattle,  and  overcomes  weeds  to  the  extent  that  it  usually  gains  the  mastery;  while  it  is 
highly  valued  by  both  butter  and  cheese  makers  for  imparting  a  peculiarly  rich  and  sweet 
flavor.  Some  dairymen  go  so  far  in  their  assei'tions  as  to  say  that  good  butter  cannot  be 
made  where  this  plant  is  not  present  in  the  pastures. 

It  is  said  that  where  it  is  sown,  the  length  of  tune  that  it  will  remain  in  the  soil  will 
vary  from  three  to  thirty  years,  depending  mainly  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Close  feeding 
by  sheep,  as  they  gnaw  the  stems  down  to  the  root,  is  said  to  exterminate  it  sooner  than  any- 
thing else.  In  loose  soUs,  they  often  tear  the  roots  out  of  the  ground  in  feeding.  Bees  are 
very  fond  of  it  in  procuring  honey,  of  which  it  makes  the  whitest  and  best  quality. 

When  sown  for-  seed,  one  and  a  half  or  two  pounds  per  acre  will  be  sufficient  when  the 
soil  is  adapted  to  it.  In  this  case  the  land  should  be  very  rich,  otherwise  it  will  not  grow 
sufSciently  high  to  secure  the  heads  well  in  mowing.  It  is  said  that  in  Germany  the  women 
and  children  are  employed  to  cut  off  the  heads  with  scissors  in  securing  seed. 

Crimson  Clover,  {TrifoUum  incamalum,)  is  a  native  of  Italy,  and  has  long  been  culti- 
vated in  France  and  other  portions  of  Southern  EA-ope  with  success.  It  was  cultivated  in 
Great  Britain  for  many  years  by  horticulturists  as  an  ornamental  flower,  often  as  a  border 
annual,  until  it  began  to  be  cultivated  in  fields,  its  long  head  of  bright  scarlet  flowers  making 
it  very  attractive  for  this  purpose.  Its  efflorescence  being  centrifugal,  it  begins  blossoming 
at  the  base  of  the  head,  and  requires  about  a  week  to  reach  the  top,  and  remains  in  blossom 
longer  than  any  other  kind  of  clover.  It  blossoms  about  two  months  after  sowing.  The 
seeds  are  of  a  salmon  color.  It  began  to  be  cultivated  as  a  forage  plant  about  the  year  1821. 
Though  cultivated  with  success  in  Southern  Europe,  it  has  never  received  much  attention  in 


210  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

this  country.  Several  years  ago  some  attempts  were  made  to  introduce  it  here,  but  were  not 
aitended  with  such  success  as  to  commend  it  to  agriculturists  generally.  In  England  it  is  culti- 
vated by  sowing  either  broadcast  or  in  drills.  If  broadcast,  usually  eighteen  or  twenty 
pounds  are  required  per  acre;  if  in  drills,  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart,  twelve  or  fifteen 
pounds  per  acre  is  sufficient.  It  is  usually  sown  on  improved  stubble-land  as  soon  as  a  grain 
crop  is  removed,  and  harrowed  just  enough  to  slightly  cover  the  seed  with  fresh  earth.  It 
grows  rapidly  in  the  spring,  and  is  much  valued  for  food  for  young  lambs,  and  later  in  the 
season  for  horses  and  cattle.  It  can  be  cut  for  hay  on  the  first  of  June,  thus  leaving  the  land 
clear  for  wheat.  It  is  not  equal  to  the  common  red  clover,  either  in  quantity  and  quality  of 
hay,  or  as  a  fertilizer. 

Zigzag  Clover,  {Trifolium  medium.') — This  plant  is  often  called  by  farmers,  in  some 
localities,  "  cow  grass."  The  peculiar  bending  of  the  stem  from  the  left  hand  to  the  right 
has  given  it  the  name  of  zigzag  clover.  It  much  resembles  the  common  red  clover,  and 
would  easily  be  mistaken  for  it,  though  the  head  is  less  globular  and  more  oblong,  and  the 
blossoms  of  a  deeper  pui-ple  in  color  and  less  compact  in  the  head.  The  leaves  are  of  a 
darker  green,  and  without  the  Hght  spot  seen  in  the  common  red  clover.  The  roots  are 
creeping,  and  it  is  always  found  growing  in  patches;  often  on  very  dry  banks  and  on  the 
top  of  old  stone-walls,  and  it  always  e.xcludes  all  other  plants  when  once  it  has  taken  good 
root.  It  will  flourish  in  long  droughts,  and  is  especially  adapted  to  dry,  sandj'  soils.  It  is 
sometimes  found  on  cold,  clayey  soils,  where  it  grows  much  smaller  and  darker  in  color.  The 
stems  are  also  more  woody.  It  is  a  pest  to  the  farmer,  being  almost  worthless,  as  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep  will  not  eat  it  unless  compelled  to  from  hunger.  Farmers  are  therefore 
warned  against  it,  and  advised  to  destroy  it  on  the  farm,  as  far  as  practicable. 

Buifalo  Cloyer,  (TVifoKum  rephxum.) — This  is  a  species  of  clover  growing  wild  on  the 
prairies  and  meadows  of  the  Western  and  Southern  States.  It  has  large,  handsome  heads  of 
a  rose-red  color,  and  grows  luxuriantly.  It  is  thought  by  many  to  be  worthy  the  attention  of 
agriculturists,  as  a  cultivated  forage-plant. 

Hare's  Foot  Clover,  {Trifolium  arvense.) — This  variety  of  clover  is  often  called 
rabbit-foot,  stone  clover,  pussy  clover,  etc. ;  it  is  found  on  gravelly  banks  and  old  fields,  and 
is  of  little  value,  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  The  heads  are  cylindrical  in  form,  long, 
very  soft  and  downy,  and  seem  like  a  mass  of  whitish  silky  hairs.  It  grows  from  five  to 
twelve  inches  high,  and  flowers  in  July  and  August. 

Hop,  or  Yellow  Clover,  [Trifolium procumbens.) — This  is  a  small  species  of  clover 
growing  usually  on  dry,  sandy,  and  rocky  soil.  It  has  flowers,  which  at  first  are  a  bright 
yellow,  then  fade  to  a  light  buff  color,  and  finally  take  a  dark  brown  when  dry.  It  is  called 
"hop  clover"  from  the  fact  that  its  heads,  when  in  blossom,  resemble  in  form  small  bunches 
of  hops.  The  seeds  ripen  toward  the  latter  part  of  July,  when  the  blossoms  look  dry  and 
withered,  presenting  a  striking  and  unpleasant  contrast  to  plants  in  full  verdure.  Cattle  and 
sheep  will  eat  it,  though  it  is  not  considered  of  much  value  as  a  forage-plant.  As  it  is  an 
annual,  farmers  can  easily  eradicate  it,  if  desired,  by  close  mowing  before  the  seed  is  allowed 
to  ripen. 

Bokhara  Clover,  (MeUlotus  luencantha,)  is  valuable  for  soiling  or  mowing,  and  affords 
excellent  food  for  bees  throughout  its  season. 

Alfalfa,  Lncerne,  {Medicago  sativa.) — There  are  many  varieties  of  this  species  of 
Medicago,  but  this  is  the  only  one  that  has  been  cultivated  in  this  country  to  any  extent. 
Though  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Lucerne,  the  more  modern  name.  Alfalfa,  comes 
from  South  America,  where,  according  to  best  authority,  it  grows  wild  in  the  utmost  luxuri- 
ance on  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres;  it  is,  however,  slightly  modified  in  the  United  States 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  211 

by  tlie  change  in  soil  and  climate.  We  find,  by  consulting  the  most  authentic  sources,  that 
this  particular  plant  has  been  known  and  cultivated  from  time  immemorial,  and  that  it  was 
brought  from  Media  to  Greece  in  the  time  of  Darius,  about  five  hundred  years  before  Christ; 
its  cultivation  afterwards  extending  to  the  Romans  and  through  them  to  the  south  of  France, 
where  it  has  ever  since  continued  to  be  cultivated  as  a  forage-plant.  It  is  a  plant  allied  to 
the  clover  family.  Loudon  describes  it  as  "a  deep-rooting  perennial  plant,  sending  up  numerous 
small  and  clover-like  shoots,  with  blue  or  violet  spikes  of  flowers."  He  speaks  of  it  also  as  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  of  unknown  antiquity  in  Spain,  Prance,  and  Italy,  but  exten- 
sively grown  also  in  Asia,  and  the  province  of  Lima,  South  America.  Columella  also  speaks 
of  it  as  the  choicest  of  all  fodder-plants,  because  it  continues  to  yield  for  many  years  without 
being  renewed,  and  affords  from  four  to  six  crops  during  the  year.  Pliny  writes  of  it  with 
the  utmost  enthusiasm;  he  says:  "So  superior  are  its  qualities  that  a  single  sowing  will  last 
for  more  than  thirty  years.  It  resembles  trefoi]  in  appearance,  but  the  stalk  and  leaves  are 
articulated.  The  longer  it  grows  in  the  stalk  the  narrower  is  the  leaf."  His  directions  for 
sowing  and  cultivating  it  are  precisely  the  same  as  are  laid  down  and  practiced  at  the  present 
day,  in  every  essential  respect. 

Botanists  describe  it  as  having  an  erect,  smooth,  branching  stem;  the  leaflets  in  threes; 
obovate,  oblong,  and  toothed.  The  roots  are  long,  and  have  been  traced  to  the  depth  of 
thirteen  feet  by  the  side  of  a  sand-pit.  They  grow  large,  like  those  of  the  carrot,  having 
rootlets  shooting  ofi  from  the  main  root.  A  plant  sending  up  numerous  tall  and  slender, 
clover-hke  shoots,  with  spikes  of  blue  or  violet-colored  flowers;  flowering  in  July.  It  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  Chili,  and  was  introduced  from  thence  into  California;  large  supplies 
of  seed  are  also  still  obtained  from  that  source.  It  is  now  being  considerably  cultivated  in 
CaHfomia,  as  weU  as  other  "Western  and  Southern  States. 

Value  of  Lucerne  or  Alfalfa  as  a  Forage-Plant.— The  true  value  of  alfalfa  has 
been  already  pretty  well  tested  in  this  country,  although  it  has  not  received  much  attention  until 
within  a  few  years  past.  It  was,  however,  introduced  here  about  the  year  1800.  It  is  said  by 
those  who  have  experimented  and  tested  its  real  worth,  that  it  is  one  of  the  best  forage-plants 
known.  Its  age  is  certainly  in  its  favor,  for  if  a  plant  can  outlive  the  centuries  in  popularity 
and  fame,  it  certainly  must  possess  considerable  merit ! 

Mr.  Loudon  says  of  its  use  in  Europe:  —  "  The  principal  and  most  advantageous  practice 
is  that  of  soiling  horses,  neat-cattle,  and  hogs;  but  as  a  dry  fodder  it  is  also  capable  of  afford- 
ing much  assistance ;  and  as  an  early  food  for  ewes  and  lambs,  may  be  of  great  value  in  parti- 
cular cases.  AU  agree  in  extolUng  it  as  food  for  cows,  whether  in  a  green  or  dried  state.  It 
is  said  to  be  much  superior  to  clover,  both  in  increasing  the  milk  and  butter,  and  in  improving 
its  flavor.  In  its  use  in  a  green  state  care  is  necessary  not  to  give  the  animal  too  much  at  a 
time,  especially  when  it  is  moist,  as  they  may  be  hoven  or  blown  with  it,  in  the  same  way  as 
■with  clover  and  other  green  food  of  luxuriant  growth." 

Mr.  Wycoff  says :  —  "  For  milch  cows  it  is  superior  to  any  other  hay.  It  excites  the  secre- 
tions." He  thinks  that  to  make  good  hay  for  this  purpose,  it  should  not  be  cut  before  it  has 
been  in  bloom  ten  days.  He  states  that  when  grazed  by  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  spring, 
while  it  is  growing  rapidly  and  is  so  abundant  that  they  can  gorge  themselves  quickly,  it 
sometimes  gives  them  the  "hoven  or  colic,"  with  fatal  consequences.  Wben  grazed  closely, 
no  such  evil  occurs.  He  represents  that  it  is  benefited  by  being  grazed  moderately,  as  soon 
as  the  growth  is  sulficient  and  dry  enough,  and  that  cows  are  the  best  with  which  to  graze  it 
the  first  year.  Mr.  C.  Reed,  former  President  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 
says,  that  if  cut  when  it  is  in  full  bloom  it  makes  hay  of  good  quality  for  stock  of  all  kinds, 
but  especially  for  milch  cows;  and  that,  according  to  the  testimony  of  experienced  dairymen, 
cows  that  are  taken  from  the  native  grasses  and  pastured  on  it  will  increase  the  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese  product  from  60  to  VO  per  cent.;  and  that,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  best 
14 


212 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


sheep-growers,  sheep  grazed  on  it  in  a  constant  green  condition  will  be  entirely  free  from  the 
diseases  of  the  skin  so  prevalent  in  California. 

One  writer  speaks  of  a  farmer  keeping  four  horses  on  an  acre  of  it  from  the  first  of  May 
till  the  first  of  October.     The  result  of  its  cultivation  in  England  is  thus  described:  — 

A  field  of  eleven  acres,  sown  with  twenty  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  was  first  mowed, 
having  attained  proper  growth ;  it  was  then  sown  with  thirty  bushels  of  soot  per  acre,  after 
which  it  produced  two  other  mowings.  In  the  following  year  a  part  of  the  field  was  again 
manured,  and  the  first  mowing  was  made  on  the  twenty-third  of  May.  This  supported  thirty 
horses  for  seven  weeks,  with  a  small  addition  of  oats;  the  second  mowing  supported  twenty 
horses  entirely  for  seven  weeks;  the  third  mowing  supported  twenty  horses  for  six  weeks 
■with  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  oats.  The  next  year  the  first  mowing  supported  thirty- 
five  horses  eight  weeks  with  a  small  addition  of  oats;  the  second  mowing  supported  nearly 
the  same  number  for  the  same  length  of  time.  Again:  —  A  field  of  eight  acres  of  sandy  soil, 
with  dry,  sandy  loam  for  a  sub-soil,  after  three  years'  growth  (mowing  beginning  May  24th), 
gave  entire  support  to  thirty  horses  for  six  weeks,  keeping  them  in  good  condition  and 
health,  with  constant  employment;  the  second  mowing,  which  was  commenced  July  3d,  fed 
twenty  horses  for  six  weeks;  the  third  mowing,  beginning  September  15th,  supported  thii-ty 
horses  fourteen  days,  after  which  the  autumnal  feeding  with  sheep  was  equivalent  in  value  to 
the  expense  of  cleaning,  etc. ;  in  the  previous  spring,  Mr.  Eeed,  of  California,  states  that  a 
farm  in  Bakersville,  in  that  State,  containing  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  acres,  was  let  on 
shares;  sixty  acres  were  in  alfalfa,  five  in  vineyard  or  orchard,  and  the  remaining  seventy  in 
timber  or  uncultivated.  A  part  of  the  alfalfa  was  cut  for  hay,  a  part  pastured  by  twenty 
cows,  from  which  the  milk  was  sold  for  fifty  cents  per  gallon,  and  a  part  let  for  pasturage  at 
$2.50  per  month  per  head.  The  proprietor  reports  that  the  net  profits  of  the  farm 
amounted  to  $3,500,  or  nearly  26  per  cent,  of  its  value  at  $100  per  acre,  with  less  than  half 
in  cultivation. 

Manner  of  Cultivating  Lucerne  or  Alfalfa.  —  In  cultivating  this  plant  it  must 
be  remembered  that  it  is  a  native  of  a  warm  climate;  hence,  in  northern  climates  it  will  be 
well  to  select  those  localities  for  sowing  that  are  sheltered  and  warm.  A  southerly  or  south- 
easterly slope  is  desirable  for  the  purpose.  Cold,  clayey  sub-soils,  that  retain  water,  will  utterly 
exterminate  it.  It  has  a  long  root,  hence  the  sub-soil  must  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  can  be 
penetrated  by  it.  It  must  have  a  deep,  loamy  soil,  rich  and  free  from  weeds.  The  soil  must 
be  well  pulverized  and  mellow,  deep  plowing  being  very  essential.  A  want  of  such  tillage 
has  caused  many  a  failure  in  the  crop.  Having  prepared  the  ground  properly,  the  seed  is 
sown  in  drills  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  in  quantity  of  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
pounds  to  the  acre,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Frequently  a  much  larger  quantity 
is  sown,  but  on  a  good  soil  well  prepared  the  above  quantity  will  be  suBicient. 

It  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast,  but  drills  are  preferred,  as  it  admits  of  better  cultivation 
in  keeping  down  the  weeds,  which  are  apt  to  be,  at  first,  very  troublesome. 

The  soil  to  which  alfalfa  is  adapted  must  contain  a  sufiBcient  supply  of  hme,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  following  analysis  of  the  ash  of  this  plant  by  Sprengel:  — 

Potash, 14.03 


Soda, 
Lime, 


Oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  etc., 
Phosphoric  acid, 
Sulphuric  acid, 
Chlorine, 
Silica,     . 

Percentage  of  the  entire  ash, 


6.44 
50.57 
3.64 
0.63 
13.68 
4.32 
3.23 
8.46 

100.00 
9.55 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


213 


It  will  not,  however,  grow  well  in  limestone  lands  where  the  lime  lies  in  layers.  It  is  a 
strong  feeder,  adapted  only  to  rich  soils,  which  must  have  their  fertihty  kept  up.  It  will 
soon  run  out  all  other  plants  in  lands  where  it  is  sown.  It  will  not  thrive  in  regions  where 
there  are  frequent  rain-storms,  clouds,  and  fogs,  but  will  do  best,  other  conditions  being 
equal,  in  those  locahties  that  have  the  greatest  number  of  cloudless  days. 

Some  sow  it  with  oats,  barley,  or  peas,  or,  on  Hght  lands,  with  buckwheat;  but  it  is  better 
to  sow  it  alone  and  in  drills,  that  it  may  be  cultivated  frequently  during  the  first  year.  It  is 
sometimes  sown  broadcast,  but  this  method  is  not  generally  recommended.  When  sown  in 
this  manner,  however,  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  per  acre  will  be  required. 

One  of  the  ablest  authorities  on  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  says: —  "If  seeds  are  more 
than  a  year  old,  they  germinate  very  imperfectly.  They  should  be  kidney-form,  the  plumper 
the  better,  and  of  a  yellowish  drab  color;  the  browner  they  are,  the  less  likely  they  are  to 
germinate.  I  counted  10,432  seeds  in  an  ounce,  of  which  544  seeds  were  defective;  though 
this  was  from  a  very  excellent  sample,  yet  one  seed  in  twenty  was  defective. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  half  an  inch  above  the  ground,  the  rows  should  be  run 
through  with  a  cultivator.  All  that  now  remains  to  be  done  is  to  keep  the  weeds  down.  It 
can  be  mowed  four  times  a  year,  taking  care  to  cut  it  always  before  it  flowers,  otherwise  it 
becomes  too  woody.  The  next  spring  it  should  be  sown  with  a  coat  of  plaster,  which 
answers  quite  as  well  for  lucerne  as  it  does  for  clover.  It  should  receive  a  top-dressing  of 
some  kind  every  year,  but  it  is  better  to  change  each  year.  Guano  mixed  with  plaster  is 
excellent;  after  three  or  four  years  a  dressing  of  stable  manure  is  desirable.  A  mulch  of  any 
kind  of  straw,  late  in  the  fall,  will  add  much  to  the  luxuriance  of  the  crop.  It  will  pay  well 
to  harrow  it  thoroughly  in  the  spring;  the  deeper  the  harrow  goes  down  the  better,  as  there 
is  no  danger  of  injury  to  the  roots.  After  the  first  year  the  plants  will  not  require  any  other 
attention  than  vigorous  harrowing  and  top-dressing  in  the  spring.  If  this  is  done,  it  will 
last  from  ten  to  fifteen  years,  and  be  cut  from  three  to  five  times  per  year,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  soil. 

An  acre  of  it  will  furnish  sufficient  food  for  three  or  four  cows  during  the  soiling  season, 
always,  as  before  stated,  taking  care  to  cut  it  before  it  comes  into  bloom.  Sheep  should 
never  be  allowed  to  graze  on  lucerne,  as  they  gnaw  it  ofE  below  the  crown,  and  thus  speedily 
kiU  it. 

There  is  no  knowTi  plant  that  will  yield  as  much  nutriment  from  a  given  acre,  as  can  be 
firrnished  by  lucerne.  The  seed  is  more  easily  threshed  than  that  of  clover,  but  the  yield  is 
less  abundant." 

Professor  S.  "W".  Johnson  (in  How  Crops  Grow)  gives  the  following  analysis  of  green 
lucerne : — 

When 
very  young. 

Water 81.0 

Or2;anic  matter. 


Ash,    . 
Albuminoids, 
Carbohydrates, 
Crude  fiber,    . 
Fat,    . 


17.3 
1.7 
4.5 
7.8 
5.0 
0.6 


In  blossom. 
74.0 
24.0 
2.0 
4.5 
7.0 
12.5 
0.7 


He  gives  the  composition  of  the  hay  of  lucerne  as  follows,  from  Professor  "Wolff's  analy- 
s,  in  100  parts:  — 


Water, 

Organic  matter. 
Ash,    . 
Albuminoids, 
Carbohydrates, 
Crude  fiber,  . 
Fat,    . 


16.7 
74.6 

8.7 
19.7 
32.9 
22.0 

3.3 


16.7 
76.9 

6.4 
14.4 
23.5 
40.0 

3.5 


214  THE  AMERICAN?  FAEJIER 

It  has  been  found  that  alfalfa  is  well  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  Southern 
States.  Reports  from  Texas  state  that  it  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  black  prairie-soil  of 
that  region.  It  withstands  well  the  drought  of  summer  and  cold  of  winter,  keeping  green 
the  year  round.  Hon.  E.  G.  Wall,  Commissioner  of  State  Board  of  Agriculture  in  Mississ- 
ippi, gives  the  following  respecting  its  culture  in  that  section:  —  "In  well-prepared,  rich, 
sandy  loam,  it  succeeds  remarkably,  sending  down  its  long  roots  many  feet  into  the  subsoil, 
drawing  up  moisture  from  below;  and  thus  will  thrive  where  other  plants  are  drooping  from 
drought.  In  this  respect  it  is  far  superior  to  clover;  for  the  latter,  a  suitable  surface  soil  is 
of  equal  importance  with  the  sub-soil,  but  for  lucerne,  a  suitable  subsoil  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, as  the  roots  are  not  fibrous.  The  enormous  quantity  of  roots,  penetrating  the  ground 
to  the  depth  of  several  feet,  prepares  the  land  for  increased  production.  It  derives  the  larger 
portion  of  its  sustenance  from  the  atmosphere,  and  stores  it  up  in  its  roots,  so  that  as  a  fertil- 
izer it  ranks  high. 

The  soil  is  not  only  fertilized  to  the  amount  of  several  tons  of  roots,  but  it  is  mellowed 
from  the  mechanical  displacement  of  the  soU  and  the  admixture  of  decayed  vegetable  matter. 

The  seeds  of  lucerne  are  yellow,  when  good  ;  if  brown  they  have  received  too  much 
heat,  and  if  light,  it  indicates  they  were  saved  too  green.  The  time  of  sowing  is  the  same 
with  the  other  species  of  clover,  in  the  spring  time.  It  should  be  sown  in  drills  and  culti' 
vated  the  first  year,  so  as  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  It  is  easily  smothered  out  by  weeds,  when 
it  first  comes  up. 

"Wben  properly  managed,  the  number  of  cattle  which  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  on  an 
acre  of  lucerne,  during  the  whole  season,  exceeds  behef.  It  is  no  sooner  mown  than  it  pushes 
out  fresh  shoots,  and  wonderful  as  the  growth  of  clover  sometimes  is,  that  of  lucerne  is  much 
more  rapid.  In  the  dryest  and  most  sultry  weather,  when  every  blade  of  grass  droops  for 
want  of  moisture,  lucerne  holds  out  its  stem  fresh  and  green  as  in  the  genial  spring.  The 
first  year  it  is  apt  to  be  troubled  by  the  presence  of  weeds,  as  it  is  slow  in  making  a  start ;  let 
the  weeds  be  exterminated  for  that  time,  and  afterwards  no  fears  need  be  entertained  on  that 
subject,  as  it  wiU  take  full  possession  of  the  ground." 

Mr.  Read,  of  California,  also  says  that  alfalfa  has  two  characteristics  which  especially 
adapt  it  to  regions  subject  to  long-continued  hot  weather.  These  are  its  very  prolific  and 
rapid  growth,  by  which,  after  being  cut,  it  very  quickly  shields  the  surface  by  a  thick,  green 
coat,  and  the  astonishing  depth  to  which  it  sends  down  its  long  carrot-shaped  root.  In  the 
Kern  Yalley,  Cal.,  the  roots  go  down  to  the  water-line,  which  is  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet 
below  the  surface.  It  was  found  that  where  a  freshet  had  exposed  a  perpendicular  section  of 
an  alfalfa  field,  the  roots  extended  down  to  the  water-line,  which  was  from  twelve  to  twenty 
feet  below  the  surface.  In  this  country,  the  cUmate  is  generally  favorable  to  its  production 
from  the  extreme  south  to  the  latitude  of  Washington.  It  presents  a  remarkably  luxuriant 
growth  in  the  grounds  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Farther  north  it  thrives  well  only 
in  favorable  localities.  It  is  reported  as  doing  well  in  Nevada  and  Nebraska,  also  in  Utah 
and  Colorado  Territories.  It  wiU  not  thrive  in  a  compact  clay  soU,  or  any  shallow  soil  with 
a  hard-pan  subsoU.  It  prefers  a  rich  sandy  loam,  well  drained,  with  a  permeable  subsoil. 
The  seed  requires  a  shallow  covering,  after  deep  and  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil. 
Broadcasting  and  drilhng  are  both  practiced,  but  if  the  land  is  foul,  the  latter  mode  is  decid- 
edly preferable,  as  it  admits  of  careful  culture  until  the  crop  is  able  to  displace  the  weeds. 

Although  experiments  have  been  repeatedly  tried,  with  considerable  success,  to  cultivate 
alfalfa  in  New  England,  yet  we  scarcely  believe  it  will  prove  an  entire  success,  as  the  winters 
are  too  severe.  It  being  a  native  of  a  warm  climate,  it  thrives  best  in  a  somewhat  warmer 
temperature  than  New  England  could  give  it.  The  Southern  and  Southwestern  states  have  in 
it  an  exceedingly  valuable  forage-plant,  owing  to  its  nutrition,  its  luxuriant  and  rapid  growth, 
as  well  as  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  cultivated  when  once  started.  And  we  are  of  the 
opinion  that  it  will  continue  to  be  more  highly  valued  the  longer  it  is  cultivated. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  215 

Saiufoin  {Onolrychis  sativa)  is  a  native  of  England,  and  was  doubtless  introduced  as 
an  agricultural  plant  from  France,  having  been  long  cultivated  there  as  such  before  it  was  in 
England.  It  grows  best  on  chalky  soils  and  calcareous  sands  ;  it  also  luxuriantly  grows  on 
lime  soils,  even  where  lime  rock  is  within  four  feet  of  the  surface,  and  will  not  grow  where 
there  is  no  lime  in  the  soU,  hence  its  culture  is  chiefly  confined  to  such  localities.  It  occupies 
accordingly  a  very  important  position  in  agriculture  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  in  all  the  chalk 
districts  of  England.  It  blossoms  in  spikes  on  long  stalks,  two  or  three  feet  high,  the  flowers 
being  of  a  beautiful  piak  or  flesh  color.  The  blossoms  appear  in  June  and  July.  It  is  a  val- 
uable forage  plant  in  localities  with  soils  suited  to  its  culture,  and  although  it  has  not  as  yet 
been  much  cultivated  in  America,  except  in  a  small  way,  for  the  purpose  of  experiment,  there 
are  probably  many  of  our  soils  in  which  it  would  thrive  and  prove  a  profitable  crop.    , 

When  young  and  tender,  sainfoin  will  not  endure  a  severe  winter,  being  sensitive  to  the 
cold,  but  after  the  second  or  third  year  it  becomes  more  hardy.  We  know  of  no  reason  why, 
in  some  of  the  Southern  states  possessing  soils  suited  to  it,  it  should  not  prove  a  very  valuable 
addition  to  our  forage-plants. 

Manner  of  Cultivating  Sainfoin. — As  has  been  previously  stated,  it  is  a  plant  only 
suited  to  chalky  soUs  and  calcareous  sands,  where  it  thrives  luxuriantly  with  proper  cultiva- 
tion. Referring  to  the  chalky  downs  around  Ilsley  in  Berks,  England,  Mr.  Caird  says  that 
about  a  tenth  part  of  the  land  is  kept  under  sainfoin,  in  which  it  remains  for  four  years,  being 
each  year  cut  for  hay,  of  which  it  gives  an  excellent  crop.  A  farmer  having  forty  acres  of 
sainfoin  sows  ten  acres  and  breaks  up  ten  acres  annually,  thus  going  regularly  over  the  whole 
farm,  the  sainfoin  not  returning  on  the  same  field  until  a  period  of  four  years  of  rest  from 
that  crop.  It  is  then  plowed  in  the  spring  and  sown  with  oats,  the  crop  of  which  is  gener- 
ally excellent.  The  sainfoin  is  then  sown  at  the  rate  of  four  bushels  per  acre,  and  is  drilled 
in  immediately  after  the  oats  have  been  sown,  working  the  driU  at  right  angles  to  its  course 
when  it  deposited  the  grain.  It  is  frequently  pastured  one  or  more  years  before  being  mowed. 
It  is  sometimes  allowed  to  stand  eight  or  ten  years,  but  four  years  is  considered  better. 

On  soils  suited  to  its  cultivation,  sainfoin  wUl  grow  well  for  six  or  eight  years;  weeds 
and  other  plants  wUl  eventually  drive  it  out,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  plow  the  land. 
The  roots  are  large  and  tough,  which  makes  this  a  laborious  process.  The  first  year's  growth 
is  generally  small,  as  the  roots  are  then  being  formed,  but  after  this  period  a  fine  crop  will  be 
secui'ed,  which  well  repays  the  trouble  of  its  culture. 

It  is  sown  both  broadcast  and  in  driUs,  about  four  bushels  of  seed  being  required  per 
acre  for  the  former  method,  and  three  for  the  latter.  A  liberal  supply  of  seed  is  thus 
allowed,  as  many,  even  new  seeds,  will  fail  to  germinate.  The  soil  should  first  be  well  pulver- 
ized and  free  from  weeds. 

It  should  be  cut  just  as  it  comes  into  blossom,  and  is  used  both  for  soiling  and  for  hay, 
chiefly  for  the  latter.  It  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  rains  during  the  curing  process,  as  its 
stems  are  hollow.  The  aftermath  is  relished  by  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  The  seed  ripens  in 
July,  but  as  the  lower  part  of  the  head  matures  so  much  earher  than  the  upper,  and  these 
seeds  are  larger  and  more  plump,  it  is  best  to  harvest  them  when  the  lower  ones  are  fully 
ripe,  as  they  will  be  liable  to  become  shaken  out  and  lost  if  the  heads  stand  until  the  upper 
portion  is  ready  to  harvest. 

Giant  Sainfoin  [Onohrychis  sativa  bifera). — There  is  Uttle  difference  between  this 
variety  and  the  preceding,  except  this  is  darker  in  color  and  grows  more  rapidly,  besides 
being  somewhat  larger  and  taller  in  the  stalk,  and  the  roots  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the 
soil.  Though  it  matures  more  rapidly  than  the  common  sainfoin,  during  the  first  growth, 
still  the  second  crop  of  the  giant  variety  is  usually  poor  and  straggling  in  most  soUs,  with  but 
little  leaf,  while  the  other  throws  up  a  thick  growth  of  leaves,  abounding  in  nutriment  after 


21(3  THE  AJVIERICAN  FARMER. 

being  cut,  consequently  this  is  regarded  witli  less  favor  by  agriculturists  than  the  common 
variety. 

Kidney  Yetcll  (AjtthyUis  vulneraria). — This  plant  is  said  to  grow  in  the  poorest  soil, 
and  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  much  relished  by  cattle  and  sheep. 
It  is  grown  as  a  forage-plant  in  France,  Germany,  and  some  parts  of  England,  being  culti- 
vated very  much  as  clover  is  in  some  sections,  that  is,  well  harrowed  into  the  oat  or  wheat 
stubble  soon  after  the  harvest,  to  be  ready  for  feeding  in  the  following  spring.  It  is  quite 
hardy  and  not  easily  exterminated  by  weeds,  while  as  a  forage-plant  it  possesses  considerable 
value.  It  should  be  cut  just  as  it  comes  into  bloom.  This  plant  has  not  been  cultivated  in 
the  United  States  except  by  way  of  experiment, — and  the  results  have  not  been  sufSciently 
satisfactory  to  warrant  its  general  cultivation  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Tetcll  or  Tare  (Vida  sativa). — Vetches  of  various  kinds  are  cultivated  as  forage- 
crops  quite  extensively,  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  This  variety  is  considered  the  most  valu- 
able by  many.  They  are  used  green  and  much  valued  as  food  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
even  hogs.  An  acre  of  good  vetches  fed  in  a  yard  or  stable  to  avoid  waste,  will,  according 
to  good  authority,  keep  more  horses  than  six  acres  of  good  pasturage.  They  also  are  valuable 
for  milch-cows,  both  in  increasing  the  flow  of  milk  and  enriching  it.  They  can  be  sown  in 
autumn  or  spring.  The  "winter  vetches  "  should  be  sown  in  August  if  possible,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  supply  of  good  green  food  by  the  first  of  May,  and  so  fill  up  the  gap  between  the 
root-crops  of  the  previous  autumn  and  the  summer  food  ;  whether  for  grazing  or  soiling,  it 
is  important,  according  to  British  agriculture,  to  have  the  crop  ready  for  use  at  about  that 
time.  The  later  sowing  in  autumn  will,  of  course,  render  the  crop  later  the  following  spring. 
The  land  should  be  dry,  well-sheltered,  and  enriched  by  deep  plowing,  and  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen loads  of  barn-yard  manure  to  the  acre  plowed  in.  It  should  then  be  well  harrowed.  . 
The  seeds  should  be  sown  in  drills,  about  a  foot  apart.,  about  three  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre, 
and  covered  rather  deep  to  admit  of  the  roots  developing  before  the  top-growth  takes  place. 
As  early  in  the  spring  as  the  state  of  the  soil  will  admit,  the  crop  should  be  hoed  between  the 
drills,  and  a  top-dressing  of  soot  or  guano  applied  at  the  rate  of  forty  bushels  of  the  former  per 
acre,  or  two  hundred  weight  of  the  latter.  The  roller  should  then  be  used  for  the  purpose  of 
smoothing  the  surface  and  pressing  down  the  plants  that  have  been  loosened  by  the  frost. 

By  combining  the  winter  and  spring  vetches,  and  making  several  sowings  of  each  in  its 
season  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks,  it  is  practicable  to  have  them  fit  for  use  from  May 
to  October  and  thus  carry  out  a  system  of  soiHng  by  vetches  alone,  if  desired.  Some  farmers 
mix  a  half  bushel  of  wheat  or  rye  to  the  seed  per  acre,  but  this  is  not  considered  by  some  as 
an  advantage.  Though  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  Canada,  still,  the  dryer  atmosphere  of 
our  country  renders  the  growth  less  luxuriant  and  profitable  than  in  England. 

Spurry  (SperguJa  arvensis). — This  plant  is  sometimes  used  for  forage  to  advantage  on 
thin  soils.  It  is  cultivated  extensively  in  Germany  and  some  other  portions  of  Europe  for 
this  purpose,  also  for  the  valuable  oil  and  oil-cake  its  seeds  produce. 

It  has  been  called  "  the  clover  of  poor  soils,"  and  it  is  stated  of  it,  that  if  sown  in  March, 
May,  and  July,  and  the  three  crops  plowed  in,  to  fit  the  poorest  soil  for  clover  production.  It 
is  a  native  of  both  America  and  Europe,  and  is  found  growing  spontaneously  in  the  Middle 
States.  It  is  quite  a  hardy  plant,  and  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  after  a  grain  or  early  root 
crop  has  been  harvested,  and  plowed  in  the  following  spring. 

Three  crops  can  be  easily  cultivated  in  a  single  season.  Van  Voght  says,  that  by  alter- 
nating these  crops  with  rye,  it  will  reclaim  the  worst  sands,  and  yield  nearly  the  same  bene- 
fits if  pastured  off  by  cattle;  while  it  adds  materially  to  the  advantages  of  other  manures,  if 
appUed  to  the  soil  at  the  same  time.  It  will  grow  on  soils  too  poor  for  clover,  but  its  roots 
do  not  descend  as  deep  into  the  soil  as  clover  or  lupine. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  217 

The  Cow,  or  Field  Pea. — This  is  much,  cultivated  in  the  Southern  States,  and  is 
more  like  a  bean  in  appearance  than  a  pea,  and  belongs  to  the  leguminous  or  pulse  family. 
The  ease  with  which  it  can  be  cultivated,  and  its  value  as  a  forage-plant,  as  well  as  fertilizer 
of  the  soil,  have  given  it  a  prominence  in  Southern  agriculture.  Two  crops  from  two  succes- 
sive plantings  can  be  produced  in  one  season,  as  it  grows  very  rapidly.  Hon.  H.  M.  Polk  of 
Tennessee,  in  making  a  comparison  between  the  field-pea  and  red  clover,  says: — 

"  The  pea  will  thrive  upon  land  too  poor  to  grow  clover. 

It  will  produce  a  heavy  and  rich  crop  to  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  a  shorter  period  than 
any  vegetable  fertilizer  known. 

Two  crops  can  be  produced  on  the  same  ground  in  one  year;  whereas  it  requires  two 
years  for  clover  to  give  a  hay  crop,  and  good  aftermath  for  turning  under.  In  this  time  four 
crops  of  peas  can  be  made. 

The  pea  feeds  but  lightly  upon,  and  hence  leaves  largely  in  the  soil,  those  particular  ele- 
ments necessary  to  a  succeeding  grain  crop,  and  the  pea  lay,  in  its  decay,  puts  back  largely 
into  the  soil  those  very  elements  required  for  a  vigorous  growth  of  the  cereals. 

There  is  no  crop  which  is  its  equal  for  leaving  the  soil  in  the  very  best  condition  for  a 
succeeding  wheat  crop. 

It  is  the  only  crop  raised  in  the  South  so  rapid  in  its  growth  and  perfection  as  to  be  made 
an  intervening  manurial  crop  between  grain  cut  in  the  spring,  and  grain  sowed  in  the  fall, 
upon  the  same  ground.     And  this  alone  makes  the  pea  invaluable  to  Southern  agriculture. 

In  our  particular  latitude,  it  flourishes  equally  with  clover;  and  with  two  such  renovators 
of  the  soil  (aside  from  their  value  as  food  crops),  no  portion  of  the  earth  is  equally  blessed. 
North  of  us,  the  pea  does  not  succeed. 

It  is  admirably  adapted  to  other  crops,  producing  in  the  space  between  our  corn-rows 
both  a  provision  and  a  fertilizing  crop,  with  positive  benefit  to  the  growing  corn. 

It  aids  in  producing  cheap  beef,  pork,  milk,  and  butter.  "Without  the  pea,  pork  could 
not  be  produced  cheaply,  where  it  costs  so  much  to  make  corn. 

It  furnishes  a  double  capacity  for  wintering  stock,  and  with  this  a  doubly-enlarged 
manure  heap. 

The  large  plantations  of  the  South  can  only  be  restored  by  green  crops  turned  under, 
united  to  a  judicious  system  of  rotation,  looking  to  feeding  the  soil.  This  must  be  aided  by 
all  the  manure  manufactured  on  the  plantation. 

By  its  use,  large  addition  is  made  to  humus,  upon  which  the  tilth,  as  well  as  capacity  of 
the  soil  for  retaining  moisture,  so  greatly  depends. 

As  for  the  cultivation  of  the  pea,  one  can  scarcely  go  amiss.  "When  two  crops  are 
intended  for  renovating,  break  the  land,  sow  broadcast,  and  harrow  in.  Or  drill  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  and  plow  out  when  a  few  inches  high.  "When  pods  begin  to  ripen,  if  the 
crop  is  intended  for  manurial  purposes,  plow  under  with  large  two-horse  plow,  with  a  well- 
sharpened  rolling  coulter  attached,  or  with  chain  passing  from  double-tree  to  beam  of  the 
blow  to  hold  the  vines  down  for  facilitating  covering.  A  roller  passed  over  the  vines  before 
plowing  under  will  assist  the  operation.  Caustic  Ume  should  be  sown  upon  the  vines  before 
plowing  under  to  promote  decay,  and  neutralize  the  large  amount  of  vegetable  acid  covered 
into  the  soil.  Select  the  pea  which  runs  least.  The  vines  are  easiest  covered  into  the  soU. 
They  are  the  black  bunch-pea,  and  the  speckle,  or  whipporwill-pea. 

When  planted  in  com  as  a  food  crop,  the  bunch-pea  ripens  soonest;  but  the  Carolina 
cow-pea,  the  clay-pea,  or  the  black  stock-pea  are  preferable,  as  they  do  not  readily  rot  from 
wet  weather,  and  will  remain  sound  most  of  the  winter.  For  early  feeding  of  stock,  plant 
whipporwiU-pea  by  itself  in  separate  enclosure  from  corn,  where  stock  can  be  turned  upon 
whenever  desired. 

Peas  are  often  sowed  upon  the  stubble  after  small  grain  is  harvested.     Flush  up  the 


218  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ground,  and  sow  either  broadcast,  or  drill  in  furrow  opened  with  shovel-iilow,  covering  with 
scooter  furrow  on  each  side.  Block  off  or  run  over  lightly  with  harrow  and  board  attached 
Again,  they  are  drilled  in  every  foiu-th  furrow,  when  turning  over  the  stubble,  the  succeed- 
ing furrow  covering  the  peas.  When  either  of  these  last  modes  of  planting  is  adopted,  the 
peas  should  receive  one  good  plowing  out  when  they  are  from  four  to  six  inches  high. 

When  planted  in  corn  (the  corn  should  have  been  drilled  in  rows  five  feet  apart),  they 
should  be  step-dropped  in  a  furrow  equally  distant  from  each  corn-row,  and  covered  with 
scooter,  with  harrow  or  with  block.  This  should  be  last  of  May  or  in  the  first  ten  days  of  June. 
The  only  work  they  receive  when  planted  in  corn,  is  a  shovel  or  sweep  furrow  run  around  them 
when  the  com  is  being  "  laid  by,"  unless  there  is  much  grass,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  give 
them  light  hoeing.  The  crop  might  be  said  to  be  made  almost  without  work  when  planted 
with  corn;  in  fact,  it  is  often  so  made  by  those  planters  who  sow  peas  broadcast  in  their  corn, 
and  cover  them  with  the  last  plowing  given  the  corn. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  treatment  of  the  vines  in  curing 
them  for  winter  hay.  And  as  much  has  been  written  upon  the  subject,  the  writer  feels 
some  diffidence  in  giving  his  own  views.  Suffice  it  to  say,  the  great  end  to  be  attained  is  to 
cure  the  vmes  to  the  extent  only  of  getting  rid  of  a  part  of  the  succulent  moisture  in  the  vine, 
without  burning  up  the  leaves.  When  exposed  to  too  much  heat,  the  leaves  fall  very  readily 
from  the  stems,  and  are  lost. 

When  put  up  too  green  and  too  compactly,  they  heat,  and  when  fermentation  of  the 
juices  in  the  vine  and  unripe  pods  occurs,  the  hay  is  seriously  damaged,  if  not  completely 
spoiled.  Mildewed  hay  of  any  kind  is  but  poor  food  for  stock,  and  when  eaten  is  only  taken 
from  necessity  to  ward  off  starvation.  Some  planters  house  their  pea-hay  in  open  sheds,  or 
loosely  in  barns,  with  rails  so  fixed  as  to  prevent  compacting.  Others  stack  in  the  open  air 
around  poles  having  hmbs  from  two  to  four  feet  long,  to  keep  the  mass  of  vines  open  to  the 
air,  and  cover  the  top  with  grass. 

There  is  a  diversity  of  opinions  as  to  the  proper  manner  of  curing  and  preserving  this 
hay,  but  there  is  none  as  to  the  value  of  this  rich  food  for  all  stock,  and  especially  for  the 
milch-cow  in  increasing  the  quality  and  quantity  of  her  milk." 

Llipilie  (Lupinus). — This  is  the  name  given  to  plants  constituting  the  large  genus  Lupi- 
nus,  of  the  order  Leguminosfe.  Its  generic  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  lupus,  a  wolf,  in 
allusion  to  its  ravenous  appetite  for  certain  alkaline  constituents  of  soils,  which  it  possesses  to 
the  extent  that,  if  cultivated  and  carried  off  the  land  for  several  years  in  succession,  it  wiU 
exhaust  the  soil  of  alkaline  properties;  but  where  it  is  plowed  under,  or  fed  to  cattle  or  sheep 
upon  the  land,  its  effect  is  beneficial  in  enriching  it. 

The  lupines  are  distinguished  from  other  cultivated  leguminous  plants  by  their  strong 
branching  habit  of  growth,  and  their  handsome  palmate  leaves.  One  of  the  principal  advan- 
tages of  cultivating  lupines  is  that  they  will  thrive  on  very  poor  sandy  gravels,  and  thin  clays, 
greatly  benefiting  the  latter.  They  also  make  excellent  green  manure,  while  the  seeds,  which 
are  large  when  well  soaked  in  water,  make  very  good  food  for  cattle.  Sheep  will  thrive  well 
on  the  green  plants,  which  they  eat  with  great  relish. 

The  plants  are  easily  injured  by  the  frost.  The  lupine  has  been  cultivated  in  Italy  and 
France,  and  some  other  portions  of  Europe  for  ages.  The  yellow  variety  has  there  nearly 
superseded  the  white,  on  account  of  its  being  more  hardy  and  better  able  to  endure  frost. 
Attempts  have  been  made  at  different  times  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  into  the 
Southern  States,  which  have  not  been  very  successful.  We  see  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
prove  beneficial  as  a  rotation  crop  in  that  section,  on  lands  that  are  too  exhausted  to  bear 
clover  well.  The  seeds  should  not  be  planted  until  the  season  is  sufficiently  advanced  for  the 
grass  to  be  quite  green.  From  forty  to  sixty  quarts  of  seed  per  acre  are  required,  sowed 
broadcast,  and  harrowed  in  lightly.     Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cover  the  seeds  too  deep,  or 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  219 

they  will  fail  to  germinate.  If  the  weather  is  showery  and  warm  after  sowing,  they  will  soon 
make  their  appearance  from  the  soil,  but  dry  weather  after  sowing  will  necessitate  a  longer 
time  for  starting.  The  plant  at  first  seems  to  expend  most  of  its  energies  in  root  formation 
and  does  not  grow  very  fast,  but,  after  the  roots  are  well-formed,  the  growth  of  leaves  and 
branches  is  more  rapid. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  seeds  be  perfectly  ripe  when  sowed,  imperfectly  ripened 
seeds  either  failing  to  sprout,  or  producing  sickly  plants.  The  wild  lupine  of  this  country  is 
found  growing  in  many  sections  in  sandy  soil.  The  most  numerous  species  of  this  plant  in 
the  United  States  are  found  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  cultivated  lupine  will  grow  well  in  all  except  calcareous  soils,  but  seems  to  thrive 
best  m  a  sandy  soil. 

Prickly  Comfrey  {Symphytum  asperrimum). — This  variety  of  comfrey  was  first  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Caucasus,  as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  grows  luxuriantly,  and  is 
very  hardy;  so  much  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate  it  when  once  it  has  possession  of 
the  soil. 

A  few  years  since  it  engaged  the  attention  of  agriculturists  as  a  forage  plant,  and  much 
was  said  and  written  pro  and  con  on  the  subject.  Its  cultivation  has  not,  however,  grown 
into  general  practice  among  farmers,  although  it  is  cultivated  to  a  hmited  extent  in  some 
localities.  It  produces  an  immense  amount  of  fodder  per  acre,  while,  being  a  deeply-rooted 
plant,  it  is  not  easily  affected  by  drought  or  excessive  moisture,  and  roots  out  effectually  other 
plants  when  once  established  in  the  soil.  It  starts  early  in  the  spring  and  remains  late.  It  is 
a  large,  coarse-leaved  plant,  remarkable  for  the  prickly  bristles  with  which  it  is  covered.  One 
farmer  who  favors  its  cultivation,  says  that  he  has  cut  2-t  pounds  of  green  fodder  from  one 
hill  at  the  third  cutting  in  the  season,  which  would  be  an  average  of  53  tons  per  acre,  the 
hills  being  three  feet  apart  each  way. 

The  advocates  of  its  culture  claim  that  it  is  especially  adapted  for  the  fattening  of  stock, 
and  increasing  the  mUk  of  cows;  while  the  objectors  claim  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  stock 
eat  it  at  all,  as  long  as  they  can  find  anything  else  to  eat.  Hogs  will  eat  it  more  readily  than 
other  stock. 

Its  culture  is  very  simple.  It  cannot  be  grown  from  seed,  and  is  propagated  from  cut- 
tings. The  best  way  to  cultivate  it,  is  to  sprout  the  cuttings  of  the  roots  in  a  hot-bed,  or  by 
covermg  them  with  an  inch  of  moist  earth,  and  two  or  three  inches  of  horse-manure.  When 
sprouted,  they  may  be  planted  in  the  field  (which  should  be  of  rich,  mellow  soil,  well  plowed 
and  harrowed),  three  feet  apart  each  way,  with  plenty  of  well-pulverized  manure  under  them. 
It  should  be  kept  well-cultivated  at  first  to  keep  out  the  weeds,  and  will  do  better  not  to  make 
any  cuttings  during  the  first  year.  After  that,  three  cuttings  per  season  can  be  made.  In 
winter  the  roots  ought  to  be  well-dressed  with  manure.  When  once  estabhshed,  it  is  culti- 
vated with  little  labor.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  flower.  It  requires  about  3,000  sets  of 
plants  per  acre,  one  pound  of  the  roots  making  about  175  cuttings. 

Having  had  no  experience  in  its  cultivation,  we  cannot  speak  from  that  knowledge,  but 
from  information  gained  from  various  sources,  we  doubt  whether  it  will  ever  be  a  general 
favorite,  as  a  forage  plant,  with  the  majority  of  farmers. 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


LIST  OF  GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

THE  following  table,  giving  the  list  of  grasses  and  forage  plants,  with  their  common 
and  botanical  names,  their  time  of  blossoming,  whether  wild  or  cultivated,  and  their 
place  of  growth,  may  be  of  interest  as  well  as  practical  benefit  to  many  farmers.  In 
giving  the  scientific  names,  the  first  word  that  occurs  in  parenthesis  is  the  name  of  the  grass; 
the  second,  that  of  the  species;  as,  for  instance,  in  herds-grass  (Phleum  pratense),  Phleum 
is  the  generic  name,  pratense  the  specific.     A  genus  often  contains  many  species. 

List  of  Grasses  and  Foraee  Plants. 


Common  Name. 


Botanical  Name. 


Place  of  Growth. 


Rice  Grass, 
White  Grasa, 
Indian  Rice, 
Meadow  Foxtail, 
Floating  Foxtail, 
Slender  Foxtail, 
Wild  Water  Foxtail,  . 
Timothy,  or  Herds-grass, 
Rush  Grass, 
Late  Drop-seed,  . 
Redtou, 
Englisn  Bent, 
Fiorin, 
Brown  Bent, 
Tickle  Grass, 
Southern  Bent,   . 
Annual  Beard  Grass, 
Wood-reed  Grass, 
Nimble  Will, 
Mexican  Muhlenbergia, 
Sylvan  Muhlenbergia, 
Awnless  Muhlenbergia,     . 
Willdenow's  Muhlenbergia, 
Awned  Brachyelytrum, 
Blue  Joint  Grass, 
Glaucous  Small  Reed, 
Beach  Grass.  Sea  Reed, 
Upright  Sea  Lyme  Grass^ 
Mountain  Rice,  . 
Feather  Grass,    . 
Poverty  Grrss,    . 
Fresh  Water  Cord  Grass, 
Salt  Reed  Grass, 
Rush  Salt  Grass, 
Salt  Marsh  Grass, 
Sand  Grass, 
Orchard  Grass,    . 
Pennsylvanian  Etonia, 
R.ittlesnake  Grass,     . 
Obtuse  Spear  Grass,  . 
Long  Panicled  Manna  Grass, 
Meadow  Spear  Grass, 
Pale  Manna  Grass,     . 
Spike  Grass, 
June  Grass, 
Blue  Grass, 
Annual  Spear  Grass,  . 
Rough  StJilked  Meadow, 
Wood  Meadow  Grass, 
Sea  Spear  Grass, 
Common  Manna  Grass, 
Wavy  Meadow  Grass, 
Water  Spear  Grass,    . 
Fowl  Meadow,    . 
Creeping  Meadow, 
Strong-scented  Meadow, 
Slender  Meadow, 
Quakiug  Grass,  . 
Small  Fescue  Grass,  . 
Sheep's  Fescue,  . 
Meadow  Fescue, 
Tall  Fescue  Grass, 
Hard  Fescije  Grass,   . 
Red  Fescue  Grass,     . 
Slender  Fescue,  . 
Nodding  Fescue, 
Crested  Dog's  Tail,    . 
Willard's  Bromus, 
Smooth  Brome  Grass, 
Soft  Chess,  . 


Leersia  oryzoides, 
Leersia  Vi'rginica, 
Zizania  aquatica, 
Alopecurus  pratensis, 
Alopecurus  geniculatus, 
Alopecurus  agrestis,  . 
Alopecurus  aristulatus, 
Phleum  pratense, 
Vilfa  aspera, 
Sporobolus  serotinus, 
Agrostis  vulgaris, 
Agrostis  alba,     . 
Agrostis  stolonifera,  . 
Agrostis  canina, 
Agrostis  scabra, 
Agrostis  dispar, . 
Polypogon  monspeliensis 
Cinna  arundinacea,    . 
Muhlenbergia  diffusa, 
MnhleiilR-rLna  Mrxicana, 
MuhiciilKTL'ia  svlvatica, 
Muhk-uli^TLMa  s.'.iiclifera, 
MuhlenbtT^'ia  Willdenovii, 
Brachyelytrum  aristatum, 
Calamagrostis  Canadensis, 
Calamagrostis  coarctata, 
Ammopbila  arundinacea, 
Elymus  arenarius, 
Oryzopsis  melanocarpa, 
Stipa  avenacea,  . 
Aristida  dichotoma,  . 
Spartina  cynosuroides, 
Spartina  polystachya, 
Spartina  juncea, 
Spartina  stricta, 
Tricuspis  purpurea,  . 
Dactylis  giomerata.    . 
Eatonia  Pennsylvanica, 
Glyceria  Canadensis, 
Glyceria  obtusa, 
Glyceria  elongata, 
Glyceria  nervata, 
Glvceria  pallida, 
Brizopyrum  spicatum, 
Poa  pratensis,     . 
Poa  compressa,  . 
Poa  annuaj  . 
Poa  trivialis, 
Poa  memoralis,  . 
Poa  maritima,     . 
Poa  fluitans, 
Poa  laxa,     . 
Poa  aquatica, 
Poa  serotina. 
Eragroetis  reptans,    . 
Eragrostis  poieoides, 
Eragrostis  pilosa, 
Briza  media, 
Festuca  tenella,  . 
Festuca  ovina,    . 
Festuca  pratensis, 
Festuca  elatior,  . 
Festuca  duriuscula,   . 
Festuca  rubra,    . 
Festuca  loliacea, 
Festuca  Nut-ans, 
Cynosurus  cristatus,  . 
Bromus  secalinus, 
Bromus  racemosus,    . 
Bromus  mollis,   . 


August, 
August, 
August, 
May,    . 
July,  Aug. 
July,   . 
June  to  Aug. 
June,  July, 
September, 
September, 
July,   . 
July,   . 
July,    . 
June,  July, 
June,  July, 
July,   . 
June,  July, 
July,  Aug. 
Aug.  Sept. 
August, 
Aug.  Sept. 
Aug.  Sept. 
Aug.  Sept. 
June,  . 
July,   . 
August, 
August, 
July,   . 
August, 
July,    . 
September, 
August, 

August, 

Aug.  Sept. 
June,  . 
June,  . 
July,   , 
August, 
June,  July, 
June,  July, 
July,    . 
August, 
June,  July 
July,  Aug. 
April  to  Oct, 
July,    . 
June,  . 
July,    . 
June,  . 
July,   . 
August, 
July  &  Aug, 
July  &  Aug. 
Aug.  &  Sept. 
August, 
June,  . 
Julv,   . 
Juiie.  . 
June,  . 
June,  July, 
June,  . 


July,    , 
July,    . 
June,  July, 
June,  , 
June,  . 


Wild, 

Cultivated. 
Wild, 


Wild  &  cultiv'd, 

Cultivated 

Wild. 


Wild  &  cultiv'd 
Wild, 


Wild, 

Cultivated, 

Wild, 


Cnltivated 
WUd, 


Wild, 
Cultivated, 
Wild. 
Cultivated, 


Low  wet  places. 
Damp  woods 
Borders  of  streams. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Wet  meadows,  ditches. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
In  wet  meadows. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Dry  sandy  soils. 
Wet  sand's. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Moist  meadows. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Old  fields. 
Fields,  pastures. 
Near  the  coast. 
Shady  swamps. 
Dry  hills,  woods. 
Low  grounds. 
Rocky  woods. 
Open  rocky  woods. 
Open  rocky  woods, 
Rock>'  woods. 
Wet  grounds. 
Wet  grounds. 
Drifting  sands. 
Drifting  sands. 
Rocky  woods. 
Dry  sandy  woods. 
Sandy  fields,  pine  barrens. 
Banks  of  streams. 
Brackish  marshes. 
Salt  marshes,  beaches. 
Sea-coast. 

Dry  sands  on  the  coast. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Moist  woods. 
Wet  bogs. 
Borders  of  ponds. 
Woods  and  swamps. 
Moist  and  wet  meadows. 
Shallow  water. 
Salt  marshes. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Dry  road-sides  and  pastures. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Fields  and  pastm-es. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
By  the  sea-side. 
Moist  and  muddy  ditches. 
"High  rocky  hills. 
In  wet  soils. 
In  wet  soils. 
Sandy  river-banks. 
Sandy  fields,  road-sides. 
Sandy  and  gravelly  places. 
Pastures. 
Dry  sterile  soils. 
High  pastures  and  hills. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Sandy  places  by  the  sea. 
Moist  meadows,  pastures. 
Rocky  woods 
Fields  and  pastures. 
Fields,  and  in  grain  crops. 
Grain  fields. 
Fields  and  pastures. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  DESCRIBING  GRASSES. 

List  of  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. — Continued. 


221 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Time  of 
Blossoming. 

Wild  or 
Cultivated. 

Place  of  Growth. 

Wild  Chess, 

Bromus  Kalmii, 

June,  July, 

WUd, 

Dry,  open  woods. 

Fringed  Brome  Grass, 

Bromus  ciliatus, 

July,  Aug.  . 

Rocky  hills,  woods. 

Meadow  Brome, 

Bromus  pratensis, 

July,    .       . 

Dry,  arid  pastures. 

Common  Reed  Grass, 

Phragmites  communis,      . 

September, 

" 

Swamps  and  edges  of  ponds. 

Perennial  Eye  Grass, 

Loiium  perenne, 
Lolium  Italicum, 

June,  . 

Cultivated, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Italian  Rve  Grass, 

June,  . 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Bearded  Darnel, . 

Loiium  temulentimi, . 

July,    .        . 

—           — 

Grain  fields. 

Many-flowered  Darnel, 

Lolium  multiflorum,          , 

June,  July, 

Cultivated, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Couch,  or  Twitch  Grass,   . 

Triticum  repeny. 

June,  July, 

WUd, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Squirrel-tail  Grass,    . 

Hordeum  jubatum,    . 

June,  .        . 

Salt  marshes. 

Lyme  Grass, 

Elymus  Virginicus,    . 

July  &  Aug. 

Banks  of  rivers. 

Canadian  Lj-me  Grass, 

Elymus  Canadensis,  . 

AuOTSt, 

" 

River  banks. 

Slender  Hairy  Lime,  . 

Elymus  striatus. 

July,    .       . 

River  banks. 

Bottle-brush  Grass,    . 

G^mnostichum  Hystrix,    . 

July,    . 

•' 

Moist,  rocky  woods. 

Wood  Hair  Grass,      . 

Aira  flexuosa,     . 

June,  . 

** 

Dry,  rocky  hills. 

Hassock  Grass,  . 

Aira  csespitosa,  . 

June,  July, 

Marshy,  wet  bottoms. 

WUd  Oat  Grass, 

Danthonia,  spicta,      . 
Trisetum  mollis. 

June,  . 

Dry  pastures. 

Downy  Persoon, 

July,   .        . 

** 

Rocky  river  banks. 

Downy  Oat  Grass,      . 

Trisetum  pubescens, 

July,   . 

'• 

Poor,  dry  pastures. 

Meadow  Oat  Grass,    . 

Avena  pratensis. 

July,    .        . 

" 

Pastures. 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 

Avena  flavescens. 

July,   .       . 

Cultivated, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass,    . 

Arrhenatherum  avenaceum. 

Jlay,  June, 

'* 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,  . 

Holcus  lanatus,  . 

June,  . 

" 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Creeping  Soft  Grass,  . 
Seneca  Grass       . 

Helens  mollis,    . 

—         — 

WUd, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Hierochloa  borealis,  • 

May,    .       . 

Wet  meadows. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal, 

Anthoxantham  odoratum. 

May,  June, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Reed  Canary  Grass,    . 

Phalaris  arundinacea. 

July,    .        . 

By  running  streams. 

Common  Canary  Grass,    . 

Phalaris  Canariensis, 

July,  Aug.  . 

Cultivated, 

Gardens. 

Millet  Grass, 

Millium  effusnm, 

June,  .       . 

WUd, 

Damp,  cold  woods. 

Hairy  Slender  Paspalum,  . 

Paspalum  setaceum,  . 

August, 

Sandy  fields  by  the  sea. 

Slender  Crab  Grass,  . 

Pamcum  filiforme,     . 

August, 

*' 

Dry  sands  on  the  coast. 

Smooth  Crab  Grass,  . 

Panicum  glabrnm,      . 

Aug.  Sept.  . 

" 

Fields  and  waste  places. 

Finger  Grass, 

Panicum  sanguinale. 

Aug.  to  Oct. 

Neglected  fields  and  gardens. 

Agrostis-like  Panic,   . 

Panicum  agrostoides. 

July,  Aug.  . 

** 

Wet  meadows  and  river  banks. 

Prolific  Panic  Grass,  . 

Panicum  proliferum, 

July,  Aug.  . 

" 

Brackish  marshes. 

Hair-Stalked  Panic,  . 

Panicum  capillare,     . 

Aug.  Sept.  . 

*' 

Dry  sandy  fields. 

Tall  Smooth  Panic,    . 

Panicum  virgatum,    . 

August, 

" 

Moist  sandy  fields. 

Broad-leaved  Panic,  . 

Panicum  latifolium,  . 

June.  July, 

Damp  thickets. 

Barn  Grass, 

Panicum  crus-galli,    . 
Setaria  verticiUata,    . 

Aug.  Sept.  . 

" 

Rich  cultivated  grounds. 

Bristly  Foxtail,  . 

—         — 

About  farm-houses. 

Bottle  Grass, 

Setaria  glauca,    . 

July,    . 

Fields  and  barn-yards. 

Green  Foxtiiil,    . 

Setaria  viridis,    . 

—         — 

" 

Cultivated  fieldfe. 

Beng.il  Grass, 

Setaria  Italica,    . 

— 

Cultivated, 

Fields. 

Bur  Grass,   .... 

Cenchrus  tribnloides. 

August, 

Wild,        . 

Sands  near  the  coast. 

Gama  Grass, 

Tripsaeum  dactyloides,     . 
Andropogon  furcatus. 

August, 

Moist  places  on  the  coast. 

Finger-spiked  Wood, 

September, 

" 

Sterile,  rocky  hills. 

Purple-wood  Grass,    . 

Andropogon  scoparius,      . 

July  to  Sept. 

'* 

Sterile,  sandy  plains. 

Indian  Grass, 

Sorghum  nutans, 

August, 

" 

Drv  soils. 

Indian  Millet,     . 

Sorghum  vulgare, 
Panicum  germanicum. 

—         — 

Cultivated, 

Cultivated  fields. 

Hungarian  Millet, 

—         — 

Cultivated  grounds. 

Chinese  Siiifar  Cane, 

Sorghum  saccharatum. 

July,    . 

Fields  and  gardens. 

Red  Clover, 

Trifolium  pratense,    . 

June,  July, 

'* 

Fields  and  pastures. 

White  Clover,     . 

Trifolium  repens. 

May  to  Sept. 

** 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Lucern,        .... 

Medicago  sativa. 

Julie,  July, 

Fields  and  pastures. 

Sainfoin 

Hedysarum  onobrychis,    . 

June,  July, 

Cultivated  fields. 

Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Describing  Grasses. 

Acuminate — Extending  into  a  long,  tapering  point. 

Acute — Sharp-pointed. 

Annual — Living  through  one  season  only. 

Anther — The  upper  part  of  the  stamen  containing  the  pollen  or  fertilizing  powder. 

Awn — A  bristle-like  process  proceeding  from  or  attached  to  the  glumes  or  paleta  of  some 


Biennial — Living  through  two  seasons. 

Boat-shaped — Concave  within  and  convex  without,  as  the  glumes  and  palets  of  some 
flowers. 

Bristles — Short,  stiff  hairs. 

Bulbous — The  base  of  the  stem  thickened  so  as  to  make  a  hard,  roundish  mass,  as  in  tim- 
othy grass  (^Phleum  pratensey 

CiMpitose — Growing  in  bunches  or  tufts. 

Cauline — Relating  to  or  growing  from  the  stem  or  cuim. 

Ciliate — Having  the  margin  fringed  with  hairs. 


222  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Culm — The  stem  or  straw  of  a  grass  ;  when  the  stem  creeps  upon  or  under  the  ground  it 
is  called  a  rhizoma. 

Decumbent — Leaning  on  the  ground  at  the  lower  part  but  rising  at  the  top. 
Digitate — Branching  finger-like  from  a  common  center,  as  the  spikes  of  Crab-grass  (Pan- 
icum  sanguinale^. 

Dioecioiis — The  two  sexes  separated  and  growing  on  different  plants,  as  in  Buffalo-grass 
{BiLchloe  dactyloides). 

Entire — "Without  notches  on  the  margin. 

Exserted — Protruded  beyond  the  flower,  as  the  stamens  of  grasses  usually  are  when  in 
bloom. 

Fertile — Producing  fruit. 

Fibrous — Composed  of  thread-like  fibers,  as  the  roots  of  most  grasses. 
Floret — A  little  flower  ;  a  pair  of  palets  with  the  inclosed  stamens  and  pistil.     There  may 
be  many  of  these  in  a  spikelet. 

Glabrous — Smooth  ;  destitute  of  hairs  or  roughness. 

Glumes — The  outer  or  lower  pair  of  bracts  or  scales  in  a  spikelet,  and  inclosing  one  or 
more,  sometimes  many,  flowers  or  florets. 
Hirsute — Rough-haired,  bearded. 
Indigenous — Growing  naturally  in  a  country. 
Internode — The  space  between  the  nodes  or  joints. 

E^eel — A  sharp  ridge  along  the  middle  of  a  glume  or  palet  resembling  the  keel  of  a  boat. 
Lamina  or  Blade — The  extended  part  of  a  leaf,  generally  open  and  flat,  but  sometimes 
rolled  inward  longitudinally,  when  it  is  said  to  be  involute. 

Ligule — A  small  leaf-Hke  appendage,  usually  thin  and  semi-transparent  (membranaceous), 
found  at  the  lower  part  of  the  leaf  or  at  the  top  of  the  sheath.  It  is  said  to  be  entire  when 
there  are  no  divisions  in  its  outline;  bifid,  when  it  is  divided  at  the  apex  into  two  parts  ;  lacer- 
ated, when  it  is  cut  or  divided  on  the  margin  ;  truncated,  when  the  upper  part  terminates 
abruptly  in  a  transverse  line,  as  if  cut  off. 

Membranaceous — Thin  and  translucent,  like  a  membrane. 
Nerves — Rib-like  elevations  on  the  leaves,  glumes,  and  palets. 
Neutral  Flower — One  having  neither  stamens  nor  pistil. 
Nodes — Knots  in  the  culm  where  the  leaves  are  given  off. 
Oblong — Longer  than  wide,  with  the  sides  nearly  parallel. 
Obtuse — Blunt-pointed. 

Ovary — The  portion  of  a  flower  containing  the  ovules  or  seeds. 
Palet  or  Palea — The  inner  scales  or  bracts  inclosing  the  stamens  and  pistil. 
Panicle — The  flowering  part  of  the  stem  or  culm  of  grasses,  usually  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  series  or  whorls  of  branches  or  rays,  which  are  again  divided  into  secondary  branches. 
These  may  be  short  and  close  to  the  stem,  or  they  may  be  long  and  spreading. 
Perennial — Living  for  more  than  two  years  ;  indefinitely. 

Pistil — The  central  organ  of  a  fertile  flower,  usually  consisting  of  an  ovary,  style,  and 
stigma. 

Pollen — The  fertilizing  powder  contained  in  the  anthers. 
Pubescent — Covered  with  soft  hairs. 

Rachis — The  name  given  to  that  kind  of  flowering  branch  where  the  flowers  are  arranged 
closely  together  on  its  sides  without  stalks  or  pedicils,  as  in  Paspalum,  and  in  the  ultimate 
branches  of  the  panicle. 

Radical  leaves — Those  growing  from  the  root. 

Spikelet — The  ultimate  divisions  of  the  panicles  or  flower-heads  ;  they  may  be  one-flow- 
ered, that  is,  a  pair  of  glumes  enveloping  a  single  flower  of  a  pair  of  palets  (or  sometimes  one 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  223 

palet)  with  the  inclosed  stamens  and  pistil ;  or  they  may  be  truo  or  more  flowered,  there  being 
but  one  pair  of  glumes  to  each  spikelet,  whether  it  be  one  or  many-flowered. 

SJieath — That  part  of  the  leaf  which  clasps  the  stem  ;  it  answers  to  the  petiole  or  leaf- 
stalk. 

Spike — When  the  flowers  are  sessile  or  without  branches,  as  in  Timothy  grass  [Phleuni 
pratense). 

Stamens — The  organs  of  the  flower  which  contain  the  pollen,  consisting  of  the  filament 
and  the  anthers. 

Stigma — The  extremity  of  the  pistil  which  receives  the  pollen. 

TT7io?-Z — A  number  of  leaves  or  branches  starting  from  one  line  on  the  stem. 

Grouping  of  Grasses. — Grasses  may  be  separated  into  five  distinct  groups,  according 
to  their  marked  peculiarities  of  growth : — 

First,  we  find  the  bush  or  jungle  grasses,  or  such  as  are  not  inclined  to  grow  with  other 
species  and  form  a  close,  matted  turf  or  sward,  such  for  example  as  the  Tufted  Hair  Grass, 
(Atm  coespitosa,)  Meadow  Oat  Grass,  [Avena  pratensis,)  Tall  Fescue  Grass,  (Festuca  elatior,) 
etc. 

A  few  other  grasses,  if  sown  alone,  will  assume  somewhat  the  same  form  in  tufts  or 
cushions,  as  Sheep's  Fescure,  (Festuca  ovina,)  Hard  Fescue,  (Festuca  diirinscula.)  and  Orchard 
Grass,  [Dactylis  ghmerata.)  This  peculiarity  in  the  growth  of  the  last  three  grasses  is  pre- 
vented by  close  pasturing,  rolling,  and  proper  cultivation.  These  operations  improve  their 
natural  tendencies,  since,  if  left  to  themselves,  they  would  be  Liable  to  assume  the  jungle 
growth,  such  as  is  often  seen  in  poor,  thin  pasture  soils,  a  close,  fine,  matted  sward  being  at- 
tained only  by  careful  cultivation. 

Second  in  order,  the  aquatic  or  water  grasses  form  another  distinct  group,  among  which 
may  be  found  the  Reed  Canary  Grass,  [Phalaris  arundinacea,)  Common  Reed  Grass,  (Arundo 
Phragmites,)  "Water  Spear  Grass  [Poa  aqriatim,)  Common  Manna  Grass  [Poa  flidtans,)  Rice  Grass, 
(Leersia  oryzoides,)  Floating  Foxtail,  {^Alopecurus  gernculatus,)  WUd  Rice,  {Lizania  aquatica.) 
These  grasses  grow  mostly  in  water  and  are  not  cultivated  generally  as  agi'icultural  grasses 
with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  first. 

Wild  rice  grass  is  sometimes  cultivated  at  the  South,  where  it  yields  often  very  large 
crops.    Floating  Foxtail  is  also  cultivated  in  Europe. 

Third,  Marsh  or  Salt  Grasses,  among  which  we  find  the  Salt  Reed  Grass  (Spartina 
polystachya,)  Rush  Salt  Grass,  (^Spartina  juncea.)  Salt  Marsh  Grass,  (Spartina  stricta,)  Black 
Grass,  (Juncus  hulhosus,)  Beach  Grass,  (Ammaphila  arundinacea.)  Goose  Grass,  (Poa  maritima.) 

Fourth  in  order,  we  have  the  field  or  pasture  grasses.  Under  this  head  may  be  in- 
cluded a  very  large  number  of  species.  These  grasses  might  be  subdivided  according  to  the  soils 
and  situations  which  they  naturally  affect;  for  though  a  grass  may  sometimes  be  found  or 
placed  in  a  soil  which  is  not  naturally  fitted  for  it,  yet  no  species  will  arrive  at  its  most  per- 
fect development  on  a  soil  not  well  adapted  to  it.  Among  these  might  be  mentioned  as  ex- 
amples Timothy,  (P/i?«i<m  pra<en.se,)  Meadow  Foxtail,  (Alopecurus pratensis,)  Common  Sj^ear 
Grass,  (Poa  pratensis,)  Orchard  Grass,  (Dactylis  ghmerata,)  Perennial  Rye  Grass,  (Lolium 
pernene,)  Italian  Rye  Grass,  (Lolium  italicum,)  Redtop,  (Agrostis  vulgaris,)  WTiitetop,  (Agrostis 
alba,)  Downy  Oat  Grass,  (Avena  pubescens,)  Meadow  Soft  Grass,  (Holcus  lanatus,)  Meadow 
Fescue,  [Festuca  pratensis,)  Field  Barley  Grass,  [Hordeum  pratense,)  TaU  Oat  Grass,  (Arrhena- 
therum  avenaceum,)  etc. 

Fifth  in  order  may  be  classed  the  annual  weeds,  which,  though  proper  grasses,  are  often 
very  troublesome  in  cultivated  grounds,  either  on  account  of  their  creeping,  underground 
stems,  or  their  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth.  Thrifty  farming  is  a  ceaseless  struggle  against 
these  pests,  and  the  farmer  is  generally  careful  to  keep  as  clear  as  possible  of  them.     Among 


224  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

these  may  be  named  Willard's  Bromus,  (Bromus  secalimis,)  Soft  Brome  Grass,  {Bromus  mollis,) 
Slender  Foxtail,  (^Ahpecurus  agreslis,)  Creeping  Bent  Grass,  {^Agroslis  stolonifera,)  Conch  or 
Twitch  Grass,  (  Triticum  repens,)  Rough  Stalked  Meadow  Grass,  {Poa  trivialis,)  Annual  Meadow 

Grass,  {^Poa  annua.) 

Of  these,  the  last  three  are  not  always  considered  as  weeds,  since  they  are  sometimes  sown 
as  pasture  grasses;  but  when  they  appear  in  cultivated  grounds,  in  gravel  walks  and  avenues, 
they  are  exceedingly  troublesome  and  difficult  to  eradicate.  Each  of  the  groups  previously 
indicated  may  be  considerably  enlarged  by  a  consideration  of  the  natural  habits  of  grasses. 

Many  of  the  grasses  which  have  been  described  possess  but  little  value  for  the  purposes 
of  cultivation,  it  is  true,  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  they  all  have  their  uses,  and 
these  uses  ia  the  grand  economy  of  nature  are  exceedingly  important,  however  they  may 
appear  to  our  short-sighted  vision.  No  plant  comes  up  to  the  sunlight,  or  expands  its  beauti- 
ful leaves,  that  does  not  derive  its  support  in  part  from  the  atmosphere,  and  even  though  its 
life  be  short,  it  adds  materially  in  its  decay  to  the  vast  mass  of  vegetable  mould  which  covers 
the  surface  of  the  globe  and  forms  the  richness  of  the  soU.  Tliis  surface  mould  has  been 
accumulating  for  ages  in  many  localities;  every  plant  that  grew  in  ages  past  bringing  down 
to  us  in  a  tangible  form  the  riches  with  which  the  air  that  surrounded  it  was  stored,  which 
now  lie  waiting  the  farmers'  use  in  meadows  of  exhaustless  fertility,  in  swamps  and  bogs  of 
vast,  increasing  utihty  in  our  agriculture,  and  in  beds  of  peat,  the  value  of  which  we  have 
scarcely  begun  to  appreciate.  Thus,  the  grasses  which  are  not  cultivated  for  their  direct 
nutritive  quahties,  are  not  without  their  value,  and  they  deserve  oiir  careful  study  and 
attention. 

Nlltritive  Yalue  of  Grasses-  —  DiEEerent  species  of  grass  difier  very  materially  in 
nutritive  value,  habits  of  growth,  etc.,  as  we  have  already  considered,  some  being  exceedingly 
nutritious,  others  possessing  but  little  nutritive  value;  some  yielding  a  luxuriant  aftermath, 
while  others  can  scarcely  be  said  to  produce  any  at  all;  some  flourishing  in  elevated  situa- 
tions are  best  suited  to  the  grazing  of  sheep,  while  others  grow  most  luxuriantly  on  the  low 
lands  in  marshes,  and  sustain  the  richest  dairies,  no  soil  being  so  sterile,  no  plain  so  barren, 
but  that  a  grass  can  be  found  adapted  to  it. 

Some  varieties,  indeed,  will  not  endure  a  soil  even  of  medium  fertihty,  nor  the  applica- 
tion of  any  stimulating  manure,  but  cUng  with  astonishing  tenacity  to  the  drifting  sands, 
while  others  prefer  the  heaviest  clays  or  revel  in  the  hot  beds  of  ammonia.  Some  are  grega- 
rious in  their  habits,  requiring  to  be  sown  with  other  species,  and  if  sown  alone  wiU  linger 
along  tUl  the  wild  grasses  spring  up  to  their  support;  others  are  sohtary,  and  if  mixed  with 
different  species  will  either  extirpate  them,  usurping  to  themselves  the  entire  soil,  or  die  and 
disappear.  Nearly  every  species  is  distinguished  for  some  peculiar  quality,  and  most  are 
deficient  in  some,  comparatively  few  combining  all  the  qualities  desired  by  us  in  alternate 
field-crops,  for  pastures  or  permanent  mowing,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  jxistify  a  general  cul- 
tivation. It  is  important,  therefore,  to  learn  the  comparative  nutritive  value  of  each  species 
thought  to  be  worth  cultivating. 

This  study  is  naturally  attended  with  great  difBculties,  but  sufficiently  accurate  researches 
have  been  made  with  a  view  of  arriving  at  such  positive  results  as  would  be  entitled  to  fuU 
confidence.  It  is  now  very  well  established  that  the  nutritive  value  of  the  food  of  an  animal 
depends  chiefly  upon  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  substances  contained  in  it.  Without  doubt, 
the  sugar  which  is  found  to  be  an  ingredient  of  most  vegetable  substances  at  some  periods  of 
their  growth,  in  some  degree  contributes  to  it  also.  The  nitrogenous  constitutents  of  any  sub- 
stance, as  grass  or  hay,  for  instance,  may  be  determined  with  httle  difficulty  and  with  great 
exactness,  since  it  has  been  found  by  abundant  research,  that,  when  present,  they  are  of  nearly 
the  same  constitution,  and  do  not  vary  in  their  combinations.  The  determination  of  the  sugar 
is  somewhat  more  difficult. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  225 

The  constituents  of  plants  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  one  class  embracing  all  those 
substances  of  which  nitrogen  or  azote  forms  a  part,  and  the  other  consisting  of  non-nitroge- 
nous bodies.  Gluten,  albumen,  gelatine,  casein,  legumen,  and  fibrin,  belong  to  the  former 
class,  being  nitrogenous  substances,  while  starch,  gum,  sugar,  woody  fiber,  mucilage,  etc.,  are 
destitute  of  nitrogen,  or  non-nitrogenous. 

Only  a  small  quantity  of  nitrogen  is  found  in  vegetable  substances,  and  it  is  derived,  in 
part,  at  least,  from  the  atmosphere,  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  On  the  other  hand,  nitrogenous 
substances  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  constituents  of  the  blood  of  animals,  and  appear  in 
their  whole  system.  As  there  is  a  constant  wa'-te  in  the  animfil,  and  a  continual  formation  of 
new  tissues,  —  as  the  whole  body  is  constantly  renewed  through  the  agency  of  the  blood 
which  is  converted  into  flesh  and  muscle,  —  there  must  be  a  never-failing  supply  of  nourish- 
ment, and  this  nourishment  for  the  higher  animals  is  found,  as  already  intimated,  in  the  nitro- 
genous elements  of  plants. 

For  every  oimce  of  nitrogen  which  the  animal  requires  to  siistain  life  and  health,  he 
must  take  into  the  stomach,  in  the  shape  of  food,  such  a  quantity  of  vegetable  substances  as 
will  fui'nish  him  with  an  ounce  of  nitrogen.  If  we  suppose  one  kind  of  hay  to  contain  one 
ounce  of  nitrogen  to  the  pound,  and  another  to  have  only  half  as  much,  or  only  an  ounce  in 
two  pounds,  the  pound  which  contains  the  ounce  of  nitrogen  would  go  as  far  to  nourish  the 
animal  —  other  things  being  equal  —  as  the  two  pounds  which  contain  only  the  same  quantity 
of  nitrogen.  The  importance  of  woody  fiber  to  act  mechanically  in  giving  bulk  to  the  food, 
is  not,  of  course,  to  be  overlooked. 

Nor  is  this  a  mere  deduction  of  theory.  The  experiment  has  frequently  been  made,  and 
it  is  now  fully  established  both  by  science  and  experience,  that  the  greater  the  proportion  of 
nitrogen  which  any  vegetable  contains,  the  smaller  will  be  the  quantity  of  that  vegetable 
required  to  nourish  the  animal  body,  and  the  less  nitrogen  any  vegetable  contains,  the  greater 
will  be  the  quantity  of  it  required.  Muscle  and  flesh  are  composed  of  nitrogenous  principles, 
while  fat  is  made  up  of  non-nitrogenous  matter.  Every  keeper  of  stock  knows  that  to  feed 
an  animal  on  oil-cake  alone,  for  instance,  which  is  but  slightly  nitrogenous,  might  fatten  him, 
but  it  would  not  give  him  strength  of  muscle  or  size;  while  if  the  same  animal  be  kept  on  the 
cereal  grains,  as  wheat  or  Indian  corn,  alone,  his  size  rapidly  increases,  his  muscular  system 
develops,  and  he  gains  flesh  without  increasing  his  fat  in  proportion. 

TliL  non-nitrogenous  substances  are  necessary  for  the  production  of  fat  to  supply  the  ani- 
mal body  with  heat,  and  thus  they  meet  a  want  m  the  animal  economy,  although  they  do  not 
contribute  so  directly  to  nourish  and  sustain  the  system.  They  are,  therefore,  important  in 
the  analyses  of  articles  of  food,  though  not  so  essential  in  determining  merely  their  nutritive 
values. 

From  what  has  been  said,  the  reader  will  very  readily  understand  the  following  tables 
containing  the  results  of  the  investigation  of  Prof.  Way.  The  specimens  of  the  various 
grasses  on  which  his  researches  were  made,  were  analyzed  both  in  their  green  state  as  taken 
from  the  field,  and  after  being  dried  at  a  temperature  of  212°  Fahr.,  a  pomt  at  which  the 
moisture  is  found  to  be  entirely  expelled  and  evaporation  ceases,  and  the  importance  of  both 
determinations  must  be  obvious  on  a  moment's  reflection. 

The  inquiries  of  Prof.  Way  were  directed  to  ascertain 

1.  The  proportion  of  water  in  each  grass  as  taken  from  the  field. 

2.  The  proportion  of  albuminous  or  flesh-foiming  substances,  including,  without  dis- 
tinction, all  the  nitrogenous  principles. 

3.  The  proportion  of  oily  or  fatty  matters  which  may  be  called  fat-forming  principles. 

4.  The  proportion  of  elements  of  respiration,  or  heat-producing  principles,  among  which 
are  included  starch,  gum,  sugar,  pectic  acid,  etc.;  all  the  non-nitrogenous  substances,  indeed, 
except  fatty  matters  and  woody  fiber. 


226 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


5.  The  proportion  of  woody  fiber. 

6.  The  amount  of  mineral  matter  or  ash. 

The  specimens  were  picked  out,  plant  by  plant,  each  specimen  by  itself,  from  fields  in 
which  they  were  growing  naturally,  or  mixed  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  cultivation,  and 
were  not  raised  expressly  for  analysis. 

The  results  of  the  analysis  of  the  natural  grasses  in  the  green  state,  are  arranged  in  the 
following  table :  — 

Table  I. — Analysis  of  Natural  Grasses.    (100  parts,  as  taken  green  from  the  field.) 


If, 

to.  1     . 

.2  1  a 

1 

Name  of  GraBfl. 

's|h 

a 

IM 

» 

^ 

s  . 

II 

$ 

^^^ 

& 

a 

8 

p 

Sweet-scented  Vernal,  . 

80.35 

2.05 

.67 

8.54 

7.15 

1.24 

Meadow  Foxtail, . 

80.20 

2.44 

.52 

8.59 

6.70 

1.55 

Tall  Oat  Grass,     . 

72.65 

3.54 

.87 

11.81 

9.37 

2.36 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 

60.40 

2.96 

1.04 

18.66 

14.32 

2.72 

Powny  Oat  Grass, 

61.50 

3.07 

.93 

19.16 

13.34 

2.01 

Quaking  Grass,    . 

51.85 

2.93 

1.45 

23.60 

17.00 

4.  IT 

Upright  Brome  Grass, 
Soft  Brome  Grass, 

59.57 

3.78 

1.35 

33.19 

2.11 

76.62 

4.05 

.47 

9.04 

8.46 

1.36 

Crested  Dog's-tail, 

62.73 

4.13 

1.33 

19.64 

9.80 

2.38 

Orchard  Grass,     . 

70.00 

4.06 

.94 

13.30 

10.11 

1.59 

Orchard  Grass,  seeds  ripe, 

52.57 

10.93 

.74 

12.61 

20.54 

2.61 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,     . 

69.33 

3.70 

1.03 

12.46 

11.83 

1.66 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,     . 

69.70 

3.49 

1.03 

11.92 

n.94 

1.93 

Barley  Grass, 

58.85 

4.59 

.94 

20.05 

13.03 

2.54 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,. 

71.48 

3.37 

.91 

13.08 

10.06 

2.15 

Italian  Rye  Grass, 

75.61 

2.45 

.80 

14.11 

4.83 

2.21 

Timothj'  Grass,    . 

57.21 

4.86 

1.50 

23.85 

11.33 

2.36 

Annual  Spear  Grass,    . 

79.14 

2.47 

.71 

10.79 

6.30 

.59 

June  Grass,  . 

67.14 

3.41 

.86 

14.15 

13.49 

1.95 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 

73.60 

2.58 

.97 

10.54 

10.11 

3.20 

Grass  from  Irrigated  Meadow, 

87.58 

3.22 

.81 

3,98 

3.13 

1.38 

Grass  from  Ir'g'd  Meadow,  2d  crop, 
Annual  Rye  Grass, 

74.53 

2.78 

.53 

11.17 

8.76 

2.24 

69.00 

2.96 

.69 

12.89 

12.47 

1.99 

Table  II. — Analysis  of  Artificial  Grasses.     (100  parts,  as  taken  from  the  field.] 


O  M 

•■Si 

£ 

|ls. 

M 

1 

Name  of  Plant. 

^ 

9-c  "  a 

S 

t 

h 

1 

^«- 

£ 

„ 

i 

s° 

Red  Clover 

81.01 

4.27 

.69 

8.45 

3.76 

1.82 

Perennial  Clover, 

81.05 

3.64 

.78 

8.04 

4.91 

1.58 

Crimson  Clover,  . 

82.14 

2.96 

.67 

6.70 

5.78 

1.75 

Cow  Grass,  . 

74.10 

6.30 

.93 

9.43 

6.25 

3.01 

Cow  Grass,  2d  specimen, 

77.57 

4.32 

1.07 

11.14 

4.23 

1.77 

Hop  Trefoil, 

83.48 

3.39 

.77 

7.25 

3.74 

1.37 

White  Clover,      . 

79.71 

3.80 

.89 

8.14 

5.38 

3.08 

Common  Vetch,  . 

83.90 

4.04 

.53 

6.75 

4.68 

1.11 

Sainfoin, 

76.64 

4.33 

.70 

10.73 

5.77 

1.84 

Lucern,  or  Alfalfa, 

69.95 

3,83 

.83 

13.62 

8.74 

3.04 

Black  Medick,  or  Nonsuch, 

76.80 

5.70 

.94 

7.73 

6.32 

2.51 

ANALYSIS  OF  GRASSES  227 

Table  III. — Analysis  of  Natural  Grasses.  (\00  parts  ofthegrass  dried  at  212°  Fahr.") 


=1  i 

1 

111 

i 

1 

a 

^ 

a  . 

Name  of  Grass. 

aCS  a 

•§ 

11 

fe 

b 

a 

a 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass, 

10.43 

3.41 

43.48 

36.36 

6.33 

Jleadow  Foxtail, 

13.33 

2.92 

43.13 

33.83 

7.81 

Tall  Oat  Gra-ss,     . 

12.95 

3.19 

38.03 

34.24 

11.59 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 

7.48 

2.61 

47.08 

35.95 

6.88 

Downy  Oat  Grass, 

7.97 

2.39 

49.78 

34.64 

5.33 

Quaking  Grass,    . 

6.08 

3.01 

46.95 

35.30 

8.66 

Uprisrlit  Brome  Grass, . 

9.44 

3.33 

82- 02 

5.31 

Soft  Brome  Grass, 

17.29 

2.11 

88.66 

36.13 

5.83 

Crested  Dog's-tail, 

11.08 

3.54 

53.64 

26.36 

6.38 

Orchard  Grass,     . 

13.53 

3.14 

44.32 

33.70 

5.31 

Orchard  Grass,  seeds  ripe, 

23.08 

1.56 

26  53 

43.33 

5.51 

Hard  Fescue  Grass, 

13.10 

3.34 

40.43 

38.71 

5.43 

Meadow  Soft  Grass, 

11.52 

3.56 

39.25 

39.30 

6.37 

Meadow  Barley  Grass, 

11.17 

2.30 

46.68 

81.67 

6.18 

Perennial  Rj'e  Grass,    . 

11.85 

3.17 

42.34 

35.20 

7.54 

Italian  Rye  Grass, 

10.10 

3.27 

57.82 

19.76 

9.05 

Timothy,      . 

11.36 

3.55 

53.35 

26.46 

6.38 

Annual  Spear  Grass,    . 

11.83 

3.42 

51.70 

30.23 

3.83 

June  Grass,  . 

10.35 

2.63 

43.06 

38.03 

5.94 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Gra 

ss. 

9.80 

3.67 

40.17 

38.03 

8.33 

Grass  from  Irrigated  Meadow, 

25.91 

6.53 

32.05 

25.14 

10.37 

Grass  from  Irrig'd  Meadow, 

2d  en 

>P. 

10.93 

2.06 

43.90 

84.30 

8.83 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  great  difference  exists  in  the  valuable  constituents  of  the  grasses 
analyzed  in  the  previous  table,  ranging  as  follows  : — 

Flesh-forming  principles, 
Fat-producing  principles. 
Heat-giving  principles,     . 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

6.08 

17.29 

11.68 

2.11 

3.67 

3.89 

38.03 

57.82 

47.92 

Table  IV. — Analysis  of  Artificial  Grasses.    {In  100  parts  of  the  grass  dried  at  212°  Fahr.') 


Name  of  Plant. 

o  to 

ili 
III 

i 
>> 

fill 

1 

t 

1 

1 

Red  Clover 

22.55 

3.67 

44.47 

19.75 

9.56 

Perennial  Clover, 

19.18 

4.09 

42.43 

25.96 

8.85 

Crimson  Clover,  . 

16.60 

3.73 

37.50 

32.39 

9.78 

Cow  Grass,  . 

24.33 

3.57 

36.36 

24.14 

11.60 

Cow  Grass,  3d  specimen. 

18.77 

4.77 

49.65 

18.84 

7.97 

Hop  Trefoil, 

20.48 

4.67 

48.86 

23.66 

8.33 

White  Clover, 

18.76 

4.38 

40.04 

26.53 

10.29 

Common  Vetch,   . 

23.61 

3.06 

89.45 

37.38 

6.50 

Sainfoin, 

18.45 

8.01 

45.96 

24.71 

7.87 

Lucern,  or  Alfalfa, 

13.76 

2.76 

40.16 

34.21 

10.11 

Black  Medick,      . 

24.60 

4.06 

38.31 

27.19 

10.84 

A  glance  at  the  above  table  will  show  that  the  different  principles  in  the  artificial  grasses 
vary  to  a  great  extent,  as  follows  : 

Flesh-forming  principles. 
Fat-producing  principles. 
Heat-giving  principles,  . 
15 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average 

12.76 

24.60 

18.68 

2.76 

4.77 

3.76 

33.31 

49.65 

41.48 

228  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  difference  in  composition  exhibited  in  the  natural  grasses  of  table  III.  are  very- 
marked,  and,  of  course,  the  value  of  the  grasses  as  compared  with  each  other,  must  vary- 
greatly.  Still,  the  practical  value  of  a  grass  depends  some-what  upon  circumstances  -which 
cannot  be  analyzed,  such  as  the  period  at  -which  it  arrives  at  maturity,  and  the  particular  soil 
and  location  of  the  farmer.  It  might  happen  that  a  grass  not  in  itself  so  rich  in  nutritive 
qualities  as  another,  -would  be  preferred  on  account  of  its  coming  to  maturity  just  at  the  time 
-when  the  farmer  most  needed  it.  But  the  particular  value  of  this  table  is,  that  it  shows  the 
comparative  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grasses,  since  all  the  specimens  were  collected  and 

investigated  in  the  same  manner,  at  the  same  period  of  growth, — or  as  nearly  as  possible, 

when  in  the  flower,  so  that  whatever  sources  of  error  might  exist  to  modify  the  results,  they 
would  naturally  apply  to  all  alike. 

The  grasses  from  the  irrigated  meadow  consisted  principally  of  June  or  Kentucky  blue 
grass,  rough-stalked  meadow  grass,  perennial  rye  grass,  meadow  soft  grass,  barley  grass, 
meadow  oat  grass,  and  a  few  other  species,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  combination  they 
abound  in  flesh  and  fat-forming  principles  to  a  greater  extent  than  we  should  be  led  to  sup- 
pose from  the  composition  of  any  one  of  them  alone. 

Our  favorite  timothy  compares  very  favorably  with  the  other  grasses,  containing  a  less 
percentage  of  useless  matter  as  woody  fiber  than  any  other,  except  Italian  rye  grass  and 
crested  dog's-tail,  a  grass  not  common  with  us,  and  the  irrigated  grasses.  In  point  of  solu- 
ble, heat-producing  principles,  sugar,  gum,  and  starch,  it  is  surpassed  by  the  Italian  rye  grass, 
but  by  no  others.  The  analyses  of  this  grass  in  its  green  and  dry  states  in  tables  I.  and  III., 
fully  justify  the  preference  which  we  have  long  shown  for  the  use  of  timothy;  for,  as  taken 
from  the  field  at  the  time  of  blossoming,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  less  water  (table  I.),  a 
greater  percentage  of  flesh  and  fat-forming  principles,  and  less  useless  matter  in  the  shape  of 
woody  fiber,  than  most  of  the  other  grasses.  The  deductions  of  science  certainly  correspond, 
in  this  case,  with  the  results  of  practice. 

A  comparison  of  tables  I.  and  III.  with  tables  II.  and  IV.,  will  show  the  comparative 
advantages  of  the  use  of  the  artificial  grasses,  in  point  of  albuminous  or  flesh-forming  princi- 
ples and  fatty  matters.  The  carbonaceous  or  heat-producing  principles  remain  nearly  the 
same  throughout,  while  the  percentage  of  waste  matter  or  woody  fiber  is  less  than  in  the 
natural  grasses.  This  is  an  important  fact,  worthy  of  the  careful  consideration  of  the 
farmer. 

In  the  sixth  column  of  table  III.  will  be  found  the  percentage  of  ash  of  each  of  the 
grasses  analyzed.  Table  V.  contains  a  still  further  analysis  of  this  ash,  which  gives  all  the 
inorganic  constituents  which  the  plant  derives  from  the  soil  and  the  manures  furnished  to  it. 
It  is  important  and  suggestive  to  one  who  will  examine  it  carefidly,  as  indicating  the  kind  of 
manure  which  in  many  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  apply. 

The  first  peculiarity  which  plainly  appears  from  a  glance  at  the  ash  analyses,  is  the  very 
large  percentage  of  silicates  and  potash  contained  in  the  natural  grasses,  and  the  very  small 
comparative  percentage  of  silica  in  the  artificial  grasses,  the  red  and  white  clovers.  The  large 
percentage  of  lime  and  carbonic  acid  attract  our  attention  in  the  latter.  This  table  is  exceed- 
ingly valuable,  as  suggesting  the  proper  course  of  manuring  for  the  most  successful  cultiva- 
tion of  the  various  crops  contained  in  it. 

If  now  we  look  at  the  analysis  of  some  of  our  common  weeds  (table  VI.),  we  shall  see 
how  far  superior  the  cultivated  grasses  are  in  nitrogenous  or  nutritive  principles. 

The  albuminous  principles  are  very  much  less  than  in  either  the  natural  or  the  artificial 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  229 

Table  V. — Analysis  of  the  Ash  of  some  of  the  Natural  and  Artificial  Grasses. 


|| 

!H 

•a 

s 

1 

6 

Common  Name. 

.sl 

1 

< 

i 

o 

1 

1 

1 

tS 

21 
|| 

|i 

J3 

"S 

0^ 

o 

2S 

< 

« 

Hi 

o 

S 

S 

&1 

H. 

^ 

u 

Meadow  Foxtail, 

7.81 

38.75 

6.25 

2.16 

.65 

3.90 

1.28 

.47 

37.03 

_ 

9.50 

_ 

Sweet-scented  Vernal, 

6.32 

28.36 

10.09 

3.39 

1.26 

9.21 

2.53 

1.18 

32.03 

— 

7.08 

4.90 

Down}'  Oat  Grass,     . 

5.22 

36.28 

10.82 

3.37 

— 

4.72 

3.17 

.72 

31.21 

— 

4.05 

5.66 

Upright  Brome  Grass, 

5.21 

38.48 

7.. 53 

5.46 

.55 

10.38 

4.99 

.26 

30.33 

— 

10.63 

1.38 

Soft  Brome  Grass,     . 

5.82 

33.34 

9.62 

4.91 

9.07 

6.64 

2.60 

.28 

30.09 

.33 

— 

3.11 

Crested  Dog's-tail,     . 

6.38 

40.11 

7.24 

3.20 



10.16 

2.43 

.18 

i4.99 

— 

11.60 

— 

Orchard  Grass, 

5.31 

26.65 

8.60  3.52 

2.09 

5.82 

2.22 

.59 

J9.52 

— 

17.86 

3.09 

Orchard  Grass,  with  seeds  ripe. 

5.51 

32.18 

6.41 

3.96 

2.88 

8.14 

3!47 

.23 

33.06 

— 

4.87 

4.76 

Hard  Fescue  Grass,  . 

5.42 

28.53 

12.07 

3.45 

1.38 

10.31 

2.83 

.78; 

31.84 

— 

8.17 

.62 

^Meadow  Soft  Grass, 

6.37 

28.31 

8.02 

4.41 

1.82 

8.31 

3.41 

.3l!34.83 

— 

3.91 

6.66 

Meadow  Barley  Grass, 

5.67 

56.28 

6.04 

4.29 

— 

5.04 

2  42 

.66 

30.26 

3.40 

— 

1.66 

Perennial  Rye'Grass, 

7.54 

27.13 

8.73 

5.20 

.49 

9.64 

2^85 

.21 

24.67 

— 

13.80 

7.25 

Annual  Spear  Grass, 

2.83 

16.03 

9.11 

10.18 

3.29 

11.69 

2.44 

1.57 

41.86 

— 

.47 

3.35 

June  Grass,       .... 

5.94 

32.93 

10.02 

4.26 

.40 

5.63 

2.71 

.28 

31.17 

— 

11.25 

1.31 

Roughed-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 

8.33 

37.50 

9.13 

4.47 

.29 

8.80 

3.22 

.39 

29.40 

— 

6.90 

— 

Timothy,           .... 

5.29 

31.09 

11.29 

4.86 

4.02 

14.94 

5.30 

.27  24.25 

— 

.70 

3.24 

Annual  Rye  Grass, 

6.45 

41.79 

10.07 

3.45 



6.82 

2.59 

.28,28.99 

.87 

— 

5.11 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 

5.28 

35.20 

9.31 

4.00 

— 

7.98 

3.07 

2.40,36.06 

.73 

— 

1.25 

Red  Clover, 

9.56 

.59 

6.71 

1.85 

23.47 

22.62 

4.08 

.26  85.45 

— 

2.39 

1.53 

White  Clover, 

. 

— 

3.68 

11.53 

7.21 

18.03 

26.41 

8.15 

1.9614.33 

3.72 

— 

4.95 

Sainfoin  in  flower, 

6.37 

3.22 

9.35 

3.28 

15.20 

24.30 

5.03 

.6131.90 

— 

6.24 

.78 

Sainfoin  in  seed, 

6.50 

3.49 

7.97 

2.33 

17.36 

29.67 

4.59 

.58  29.61 

1.25 

— 

3.12 

Italian  Rye  Grass  in  flower, 

6.97 

59.18 

6.34 

2.82 

— 

9.95 

2.23 

.7812.45 

3.98 

— 

2.27 

Italian  Rye  Grass  in  seed. 

6.40 

60.62 

6.32 

1.31 

— 

12.29 

2.64 

.3010.77 

.13 

— 

5.58 

Table  VI. — Analysis  of 

Specimens  of  Weeds,  a 

s  taken  from  the 

field,  and  when  dried. 

1 

3 

1 

is 

o 

Name  of  Plant. 

z  ^ 

e| 

a 

£3, 

J3 

si 

B 

>, 

K'E 

1 

.a 

S" 

^ 

i^ 

N 

S  a 

^ 

< 

Ox-eye  Daisy,  (CrysantJiemum  leitc 

anthemum,) 

June  23, 

71.85 

2.12 

.999 

12.64 

10.51 

1.86 

Yellow  Buttercup,  {Ranunculus  at 

lis,) 

June  13, 

88.15 

1.18 

.507 

6.26 

3.00 

.91 

Sorrel,  {Ru7ncj:  acetosa,) 

July  4, 

75.37 

1.90 

.545 

7.62 

13.04 

1.51 

Dried  Specimens  of  the  sa 

ME. 

Ox-eye  Daisy,       .         .         .         . 





7.53 

3.49 

45.02 

37.33 

6.68 

Buttercup,            .         .         .         . 

—    — 

— 

9.98 

4.28 

52.69 

25.34 

7.71 

Sorrel, 

—    — 

— 

7.71 

2.19 

46.82 

37.16 

6.13 

Time  to  Sow  Grass  Seed. — The  universal  practice  in  time  of  sowing  grass  seed  was 
formerly  in  the  spring;  sometimes  sowing  it  on  the  late  snow,  which,  when  melting,  aided  in 
settling  the  seed  into  the  soU,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  harrowing.  The  action  of  the 
frost  in  leaving  the  ground,  aided  by  the  spring  rains,  also  accomplished  the  same  result  when 
sown  upon  the  soil  after  the  snow  had  disappeared.  But  a  change  has  taken  place  in  the  prac- 
tice of  this  department  of  agriculture,  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  It  is  now  generally 
conceded  by  those  best  acquainted  with  the  most  desirable  methods  of  practice  in  this  respect, 
that  the  best  time  for  sowing  most  varieties  of  grass  seed,  is  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  September,  the  precise  time  depending  on  the  condition  of  the  soil.  This  gives  the 
grass  a  good  start,  and  being  early  well-rooted  in  the  soil,  obviates  the  effect  of  drought, 
which  spring  sowing  would  not  do,  as  there  is  more  danger  from  summer  drought  than  win- 
ter-killing.     If  for  any  reason  it   cannot  be  sown  until  the  latter  part  of  September,  it  would 


230  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

be  better  to  defer  it  still  later,  even  until  the  middle  of  November,  as  in  that  case  the  seed 
will  not  germinate  so  as  to  be  injured  by  the  severe  winter  cold,  and  will  start  earlier  in  the 
sprmg  than  it  possibly  could  by  an  early  spring  sowing. 

Clover  and  orchard  grass  may  be  considered  exceptions  to  this  rule  generally,  the  best 
time  for  sowing  tliese  seeds  being  usually  early  m  the  spring. 

Should  the  soO  m  August  be  very  dry,  it  is  better  to  wait  till  early  September  before 
sowing,  but  when  the  soil  is  favorable  at  the  middle  of  August,  that  is  the  better  time,  as 
before  stated.  What  we  have  said  relative  to  August  as  the  proper  time  for  sowing,  applies 
more  particularly  to  the  North  In  the  extreme  South,  a  month  later  would  be  a  more 
desirable  time.  There  can  be  no  definite  rule  given  relative  to  the  precise  time  of  seeding 
down  grass  land,  since  it  will  depend  upon  various  considerations,  such  as  the  latitude,  the 
season,  nature  of  sod,  etc.  The  rule  we  have  given  will  be  the  best  general  rule,  conditions 
being  favorable.  Sometimes  it  will  be  more  convenient  for  a  farmer  to  sow  in  the  spring; 
in  such  a  case,  the  soil  should  be  very  rich,  moist,  and  mellow:  or,  if  not  particularly  rich,  it 
should  have  a  generous  supply  of  manure,  that  the  seed  may  have  a  quick  start,  and  luxu- 
riant growth;  otherwise,  the  weeds  will  be  liable  to  choke  it,  and  it  wiU  not  be  sufficiently 
advanced  to  withstand  the  effect  of  the  drouth  m  summer ;  the  object  being  to  enable  it  to 
obtain  a  strong  hold  upon  hfe,  and  become  well  established  in  the  soil  before  the  hot,  dry  sea- 
son sets  m.  If  sown  when  the  ground  is  very  dry,  the  seed  will  be  hkely  to  be  burned,  or 
dried  up  and  lost;  fortius  reason  the  sowing  should  be  delayed  until  the  soil, — which  had  pre- 
viously been  prepared, — was  well  moistened  by  the  early  fall  rains. 

Selection  of  Seed. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  production  of  the  grass 
crop,  that  not  only  the  suitable  varieties  of  seed  should  be  selected,  but  that  the  seed  should 
be  fresh.  Old  seed  that  has  been  left  over  from  year  to  year  may  be,  and  doubtless  is,  fre- 
quently mixed  with  the  new,  and  put  upon  the  market.  This  mixture  is  not  easily  detected, 
but  the  results  will  usually  be  seen  m  the  failure  m  germination  of  the  old  seed.  There  is  a 
great  difference  in  the  different  varieties  of  plants  with  respect  to  the  length  of  time  the  seeds 
will  retain  their  vitality,  some  retaining  it  for  several  years,  others  only  one  or  two  years. 
The  seeds  of  most  of  the  grasses  have  been  found  to  be  of  but  very  little  value  when  they 
have  been  kept  two  or  three  yeai-s,  hence  the  importance  of  procuring  new,  fresh  seeds,  and 
guarding  against  any  mixture  of  the  old  and  worthless  with  the  new,  as  carefully  as  possible. 

It  is  easy  to  tell  whether  the  germmative  power  of  grass  or  any  other  seed  still  remains, 
by  the  following  simple  method ;  and,  if  the  buyer  should  be  willing  to  try  it,  he  might  pur- 
chase  only  a  small  quantity  at  first,  and  afterwards  obtain  his  full  supply  with  more  confi- 
dence, if  the  trial  showed  it  to  be  good.  Take  two  pieces  of  thick  cloth,  moisten  them  with 
water,  and  place  them  one  upon  the  other  in  the  bottom  of  a  saucer.  Place  any  number  of 
seeds  which  it  is  desired  to  try,  upon  the  cloth,  spreading  thin,  so  as  not  to  allow  them  to 
cover  or  touch  each  other.  Cover  them  over  with  a  third  piece  of  cloth  similar  to  the  others 
and  moistened  m  the  same  manner.  Then  place  the  saucer  in  a  moderately  warm  place. 
Sufiicient  water  must  be  turned  on  from  time  to  time  to  keep  the  three  thicknesses  of  cloth 
moist,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  water,  as  this  would  destroy  the  seed. 
There  should  be  only  enough  to  moisten  the  cloths,  and  not  enough  to  allow  any  to  stand  in 
the  saucer.  Danger  from  this  source  may  be  avoided  in  a  great  measure,  however,  by  tip- 
ping up  the  saucer  so  as  to  permit  any  superfluous  water  in  it  to  drain  off.  Tlie  cloth 
used  for  covering  may  be  gently  raised  each  day  to  watch  the  progress  of  the  swelling  or 
the  moulding  of  the  seeds.  The  good  seed  will  be  found  to  swell  gradually,  while  the  old  or 
poor  seed,  which  has  lost  its  germinating  power,  will  become  mouldy  in  a  very  few  days.  In  this 
way,  also,  any  one  can  judge  whether  old  seed  is  mixed  with  new.  The  latter  will  germinate 
much  more  quickly  than  the  former.  He  can  judge,  besides,  of  the  quantity  which  he  must 
sow,  since  he  can  tell  whether  a  half,  or  three-fourths,  or  the  whole  wiU  be  likely  to  germi 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


231 


nate,  and  can  regelate  his  sowing  accordingly.  The  seeds  of  the  clovers,  if  they  are  new 
and  fresh,  will  show  their  germs  on  the  third  or  fourth  day;  other  seeds  will  take  a  little 
longer,  but  till  they  become  coated  with  mould  there  is  hope  of  their  germinating.  As  soon 
as  the  mould  appears  it  is  decisive,  and  the  seed  that  moulds  is  worthless. 

Some  farmers  may  think  it  too  much  trouble  to  test  seeds  in  this  manner.  It  will 
always,  however,  be  well  to  save  a  sample  of  the  seed  sown,  and  if  there  is  any  difficulty  in 
its  germinating,  it  can  be  tested,  and  the  real  difficulty  ascertained.  Often  the  seed  fails  to 
start  on  account  of  its  being  covered  too  deep  in  the  soil;  in  such  a  case,  the  fault  is  m  the 
farmer,  and  not  in  the  seed. 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed. — In  the  mixture  of  seed  for  mowing  lots,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  a  large  variety,  as  it  is  a  well-established  fact  in  agriculture  that  a  larger  crop  of  hay 
will  be  produced  from  a  given  amount  of  land,  other  things  being  equal,  than  where  but  a 
single  or  few  varieties  are  grown.  It  is  also  important  that  the  varieties  should  be  the  best 
for  the  purpose,  in  order  to  secure  hay  of  the  best  quality  and  quantity,  and  that  they  should 
be  such  as  will  be  ready  for  mowing  about  the  same  time, — which  is  when  they  are  in  blos- 
som,— otherwise,  if  the  earlier  and  later  varieties  are  sown  together,  the  early  ripened  may 
become  dry,  woody,  and  useless  by  being  over-ripe,  before  the  later  varieties  are  ready  to  be 
cut.  By  this  method,  also,  the  fields  of  earlier  grasses  can  be  first  mowed,  and  the  hay  prop- 
erly cared  for,  before  the  later  fields  are  matured,  obviating  the  hurry  and  anxiety  of  the 
farmer  respecting  the  loss  or  injury  of  certain  crops  of  hay  for  lack  of  opportunity  to  secure 
it  at  the  proper  time. 

For  feeding  to  horses,  at  least  a  half  of  the  time,  many  farmers  prefer  timothy  which 
has  been  grown  without  the  admixture  of  other  varieties  of  grass;  but  for  cows  and  sheep, 
a  large  variety  is  greatly  to  be  preferred. 

For  permanent  pastures,  both  early  and  late  varieties  are  desirable  in  order  to  secure  a  con- 
tinuous growth  throughout  the  season,  the  largest  number  of  varieties,  other  things  being 
equal,  giving  the  best  results.  The  following  tables  for  mixtures  have  been  obtained  from 
various  reliable  agricultural  authorities.  Of  course,  the  quantity  of  each  variety  can  be 
varied,  or  the  entire  amount  increased,  as  may  appear  judicious  in  view  of  the  soil,  climate, 
etc. 

Light  seeding  wiU  produce  a  larger  and  coarser  growth  of  stalks  with  a  tendency  to 
weeds,  while  heavy  seeding  will  produce  finer  stalks  and  nicer  hay  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
Perhaps  a  medium  in  this,  as  well  as  in  most  other  things,  thus  avoiding  either  extreme,  is 
the  better  method  and  the  one  to  be  adopted  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Each  mixture  is  in- 
tended for  one  acre  of  land. 


For  Mowing  Lands. 


Red  clover. 
Orchard  grass, 
Timothy,     . 
Red-Top,     . 

• 

■ 

10  lbs. 
6     " 
6     " 

4     " 

For  Permanent  Pastures. 

Orchard  grass, 
White  clover, 
Meadow  foxtail, 

6  lbs. 
5    " 
3    " 

Rye  grass. 

Red-top, 

Timothy, 

4  lbs 
4    " 
4     " 

Red  clover, 
Rough-stalked  meadow 

grass, 

4     " 
4    " 

Blue  grass. 
Meadow  fescue. 

4    " 
4    " 

232 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


The  following  is  also  a  good  mixtiire  for  pastures,  for  both  immediate  and  permanent 


Red  clover,    . 
Timothy, 
Red-top, 
Orchard  grass, 
Alsike  clover, 
"White  clover. 


lbs. 


Timothy, 
Orchard  grass, 
June  grass. 
Rye  grass, 
Sweet-scented  vernal, 


Hay  and  Pasture  Combined. 


Wood  meadow  grass. 
White  clover, 

Rough-stalked  meadow  grass, 
Perennial  clover, 


6  lbs. 
6    " 
4    " 
4    " 
2    " 

For  the  Southern  States  Mr.  Howard  recommends  the  following  mixture : 
For  Rotation  and  Improving  the  Soil. 

4  qts.         Orchard  Grass, 
Meadow  Oat  Grass,  .         .         .         1  bu. 

For  Meadow  Land. 

1  pk.         Herd's  Grass,     .... 
4  qts. 

4  quarts  of  Red  Clover  to  be  added  to  the  above  if  immediate  results  are  desired. 
For  Summer  Pastures. 


Red  Clover, 


Timothy, 
White  Clover, 


1  bu. 


4  qts. 


Bermuda  Grass, 
Herd's  Grass, 


Red  Clover, 
Natural  Grasses, 


Crab  Grass. 
For  Winter  Pastures. 

Meadow  Oat  Grass,       .         .         .         1  bu.         Blue  Grass,  ....         4  qta. 

Orchard  Grass,      .         .         .         .         1     "  Red  Clover,         .         .         .         .         4    " 

Wild  Rye  Grass,  .         .         .         1     "  White  Clover,     ....         4    " 

Not  to  be  grazed  later  than  June  or  earlier  than  Christmas. 

In  order  to  learn  the  best  and  most  recent  English  methods  of  seeding  down  for  pas- 
tures, a  circular  for  this  purpose,  sent  to  the  best  grass-growers  of  the  kingdom  to  ascertain 
their  opinion  and  methods,  resulted  in  some  of  the  following  returns. 
From  Durham — soil,  a  loam;  portions  of  it  light,  with  some  clay. 

For  Permanent  Pastures,  Per  Acre. 

3  pks.  perennial  rye-grass.  1  lb.  crested  dog's-tail. 


13  lbs.  white  clover. 
10    "     trefoil. 
4      "     alsike. 
6      "     cow-gras3. 
3      "    red  clover. 


1  "  cock's-foot  (orchard  grass). 

1  "  sweet-scented  vernal. 

1  "  meadow  foxtail. 

1  "  hard  fescue. 

1  "  smooth  -  stalked   meadow   grass   (  June 


In  Cheshire  the  following  mixture  is  used  per  acre: — 


^  bush,  cock's-foot  (orchard  grass). 
^      "      meadow  foxtail. 
^      "      perennial  rye-grass, 
f      "      meadow-fescue. 
2|-  lbs.  sweet  vernal. 


4    lbs.  June  grass. 
3       "    white  clover. 
2       "    trefoil. 
2       "    Timothy. 
1^     "    cow-grass. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

The  practice  on  the  estates  of  the  Earl  of  Powis,  on  stiff  soils,  is  to  sow — 
4  lbs.  crested  dog's-tail.  2  lbs.  meadow  foxtail. 


233 


sweet  vernal, 
cock's-foot. 
tall  fescue, 
meadow-fescue, 
rough-stalked  meadow. 


4  "  Timothy. 
2  "  alsike  clover. 
2  "  white  clover. 
6  "  perennial  rye-grass. 

5  "  Italian  rye-grass. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  three  tables  previously  given  that  the  English  farmers  are  far 
ahead  of  us  in  respect  to  the  varieties  of  grasses  used  in  seeding  down  land  for  pastures,  and 
we  might  gain  from  them  hints,  in  this  respect,  to  our  own  agricultural  advantage.  There 
are,  in  the  Northern  States,  varieties  that  are  maturing  in  succession  for  six  months,  of  which 
we  will  mention  a  few  of  the  most  important.  Beginning  in  April  with  the  blossoming  of 
spear-grass,  we  have  in  May  the  meadow  fox-tail,  sweet-scented  vernal,  and  white  clover 
(which  latter  we  class  among  the  grasses  for  convenience,  though  strictly  it  is  not  such,  but 
a  leguminous  plant).  The  number  of  June  blossoming  grasses  is  legion;  this  month  being 
the  graminivorous  season  for  all  grazing  stock,  as  more  varieties  of  grasses  blossom  during 
this  month  than  any  other,  at  the  North.  A  few  of  the  more  important  are,  Timothy,  the 
various  species  of  fescues,  orchard  grass,  June  grass,  rye-grass,  and  red  clover.  July  brings 
the  flowering  of  red  top,  foul-meadow  and  English-bent,  while  in  August  we  have  blue- 
grass,  creeping-meadow  and  floating  fox-tail,  and  in  September  hairy-panic,  poverty  grass 
and  red  grass,  with  many  of  those  already  mentioned,  which  continue  blossoming  from  month 
to  month. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  tables  of  mixture  recommended  by  noted  agriculturists 
in  Scotland: 

For  Permanent  Pastures  (Per  Acre.) 


Meadow  Foxtail, 

2  lbs. 

Italian  Rye  Grass, 

6  lbs. 

Orchard  Grass,     . 

4     " 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 

8     " 

Hard  Fescue, 

2     " 

Timothy, 

3     " 

Tall  Fescue, 

2     " 

Wood  Meadow  Grass, 

2     " 

Meadow  Fescue, 

2     " 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 

2     " 

Eedtop, 

2     " 

Perennial  Clover, 

2     " 

June  Grass, 

2     " 

White  Clover, 

from  t 

to  15     " 

For  Permanent  Lawns. 

Meadow  Foxtail, 

1  lbs. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 

8  lbs. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass, 

1     " 

Timothy, 

1     " 

Eedtop,        .         .         .         . 

2     " 

June,  or  Common  Spear 

Grass, 

2     " 

Hard  Fescue, 

3     " 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 

2     " 

Sheep's  Fescue,    . 

1     " 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 

1     " 

Meadow  Fescue, 

4     " 

Perennial  Clover, 

2     " 

Red  Fescue, 

2     " 

Red  Clover, 

2     " 

Italian  Eye  Grass, 

6     " 

White  Clover, 

6 — 44 

If  the  object  is  to  make  a  permanent  lawn,  such  as  is  frequently  desirable  around  or  near 
a  farm-house,  the  above  table  will  be  found  one  of  the  best.  It  will  resist  the  effects  of  our 
severe  droughts  better  than  those  varieties  commonly  used  for  lawns.  If  it  is  desirable  to 
omit  anything  from  it,  the  red  and  perennial  clovers,  the  yellow  grass,  and  a  part  of  the  rye- 
grass could  best  be  spared. 

If  a  fine  lawn  is  wanted  where  extra  attention  wiU  be  paid  to  rolling  and  mowing,  the 
following  mixture  will  do  well: 


234 


THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 


Fiue  Lawns  Frequently  Mown, 


Crested  Dog's-tail, 
Hard  Fescue, 

Slender-leaf  Sheep's  Fescue, 
Perennial  Rye  Grass, 
Wood  Meadow  Grass, 


10  lbs. 

4  " 

2  " 

10  " 

2  " 


Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 
Yellow  Oat  Grass, 
June  Grass, 
White  Clover, 


Hay  and  Pasture  in  Orchards  and  Shaded  Places. 


Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass, 
Orchard  Grass,     . 
Hard  Fescue, 
Tall  Fescue, 
Italian  Rye  Grass, 
Perennial  Rye  Grass, 


1  lbs.  Timothy,     .         .         .         • 
6     "  Wood  Meadow  Grass, 

2  "  Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 
2     "  June  Grass, 
4     "  Perennial  Red  Clover, 
4     "  White  Clover,     . 

Mixture  for  Mowing  on  Light  Sands. 


Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass, 
Orchard  Grass,     . 
Hard  Fescue, 
Meadow  Soft  Grass, 
Italian  Rye  Grass, 


3  lbs. 

4  " 
6     " 

3  " 

4  " 


Perennial  Rye  Grass, 
Timothy, 

Perennial  Red  Clover, 
White  Clover, 


Mixture  for  Reclaimed  Peaty  Lands. 


Whitetop,  variety  called  Fiorin,    .  2  lbs. 

Redtop,     .             ....  2  " 

Meadow  Foxtail,           .         .         .  2  " 

Fowl  Meadow,     .         .         .         .  4  " 

Italian  Rye  Grass,         •         •         •  4  " 


Perennial  Rj^e  Grass, 

Reed  Canary  Grass, 

Timothy, 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass, 

White  Clover, 


1  lbs. 


8 — 16 


6  lbs. 
4     " 

2  " 
4     " 

3  " 
4 — 12 

10  lbs. 
3     " 
3     " 
4 — 10 


5  lbs. 
4     " 
10     " 
3     " 
4—40 


Marshy  Grounds,  Liable  to  he  Occasionally  Overflowed  with  Fresh  Water. 


NAME  OF  GRASS.  Peaty  SoUs.  Alluvial  Soils. 

Fiorin, 4  lbs.         3  lbs. 

Tall  Fescue 3     "  3     " 

Manna  Grass,      .     .     .     5     "  5     " 

Reed  Canary  Grass,      .     3     "  4     " 


NAME  OF  GRASS.  Peaty  SoUs.  Alluvial  SoUb, 

Timothy, 4  lbs.  4  lbs. 

Rough-stalked  Meadow,       4     "  3     •' 

Fowl  Meadow  Grass,      .     6     "  5     " 

White  Clover,       .     .     .     3—32  4—32 


The  following  will  be  found  to  be  a  valuable  mixture  when  it  is  desired  to  cover  rocky 
hills  and  poor  soils  with  grass. 

Mixture  for  Rocky  Hills. 

Redtop, 

Tall  Oat, 

Crested  Dog's-tail, 

Orchard  Grass,     . 

Red  Fescue, 

Meadow  Soft  Grass,     . 

Sowing  Grass  Seed. — It  has  been  the  general  practice  with  farmers  of  this  country  to 
sow  grass  seed  with  some  kind  of  grain,  preparing  the  land  especially  for  the  grain  crop,  and 
with  the  exception  of  covering  it  in  the  process  of  covering  the  grain,  to  make  no  provision 
for  the  crop5  of  grass  the  land  is  expected  to  produce.  Although  by  this  means  the  land 
may  be  utilized  to  produce  two  crops  at  the  same  time,  and  labor  saved,  yet  we  think  it  far  bet- 
ter and  more  economical  in  the  end,  to  sow  the  grass  seed  separately,  thus  giving  it  a  fair  start 
and  insuring  a  good  crop;  besides  the  practice  of  sowing  together  results  in  injury  to  both  crops. 


2  lbs. 

Perennial  Rye  Grass, 

6  lbs. 

2     " 

Timothy, 

6     " 

3     " 

Wood  Meadow  Grass, 

3     " 

3     " 

Common  Spear  Grass, 

2     " 

4     " 

Rough-Stalked  Meadow,     . 

2     •' 

2     " 

White  Clover, 

8 — 13 

GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  235 

By  the  usual  method  of  sowing  with  grain,  the  grass  crop  sufEers  a  great  injury,  by  the  grain 
taking  possession  of  the  fertilizing  elements  of  the  soil,  and  choking  the  growth  of  the  grass,  and 
also  by  shading  it  too  much,  and  when  the  grain  is  cut,  the  grass  is  not  only  trampled  and 
injured  by  the  process  of  cutting,  but  is  often  dried  up  by  the  hot  sun,  being  too  tender  to 
bear  its  scorching  rays. 

We  do  not  therefore  beHeve  it  a  good  poHcy,  as  a  general  rule,  to  sow  grass  seed  with 
any  grain  crops.  By  so  doing  we  rob  the  grass  crop  for  the  sake  of  grain,  and  the  grass 
must  in  torn  deprive  the  grain  of  some  of  the  nutritive  elements  of  the  soil,  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent; however,  the  grass  crop  is  the  one  to  suffer  most  by  the  practice. 

"Whenever  grass  is  to  be  sown  with  any  kind  of  grain,  barley  is  the  one  to  be  preferred, 
but  even  this  is  very  objectionable.  Grass  is  an  important  product,  and  should  be  regarded  as 
such  in  its  cultivation.  If  we  take  a  grain  crop  from  our  grass  lands,  the  grass  must  of 
necessity  be  injured  by  it,  although  it  may  not  be  entirely  killed  by  such  treatment.  In  pre- 
paring the  lands,  it  should  be  plowed,  and  given  a  good  supply  of  manure  or  fertilizer  of 
some  kind,  the  quantity  suited  to  the  character  of  the  soil ;  sometimes  guano  or  grass  fertilizer 
is  sown  upon  the  surface  broadcast.  The  soil  should  then  be  pulverized  with  a  harrow  until 
it  is  mellow  and  fine,  and  the  seed  sown  either  by  hand  (as  is  still  the  old  time  practice  on 
small  farms  in  many  sections)  or  by  a  machine,  which  is  much  better,  since  it  will  distribute 
the  seed  much  more  evenly  over  the  surface  than  hand-sowing,  besides  greatly  facilitating 
the  labor.  So  many  seeds  fail  to'  germinate,  or  are  destroyed  by  birds  and  insects,  that 
we  favor  a  liberal  quantity  of  seed  sown,  as  well  as  a  large  variety,  in  order  to  secure  not  only  a 
heavy  growth,  but  hay  of  superior  quaUty,  for  every  farmer  knows  that  hay  is  superior  and 
finer  in  quality  where  the  grass  grows  thick  and  compact  in  the  sod.  It  is  a  common  fault 
to  cover  grass  seed  too  deeply.  Most  of  our  grass  seeds  germinate  most  surely  when  only 
covered  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  and  by  actual  experiment  it  has  been  ascertained  that  when 
covered  an  inch  half  the  seeds  fail. 

Grass  seed,  being  so  very  small,  should  be  slightly  covered;  hence,  if  a  common  tooth 
harrow  is  used  for  the  pm-pose  of  covering,  as  has  frequently  been  the  custom,  the  seed  is 
buried  too  deeply  in  the  soil.  A  common  brush  harrow  is  better  for  this  purpose,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  good  roller  to  press  the  soil  down,  which  hastens  the  germination  of  the  seed. 
Many  farmers  who  are  not  in  possession  of  a  good  roller  use  a  simple  wooden  drag  for  this  pur- 
pose, which  is  made  similar  to  what  is  commonly  called  a  "  stone  boat,"  the  front  being  beveled 
up  so  as  to  avoid  the  uneven  surface.  From  eight  to  ten  feet  long,  and  three  and  a  half  feet  wide, 
are  very  good  dimensions  for  such  a  constructed  harrow.  The  inclined  portion  can  be  about 
a  foot  wide;  this  answers  the  purpose  of  a  brush  harrow  and  roller  combined.  Jt  is  a  good 
practice  in  reclaiming  old  wornout  meadows  to  give  them  a  good  coating  of  unfermented  man- 
ure, and  then  turn  the  sod  over.  On  this  surface  thus  ploughed,  a  dressing  of  well-rotted 
manure  or  compost  with  ashes  is  spread,  and  thoroughly  harrowed  lengthwise  the  furrows. 
The  seed  is  then  sown  and  slightly  harrowed  in.  followed  with  rolling;  the  decomposing  manure, 
with  the  added  fertilizing  properties  of  the  stubble  and  roots  of  the  sod,  will  give  a  quick  and 
luxuriant  growth.  Many  farmers  greatly  improve  their  lands  for  mowing,  when  they  do  not 
wish  to  plough  up  and  seed  down,  by  furnishing  a  good  top-dressing  of  manure  in  the  fall  or 
in  early  spring  (fall  is  better)  and  then  scattering  grass  or  clover  seed  over  the  field.  The 
seed  thus  sown  will  catch  quickly  and  greatly  improves  the  crop,  if  sown  when  the  soil  is 
moist,  or  just  before  a  heavy  rain. 

Pasture  lands  are  often  improved  by  running  a  harrow  over  them  in  a  manner  to  cut 
the  turf  slightly  into  small  squares,  an  inch  square  being  the  most  desirable  size  marked  by 
the  harrow  lines.  This  should  be  done  when  the  soil  is  rather  moist.  Upon  the  ground 
thus  prepared,  sow  a  mixture  of  grass  and  clover  seed  of  various  kinds  suited  to  both  early 
and  late  growth,  in  order  to  insure  a  fresh,  permanent  pasturage  through  the  season.     Upon 


23G 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  237 

this  put  a  lit:le  top-dressing,  and  the  seed  thus  sown  will  quickly  germinate  and  greatly  im- 
prove the  grazing;  though  it  should  not  be  fed  upon  until  it  has  had  an  opportunity  to  be" 
come  deeply-rooted  and  well-established  in  the  turf.  It  is  very  important, — and  we  would 
repeat  it  here  to  impress  it  more  forcibly  upon  the  minds  of  farmers, — that  both  mowing 
lands  and  pastiures  should  occasionally  have  a  dressing  of  manure  or  some  other  fertilizer. 
It  will  be  economy  in  the  end  for  farmers  to  put  more  manure  on  their  grass  lands,  instead 
of  putting  it  all  upon  their  other  crops  to  the  neglect  of  the  grass.  If  it  is  not  profitable  to 
cultivate  corn  or  wheat  without  manure,  neither  is  it  profitable,  nor  should  it  be  expected,  to 
cultivate  grass  well  without  some  assistance  from  fertilizers.  The  best  time  for  applying  the 
manure  is  in  the  fall,  as  it  serves  to  protect  the  roots  and  give  the  grass  an  early  start  in 
the  spring. 

Time  of  Cutting  and  Method  of  Curing  Hay. — As  to  the  time  of  cutting  grass 
for  hay,  there  is  still  a  diversity  of  opinions  among  the  farmers  of  our  country,  although  in 
the  main,  there  has  been  quite  a  change  in  favor  of  early  cutting  within  the  last  twenty-five 
years.  Some  recommend  cutting  just  before  it  comes  into  bloom,  some  when  in  perfect 
bloom,  others  when  the  blossoms  have  just  fallen,  others  when  the  seed  is  in  a  milky  state, 
and  others  still  when  the  seeds  are  nearly  ripe. 

Two  very  important  considerations  are  involved  with  respect  to  this  subject.  The  first  is, 
to  cut  it  at  the  time  it  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  nutriment;  the  second,  to  do  it 
when  it  will  involve  the  least  injury  to  the  aftergrowth.  The  question  to  be  considered  is. 
When  is  that  time?  With  regard  to  the  first,  the  opinion  and  practice  of  farmers  have  greatly 
changed  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  It  was  formerly  the  general  opinion,  that  the  best 
time  for  cutting  most  kinds  of  grasses,  Timothy,  and  Orchard  grass,  for  instance,  was  when 
the  seed  was  nearly  ripe  and  ready  to  shell;  but  experience  and  scientific  analysis  have  proved 
that  the  time  when  grass  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  nutritive  matter,  such  as  starch, 
gum,  and  sugar,  is  not  at  this  period,  but  at  the  period  before  the  seed  is  formed,  since  most 
of  these  nutritive  properties  of  the  plant  go  to  form  the  seed,  leaving  the  woody  fiber  in  the 
stalk,  which  serves  to  give  bulk  food,  but  not  nourishment;  hence,  if  not  cut  early,  a  great 
part  of  the  nutriment  of  the  stems  and  leaves  is  wasted.  Experience  and  observation,  together 
with  the  information  afforded  us  by  analysis,  prove  that  the  proper  time  for  cutting  nearly 
all  kinds  of  grasses,  is  when  they  are  in  fuU  bloom,  or  just  as  they  are  coming  into  bloom; 
opinions  vary  somewhat  with  respect  to  these  stages  of  growth,  but  we  believe  the  majority 
are  in  favor  of  the  time  of  full  bloom.  Even  a  casual  observer  must  have  noticed  that  when 
cattle  are  grazing,  they  do  not  select  the  stalks  of  grass  with  ripened  seed  or  withering  blos- 
soms. No,  they  pass  these  by  and  take  the  more  tender  grasses  that  have  not  arrived  at  this 
stage,  and  we  think  they  must  be  better  judges  than  we,  as  to  which  is  the  most  desirable  for 
food.  Now,  in  making  hay,  our  object  is  to  have  as  little  change  as  possible  in  the  grass,  and 
to  preserve,  as  nearly  as  we  can,  the  solid  constituents,  in  the  same  state  as  when  the  grass 
was  young  and  green,  and  if  cut  at  the  period  of  blossoming,  there  will  be  little  of  the  woody 
fiber  in  its  composition.  If  left  until  the  seed  is  ripened,  we  find  the  seeds  the  storehouse  of 
the  starch,  gum  and  sugar,  as  before  stated,  while  the  stalk  becomes  hard,  wiry  and  about  as 
nutritious  as  straw.  Swale  hay  is  almost  worthless,  if  cut  when  the  seeds  are  ripening.  Clover 
should  be  cut  also  when  in  full  bloom,  and  not  when  the  head  has  become  brown.  It  has  been 
found  by  careful  experiment  that  herds-grass,  red-top  and  clover  cut  at  the  time  as  we  have 
indicated,  will  produce  more  milk  and  butter  than  the  same  quantity  of  late-cut  hay,  even 
when  fed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  grain  daily,  and  that  the  same  relative  value  will  be  found 
in  making  beef  or  feeding  any  farm  stock ;  besides,  no  one  can  deny  that  the  early-cut  grass 
is  most  like  green  grass. 

With  respect  to  our  second  consideration,  viz.,  the  time  of  cutting  that  will  best  con- 
duce to  the  aftergrowth,  the  same  rule  applies  equally  well. 


238 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


Any  plant  tliat  is  cropped  at  a  certain  time,  before  arriving  at  a  state  of  maturity,  will 
throw  up  a  second  growth  more  readily  and  be  more  vigorous  than  if  cropped  after  it  has 
matured.  This  is  a  law  of  nature  that  cannot  escape  the  notice  of  any  person,  even  the  most 
unobserving.  Now,  if  we  apply  this  rule  to  grass-cutting,  we  shall  not  only  have  better  hay, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  but  the  aftergrowth  will  start  more  vigorously  and  grow  more  rapidly, 
which  will  not  only  protect  the  young  and  tender  grass  roots  from  the  hot  sun,  but  will  furnish 
an  aftermath  or  "rowen,"  —  as  it  is  often  called,  —  which  will  be  quite  an  addition  to  the 
hay  crop  already  gathered,  while  a  third  crop  will  soon  start  and  grow  sufficient,  before  the 
frost  comes,  to  secure  the  roots  a  protection  through  the  winter;  this  protection  aiding  in  an 
early  growth  in  the  spring.  It  is  a  fact  that  all  experience  corroborates,  that  grass  will  not 
only  start  earlier  in  the  spring,  after  a  protection,  —  whether  of  top-dressing  or  its  own  after- 
math, —  but  will  produce  a  greater  amount  of  hay  the  following  season  than  where  no  pro- 
tection is  thus  given.  Ciltting  grass  after  the  seeds  have  matured,  leaves  a  dry  stubble  that 
is  slow  in  starting  again,  and  will  look  brown  during  the  remaining  part  of  the  season, 
unless  the  soil  is  particularly  rich  or  damp,  while  it  will  not  produce  as  much  hay  in  quantity 
or  as  good  in  quality  in  the  following  season,  as  the  fields  that  are  early  cut.  Thus  we  see 
that  the  present  practice  of  early  cutting  is  an  improvement  upon  the  old-time  method,  in 
securing  not  only  a  larger  amount  of  hay,  but  hay  of  a  better  quality,  and  also  leaves  the 
land  in  a  condition  to  furnish  a  larger  crop  of  grass  the  following  season. 


NEW    BUCKEYE    MOWER 


Respecting  the  cutting  of  grass,  we  believe  the  universal  opinion  among  our  leading 
farmers  is,  that  it  should  not  be  cut  until  the  dew  is  well  dried  off,  as  it  will  then  cure  much 
more  readily.  We  think  the  practice  of  many  farmers  of  overdrying  their  hay  is  as  great  an 
injury  to  its  quality,  as  that  of  insufficient  curing;  in  fact,  we  might  safely  say  that  farmers, 
as  a  general  thing,  lose  more  by  drying  their  hay  too  much  than  by  not  drying  it  enough. 

Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  with  respect  to  the  time  of  cutting,  there  must 
of  necessity  be  considerable  loss  of  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grass  in  drying;  the  action 
of  heat  and  moisture  causing  a  loss  of  sugar  and  starch.  This  loss  is  dependent  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  length  of  time  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  light;  hence,  grass  cured  with 
the  least  exposure  to  wind  and  sunlight,  other  conditions  being  equal,  will  be  more  nutritious, 
and  contain  less  of  woody  fiber,  than  that  which  is  overcured  by  long  exposure  to  air  and 
sun;  and  such  hay  is  also  more  palatable  to  cattle,  as  is  evidenced  by  their  eating  it  more 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  239 

readily  and  showing  a  preference  for  it  wtien  given  a  choice  of  the  two  kinds.  "  Never  dry 
hay  so  as  to  make  it  brittle  when  twisted  in  the  hand,"  is  a  rule  by  which  many  of  our  best 
farmers  are  governed. 

Hay  should  be  housed  on  the  day  of  cutting,  if  possible.  Our  experience  in  this  respect 
goes  to  show  that  one  good  hayday  is  sufficient  for  drying  any  kind  of  grass,  unless  it  be, 
perhaps,  wet  meadow  or  swale  hay,  which  requires  more  curing  to  keep  well  than  most  other 
varieties;  however,  many  farmers  have  good  success  in  keeping  the  latter  in  fine  condition 
when  put  in  the  barn  the  same  day  of  mowing.  Of  course  much  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
temperature,  state  of  the  atmosphere,  etc.,  in  curing  any  grass,  even  on  a  bright,  sunny  day.  It 
is,  therefore,  veiy  difficult  to  lay  out  any  definite  rule  with  respect  to  the  time  required  to  cure 
hay,  as  any  farmer  knows  that  on  some  days  twenty-five  minutes  of  sun  will  dry  it  more 
effectually  than  sixty  minutes  will  at  other  times  with  a  full  sunshine.  The  wind  has  much 
to  do  with  the  drying  process.  In  New  England,  the  north  or  east  wind  will  not  assist  the 
drying  of  hay  much,  while  a  west  or  southwest  wind  hastens  it  very  perceptibly.  Grass 
should  never  be  dried  any  more  than  just  to  have  it  keep  well  in  the  mow,  the  greener  and 
have  it  keep  well  the  better,  as  it  contains  by  far  more  nutrition  and  hence  more  value  for 
stock  food  than  that  which  is  dried  longer.  Some  experience  in  testing  and  experimenting 
will  be  necessary  to  determine  just  when  this  point  of  curing  is  reached.  The  extensive 
■use  of  mowing-machines,  and  the  degree  of  perfection  that  has  been  attained  in  their  con- 
struction is  such,  that  much  of  the  hard  labor  attending  haying  in  former  times  is  obviated, 
besides  facilitating  the  process  of  curing  and  getting  it  housed  before  the  dew  begins  to  fall. 
Of  course,  no  good  farmer  wiU  expose  his  hay  to  either  dew  or  rain  when  it  can  be  avoided, 
as  the  nutritive  properties  of  grass  are  all  soluble  in  either,  and  will  be  wasted  by  such 
exposure.  Hay  exposed  to  a  long  rain  is  almost  as  worthless  as  straw,  since  a  large  portion 
of  its  nutritive  elements  will  have  thus  been  extracted,  leaving  only  the  woody  fiber. 

Among  the  many  fine  mowing-machines  at  present  in  the  market,  that  are  so  admirably 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  their  construction,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  should  take  the 
precedence  in  favor  with  farmers.  The  McCormick  Iron  Mower,  manufactured  in  Chicago 
by  the  firm  that  bears  its  name,  and  the  New  Buckeye  Mower  by  the  Aultman  &  Miller  Co., 
Akron,  Ohio,  of  both  of  which  we  give  illustrations,  may  be  named  among  the  first-class  imple- 
ments of  this  kind,  as  they  do  most  excellent  work,  and  are  strong  and  durable. 

With  aU  the  modern  facilities,  the  old  adage,  "Make  hay  whUe  the  sun  shines,"  is  as  true 
now,  and  as  important  to  be  observed,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  ovir  forefathers.  We  do  not 
advocate  the  practice  of  many  farmers  of  cutting  grass  on  cloudy  days,  thus  running  the  risk 
of  rain  to  follow.  The  time  thus  gained  in  the  haying  process,  although  it  may  seem  economy 
in  that  respect,  is  generally  more  than  offset  by  damage  or  loss  to  the  hay  crop.  One  of  our 
leading  New  England  farmers,  in  eastern  Massachusetts,  gives  his  method  of  curing  hay 
thus:  — 

"  I  am  convinced  that  in  most  parts  of  New  England  our  English  hay  should  be  cut  and 
stored,  if  the  weather  allow,  before  the  seed  has  set;  commencing  to  cut  with  the  mowing- 
machine  as  soon  certainly  as  the  dew  is  off.  One  man  should  be  occupied  trimming  around 
the  walls,  trees,  etc.  At  eleven  o'clock  commence  turning  with  forks  or  tedder,  and  lose  no 
time  until  mid-day,  when  by  this  process  it  will  become  wilted.  In  this  way  we  can  begin, 
if  the  grass  has  been  properly  tedded,  to  cart  into  the  barn  as  soon  as  one  o'clock,  always 
taking  care  to  have  help  enough  to  finish  carting  as  early  as  half-past  four  or  five  o'clock, 
after  which  the  dew  has  fallen  and  renders  hay  unfit  to  be  packed.  By  this  process  we  allow 
from  three  to  four  hours  for  the  out-door  curing  of  our  crop. 

We  are  always  careful  not  to  put  hay  into  our  bam  that  has  any  water  in  it,  but 
never  fear  the  sap  if  properly  packed.  When  hay  is  taken  from  the  cart  or  wagon  it 
should  not  be  rolled  oS,  and  then  over  and  over  on  to  the  different  parts  of  the 
mow,  but  it  should  be  pitched  on  to  the  hay-mow,  and  evenly  distributed  over  the 
mow   in   even   forkfuls,  and   each    forkful    packed   and   trodden  upon.     In   this  way  the 


240 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


mow  becomes  solid  and  closely  packed,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
the  hay,  always  remembering  that  the  greener  the  hay  is  put  in  the  closer  it  must  be 
packed.  In  rainy  weather  let  the  hay  be  trodden  upon  by  the  men.  Remember  to  keep  the 
barn  closed  as  much  as  possible  afterwards. 

In  order  to  secure  rapid  drying  and  facilitate  the  process,  as  well  as  to  improve  the 
quality  of  hay — since  the  quicker  it  is  cured,  the  better  the  quality — a  good  hay  tedder  is 
indispensable,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties. 

The  following  cuts  represent  valuable  implements  of  this  kind  manufactured  respectively 
by  the  Ames  Plow  Co.,  Joseph  Breck  and  Sons,  and  the  Whittemore  Brothers,  all  of  Boston, 
Mass.: 


The  American  Garfield  Hay   Tedder. 


The  first  two  represented  have  been  known  to  the  farmers  of  the  country  generally  for 
some  time  and  their  merits  fully  tested.  The  Mudgett  tedder  has  been  more  recently  intro- 
duced, but  is  very  popular  with  those  familiar  with  its  working.  Having  never  used  the 
latter  we  are  not  able  to  express  an  opinion  as  to  which  is  the  best  of  these  valuable  imple- 
ments, but  from  witnessing  its  operations  we  judge  it  not  to  be  at  all  inferior  to  its 
predecessors. 

A  good  tedder  will  toss  the  grass  lightly,  exposing  it  to  the  air  and  sun,  and  leave  it  in 
a  loose  mass  upon  the  ground,  under  which  circumstances  it  will  dry  rapidly,  thus  conducing 
to  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  hay,  and  consequently  its  increased  value,  since  the 
sooner  the  curing  process  can  be  completed,  the  better  the  quality  of  the  product.  The  im- 
proved agricultural  implements  of  the  present  time,  including  mowing  machines,  tedders, 
horse-rakes,  the  pitching  apparatus  for  loading  and  unloading  hay,  etc.,  not  only  facilitate 
the  hay -curing  process,  and  thus  obviate  loss  or  deterioration  in  quality  by  the  grass  becoming 
over-ripe  before  cutting,  or  exposure  to  rains  after  being  cut,  but  also  are  a  great  saving  of  labor, 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE   PLANTS." 


241 


time  and  expense,  and  the  best  of  such  machines  are  not  only  exceedingly  useful,  but  are  a 
necessity  in  the  economy  of  every  well-managed  farm. 


BOLLARD  S  IMPROVED  UAY  TEDDER. 

With  respect  to  the 
height  from  the 
ground  at  which  it  is 
desirable  to  cut  hay 
there  is  a  diversity  of 
opinions  among  far- 
mers; some  beheving 
it  is  best  to  cut  it  as 
close  as  practicable, 
others  varying  from 
one  and  a  half  to  four 
inches.  Our  experi- 
ence and  observation 
convince  us  that  it 
depends  much  upon 
the  soil,  the  season, 
and  the  kind  of  grass. 
That  where  the  soil  is 

dry  and  liable  to  be  affected  by  the  hot  summer  weather,  as  in  upland  mowing-lands,  it 
should  not  be  cut  close,  in  order  that  the  roots  of  the  grass  may  have  some  protection  against 
the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  but  in  low,  wet  lands  close  cutting  could  be  practiced  with  less 
injury  to  the  roots.  As  a  general  rule,  the  finer  and  more  compact  the  grass,  the  closer  it 
may  be  cut;  while  the  heavier  grass,  timothy  for  instance,  might  be  greatly  injured  by  close 
cutting  in  hot.  dry  weather. 

The  Horse-rake  has  become  a  necessary  acquisition  to  the  agricultural  implements  of  almost 
every  farm  however  small     The  Thomas  Sulky  Rake,  mamifactured  by  J.  H.  Thomas  &  Sons, 


THE    MUDOETT    TEDDER. 


242  THE  A^IERICAX  FARjrER. 

of  Springfield,  Ohio,  and  the  Gleaner  Hay  and  Grain  Rake,  manufactured  by  the  Vermont 
Farm  Machine  Co.,  of  Bellows  Falls,  Vt.,  are  fine  illustrations  of  this  kind  of  machine.  It 
is  important  that  all  mowing  lands  should  be  clean  and  free  from  everything  objectionable  to 
a  mixture  with  the  hay,  such  as  dead  stalks,  fragments  of  brush,  small  sticks,  &c.,  since 
rakes  of  this  kind  collect  everything  from  the  surface;  and  the  best  time  to  secure  this  is  in 
the  spring  before  the  grass  has  attained  much  growth. 

A  good  horse  hay-fork  or  loader,  for  loading  hay  on  the  cart,  is  a  very  desirable  acquisi- 
tion to  the  farm  implements,  and  a  great  saving  of  labor  and  time. 

Hay  Caps. — As  to  the  utility  of  hay  caps  there  can  be  no  question,  since  by  them  the 
farmer  is  enabled  to  protect  his  hay  against  the  storms  that  frequently  cause  so  much  loss  to 
this  crop.  Those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  their  use  value  them  highly.  They  can  be 
easily  made  in  the  following  manner:  Procure  common  brown  sheeting  from  fifty-four  to 
sixty  inches  wide.  This  is  torn  into  squares  and  the  edges  are  tiimed  down  all  aroimd  and 
sewed  over  a  stout  cord.  Make  a  loop  of  the  cord  in  each  comer  about  six  inches  long,  in 
which  to  insert  skewers  or  hooks  for  fastening  them  to  the  ground.  The  cocks  of  hay  shoidd 
be  made  from  five  to  six  feet  high,  about  four  feet  wide  at  the  base  and  rather  narrow  at  the 
top,  and  containing  from  250  to  300  pounds  of  hay.  If  the  sides  are  raked  down  so  as  to 
give  the  form  described,  the  caps  will  shed  the  rain  no  matter  how  heavy  or  long-continued 
the  shower.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  the  cloth  a  good  coating  of  boiled  hnseed  oil,  which 
will  aid  in  throwing  off  the  water.  The  caps  are  thrown  over  the  tops  of  the  hay-cocks  and 
fastened  to  the  ground  at  each  comer  by  the  loops,  through  which  wire  or  wooden  pins  are 
inserted  and  forced  into  the  ground.  We  know  a  farmer  who  has  had  caps  of  this  kind  for 
his  hiying  outfit  for  fourteen  years,  and  they  are  still  in  use  and  in  good  condition. 

Storage  of  Hay  is  a  very  important  subject,  and  one  in  which  many  of  our  practical 
farmers  take  too  little  interest.  The  question  arises,  shall  we  put  it  into  large,  tight  mows  or 
on  loose  scaffolds,  where  the  air  is  permitted  to  act  upon  it  ?  If  curing  and  keeping  hay  is 
in  any  respect  analogous  to  the  Chinese  method  of  curing  and  storing  the  tea-plant,  then  the 
quicker  it  can  be  cui-ed,  and  the  tighter  it  can  be  stored,  the  better  the  quality  of  the  hay. 
We  believe  that  the  less  air  there  is  permitted  to  enter  the  haymow,  when  properly  cured, 
the  better  for  the  hay;  in  other  words,  hay  that  is  compactly  stored  in  large  mows,  other 
things  being  equal,  is  far  superior  to  that  having  a  free  exposure  to  air.  Though  air  is  es- 
sential to  curing  hay,  it  is  not  essential  to  its  storage.  Every  one  knows  that  decay  is  a  pro- 
cess of  combustion,  and  combustion  cannot  occur  where  there  is  no  air;  hence,  if  the  air  is 
entirely  excluded,  no  combustion  or  fermentation  can  take  place,  as  is  instanced  in  canned 
fruit,  where  the  cans  are  hermetically  sealed.  Where  imperfectly  cured  hay  is  stored,  it  will 
generally  be  found  that  it  is  only  those  portions  of  the  mow  where  air  can  circulate  that 
heating  and  fermentation  take  place,  and  not  down  in  the  closely-packed  portions  where  the 
air  is  excluded. 

In  feeding  hay  it  is  better  to  cut  down  the  mow  in  sections,  rather  than  feed  from  the  en- 
tire surface,  as  in  this  way  the  exposure  to  air  is  less.  The  practice  of  many  farmers  of 
pitcliing  the  hay  upon  the  barn-floor  at  night  to  remain  there  for  the  next  morning's  feeding 
to  stock  is  not  a  good  one,  as  much  of  the  aroma  of  the  hay  is  lost  by  exposure  to  air  during 
the  long  interval  of  the  night.  It  is  the  practice  in  some  localities  where  the  barn  capacity 
is  insufiicient  for  hay  storage,  to  stack  the  hay  in  the  field.  ITiough  this  may  be  a  necessity 
sometimes,  yet  it  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  as  hay  that  is  housed  is  more  nutritious  and 
valuable  than  that  exposed  to  the  air  and  storms,  as  it  must  of  necessity  be  in  stacks. 

Rather  than  stack  his  hay,  it  would  be  more  economical  for  the  farmer  to  procure  a  hay 
press,  thus  pressing  it  into  bales,  and  by  this  method  provide  room  for  his  hay  in  barns. 
Great  saving  of  labor  and  time  may  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  Hay  Carrier  in  the 
tmloading,  storage,  and  stacking  of  hay.     The  illustration   of  Clark's  Hay  Elevator  and 


THE  THOMAS  SULKY  RAKE. 


THE  GLEANER  HAY  AND  GRAIN  RAKE. 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  ,  245 

Carrier,  manufactured  by  Clark  &  Scott  of  Bridgewater,  New  York,  represents  a  most 
admirable  machine  for  this  purpose.  Any  fork  can  be  used  with  this  carrier,  which  adjusts 
itself  to  any  position,  so  that  it  makes  no  difference  whether 
the  load  stands  under  the  track  or  twenty  feet  away.  It  has 
been  known  to  unload  nineteen  loads  of  hay,  weighing  over  a 
ton  each,  in  three  hours,  each  load  being  pitched  off  at  four 
forkfuls  in  from  two  to  four  minutes.  An  accurate  and 
special  test  of  its  merits  in  point  of  time,  was  the  unloading 
of  2,500  poimds  of  hay  in  a  little  less  than  two  minutes. 

There  are  so  many  valuable  hay-forks  in  common  use  that 
it  is  difficult  to  tell  which  is  best. 

The  following  is  an  illustration  of  the  Nellis  Harpoon 
Horse  Hay-Fork,  from  the  firm  of  Joseph  Breck  &  Son, 
Boston,  Mass.  This  hay-fork  is  simple  and  readUy  adjusted, 
durable  and  easily  handled.  It  can  be  used  for  hay  or  straw> 
whether  damp  or  dry,  coarse  or  fine,  and  is  a  desirable 
adjunct  to  the  haying  machines.  The  figure  at  the  right 
shows  the  fork  with  the  blade  closed  for  penetrating  the 
hay;  that  at  the  left  represents  the  same  with  blade  open 
for  hfting  the  hay.  Grapple  hay-forks  are  also  extensively 
used. 

Stacking  Hay.  —  When  necessary  to  stack  hay  (which 
should   be   avoided  if  possible),  it  shoidd  be  done  with  the 
greatest  care.     The  hay  can  remain  in  the  cocks  until  quite  a 
quantity  is  ready  for  the  purpose.     Before  stacking,  it  should 
be  turned  over  and  that  which  has  lain  on  the  ground  be  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  to  dry  out  the  accumulated  moisture,  and  after 
ward  taken  to  the  place  for  stacking.     For  small  stacks,  poles 
are  used  at  the  center  for  support.    The  pole  should  be  secured 
in  the  ground  and  be  made  to  stand  perpendicular.     The  hay 
is  then  packed  as  compactly  around  it  as  possible. 
When    finished,  the   top  of  the  stack   should  be  well  covered  with  straw,   carefully 
arranged  to  shed  the  rain.     The  Noyes  Field  Pitching  Apparatus,  manufactured  by  the 
Wind  Engine  k  Pump  Company,  Batavia,  Illinois,  is  an  admirable  arrangement  for  stacking 
large  quantities  of  hay  in  a  single  stack,  which  can  be  done  with  great  facility.     Where  this 

apparatus  is  used, 
stacks  are  frequently 
made  so  large  that 
they  do  not  require 
the  pole  in  the  center 
for  support,  the  hay 
being  packed  hard  in 
the  middle  of  the 
stack,  which  together 
with  its  immense 
size,  prevents  its  lean- 

THE    NOYES    GRAPPLE    HAY    FORK,  '^^S-        ^^     ^as     been 

previously        stated, 
baling  hay  is  preferable  to   stacking,  since  it  prevents  waste  and   injury  to  the  hay  from 
exposure  to  the  weather. 
Hi 


246 


THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER 


GRASSES  AKD  FOBAGE  PLANTS. 


247 


The  cut  at  the  left  shows  the  carrier  just  after  the  pulley,  to  which  the  fork  is  attached, 
has  run  up  on  to  the  crooked  arm,  on  which  it  rides.  The  carrier  is  now  detached  from  the 
lug  on  the  track,  and  has  commenced  to  move  ofE.  On  returning,  the  catch  strikes  the  lug, 
the  crooked  arm  is  released,  and  the  fork  returns  to  the  load. 


The  cut  at  the  right  shows  the  carrier  in  position  on  the  track  over  the  load.  It  remains 
stationary  until  the  pulley  to  which  the  fork  is  attached  runs  up  on  the  arm,  when  it  assumes 
the  shape  shown  in  the  adjoining  figure,  and  is  released  ready  to  move  off.  The  continued 
puffing  of  the  horse  moves  it  along  the  track  to  its  destination. 


LEVER   BALING  PRESS. 


Baling  Hay. — ^There  is  great  advantage,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  in  baling  hay. 
Where  the  farmer  has  insufiScient  room  for  storage,  by  baling  his  hay,  and  thus  rendering  it 


248 


THE  AlVIERICAN  FARMER. 


more  compact,  it  may  save  tim  the  necessity  of  building  larger  barns  to  make  room  for  his 
crop,  or  stacking  in  the  field,  which  latter  would  injure  the  quality  of  the  hay  more  or  less, 
however  well  it  might  be  stacked. 

The  quality  of  the  hay  is  also  improved  by  baling,  or  rather  by  this  means  much  of  the 
aroma  and  consequent  nutritive  element  of  the  hay  is  preserved  which  would  otherwise  be  lost 
by  contact  with  the  air.  By  this  process  the  bales  are  in  a  great  measure  rendered  almost 
air-tight,  except,  of  course,  the  external  portions;  besides,  whenever  hay  is  to  be  sent  to  a 
distant  market,  baling  becomes  a  necessity  to  fit  it  for  transportation. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  represent  baling  presses,  manufactured  by  P.  K.  Ded- 
erick  &  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y.  The  first  may  be  used  with  a  one  or  two-horse  power,  requiring 
one  man   to   pitch  "^ 

in  the  hay  and  an- 
other to  tie  the 
bales  and  assist  the 
machine  in  storing 
them.  This  press 
also  makes  two  pos 
itive  strokes,  or 
presses  two  sec- 
tions to  each  round 
of  the  horse,  and  ~^ 
the  power  is  also 
doubled  at  the  time  baling  press  by  steam  power. 

the  work  is  done.  The  second  is  a  press  driven  by  a  portable  agricultural  steam-engine,  such 
as  is  ordinarily  used  for  threshing  grain,  although  the  power  of  such  an  engine  is  sufEcient 
for  two  or  three  presses  of  this  kind. 

Aftermath  or  Roweil,  although  not  as  nutritious  as  hay  made  from  mature  grass, 
and  as  it  does  not  furnish  that  fibrin  which  mature  grass  furnishes,  and  consequeutly  not 
desirable  as  food  for  horses  and  oxen,  upon  whose  muscular  system  the  great  tax  of  labor  is 
laid,  still,  for  calves,  sheep,  and  milch-cows,  there  is  no  forage  crop  that  will  surpass  it.  It 
approaches  the  nearest  of  anything  to  the  green  food  produced  by  our  pastures  in  summer 
for  these  animals,  and  for  winter  use  furnishes  a  very  desirable  substitute. 

By  cutting  the  grass  crop  early,  before  the  plant  has  become  exhausted  in  seed  produc- 
tion, the  aftermath  will  have  a  longer  time  for  growth  before  being  cut,  and  thus  a  better 
crop  secured,  the  great  difficulty  with  rowen  having  formerly  been  that  it  came  so  late  in  the 
season  as  to  render  its  harvesting  difficult,  and  hence  it  was  often  secured  in  an  uncured  con- 
dition. But  with  an  early  hay  harvest,  the  second  crop  can  be  secured  earlier,  and  can  be 
cured  mostly  in  cocks,  which  requires  but  little  extra  labor,  and  the  former  diflSculty 
obviated. 

Cultivating  Grass  Seed. — The  first  sowing  of  grass  seed  in  this  country,  by  our  fore- 
fathers, was  made  from  seeds  of  grasses  collected  from  the  barn-floor,  and  from  under  hay- 
stacks. This  was  sown  with  the  chafE,  they  having  no  available  means  of  separating  such 
small  seeds  from  the  chail.  This  method  was  practiced  for  a  long  time.  Their  next  step 
towards  progress  in  this  branch  of  agriculture,  we  are  told,  was  to  sow  a  small  quantity  of 
seeds  of  those  grasses  they  thought  most  desirable,  upon  the  ground  in  which  they  had  culti- 
vated their  hoed  crops.  We  of  the  present  age  have  improved  upon  their  method,  but  we 
are  far  behind  the  English  in  the  variety  of  grasses  cultivated:  we  should  not  only  sow  a 
greater  variety  than  we  now  do,  but  more  abundantly  also.  To  secure  the  best  results,  the 
land  should  be  well  plowed  and  manured,  the  soil  well  pulverized,  and  pains  taken  to  keep 
the  land  free  from  other  grasses  than  the  variety  desired  for  producing  the  seed.     When  the 


GRASSES  AND  FORAGE  PLANTS.  249 

seed  is  ripe,  it  will  be  known  by  the  changed  appearance  of  the  heads  of  the  grass.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  cut  it  before  it  is  so  ripe  that  it  wUl  easily  shell  out  from  the  heads,  as 
much  will  thus  be  wasted.  It  should  be  cut  when  the  dew  is  on,  to  prevent  the  loss  of  seed. 
After  partially  drying,  it  can  be  arranged  in  the  small  sheaves  which  should  be  placed  where 
they  can  become  perfectly  cured,  as  it  can  remain  unbound  until  wholly  dry,  but  it  will  need 
to  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  the  seed  shelling  out,  as  it  falls  very  easily. 
It  can  be  threshed  with  any  implement  used  for  threshing  grain,  and  cleaned  with  a  seed- 
cleaner,  or  common  fanning-mill  with  a  fine  screen.  If  the  stalks  are  too  green  while  in  the 
stack,  the  hay  will  heat  or  ferment,  and  the  vitahty  of  the  seed  will  be  liable  to  be  thus 
destroyed.  This  injury  to  the  seed  is  not  always  apparent  by  a  change  in  its  color,  conse- 
quently stale  and  worthless  seed  is  often  put  into  the  market  and  sold  for  good.  There  is  no 
certainty  in  this  respect,  except  to  test  a  sample  before  sowing  the  whole,  and  if  these  germi- 
nate well,  there  is  a  probability  that  the  seed  is  good.  The  stalks  producing  the  seed  are 
woody  and  tough,  yet  by  mixing  with  other  food,  and  cutting,  they  may  be  utilized,  but  have 
not  sufficient  nutriment  to  be  fed  alone.  Horses  will  eat  them  in  this  manner  better  than 
other  stock. 

After  sowing  the  seed,  and  exercising  care  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  other  varieties 
not  desij-ed,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  harvest  a  good  crop  of  grass  seed  for  several  seasons, 
by  simply  a  liberal  supply  of  top-dressing.  Many  farmers  are  indifferent  to  extra  pains  in 
raising  this  product,  and  give  it  no  more  attention  than  the  care  necessary  in  harvesting  it, 
but  it  will  well  repay  any  farmer  to  take  special  pams  to  produce  the  best  crop  of  grass  pos- 
sible for  this  purpose,  as  the  crop  produced  from  such  seed  will  be  greatly  superior  to  that 
where  no  such  pains  are  taken  to  secure  the  best  results.  The  more  luxuriant  the  crop,  the 
better  the  seed  produced  from  it,  being  the  general  rule. 

Fall  Grazing  of  Mowing  Lands. — The  practice  of  turning  the  cattle  on  the  mowing 
lands  to  graze  after  the  aftermath  has  been  cut,  and  the  grass  given  a  little  time  for  subse- 
quent growth,  is  very  common,  and  although  the  testimony  of  nine  farmers  out  of  ten  would 
probably  be,  that  this  practice  is  injurious  to  the  grsss  crop  of  the  following  year,  yet  they 
continue  to  do  so,  justif3ring  the  custom  on  the  plea  of  necessity.  This  is  especially  true  in 
New  England,  and  we  believe  it  to  be  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  deterioration  of  the  grass 
crop  there,  the  grass  being  often  grazed  so  closely  as  to  leave  the  roots  exposed  to  the  ex- 
treme cold  of  winter,  which  are  thus  frozen  and  killed;  besides,  where  the  soil  is  moist  the  roots 
are  often  pulled  up  by  the  grazing  and  an  equal  injury  done  in  this  way,  while  the  tramp- 
ing hoofs  of  cattle  upon  the  turf  is  an  evU  nearly  as  great.  The  roots  need  the  protection  of 
the  grass  for  warmth  through  the  winter  in  order  to  secure  an  early  and  vigorous  start  in  the 
spring.  Mowing  lands  are  unquestionably  better  where  never  grazed,  but  when  practiced,  it 
should  be  early  in  the  autumn,  to  provide  for  an  after-growth  for  root  protection  during  the 
winter,  and  to  store  up  the  elements  of  a  thrifty  growth  in  the  following  spring.  Too  close 
feeding  is  injurious  at  any  time  and  should  never  be  permitted,  as  it  will  cause  the  lands  to 
deteriorate  and  the  grass  to  run  out  in  time.  An  experienced  farmer  in  Massachusetts  says: 
"  It  is  now  more  than  twenty  years  since  I  have  allowed  any  kind  of  domestic  animal  to  feed 
upon  our  mown  land,  and  my  opinion  previously  has  been  fully  confirmed  by  my  experience. 
It  is  a  decided  benefit  to  let  the  after-growth  remain  upon  the  land;  it  is  a  protection  from 
summer's  drought  and  winter's  cold.  Some  of  my  neighbor's  are  following  my  example.  ' 
And  another:  "  I  sometimes  feed  off  my  after-grass.  When  I  do  feed  it  off,  I  take  good 
care  to  feed  it  early  and  leave  a  good  growth  to  protect  the  roots  of  the  grass  from  frost  in 
winter.  I  think  it  an  injury  to  feed;  mowings  will  last  longer  not  to  be  fed  at  all,  and  the 
land  when  broken  up  will  produce  a  better  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes  than  if  fed." 

Mowing  lands  should  never  be  pastured  in  the  spring,  as  the  soil  is  so  damp  tlien  that 
the  roots  of  the  grass  are  easily  pulled  up  by  the  cattle,  while  their  tramping  hoofs  are  also 


250  THE  AMERICAN  FARilER. 

very  injurious  to  them  at  that  season.  Sheep  are  less  injurious  in  grazing  movring  lands  than 
cattle,  but  we  believe  the  farmers  generally  would  find  it  more  profitable,  in  the  end,  to  keep 
such  lands  entirely  free  from  all  grazing  stock.  The  grass  crop  is  one  of  great  importance, 
since  it  lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  all  prosperity  and  success  in  agriculture. 

Grass  is  said  to  be  "  king  among  the  crops  of  the  earth,"  and  more  land  devoted  to  its 
cultivation  and  more  money  value  realized  from  it  than  any  other  product,  not  excepting  even 
cotton,  which  has  been  called,  at  the  South,  king.  The  human  race  existed  for  ages  without 
cotton,  but  never  without  gras§.  The  statistics  of  nations  prove  that  grass  is  the  most  essen- 
tial and  remunerative  of  all  crops.  In  view  of  its  great  importance,  anything  that  will  improve 
this  crop  and  prevent  its  deterioration  ought  to  receive  the  thoughtful  attention  and  consider- 
ation of  all  farmers. 

Boiling  Mowing  Lands  and   Pastures. — It  is  a  very  good  practice  to  go  over  the 

mowing  lands  with  a  roller  in  the  spring  after  the  frost  has  left  the  ground,  as  by  this  means 
the  roots  that  have  been  thrown  out  of  the  soil,  by  the  action  of  the  frost,  are  pressed  into 
the  soil  again,  where  they  will  soon  become  firmly  settled,  and  thus  their  drying  up  is 
prevented,  as  they  otherwise  would  be  hable  to  do.  Experienced  farmers  have  found  this 
practice  extremely  valuable  to  their  grass  crop,  and  to  amply  repay  for  the  labor  attending 
it;  some  even  value  the  result  so  highly,  that  they  treat  their  pastures  in  the  same  way, 
whenever  the  siirface  is  sufficiently  even,  and  imobstructed  by  stones  to  admit  of  the  use  of 
the  roller. 


MANURING  MOWING  LANDS. 

IT  is  said  that  New  England  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  robbing  their  grass  lands  to  feed 
their  hoed  crops  and  arable  lands;  which  has  been  in  a  great  measure,  we  think,  true 
until  a  few  years  past,  since  which  time  more  attention  has  been  given  to  fertilizing, 
in  variovis  ways,  lands  designed  for  mowing.  The  improvement  in  this  respect  is  however 
gradual,  and  even  now  there  are  many  farmers  who  adhere  to  the  old-time  system  of  farm- 
ing, and  consider  the  grass  crop  of  secondary  importance,  letting  it  take  care  of  itself,  year 
after  year,  with  little  or  nothing  given  the  land  to  meet  the  constant  drain  made  upon  it  in 
producing  its  annual  crop,  while  the  manure  made  from  it  all  goes  toward  the  improvement 
of  the  other  crops.  Grass  depends  much  upon  the  air  in  its  material  for  growth,  but  also 
much  upon  the  soU,  and  the  elements  it  extracts  from  the  soil  in  its  growth  should  be  re- 
turned to  it,  or  exhaustion  of  soil  will  follow,  and  a  consequent  loss  to  the  grass  crop.  No 
good  farmer  would  think  for  a  moment  of  cultivating  his  corn,  or  other  hoed  crops,  without 
a  liberal  supply  of  manure,  yet  grass  crops  require  the  use  of  fertinzere  just  as  much  as  any 
other,  both  for  mowing  lands  and  pasture,  and  unless  such  fertilizers  are  given  the  soil  pro- 
ducing them  as  will  restore  the  elements  taken,  there  is  no  reason  for  expecting  anything  but 
a  failure  in  grass  crops,  the  same  as  that  of  com  or  any  other  cultivated  crop,  treated  in  the 
same  manner.  The  analysis  of  hay  shows  over  five  per  cent,  of  earthy  matter,  while  dried 
clover  pelds  from  seven  to  nine  per  cent.,  yet  we  will  readily  see  that  where  land  produces  at 
the  rate  of  three  tons  per  acre,  this  element  is  taken  off  to  the  amount  of  300  pounds  per  acre 
per  annum;  what  soil  could  long  endure  such  a  drainage  without  injury?  The  potash,  soda 
and  other  salts  requisite  to  the  growth  of  the  grass  are  thus  taken  from  the  soil.  Grass  land 
must  be  renewed  with  suitable  fertilizers,  or  exhaustion  must  of  necessity  follow;  there  can  be  no 
other  result,  in  the  natural  course  of  things.  Commercial  manures,  such  as  ashes,  lime, 
crushed  bones,  gj'psuni,  and  guano,  are  all  good  for  the  grass  crop,  gypsum  being  especially 


MANURING  MOWING  LANDS.  251 

valuable  to  clover.  To  tlaese  should  be  added  animal  or  vegetable  manures.  Some  farmers 
apply  these  fertilizers  in  the  fall,  some  in  the  early  spring  when  the  grass  just  begins  to  start, 
others  apply  them  just  before  the  first  rains  fall  after  the  grass  has  been  mowed,  that  the  ram 
may  wash  the  soluble  matters  into  the  roots;  in  such  a  case,  the  portions  that  remain  un- 
dissolved  are  soon  covered  by  the  growing  vegetation,  and  are  absorbed  more  gradually. 
The  best  time  for  applying  barn-yard  manure  is  in  the  fall,  since  the  frost  will  crumble  the 
lumps  and  render  them  partially  pulverized  by  the  spring,  while  the  manure  serves  to  protect 
the  roots  through  the  winter,  and  its  warmth  aids  in  securing  an  early  and  vigorous  start 
in  the  spring.  The  snow,  in  dissolving,  aids  in  carrying  the  fertilizing  elements  down  to  the 
roots,  which  is  a  very  great  advantage  that  cannot  be  secured  by  applying  it  m  the  spring, 
while  the  soft  soU  will  also  cause  the  turf  to  be  badly  cut  and  injured  by  the  wheels  of  manure 
spreaders  or  other  implements  for  carting,  if  applied  in  the  spring.  The  following  is  the  opin- 
ion of  Mr.  Alex.  Hyde,  of  Massachusetts,  respecting  the  top-dressing  of  mowing  lands: — ■'  We 
have  found  a  compost  made  of  muck  and  leached  ashes,  in  proportion  of  six  or  eight  bushels 
of  muck  to  one  of  ashes,  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  grass.  The  wood  ashes  furnish  the  in- 
organic food  in  great  variety,  while  the  muck  supplies  the  vegetable  matter,  and  renders  the 
soil  light  and  porous,  ready  to  absorb  the  gases  of  the  air,  and  furnish  them  to  the  grasses  as 
they  may  be  demanded.  In  case  the  meadows  are  naturally  cold  and  wet,  abounding  already 
in  clay  or  peat,  we  should  substitute,  for  the  basis  of  the  compost  heap,  sand  instead  of  muck. 
Sand  alone,  scattered  upon  a  peaty  meadow,  has  a  wonderful  effect  in  warming  the  land  and 
inducing  the  growth  of  sweet,  nutritious  herbage.  Indeed,  we  have  found  that  meadows, 
well  drained,  after  they  have  been  mucked  for  a  series  of  years,  are  greatly  benefited  by  a 
top-dressing  of  sand,  or  better  still  by  a  coating  of  alluvial  soil  which  is  to  be  found  on  the 
river-bank.  This  alluvium  contains  not  only  sand,  but  the  disintegrated  granules  of  the 
various  rocks  and  soils  that  the  river  has  brought  down  from  miles  above.  We  have  used 
this  alluvium  lately  in  the  compost  designed  for  top-dressing,  and  have  been  much  pleased 
with  the  result.  When  it  cannot  be  obtained  easily,  the  wash  of  the  highway,  or  leaf-mold 
from  the  forest,  answers  a  good  purpose.  The  latter  is  particularly  rich  in  all  the  elements  of 
vegetable  nutrition,  and  our  forests  can  well  spare  some  of  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  meadows. 

On  a  clover  lay  plaster  operates  most  favorably.  Spread  broadcast  early  in  the  spring, 
at  tbe  rate  of  one  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre,  it  increases  this  leguminous  crop  greatly. 
This  great  result  from  so  small  a  quantity  cannot  be  attributed  solely  to  the  increase  of  plant- 
food  furnished  by  the  two  main  elements  of  plaster,  sulphur  and  lime,  although,  as  clover 
contains  both  these  elements,  they  doubtless  contribute  directly  to  its  nourishment.  But 
plaster  is  also  a  great  absorbent,  and  its  efficiency  must  in  a  measure  be  attributed  to  its 
power  of  retaining  the  ammonia  of  the  air,  and  furnishing  it  to  the  clover  and  other  plants 
as  they  may  demand.  Plaster  alone  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  keep  our  meadows  in  heart  for 
a  series  of  years.  Those  who  have  seen  its  magical  effects  for  a  year  or  two,  and  have  sup- 
posed that  they  could  sell  their  hay  and  still  keep  up  their  meadows  by  spreading  a  little 
plaster  upon  them,  have  found  themselves  mistaken,  and  have  complained  that  their  fields 
became  plaster-sick.  The  sickness  was  simply  starvation  for  the  want  of  a  greater  variety 
of  food.  Plaster,  from  its  own  elements,  and  by  absorption  from  the  air,  can  furnish  only 
two  of  the  many  inorganic  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  all  our  grasses. 
Clover  is  doubtless  more  benefited  by  its  action  than  the  other  grasses,  as  the  ash  of  clover 
shows  over  thirty  per  cent,  of  lime.  Plaster  is  found  to  act  with  great  efBciency  in  connec- 
tion with  wood-ashes,  as  they  supply  the  inorganic  elements  in  which  plaster  is  deficient. 

Farmers  may  diSer  about  the  action  of  plaster,  but  in  the  efiBciency  of  barn-yard  manure 
they  are  all  agreed,  and  in  the  production  of  this,  hay  is  the  main  reliance.  Why  should 
not  more  of  this  manure  be  appHed  to  the  reproduction  of  hay,  and  thus  the  law  of  action  and 
reaction  be  carried  out?     The  more  hay,  the  more  manure,  and  the  more  manure,  the  more 


252  THE  AMERICAN   FARMER. 

Many  farmers  of  experience  consider  that  liquid  manure  is  the  best  application  for  grass 
lands,  and  recommend  it  where  its  application  is  not  attended  with  too  much  expense  and 
trouble 

Salt  IS  a  valuable  fertilizer  One  farmer  of  large  experience  says  :  "  Salt  is  the  only  top- 
dressing  I  have  ever  xised  on  grass-land  1  have  bought  a  car-load  of  it  in  a  year  ;  but  some 
years  I  do  not  use  more  than  fifty  bushels  ;  this  is  refuse  salt."  The  quantity  used  per  acre 
depends  much  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  from  three  to  sixteen  bushels  being  often  used. 

Before  applying  any  kind  of  fertilizer  it  is  always  well  to  determine,  if  possible,  by  obser- 
vation or  experiment,  what  particular  element  of  plant-food  the  soil  is  deficient  in,  before 
deciding  which  is  the  proper  fertilizer  for  a  given  crop.  The  farmer  must  learn  it  for  himself, 
and  be  governed  accordingly.  Barn-yard  manure  is  supposed  to  contain  all  the  elements  of 
plant-food,  and  hence  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  fertilizers. 

The  use  of  manure  frequently,  in  moderate  quantities,  is  attended  with  better  results  than 
larger  quantities  at  longer  periods.  When  good  results  are  not  attained  with  repeated  appli- 
cations, it  is  often  better  to  plough  up  the  turf,  and  seed  down. 

Lands  that  are  enriched  by  the  overflow  of  water,  such  as  the  lands  along  a  river-bank, 
require  but  little  or  no  extra  fertilizing,  as  the  matter  deposited  in  this  manner  is  sufficient 
for  that  purpose. 


RENOVATING  GRASS  LANDS. 

WE  have  previously  alluded  to  the  great  importance  of  feeding  or  top-dressing  grass- 
lands, both  the  mowing  lands  and  pastures,  that  we  may  restore  the  fertilizing 
elements  abstracted  from  the  soil  in  producing  the  annual  crop  of  hay,  or  by  con- 
stant grazmg,  and  thus  not  only  improve  them  yearly,  but  prevent  them  from  degenerating 
and  becoming  exhausted, — or,  as  farmers  often  express  it,  "run  out"  or  "worn  out."  These 
top-dressings  may  be  ashes,  lime,  guano,  plaster,  crushed  bones,  salt,  or  manure,  etc. ;  but  it 
occasionally  happens  that  all  top-dressing  seems  to  fail  of  the  desired  effect,  especially  in  mow- 
ing lands,  which  may  be  the  result  of  grubs  eating  off  the  roots,  or  its  having  become  turf -bound. 
In  such  cases,  it  is  usually  best  to  plow  up  the  turf  and  re-seed  with  grass,  after  well  pulver- 
izing the  son,  and  giving  it  an  abundant  supply  of  manure.  Many  farmers  resort  to  a  rotation 
of  crops  with  good  results. 

Drainage  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  wet  lands,  and  where  this  has  been  neglected, 
should  be  attended  to  at  once.  Many  almost  valueless  lands,  as  far  as  grass  production  is 
concerned,  will,  with  proper  drainage,  become  the  most  valuable  and  productive.  Clover  is  a 
wonderful  recuperator  of  the  soU,  and  when  lands  have  become  exhausted,  will  often  restore 
the  elements  of  fertiUty  to  the  extent  of  entirely  transforming  it  into  the  richest  and  most  pro. 
ductive  of  land.  "We  take  the  following  extract  from  Dr.  Harlan's  work  on  "  Farming  with 
Green  Manures,"  which  may  prove  a  benefit  to  many  farmers  who  wish  to  renovate  theii 
grass-lands  without  plowing  ■ 

"It  is  a  very  common  practice  among  agricultural  writers  to  advise  all  persons  having 
large  farms  which  are  in  a  very  poor  condition  to  sell  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  their  land,  and 
apply  all  the  money  they  receive  in  manuring,  and  improving  the  balance  of  their  property. 

In  some  cases  this  may  be  the  most  prudent  course  to  foUow,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  I  an? 
opposed  to  this  advice  for  two  very  good  reasons  : 

First,  you  can  get  but  very  little  per  acre  for  your  poor  fields ;  and,  secondly,  if  jov. 
improve  your  property  with  judgment,  you  can  enhance  its  value  so  rapidly,  that  in  seven  oi 
eight  years  it  will  be  worth  double  or  treble  its  former  valuation. 


RENOVATING  GRASS  LANDS.  253 

To  begin  your  improvement,  take  the  old  field,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  house,  and 
which  is  now  covered  with  thin  yellow  grass,  and  a  mellow  soil  about  one  or  two  inches  deep, 
produced  by  many  years  of  exposure  to  the  weather. 

It  has  never  been  plowed  since  you  knew  it.  And,  I  beg  you,  do  not  plow  it  now  at  the 
beginning  of  your  efforts  to  make  it  better.'  Let  me  show  you  what  a  coating  of  fine  mellow 
earth  is  worth  upon  the  surface. 

In  Egypt  the  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  deposits  on  the  land  a  thin  stratum  of  very 
fine  soil,  which  amounts  to  only  four  or  five  inches  in  a  century.  This  yearly  settling,  which 
is  only  the  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  of  almost  impalpable  dust,  keeps  the  farms  for- 
ever rich  and  productive.  The  Egyptians  do  not  plow  this  precious  coat  under,  but  sow  the 
seed  on  the  moist  ground  as  the  waters  subside,  and  then,  if  possible,  they  drive  sheep  and 
hogs  or  goats  over  it,  to  press  the  seed  into  the  soil. 

We  should  all  learn  a  useful  lesson  from  their  example  and  experience.  We  should  not 
plow  down  the  only  part  which  the  air  has  enriched,  by  mingling  and  uniting  with  it  for  so 
many  years,  but  early  in  the  spring  we  should  harrow  as  many  acres  of  the  old  field  as  we  can 
sow  with  clover  seed,  at  one  peck  to  the  acre.  After  the  seed  is  sown,  we  should  roU  the 
ground  and  sow  one  or  two  bushels  of  plaster  per  acre. 

The  principal  roots  of  all  plants  must  be  near  the  surface,  that  they  may  feel  the  life-giv- 
ing influence  of  air  and  moisture,  or  the  soil  must  be  loosened  By  nature  or  by  tillage,  that 
the  atmosphere  may  penetrate  even  to  the  deepest  fibers  of  vegetation.  Hence  the  reason  that 
plant-food  acts  so  well  upon  the  surface,  and  that  all  seeds  germinate  more  quickly,  more  nat- 
urally, when  covered  by  only  one  or  two  inches  of  soil.  But  these  great  truths  must  not  be 
misunderstood.  Though  the  soil  must  be  loose,  the  finer  the  seed,  the  greater  the  necessity 
when  planting  or  sowing  of  pressing,  with  the  hand  or  foot  or  roller,  the  earth  into  close  con- 
tact with  the  grain. 

I  remember  a  little  incident  which  will  illustrate  this  subject  and  fix  it  in  the  mind.  An 
old-sea  captain  who  lived  in  our  neighborhood  tried  every  year  to  raise  for  himself  a  little 
tobacco.  He  prepared  a  little  patch  of  ground  with  the  greatest  care.  The  surface  was  as 
fine  and  rich  and  mellow  as  he  could  make  it.  Then  he  sowed  the  seed  and  raked  it  over 
once  more  very  gently. 

Yet,  much  to  his  surprise  and  vexation,  only  a  few  stalks  grew  each  year.  But,  one 
spring,  after  the  little  bed  had  been  sown  with  all  the  usual  care,  some  fellow,  to  worry  the 
old  captain,  went  secretly  on  it  and  tramped  and  tramped,  and  danced  and  tramped  it,  till  it 
was,  to  all  appearance,  as  hard  and  solid  as  the  most  frequented  public  road.  The  poor  old 
man  gave  him  a  seaman's  blessing,  whoever  he  might  be,  and  left  it  to  its  fate.  But  on  his 
next  visit  to  it  he  was  astounded  to  see  the  whole  bed  covered  with  vigorous  plants  of  tobacco. 
It  seemed  that  every  seed  had  grown.  He  had  a  grand  crop.  After  that  he  could  always 
raise  tobacco.    He  tramped  the  ground  himself  after  the  seed  was  sown. 

Well,  to  return  to  our  old  field.  If  the  clover  should  grow  five  or  six  inches  high  by  the 
middle  of  August,  give  it  a  half  or  a  whole  bushel  more  of  plaster  per  acre.  The  second  year 
you  must  treat  it  in  the  same  way,  and  if  the  clover  is  thin  on  the  ground,  sow  more  seed, 
and  again  roll  it  well.  Do  all  this  the  third  and  fourth  year,  if  necessary.  After  this,  it  will 
re-seed  itself,  provided  you  continue  the  plaster  each  year. 

Here  is  a  practical  illustration  of  this  plan,  which  I  know  to  be  a  fact. 

A  person  bought  a  very  poor  farm  near  the  southern  boundary  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
tried  to  raise  grain  upon  it  in  the  usual  way.  But  nothing  grew  large  or  strong  enough  to 
produce  seed.  Fortunately,  he  did  not  sacrifice  the  property  by  selling  it  at  a  very  low  figure, 
as  many  would  have  done.  He  sowed  every  acre  of  it  with  clover  seed,  and  plastered  it  every 
year.     For  a  living  he  followed  the  profession  of  an  auctioneer. 

About  seven  or  eight,  or  more  years,  the  clover  grew  upon  his  farm,  imdisturbed  by 


254  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

plow  or  hoof  of  any  kind.  Then  he  concluded  to  try  his  hand  again  at  farming.  Many  of  his 
neighbors  gathered  to  see  the  first  plowing  after  so  long  a  rest  from  tillage. 

An  old  farmer  who  was  present  assured  me  that  the  soil  turned  over  eight  or  nine  inches 
deep,  as  black  as  your  hat,  and  as  mellow  as  an  ash-heap. 

More  than  fifty  years  have  now  passed  since  that  occurrence,  and  the  farm  has  the  repu- 
tation of  being  rich  and  productive  to  the  present  day." 

Many  pasture-lands,  especially  in  New  England,  have  been  so  constantly  grazed  for  years 
without  renovating, — the  general  theory  having  been,  that  pasture-lands  were  manured  suffi- 
ciently by  the  animals  feeding  upon  them,  —  that  they  have  become  worn  out,  the  finer  and 
nutritive  grasses  having  gradually  disappeared  and  the  thin  soil  on  which  they  subsisted  cov- 
ered with  moss  or  worthless  weeds,  while  many  are  overgrown  with  briars  and  bushes. 
Where  a  pasture  is  bound  out  and  mossy,  and  the  grass-roots  unhealthy,  it  is  a  good  practice 
to  run  a  harrow  over  the  surface,  first  in  one  direction  and  again  in  another,  cutting  it  up  into 
little  squares.  This  process  will  loosen  the  soil,  after  which  sow  a  mixture  of  grass-seed 
suited  to  pastures,  with  a  little  white  or  alsike  clover,  and  then  give  it  a  light  top-dressing  of 
plaster  or  some  other  kind  of  fertilizer.  Sheep  are  great  renovators  of  the  soil,  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  sheep  husbandry  is  not  more  generally  practiced  in  some  portions  of  the 
country,  especially  in  New  England. 

The  editor  of  this  work  had  an  old  pasture  several  years  ago,  which  had  been  worn  out 
by  being  fed  by  dairy  cows,  year  after  year  for  time  out  of  mind.  Bushes  and  briers  had 
come  in ;  huckleberry  bushes,  alders,  mosses,  and  every  sort  of  botanical  specimen  abounded, 
abundant  enough  to  delight  the  heart  of  a  botanist.  It  was  the  worst  pasture,  in  that  respect, 
that  could  be  found.  It  was  so  rough  and  rocky  that  it  could  not  be  plowed,  and  the  ques- 
tion was,  what  should  be  done  with  it?  It  contained  about  thirteen  acres.  Tlie  bushes  were 
cut  down,  and  then  more  than  a  hundred  sheep  were  put  in,  which  was  a  larger  number,  of 
course,  than  the  pasture  could  possibly  carry.  But  they  were  not  expected  to  live  entirely 
on  what  the  pasture  furnished,  and  could  not,  if  it  had  been  expected  of  them.  Cotton-seed 
meal  was  bought,  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  or  forty  dollars  per  ton,  and  the  sheep  had  their 
rations  of  this,  —  about  a  pint  for  each  sheep  at  each  feeding,  —  every  morning  and  night, 
which  they  greatly  relished,  and  which  seemed  to  agi'ee  with  them  remarkably.  In  fact,  they 
liked  it  so  well  that  the  moment  the  dispenser  of  their  rations  was  seen  by  them  in  the 
pasture,  they  would  come  bounding  to  him  from  all  directions,  no  matter  how  far  away,  call- 
ing in  sheep  language  for  their  breakfast  or  supper,  as  the  case  might  be. 

The  result  was  that  they  cleaned  out  absolutely  every  brier,  and  every  sumac-bush  in  that 
pasture,  besides  many  other  shrubs,  but  not  the  huckleberry  bushes.  They  could  not  be 
induced  to  eat  these.  ITiey  covered  the  pasture  with  manure.  It  was  a  delight  to  see  the  dress- 
ing they  gave  it.  They  went  through  the  following  winter  in  good  condition,  and  the  next 
spring  twenty  or  thirty  less  sheep  were  put  in  the  same  pasture,  and  they  went  through  the 
second  year  doing  exceedingly  well.  The  original  plan  was  to  run  them  three  years  in 
tliis  pasture,  which,  if  it  had  been  carried  out,  would,  without  doubt,  have  entirely  changed 
its  character  by  that  time,  judging  by  the  very  great  improvement  made  during  the  two 
years. 

Mr.  C.  E.  Hewes,  of  the  State  of  New  York,  gives  his  experience  in  renovating 
his  pasture  lands,  as  follows:  — 

■'  My  first  experience  with  salt  on  grass  was  accidental,  but  it  worked  so  well,  I  made  it 
a  practice.  It  so  happened  that  after  sowing  on  my  plowed  ground  all  I  desired,  I  had 
several  barrels  of  salt  left,  and  quite  a  quantity  of  unleached  ashes,  and  as  my  pasture,  which 
had  never  been  plowed,  and  which  I  was  quite  averse  to  disturbing  for  many  reasons,  was 
badly  "  run  out,"  producing  little  grass,  but  many  weeds,  and  covered  with  njoss,  I  deter- 
mined to  mix  the  salt  and  ashes,  and  spread  them  plentifully  as  far  as  they  would  go.     Com- 


RENOVATING  GRASS  LANDS.  255 

mencing  on  the  farther  side,  I  spread  it  over  about  half  the  lot.  The  result  surprised  me. 
The  entire  field  was  fully  in  view  from  my  house,  being  on  a  gentle  slope  pitching  towards 
the  house.  The  great  difference  between  the  dark  green  color  of  the  grass,  abundant  upon 
the  ashed  and  salted  part,  and  the  color  of  the  weeds  and  scanty  supply  of  sickly  grass  upon 
the  other,  was  as  marked  as  between  pink  and  scarlet,  and  when  the  vegetation  upon  the 
undressed  part  was  burned  up  by  the  summer  drouth,  that  upon  the  other  retained  its  color, 
and  grew  luxuriantly  until  the  hard  frosts  came.  Upon  close  inspection,  I  found  few  traces 
of  moss,  all  of  which  at  last  disappeared.  I  was  so  well  pleased  with  the  result,  that  tlie  next 
spring  I  gave  the  other  part  the  same  kind  of  dressing,  and  so  continued  to  dress  (as  far  as  I 
had  ashes  to  do  it  with)  every  year,  until  the  pasture  was  completely  rejuvenated  —  "as  good 
as  new." 

Due  credit  must,  of  course,  be  given  to  the  ashes  —  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  for  that 
kind  of  soil  (yellow  loam)  —  but  to  the  salt  belongs  the  chief  credit  of  resisting  the  drouth, 
exterminating  the  soil  vermin,  and  "  making  latent  fertility  available." 

Another  farmer  who  has  had  experience  and  observation  in  England,  says:  —  "Some 
farmers  say,  '  plough  the  field,'  but  in  England,  where  old  pastures  are  seldom  broken  up, 
I  have  known  extraordinary  results  from  top-dressing  with  crushed  bones,  more  particularly 
on  the  large  dairy  farms  in  Cheshire.  I  am  sorry  I  cannot  give  you  the  quantities.  A 
neighbor  of  mine  has  harrowed  an  old,  worn-out  pasture,  dressed  with  a  liberal  coating  of 
barilla  ashes,  from  six  to  seven  cords  per  acre,  and  sowed  white  clover  and  rolled  it.  It 
came  out  a  beautiful  pasture.  The  brush  harrow  and  roller  applied  to  all  grass  land  in  the 
spring,  will  amply  repay  for  the  labor." 

It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  the  permanent  clay-soil  pastures  of  Cheshire,  in  England, 
have  been  impoverished  to  the  extent  that  it  became  necessary  to  renovate  them  with  crushed 
*  bones.  The  application  of  this  fertilizer  in  a  very  short  time  so  improved  the  lands,  that  it 
brought  up  their  value,  in  many  cases,  more  than  a  hundred  per  cent.  Milk  contains  con- 
siderable phosphate  of  lime,  and  bones,  which  are  mostly  of  the  same  material,  impart  this 
element  to  the  soil  and  consequently  to  the  grass  it  produces.  Ashes  and  salt  are  also  of 
great  value  in  improving  pasture  land,  the  results  of  which  have  been  stated,  the  latter  being 
especially  adapted  to  soils  in  localities  that  are  not  supplied,  from  a  nearness  to  the  sea. 
Liquid  manure  is  highly  valuable  to  grass  lands,  but  should  be  applied  just  after  a  rain,  or 
just  before  the  rain  commences,  that  it  may  penetrate  to  the  roots  and  not  be  lost  by  evapora- 
tion. It  is  better  to  apply  a  moderate  quantity  of  fertihzer  of  any  kind  frequently,  than  a 
large  quantity  at  long  intervals.  When  applied  at  the  time  of  being  grazed  by  cattle,  care 
should  be  taken  to  use  only  those  that  will  not  have  an  injurious  effect  if  eaten.  Very  fine 
cattle  have  sometimes  been  poisoned  in  this  manner.  On  lands  that  are  not  easily  washed,  this 
might  be  avoided  by  applying  fertihzers  late  in  the  fall,  or  early  in  the  spring,  before  the 
pastures  are  ready  for  grazing;  or  just  before  a  heavy  rain,  would  also  answer  the  purpose  as 
well.  The  rain  would  soon  dissolve  and  carry  the  fertilizers  down  to  the  roots  of  the  plants 
and  into  the  soil. 

The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  some  of  the  results  obtained  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Lawes, 
at  his  noted  Experiment  Station,  in  Rothamstead,  England,  and  extending  over  a  period  of 
twenty  years,  showing  the  produce  per  acre  of  hay  on  an  average  of  the  first  ten  years,  of  the 
second  ten  years,  and  the  total  period  of  twenty  years. 


256 


THE  ASIERICAN  FARMER. 


Experiments  with  Different  Manures  on  Permanent  Meadow  Land. 

The  land  has  probably  been  laid  down  with  grass  for  some  centuries.  No  fresh  seed  has  been  arti- 
ficially sown  witliin  the  last  fortj'  years  certainly;  nor  is  thtre  record  of  any  having  beeen  sown  since 
the  grass  was  first  laid  down.  The  experiments  commenced  in  1856,  at  which  time  the  character  of  the 
herbage  appeared  uniform  over  all  the  plots.  E.xcepting  as  explained  in  the  table  and  in  the  foot-notes, 
the  same  description  of  manure  has  been  applied,  year  after  year,  to  the  same  plot.  (Area  under  experi- 
ment, about  seven  acres.) 


Manure,  per  Acre,  per  Annam. 


Produce  of  Hay  per  Acre,  20  Years,  1856-18TC. 


First 

Period. 

Lbs. 


IlK^B-ft?,  8  years,  14  tons  Farmyard  Slanare,  and  200  lbs.  Am- ) 
monia-salts* [ 
1S64  and  fince.  200  lbs.  Ammonia-salts  alone ] 

j  1S58-63,  8  years,  14  tons  Farmyard  Manure  I 

1 18frl  and  s'ince,  unmanured f 

Cnmanured.  continuously 

cwts.  Superphosphate  of  Lime  + 

,  -, .  ewts.  Superphosphate  of  Lime,  and  400  lbs.  Ammonia-salts. . . .  - 

4'00'lbs.  Ammonia-salts 

1S56-68, 13  years,  400  lbs.  Ammonia-salts 

ISffl  and  since,  300  lbs  Sulph.  Potass,  100  lbs.  Sulph.  Soda,  100  lbs. 

Sulphate  Magnesia,  and  3)^  cwts.  Suphcrphosphate 

300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,100  lbs.  §  Sulphate  Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate 

Magnesia,  and  3M  cwts.  Superphosphate 

f  1856-61,  6  years,  .300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,  SCO  lbs.  Sulphate  1 
1     Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate  Magnesia,   and  3)^  cwts.  Superphos-  | 

4     phate V 

1 1862  and  since.  250  lbs. !  Sulphate  Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate  Magne- 1 

[     fia,  and  S^cwt.  Superphosphate j 

300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,  100  lbs.  §  Sulphate  Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate 
Masnesia,  3>4  cwt  Superphosphate,  and  400  lbs.  Ammonin-salis.. . 
fl8S6-61.  6  vcars.  300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,  200  lbs  Sulphate,  l 
I     100  lbs.  Sulphate  Magnesia,  3',4  cwt.  Superphosphate,  400  lbs.  I 

I     Ammonia-salts }- 

1862  and  since,  250  lbs.  1  Snlphate  Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate  Magne- 1 

[    sia,  314  cwts.  Superphosphate,  400  lbs.  Ammonia-.salts J 

f  300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,  100  lbs.  |    Sulphate  Soda,  100  lbs.  Snl 
I     phate    Magnesia,  3^6   cwts.    Superphosphate,  800  lbs.  *•  Am- 
monia-salts  

300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass.  100  lbs.  S  Snlphate  Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate 
Magnesia,  3J4  cwts.  Superphosphate,  800  lbs.  **  Ammonia-salts, 

and  400  lbs.  Silicate  Soda  1 1 

tfnmanured  continuously 

300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,  100  lbs.  |  Snlphate  Soda.  100  lbs.  Sulphate 
Magnesia.  3^  cwts.  Superphosphate,  400  lbs.  Ammonia-salts,  2,000 

lbs.  cut  Wheat-straw 

530  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda  tt,  300  lbs.  Snlphate  Potass.,  100  lbs.  §  Sul 
phate  of  Soda,  100  lbs.  Siilphate  Magnesia,  and  3X  cwts.  Snperphos 

phate 

550  lbs.  Nitrate  ol  Soda 

275  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda.  300  lbs.  Sulphate  Potass,  100  lb«.  |  Sulphate 
Soda,  100  lbs.  Sulphate  Magnesia,  and  3X  cwts  Superphosphate... 

275  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda 

Mixture  supplying  the  quantity  of  Potass,  Soda,  Lime.  Magnesia 
Phosphonc  Acid,  Silica  and  Nitrogen  contained  in  1  ton  of  Hay 

(commencing  1865) 

275  lbs-  Nitrate  of  Soda.  290  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Potass,  and  3>i  cwts.  Sn 

perphosphate  (commencing  1872) 

327  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Potass  andSX  cwts.  Superphosphate  (commencing 
1S72) 


3,425 
3,797 
4,027 

6,002 
6,222 

6,913 

7,077 
2,808 

6,185 

6,944 


Second 

Period. 

Lbs. 


2236 
2,3S4 
3.4)4 
2.471 

3,602 
4,118 


5.421 
4,725 


Total 

Periods. 

Lbs. 


4.131 
2.383 
2,527 
3.837 
2.W6 


3,958 
3,377 

5.711 
5,647 


3,604 
4,318 


Dnration  of 
Periods. 
Years. 


10       10       20 


10  10  20 

6  14  20 

10  10  20 

6  14  20 


10       10       20 


•  "  .\nimonia  salts"  in  all  cases  equal  parts  Sulphate  and  Muriate  of  Ammonia  of  Commerce. tThe  "Superphospliate 

of  Lime  "  is,  in  all  cases,  made  from  200  lbs.  Bone-ash  150  lbs.  Sulphuric  Acid  Sp.  gr.  1.7  (and  water) J  Plots  6,  8  and  10  had 

besides  the  Manures  specified,  2,00>i  lbs.  Sawdust  per  acre  per  annum  for  the  first  seven  years,  1856-1862,  bnt  without  etfect. — 

5  '-.'OO  lbs.  1856-1863  inclusive. [500  lbs.  in  1862  and  1663. ♦•  Only  400  lbs.  in  1859-60-^1. n  The  application  of  Silicates 

did  not  commence  until  1862. it  550  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  reckoned  to  contain  the  same  amount  of  Nitrogen  as  400  lbs.  of 

"Ammonia-salts." 

With  regard  to  these  experiments,  Mr.  Lawes  says:  — 

"It  will  be  observed  that  of  the  two  unmanured  acres,  No.  3  and  No.  12,  one  always 
gives  rather  more  produce  than  the  other,  the  average  produce  of  one  over  the  whole  period 
of  twenty  years  being  2,383  pounds,  and  of  the  other  2,686  pounds;  for  reasons  which 
we  have  fuUy  gone  into  in  the  original  paper,  we  have  considered  it  advisable  to  adopt  the 
produce  of  Plot  3  instead  of  the  mean  of  3  and  12  as  our  standard  of  unmanured  produce; 


RENOVATING  GRASS  LANDS.  257 

but  both  show  a  decline  in  the  second  ten  years  as  compared  with  the  first.  Experiment  2 
received  14  tons  of  ordinary  yard  manure  annually  for  the  first  eight  years  of  the  period,  in 
all  112  tons  per  acre;  but  since  the  first  eight  years  it  has  received  no  manure.  During  the 
eight  years  of  the  appHcation  of  the  dung,  the  increase  of  hay  obtained  on  Plot  2  over  the 
unmanured  land  was  2,139  pounds  of  hay  per  acre,  and  for  the  next  six  years  after  the 
application  of  the  dung  had  ceased,  the  increase  was  much  the  same,  being  2,147  pounds  per 
acre;  since  then  the  produce  has  gradually  declined,  but  even  at  the  present  time — seventeen 
years  after  the  last  appKcation  of  dung — the  produce  is  still  several  hundred  pounds  more  than 
that  of  the  unmanured  land;  and  compared  with  the  constituents  contained  in  the  dung, 
there  is  still  a  very  large  amount  to  be  accounted  for  which  has  not  been  taken  off  by  the 
increased  produce. 

In  the  two  experiments  5  and  15  we  have  equal  quantities  of  nitrogen  supplied  to  the 
grass  every  year;  in  one,  the  nitrogen  is  in  the  form  of  ammonia  combined  with  sulphuric 
and  hydrochloric  acid;  in  the  other,  it  is  in  the  form  of  nitric  acid  combined  with  soda. 
The  ammonia  experiment  commenced  two  years  earlier  than  the  other,  but  in  1 858 — when 
the  first  application  of  the  nitrate  took  place — the  hay  produced  in  the  two  experiments  was 
nearly  equal;  since  then  the  produce  under  the  ammonia  salts  has  rapidly  decKned,  until  it 
is  now  very  little  above  that  of  the  unmanured  produce,  while  upon  the  experiment  receiving 
the  nitrate,  the  produce  of  the  last  ten  years,  as  compared  with  the  first  eight  years,  has  been 
the  same. 

This  great  superiority  of  the  hay-producing  properties  of  the  nitrate  over  the  ammonia 
— equal  to  about  1,000  pounds  of  hay  per  acre  annually  over  the  whole  period — is  due  partly 
to  the  superior  power  of  the  nitrate  to  liberate  and  render  available  the  stores  of  the  soil,  and 
partly  to  the  supply  of  soda  which  it  yields  to  the  plant. 

The  property  possessed  by  growing  vegetation  of  using  soda  where  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  potash  in  the  soil,  is  very  clearly  established  in  several  of  these  experiments. 

The  superiority  of  nitrate  over  ammonia  is  equally  apparent  when  all  the  necessary 
minerals  are  employed  in  conjunction  with  these  two  substances,  as  is  the  case  in  Experi- 
ments 9  and  14.  During  the  first  period,  which  includes  ten  years  with  ammonia  and  only 
eight  years  with  nitrate,  the  average  produce  is  almost  exactly  even  in  the  two  experiments, 
being  6,000  pounds  of  hay  per  acre  annually.  In  the  same  period  of  ten  years,  the  produce 
of  the  ammonia  plot  had  fallen  from  6,000  pounds  to  5,421  pounds;  while  the  nitrate 
had  risen  to  6,777  pounds,  thus  again  showing  the  superiority  of  the  nitrate  over  the 
ammonia. 

In  Experiments  11  and  12,  where  much  larger  quantities  of  ammonia  are  used  with  the 
minerals,  we  have  the  largest  growth  of  hay  produced  on  any  of  the  plots — the  average  in 
one  case  is  close  upon  7,000  pounds  of  hay  per  acre;  and  even  this  does  not  show  the  fuU 
efl!ect  of  the  manure,  for  since  1874  we  have  been  taking  two  crops  of  hay  annually,  and 
the  produce  has  amounted  on  the  average  to  10,000  pounds;  and  in  1877  it  reached  the 
amount  of  12,344  pounds  of  hay  per  acre.  Of  this  great  weight  of  produce  the  soil  has 
contributed  about  8  or  9  per  cent.,  and  the  remainder  comes  from  the  atmosphere. 

In  Plot  7  we  have  an  experiment  in  which,  from  the  commencement,  no  manure  con- 
taining nitrogen  has  been  placed  upon  the  land;  a  very  liberal  supply  of  potash,  soda,  mag- 
nesia and  phosphate  of  lime  has  been  applied  every  year,  and  the  average  produce  of  the 
twenty  years  has  been  close  upon  4,000  lbs.  of  hay  per  acre.  It  may  be  noticed  also  that  the 
produce  of  the  last  ten  years  is  rather  the  highest.  Compared  with  the  unmanured  land,  the 
produce  upon  Plot  7  is  a  little  over  1,500  lbs.,  but  it  is  nearly  1,800  lbs.  below  the  increase 
given  by  the  minerals  combined  with  ammonia,  and  2,448  lbs.  below  the  minerals  combined 
with  the  nitrate,  annually. 

In  experiment  18,  which  has  only  been  carried  on  eleven  years,  up  to  1875,   we  supply 


258  THE   AMERICAN  FARMER. 

the  exact  quantity  of  minerals  and  nitrogen,  which  we  estimate  to  be  taken  out  of  the  soil 
by  one  ton  of  hay.  It  is  not  easy  to  find  any  basis  for  comparison  in  this  case,  as  the  fertility 
of  the  unmanured  land  had  already  been  reduced  by  the  removal  of  nine  crops.  If,  however, 
we  take  the  produce  of  the  last  ten  years  of  the  unmanured  land  for  comparison,  we  find  that 
we  have  only  obtained  1,453  lbs.  by  materials  which  were  competent  to  furnish  2,240  lbs.  of 
hay;  this  is  about  two-thirds  of  what  we  should  have  obtained  if  all  the  manure  had  been  taken 
up.  The  nitrogen  contained  in  the  increased  produce  amounts  to  15  lbs.,  which  is  nearly  one-half 
of  that  supplied  in  the  manure.  It  may  be  mentioned  also  that  there  was  a  considerable  de- 
cline in  produce  in  the  last  ten  years  of  the  unmanured  land,  which  we  took  for  the  basis  of 
comparison. 

I  have  now  pointed  out  some  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  experiments,  and  will  con" 
elude  this  part  of  the  subject  with  a  few  remarks  on  the  practical  knowledge  which  may  be 
derived  from  them. 

In  the  remarks  which  I  have  made  up  to  this  point,  I  have  purposely  abstained  from 
saying  anything  about  the  difference  of  the  quality  of  the  herbage  produced  by  the  different 
manures;  as  this  point  will  be  more  appropriately  treated  when  I  have  done  with  hay  as  an 
article  of  sale. 

Whatever  may  be  the  case  in  New  York,  in  Great  Britain  the  value  of  hay  depends 
upon  its  being  of  good  color,  and  got  in  without  injury  from  rain,  than  from  any  difference 
in  its  feeding  qualities,  flay  is  sold  in  the  London  market  by  the  load  of  eighteen  trusses, 
weighing  56  pounds  each;  this  is  as  nearly  as  possible  the  United  States  ton  of  2,000 
pounds.  The  price  of  a  load  of  meadow  hay  is  from  $20  to  $25,  which  does  not  differ  much 
from  the  New  York  quotation  of  from  $1  to  $1.25  per  100  pounds. 

The  price  of  the  most  important  ingredients  in  manures  would  not,  I  conclude,  differ 
very  much  in  the  two  localities.  With  regard  to  the  effect  produced  by  manures  here  and 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  possibly  we  may  lose  more  of  the  soluble  portion  of  our  manures 
by  drainage,  while  in  New  York,  want  of  sufficient  rain,  combined  with  a  higher  tempera- 
ture, may  prevent  the  crop  from  making  use  of  all  the  elements  of  plant-food  which  are 
readily  available. 

Let  us  now  endeavor  to  estimate  the  cost  of  the  hay  grown  by  the  manure  applied.  In 
Plot  18  the  exact  ingredients  contained  in  one  ton  of  hay  are  applied  as  a  manure.  And  as 
these  ingredients  are  not  specified  in  the  table  of  manures,  I  will  give  them  here: 

(  38  lbs.  Potash. 

Chloride  of  Potash, 76  lbs.  ]    7  lbs.  Soda. 

(  3B.7  lbs.  Chlorine. 

Sulphate  Magnesia,        ^^  ^-  \  ^'Z.^^^c  acii. 

Bo- Ash •    .  261bs.  ji';J';^I^-p,„,i,,,,,. 

Sulphuric  Acid, 26  lbs. 

Silicate  Soda,        50  lbs.    (     qi  ii,„   o;i;^„ 

Silicate  Lime, 50  lbs.   ]     ^^  ^^^-  ^'''«''- 

Salts  of  Ammonia 164  lbs. -I  „„„%• -"^Arf"™'       a  a  ,  ■,      ■     aa 

(  90.6  lbs.  Chlorme  and  Sulphuric  Acid. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  estimate  the  cost  of  this  manures,  but  I  do  not  think  it  could 
be  bought  and  sown  upon  the  land  for  much  less  than  $1G;  with  a  produce  of  1,453  pounds 
of  hay  there  would  be  little  or  no  profit. 

Plot  7. — The  manures  used  in  this  experiment  could  be  probably  bought  and  spread  upon 
the  land  at  a  cost  of  from  $12  to  $13;  the  increased  produce  amounts  to  1,500  pounds  of 
hay ;  there  would,  therefore,  be  a  small  profit  upon  this  transaction.  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  success  of  a  purely  mineral  manure  depends  upon  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
liberated  from  the  store  in  the  soil;  and  in  the  course  of  time  this  store  will  be  reduced  by 
the  process  of  exhaustion  to  the  same  level  as  that  which  we  now  have  in  our  arable  land. 


REXOVATING  GRASS  LANDS.  259 

Plot  U  received  the  same  minerals  as  Plot  7,  but  with  the  addition  of  5.')0  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  which,  when  placed  upon  the  land,  would  probably  cost  about  S20;  this, 
added  to  the  cost  of  the  manure  of  Plot  7,  would  amount  to  $32  or  $33  per  acre.  The  in- 
crease of  hay  obtained  by  these  manures  was  4,000  pounds.  It  must,  however,  be  observed 
that  I  have  made  no  charge  for  the  cost  of  labor  attending  the  cutting  and  converting  this 
increased  produce  into  hay;  I  might  also  add  that  I  have  taken,  as  the  basis  for  comparison, 
the  lowest  in  produce  of  the  two  unmanured  acres. 

During  the  whole  period  of  twenty  years  the  112  English  or  125i  United  States  tons  of 
dung  had  produced  35,000  pounds  of  increased  produce  of  hay,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  pro- 
duce of  about  280  pounds  of  hay  to  each  ton  of  dung  of  2,000  lbs. ;  but  the  crops  of  the  last 
six  years  prove  that  the  efScacy  of  the  dung  is  by  no  means  yet  exhausted.  It  is  not  in  my 
power  to  place  a  value  upon  dung,  as  the  cost  turns  entirely  upon  the  carriage.  I  live  25 
miles  from  London,  and  my  farm  is  one  mile  from  a  station.  The  cost  of  dung  by  rail  is  60 
cents  per  English  ton;  deUvery  on  my  land  costs  an  additional  42  cents — making  altogether 
$1.02. 

The  result  of  these  experiments  makes  it  somewhat  doubtful  whether  hay  can  be  grown 
profitably  by  means  of  artificial  manures  applied  to  permanent  pasture.  With  us  hay  is  gen- 
erally grown  near  large  towns,  and  the  same  conveyance  which  takes  it  to  market  brings 
back  the  manure  at  httle  or  no  cost. 

Compared  with  its  selling  price,  hay  removes  more  of  the  soil  constituents  from  the  land 
than  most  of  our  other  salable  products.  One  hundred  pounds  of  hay  will  remove  nearly  as 
much  nitrogen  and  much  more  mineral  matter  than  one  hundred  pounds  of  wheat.  These 
considerations  must  all  be  studied  when  the  question  comes  as  to  the  profitable  application  of 
expensive  manures.  "While,  therefore,  the  evidence  is  somewhat  against  the  use  of  artificial 
manures  when  hay  is  grown  for  sale,  it  by  no  means  forbids  their  employment  when  grass 
land  is  used  for  the  production  of  meat,  milk,  butter  or  cheese;  and  to  illustrate  this  I  will 
merely  allude  to  one  manure  ingredient,  viz. :  potash.  Iji  the  large  crop  of  hay  which  we 
take  from  Plot  11,  we  carry  off  annually  140  pounds  of  potash  per  acre;  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  of  an  ox  or  sheep  contains  about  li-  to  If  pounds  of  potash.  There  are  very  few 
acres  of  land  in  the  state  of  New  York  which  will  fatten  one  bullock  per  acre,  and  even  if 
there  were,  the  potash  carried  off  would  not  amount  to  more  than  one  pound.  Of  milk,  100 
pounds  weight  contains  a  little  over  I-  a  pound  of  mineral  matter,  or  about  one-thirteenth 
part  of  what  would  be  contained  in  100  pounds  of  hay,  while  butter  robs  the  land  of  noth- 
ing. 

If  land  has  been  impoverished  by  the  sale  of  hay,  and  hay  is  to  be  sold,  dung  is  the 
cheapest  manure  to  apply;  but  if  land  so  impoverished  is  intended  for  the  future  to  produce 
milk,  meat,  or  other  animal  products,  potash  is  sure  to  be  wanting,  and  the  best  manure  to 
apply  will  be  either  200  pounds  of  sulphate  or  muriate  of  potash,  or  three  times  that  quanti- 
ty of  kanit  salts,  and,  in  addition  to  whichever  of  these  substances  is  selected,  200  pounds  of 
superphosphate  of  lime  and  from  60  to  80  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

If,  however,  the  land  has  been  impoverished  merely  by  feeding  stock,  then  the  exhaus- 
tion wiU  be  more  likely  due  to  the  absence  of  nitrogen  and  phosphate,  and  fertility  must  be 
restored  by  an  application  of  these  substances  as  manures. 

Quantity  rather  than  quality  is  the  object  to  be  attained  when  hay  is  the  crop  gi'own ;  but 
when  animal  products  are  produced  from  grass,  the  quaUty  of  the  grasa  is  of  very  great  im- 
portance. Quality  of  pasture  is  dependent  upon  the  food  in  the  soil:  in  land  under  grass 
there  is  a  constant  struggle  going  on  between  the  various  plants  which  constitute  what  we 
call  a  pasture.  Upon  my  experimental  ground,  the  pasture  contained  about  fifty  different 
S[)ecies  of  plants  when  the  experiments  were  commenced,  and  upon  the  unmanured  ground 
these  have  been  subject  to  but  httle  change;  but  it  is  far  otherwise  upon  the  variously  man- 


260  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ured  portions;  if  the  food  is  abundant  and  good,  tlie  good  grasses  drive  away  all  the  weeds 
and  bad  grasses,  and  the  ultimate  result  is  a  very  simple  herbage,  consisting  of  not  more 
than  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  of  the  best  species.  The  constant  mowing,  although  it  enables 
us  to  establish  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  respecting  growth,  is,  at  the  same  time, 
most  destructive  to  the  finer  sorts  of  herbage;  it  cannot  be  expected,  for  instance,  that  much 
white  clover  will  be  found  amongst  grasses  standing  three  feet  high,  and  yielding  7,000 
pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre;  with  liberal  manuring,  therefore,  there  must  be  close  feeding,  and 
the  coarse  but  highly  nutritious  cocksfoot  and  foxtail  must  not  be  allowed  to  smother  the 
clover  and  trefoil. 

Having  once  started  a  permanent  pasture  by  means  of  a  judicious  mixture  of  artificial 
manures,  the  question  arises  whether  it  is  more  economical  to  keep  up  the  fertility  by  a 
fresh  application  of  artificial  manures,  or  by  the  manure  obtained  by  feeding  stock  upon  the 
land  with  food  grown  in  other  localities  ?  It  is  not  easy  to  decide  this  point.  I  am  myself 
inclined  to  think  that  the  latter  process  is  the  most  economical,  and,  in  the  conversion  of  ara- 
ble  into  pasture  land — upon  which  operation  I  have  been  engaged  for  the  last  ten  years — I 
have  trusted  to  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  manure  from  cotton-cake  to  enable  me  to  ac- 
cumulate the  stock  of  fertility  which,  being  exhausted  by  ages  of  arable  culture,  had  to  be 
replaced  before  the  land  could  again  become  a  pasture. 

When  hay,  which  is  the  product  of  ai-ablel  and,  is  grown  for  sale,  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  the  increase,  obtained  by  the  application  of  artificial  manures,  would  repay  the 
cost  of  the  operation.  Nitrate  of  soda,  at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per  acre,  applied  in  the 
spring,  about  a  month  before  the  crop  began  to  grow  actively,  would  probably  give  a  consid- 
erable increase  to  a  crop  of  timothy,  but  I  cannot  venture  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  what 
would  be  the  pecuniary  result  of  the  transaction. 

Sunlight  is  cheaper  than  all  artificial  sources  of  light,  and  natural  fertility  is  cheaper 
than  any  artificial  compound;  in  the  absence  of  sunlight  we  have  recourse  to  purchased 
light;  and  as  the  natural  fertility  is  exhausted  from  our  soils  we  are  driven  to  use  fertility 
derived  from  other  sources. 

It  is  the  object  of  science  to  investigate  and  explain  the  laws  which  regulate  the  growth  of 
plants,  rather  than  to  enter  upon  the  question  of  economy.  In  the  present  paper  I  have  en- 
deavored to  unite,  to  a  certain  extent,  science  with  practice,  in  the  hope  that  the  farmers  of 
the  United  States,  who  take  the  trouble  to  read  what  I  have  said,  may  add  something  to  their 
present  stock  of  knowledge." 

Old  pastures  that  were  formerly  arable  are  often  excellent  lands  on  which  to  cultivate  po- 
tatoes or  corn,  but  the  expense  in  many  localities  of  fencing  such  plats  is  an  item  to  be  taken 
into  account  as  to  whether  this  would  be  a  remunerative  practice.  In  many  sections  where 
land  is  cheap  and  the  soil  poor,  it  may  be  best  to  let  certain  pasture-lands  produce  a  growth 
of  timber.  By  plowing  with  a  strong  plow,  furrows  can  be  turned  from  six  to  ten  feet  apart, 
and  in  these  trenches  may  be  sown  the  seeds  of  such  varieties  of  trees  as  are  desired,  and 
also  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  soil.  As  has  been  previously  stated,  sheep  are  excellent 
renovators  of  pasture-lands,  and  will  destroy  to  an  almost  incredible  degree  the  weeds  and 
bushes.  Hogs,  when  kept  in  lai-ge  numbers,  will  also  answer  the  same  purpose  by  being 
penned  in  limited  sections.  For  this  purpose  movable  fences  are  necessary,  and  when  they 
have  rooted  and  exterminated  the  noxious  vegetables  in  one  part,  remove  them  to  another, 
and  so  on  until  the  work  is  accomplished;  but  this  is  a  rather  slow  method  of  clearing  up  a 
pasture. 

Clearing  land  of  worthless  bushes  and  shrubs  by  hand  is  a  laborious  and  expensive  task_ 
Hardback  can  be  killed  by  mowing  off  the  shrubs  annually  for  three  years  in  succession,  late 
in  the  summer.  Alders  are  more  difficult  to  exterminate,  especially  where  the  growth  is 
large  and  dense,  but  they  may  be  conquered  by  cutting   and    burning.     Juniper   can    Iw 


'VMf 

t%\  .     ,   "III 


CEREALS.  263 

destroyed  in  the  spring  also,  by  fire,  taking  care  to  burn  all  the  trailing  branches.  This 
destroys  all  the  seeds,  and  is  therefore  a  more  effectual  means  of  extermination  than  grubbing. 
Birches  require  several  cuttings  in  August,  each  year,  before  they  can  be  conquered. 

In  all  cases,  the  surrounding  circumstances  will  have  to  be  taken  into  account  in  deciding 
■what  shall  be  done  with  such  pastures,  such  as  the  nature  of  the  soil,  locality,  etc.  Some 
lands  will  not  pay  for  the  labor  of  renovating,  and  where  this  is  the  case,  it  will,  of  course, 
be  the  best  way  to  let  them  alone;  others  will  well  repay  the  labor  bestowed  in  vastly  increas- 
ing the  productive  capacity  and  value  of  the  land. 

The  soiling  system  is  well  worthy  the  attention  of  farmers  having  remote  pastures  or 
those  of  poor  quality,  and  which  would  not  repay  the  expense  of  renovating.  The  same 
might  be  said  of  the  ensilage  system  in  connection  with  a  winter  supply  of  green  food  for 
stock. 


CEREALS. 


WITH  the  exception  of  buckwheat,  cereal  plants  belong  to  the  order  Graminaces 
(true  grasses),  but  differ  widely  in  their  structure,  character,  and  method  of  cul- 
tivation. 

It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  during  the  years  1870  and  1880,  there  was  the  unprecedented 
advance  in  the  cereal  production  of  the  United  States  of  about  a  hundred  per  cent,  for  all 
kinds  taken  together,  while  the  increase  of  the  prd^ous  decade,  or  between  1860  and  1870, 
was  but  twelve  per  cent. 

The  increase  in  the  cereal  product  between  1850  and  1860,  which  was  a  period  of  noted 
agricultural  growth,  was  forty-three  per  cent.  The  total  number  of  acres  under  wheat  cul- 
tivation in  the  United  States  in  1880,  was  35,487,065,  which  yielded  a  crop  of  459,591,093 
bushels.  In  1870  the  wheat  crop  of  the  country  amounted  to  287,745,626  bushels.  The 
increase  of  wheat-growing  in  the  last  decade  is  shown  by  a  comparison  with  former  enumera- 
tions, to  be  seventy-three  per  cent. ;  that  between  1860  and  1870,  to  be  sixty-six  per  cent., 
and  between  1850  and  1860,  sixty  per  cent. 

We  also  find  that  Ilhnois  shows  the  largest  area  under  wheat,  aggregating  3,218,903 
acres;  next  Iowa,  with  3,049,347  acres;  Minnesota,  with  3,046,821;  Indiana,  2,619,307; 
Ohio,  2,556,134;  Missouri,  2,074,314;  Wisconsin,  1,948,036;  Kansas,  1,861,342;  California, 
1,837,322;  Michigan,  1,822,752,  and  that  the  six  States  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  and  Iowa,  produce  more  than  half  the  wheat  of  the  whole  nation. 

The  increase  in  the  product  of  corn  between  1870  and  1880  was  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  per  cent.,  the  amount  produced  in  1870  being  760,844,549  bushels,  while  that  of  1880 
reached  1,772,909,846  bushels.  In  1880  the  number  of  acres  in  the  United  States  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  corn  was  62,326,932,  the  State  of  Illinois  leading  in  this  product. 

The  increase  in  the  production  of  oats  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been  about  forty- 
five  per  cent.;  that  of  barley,  nearly  fifty  per  cent.;  that  of  rye  only  about  seventeen  per 
cent.,  while  the  minor  cereal — buckwheat — has  not  increased  in  proportion  to  the  advance  in 
population — the  total  crop  in  1870  being  9,821,721  bushels,  while  that  of  1880  was  11,851,- 
738  bushels. 

It  is  also  gratifying  to  note  the  increased  interest  in  the  cultivation  of  the  cereals  in  the 
cotton-growing  States  since  1870— the  increase  in  the  corn  product  alone  in  that  section  being 
about  forty  per  cent.  From  present  indications  the  report  of  the  next  decade,  or  that  of 
1890,  may  be  expected  to  show  a  surprising  advance  on  the  above-mentioned  rates  of  increase, 
while  that  which  marks  the  close  of  the  present  century  will  doubtless  exceed  the  most  san- 
guine expectations,  so  immeasurably  great  are  the  resources  and  facihties  of  the  country  for 
the  extension  and  development  of  this  branch  of  agriculture. 
17 


264  THE  A3IERICAN  FARJIER 

WHEAT. 

THIS  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  extensively-cultivated  of  the  cereals,  and  next  to 
maize,  or  Indian  corn,  is  the  most  productive  of  all  the  grasses  belonging  to  the  genus 
Trilicum.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  the  food  of  man  from  the  earliest  ages,  the  Bible, 
as  well  as  the  Egyptian  and  Chinese  records,  substantiating  this  fact;  and  although  it  is  not 
known  in  a  wild  state,  most  botanists  incline  to  the  belief  that  it  had  its  origin  in  the  central 
portions  of  Asia.  Rice  forms  the  principal  sustenance  of  the  vast  population  of  India  and 
China;  com  and  the  various  other  grains  also  contribute  to  the  support  of  multitudes  of  the 
human  family;  but  wheat  forms  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  of  the  most  powerfxil 
and  civilized  nations  of  the  world.  It  may  be  cultivated  in  a  variety  of  soils,  and  will  adapt 
itself  to  either  cold  or  warm  climates,  but  thrives  best  in  the  temperate  zones,  and  in  soils 
that  are  rich  and  rather  heavy.  The  lowest  mean  temperature  in  which  wheat  wUl  ripen  is 
about  57.2°. 

While  the  increased  consumption  of  wheat  in  a  country  is  an  indication  of  an  improved 
style  of  living  among  the  general  population,  its  extended  culture  is  also  an  index  of  an 
improved  agriculture,  since  it  is  only  on  soils  naturally  fertile,  or  that  have  been  rendered  so 
by  careful  cultivation,  that  it  can  be  successfully  grown. 

Tarieties. — There  are  already  many  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  wheat,  and  the  num- 
ber is  constantly  being  augmented  by  either  the  accidental  discovery  of  new  ones,  or  by 
cross-fertilization  artificially  brought  about  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  these  varieties  are 
more  hardy  than  others;  but  among  the  most  popular  kinds  cultivated,  some  may  be  found 
that  can  be  successfully  grown  in  almost  any  section  of  the  United  States  and  the  southern  por. 
tion  of  British  America. 

The  most  common  classification  of  wheat  is  that  made  by  the  time  of  its  sowing,  it  being 
sown  both  in  autumn  and  spring;  hence  the  terms,  "  winter  wheat "  and  "spring  wheat."  This 
distinction,  however,  often  misleads,  for  while  it  is  true  that  there  are  certain  varieties  best 
adapted  for  autumn  and  spring  sowing  respectively,  it  is  also  true  that  many  kinds  wUl  admit 
of  being  sown  at  either  season.  The  spring  wheat  has  been  obtained  by  means  of  a  gradual 
change  in  the  time  of  sowing.  As  a  general  rule,  winter  wheat,  in  localities  adapted  to  its 
cultivation,  gives  a  stronger  growth  of  straw  and  larger  yield  of  gram  than  the  spring  wheat, 
and  the  heads  grow  more  erect  and  full,  with  heavier  grains.  Many  of  the  varieties  that 
give  the  most  favorable  results  in  cultivation  at  the  South  are  not  hardy  enough  for  the  cli- 
mate of  the  Northern  States,  while  many  of  the  winter  varieties  are  not  sufficiently  hardy  for 
the  extreme  North.  The  selection  of  seed  should  always  be  adapted  to  the  climate,  and  the 
more  hardy  varieties  sown  in  the  colder  temperatures. 

Spring  varieties  may  bring  a  surer  crop,  and  involve  less  risk  of  loss  to  the  farmer,  in 
localities  where  the  winters  are  so  long  and  severe  that  the  crop  sometimes  •' winter  kills," 
though  this  may  frequently  be  due  to  improper  preparation  of  the  land  through  lack  of  imder- 
draining,  or  other  causes;  but  is  often  due  to  want  of  hardiness  in  the  wheat  plant.  The 
wheat-growers  are  constantly  forced  to  seek  new  varieties  to  keep  up  the  average  yield. 

Some  writers  attribute  this  frequent  tendency  to  deterioration  in  quantity  and  quality  to 
be  a  natural  incUnation  to  return  to  the  original  unimproved,  uncultivated  condition;  but  we 
believe,  if  the  real  cause  were  known,  it  would  be  found  to  be  more  m  the  deterioration  and 
exhaustion  of  the  soil,  together  with  a  lack  of  judicious  care  in  selecting  the  very  best  seed 
of  the  crop  for  sowing,  and  that  if  farmers  would  restore  those  elements  extracted  from  the 
soil,  in  the  production  of  the  harvested  crop,  in  the  form  of  proper  fertilizers,  before  sowing 
the  succeeding  one,  and  select  only  the  choicest  and  most  perfect  seeds  for  that  sowing,  the 
deterioration,  so  often  the  complaint  of  the  farmers,  would  not  be  known. 


WHEAT.  265 

Among  the  many  varieties  of  both  winter  and  spring  wheat,  which  have  been  most  pop- 
ular, may  be  mentioned  the  White  Mediterranean,  Red  Mediterranean,  Diehl,  Fife,  Silver 
Chaff,  Treadwell,  Fultz,  German  Amber,  Clawson,  White  Russian,  Champlain,  Defiance,  etc. 
Among  the  later  spring  vafieties  above  mentioned,  are  the  Champlain,  Defiance,  and  White 
Russian;  those  of  the  winter  varieties  are  the  Fultz  and  Clawson,  although  neither  of  the 
previously-mentioned  are  of  so  late  an  origin  but  that  they  have  been  tested  for  several  years 
by  cultivation.  Besides  these,  the  "  Golden  Grains  "  is  a  very  hardy  and  productive  variety, 
suited  to  either  spring  or  fall  sowing,  and  is  one  of  the  largest-grained  wheats  known.  It 
grows  with  a  beard  until  it  begins  to  ripen,  after  which  the  beard  falls  off.  It  can  be  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  as  either  winter  or  spring  wheat  in  the  Western  States,  but  does  best  as 
a  winter  wheat  in  the  Eastern  section  of  the  country. 

Some  kinds  will  do  best  in  one  section,  and  others  in  another,  and  we  doubt  whether  any 
variety  will  ever  be  produced  that  will  thrive  equally  well  in  all  localities. 

The  soft,  plump-berried  varieties  are  frequently  found  the  most  productive,  and  for  this 
reason  are  much  in  favor  with  those  farmers  who  would  naturally  think  more  of  quantity  than 
quality.  The  flinty  and  glutmous  varieties  make  the  best  flour,  especially  where  that  which 
is  called  the  "  new  process  "  milling  is  employed,  and  consequently  flinty  varieties  are  more 
popular  with  the  millers. 

Wheat  that  is  cut  early  makes  not  only  whiter  flour,  but  flour  that  contains  more  starch 
in  proportion  to  the  gluten  than  that  made  from  wheat  which  is  harvested  after  becoming 
fully  ripe.  The  microscope  reveals  the  fact  that  the  starch  and  gluten  are  not  formed  in  the 
grain  at  precisely  the  same  period,  the  starch-ceUs  in  the  interior  of  the  grain-kernel  being 
filled  with  starch-granules  several  days  before  the  gluten-cells  (which  are  next  to  the  bran) 
are  quite  filled.  For  this  reason,  wheat  that  is  allowed  to  get  as  rips  as  possible,  to  avoid 
waste,  makes  better  flour,  because  it  contains  more  gluten,  although  it  is  not  quite  as  white  as 
from  wheat  that  is  early  cut.  The  quality  of  the  grain  is  somewhat  modified  by  the  soil  ;  if 
the  soil  be  a  moist  clay  and  other  conditions  favorable,  the  berry  will  be  plump  and  soft,  while 
a  dry  sandy  soil  will  produce  a  smaller  but  harder  kernel,  a  better  quality,  but  less  in  quantity. 

The  Defiance,  Champlain,  Silver  Chaff,  Treadwell,  and  White  Russian  are  hardy  varfe- 
ties,  and  will  thrive  well  at  the  North,  whUe  the  Clawson,  Fultz,  as  well  as  the  German 
Amber,  and  several  others,  have  proved  varieties  for  successful  cultivation  at  the  South. 

The  Fife  is  very  successfully  cultivated  in  some  portions  of  Canada;  it  has  a  hard,  plump 
kernel  of  a  reddish  color,  and  is  very  productive  and  hardy. 

The  White  Mediterranean  is  a  spring  variety;  it  is  bearded,  with  large  kernels,  and 
yields  well. 

The  Red  Mediterranean  is  a  winter  variety,  with  heads  bearded,  ripening  early.  It  is 
very  glutinous  and  is  quite  popular  in  the  Middle  States,  but  it  has  one  objectionable  feature, 
and  that  is,  in  the  straw  not  being  stiff  enough  to  bear  ixp  under  a  very  heavy  crop,  and  in 
consequence  this  grain  is  liable  to  become  lodged  in  the  field. 

The  Diehl  is  a  winter  variety,  grain  white;  it  is  a  bald  wheat,  prolific  and  hardy. 

The  Fultz  is  classed  among  winter  wheats,  and  is  beardless,  of  an  amber  color,  and  yields 
largely.  The  German  Amber  is  also  of  a  similar  tint,  and  is  quite  a  favorite  in  some  of  the 
Southern  States. 

The  Clawson  (sometimes  known  as  Seneca)  is  a  winter  wheat;  it  is  smooth  and  white, 
with  red  chaff,  and  is  early  and  hardy,  bearing  a  stiff  straw  and  large  crops,  and  is  adapted  to 
either  the  North  or  South. 

The  White  Russian,  as  its  name  indicates,  was  imported  from  Russia.  It  is  not  exactly 
a  white  wheat,  but  of  much  lighter  color  than  most  of  the  other  spring  varieties.  It  is  bald", 
with  white  chaff,  the  kernels  being  quite  plump. 

The  Champlain  is  a  bearded  wheat  vrith  white  chaff,  and  is  quite  free  from  rust  or  smut; 
the  straw  is  strong  and  vigorous,  and  grows  higher  than  most  other  varieties,  with  very  large, 
full  heads. 


266 


THE  A3IERICAN  FAMIER. 


The  Defiance  is  also  a  vigorous,  hardy  wheat,  vrith  heavy  straw  and  large,  full  heads.  It  is 
beardless,  with  white  chaff  and  large  kernels.  The  Silver  Chaff  and  Treadwell  are  both 
hardy  winter  wheats. 

To  illustrate  the  manner 
in  which  different  varieties 
are  often  produced,  we  will 
give  the  history  of  the  ori- 
gin of  a  few  of  the  favorite 
wheats.  In  1866,  Mr.  Ger- 
ret  Clawson,  living  in  Sen- 
eca County,  N.  Y.,  harvest- 
ed a  crop  of  wheat  from 
mixed  seed.  Among  the 
stubble  of  this  crop  he 
chanced  to  find  a  head  of 
wheat  that  appeared  to  him 
to  possess  uncommon  ex- 
cellence, and  he  decided  to 
sow  it  separately  and  note 
the  result.  He  did  so,  and 
thus  gave  to  the  agricul- 
tural world  the  popular 
"Clawson"  variety. 

Mr.  C.  G.  Pringle,  of 
Charlotte,  "Vt.,  who  is  a 
practical  hybridizer,  has  not 
only  produced  new  and  val- 
uable  varieties  of  potatoes, 
but  in  a  non-wheat  produc- 
ing State  has  also  origin- 
ated two  very  valuable  va- 
rieties of  that  kind  of  grain. 
This  gentleman  commenced 
the  work  in  1870,  by  the 
cross-fertilization  of  a  few 
ovules  in  a  head  of  the  Black 
Sea  variety  with  pollen 
from  the  Gold  Drop,  some- 
times known  as  Siberian. 
He  selected  the  former  be- 
cause it  was  one  of  the  most 
hardy  varieties  then  in  cul- 
tivation, and  the  latter  on 
account  of  the  superior 
quality  of  its  flour,  hoping 
to    unite  the    hardiness   of 


Thb  Defiance. 


The  Champlain. 


the  one  with  the  excellent  quahties  of  the  other  in  the  product.  The  fruit 
of  this  cross  was  about  a  half  dozen  grains,  which  were  sown  the  following  spring,  and 
cultured  with  great  care;  the  result  was  several  plants  showing  uniformity  of  character, 
intermediate  between  the  Black  Sea  and  Gold  Drop.     This  product  was  nearly  beardless,  like 


WHEAT.  267 

the  Gold  Drop,  with  chaff  of  a  reddish  tinge  like  the  Black  Sea,  whille  the  kernels  were  larger, 
plumper,  and  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  latter,  and  resembling  the  Gold  Drop,  the  plant 
being  very  vigorous  and  the  heads  of  superior  length,  supposed  to  be  due  in  part  to  the  cross- 
ing and  part  to  superior  cultivation.  This  seed  was  sown  the  second  spring  in  drills  apart 
from  other  varieties,  and,  to  the  surprise  of  the  careful  hybridizer,  the  plants  appeared  of  every 
grade  between  the  two  parent  varieties,  but,  by  selecting  a  few  of  the  most  promising  heads 
of  similar  characteristics,  and  continuing  these  experiments  for  four  years,  he  succeeded  in 
producing  several  varieties  of  a  fixed  character,  the  most  marked  and  valuable  of  which  was 
the  "  Champlain." 

In  1871,  Mr.  Pringle  began  another  cross  between  the  common  Club  wheat  and  one  of  the 
varieties  from  the  Pacific  coast,  which,  after  similar  experiments  and  selection,  resulted  in  the 
fine  type  of  the  Defiance.  These  two  varieties,  hybridized  by  Mr.  Pringle,  were  brought  out 
through  the  energetic  firm  of  B.  K  Bliss  &  Sons  of  New  York  city,  and  their  merits  soon 
made  known  to  the  farmers  generally  We  learn  from  Rees  that  several  of  the  formerly  pop- 
ular EngHsh  wheats  were  produced  by  a  gentleman  at  Bradfield,  who,  walking  one  day  in  his 
wheat-field,  was  impressed  with  the  variety  of  colors  which  the  different  blossoms  of  the  grain 
assumed,  and,  after  careful  examination,  concluded  that  these  different  hues  were  signs  of 
certain  specific  differences  in  the  character  of  the  wheat,  and  accordingly  selected  the  heads 
of  colors  unlike,  and  marked  eleven  distinct  varieties.  When  these  were  ripe,  he  gathered 
them,  and  planted  them  separately  the  following  year.  The  same  characteristic  differences 
continued  to  be  seen  in  the  product,  and  after  another  year's  effort  in  experimenting,  three 
new  and  valuable  varieties  were  the  result,  which  were  more  productive  and  earlier  to  ripen 
than  any  known  previous  to  that  time. 

It  is  stated  by  good  authority,  that  American  wheat  contains  more  gluten  than  English, 
and  that  produced  in  the  Southern  States,  more  than  that  in  the  Northern;  and  as  gluten  is  an 
element  which  imparts  to  flour  the  quality  that  is  termed  by  bakers  '^  strength"  and  which 
enables  it  to  absorb  a  large  quantity  of  water  when  made  into  bread,  consequently  in  an  equal 
number  of  pounds  of  flour  possessing  a  greater  and  less  per  cent,  of  gluten,  the  quantity  pos- 
sessing the  largest  per  cent,  of  this  material  will  make  proportionally  the  largest  quantity  of 
bread ;  hence,  it  has  been  asserted  that  while  fourteen  pounds  of  American  flour  will  make 
twenty -one  and  a  half  pounds  of  bread,  the  same  quantity  of  English  flour  will  make  only 
eighteen  and  a  half  pounds.  Of  course,  different  varieties  of  wheat  will  differ  in  the  pro- 
portion of  gluten  furnished,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  other  considerations  being  equal,  the  dryer 
or  warmer  the  cUmate  in  which  the  grain  is  raised,  the  greater  is  the  evaporation,  and  the 
more  condensed  is  the  flour  of  the  grain,  and  consequently  the  more  moisture  it  is  capable  of 
absorbing.  There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  productive,  as  well  as  other  qualities  of 
the  many  varieties  of  wheat,  and  it  is,  of  course,  well  for  the  farmer  to  endeavor  to  select  the 
best  that  is  adapted  to  his  soil  and  climate;  but  the  kind  to  be  sown  is  not  more  essential  than 
the  thorougn  preparation  of  the  land  to  receive  it,  since  no  variety,  however  good,  would 
thrive  except  the  soil  be  first  well  prepared.  The  important  question  as  to  how  may  the 
increase  of  wheat  per  acre  be  accomplished  may  therefore  be  answered  in  the  following 
manner:  by  better  tillage,  by  improving  the  soil,  and  by  sowing  better  seed. 

Preparation  of  Soil  for  Wheat. — There  is  scarcely  any  crop  that  requires  more 
thorough  and  careful  preparation  of  soil  for  successful  results  than  wheat,  yet  having  once 
obtained  a  vigorous  start,  it  grows  very  rapidly  under  favoring  circumstances,  although  it  is 
not  as  hardy  as  some  other  of  the  cultivated  grains.  It  is  partial  to  a  very  fertile  soil,  its 
cultivation  usually  being  most  successful  in  rich  clays  or  heavy  loams,  although  many  light 
soils,  when  in  proper  condition,  will  produce  a  good  yield.  Lands  for  wheat  should  never  be 
too  wet,  and  when  an  excess  of  moisture  exists  it  should  be  obviated  by  a  good  system  of 
drainage,  for  unless  this  is  done,  the  crop  suffers  by  being  heaved  out  by  the  frosts  in  win- 


268  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ter,  and  "  winter-killed,"  or  chilled,  or  dwarfed,  in  the  spring  and  early  summer,  clay  lands 
being  especially  liable  to  this  difficulty.  The  beneficial  effects  of  the  best  tillage  on  lands  of 
the  most  superior  quality  will  be  counteracted  by  a  surplus  of  water;  hence,  the  proper 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil  should  receive  the  first  attention.  The  land  should  be  so  well 
drained  that  no  water  wiU  stand  in  the  furrows.  The  field  to  be  appropriated  to  wheat  cul- 
ture should  be  well  plowed,  at  least  twice,  and  afterward  thoroughly  harrowed  to  reduce  it  to 
as  mellow  and  pulverized  a  condition  as  possible,  as  this  will  serve  to  unlock  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  and  put  it  in  a  state  to  best  sustain  the  growing  plant;  it  should  then  be  well  rolled 
to  be  as  firm  as  possible  before  putting  in  the  seed.  The  old  adage,  that  "  Tillage  is  manure," 
is  a  very  true  one,  and  one  especially  adapted  to  the  culture  of  wheat.  If,  after  being  thus  well 
prepared,  a  rain  happens  to  fall  in  sufficient  quantity  to  form  a  crust  upon  the  surface,  it 
should  be  harrowed  and  rolled  again  in  the  same  manner  before  drilling  or  sowing  the  grain. 
By  the  thorough  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller,  the  best  pulverization  of  the  soil  can  be 
secured,  and  a  sufficient  density  given  it  without  packing  it  too  closely,  and  also  leaving  it 
sufficiently  porous  for  the  access  of  air  and  water.  Many  of  our  most  successful  wheat- 
growers  plow  the  land,  letting  it  lie  for  several  weeks  or  even  months,  thus  giving  the  heat 
and  air  an  opportunity  to  act  upon  the  soil,  working  it  occasionally  with  the  harrow  and  rol- 
ler, until  a  complete  pulverization  is  secured.  The  summer  fallow  is  regarded  with  much 
favor  in  some  localities.  A  good  depth  of  soil  is  indispensable  to  a  large  crop,  as  the  wheat 
plant  has  two  sets  of  roots,  the  first  set  springing  from  the  seed  and  extending  downward ; 
tlie  second  extending  laterally  from  the  first  joint  and  lying  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
A  difference  of  opinion  exists  respecting  the  depth  of  plowing  for  wheat,  some  advocating 
only  three  or  four  inches,  others  a  considerably  greater  depth ;  we  are  of  the  opinion  that 
for  most  soils,  from  four  to  five  inches  is  the  proper  depth,  where  the  land  has  previously 
been  deeply  cultivated  for  other  crops;  much,  however,  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
In  clearing  up  new  lands,  such  as  those  previously  occupied  by  a  forest,  where  the  trees 
have  been  chopped  and  the  soil  been  burned  over,  as  is  the  practice  in  some  of  the  unsettled 
portions  of  the  country,  a  fair  wheat  crop  can  often  be  obtained  with  but  slight  labor  in  pre- 
paring the  soil,  since  the  proper  plant-food  for  the  seed  is  found  in  the  decaying  vegetable 
matter  of  the  soil,  and  the  ashes  of  the  dehris  burned  in  clearing;  hence,  a  good  crop  of  wheat 
is  often  grown  upon  the  inverted  sod  with  but  little  further  preparation;  but  for  old  lands,  the 
most  thorough  preparation  is  necessary.  Early  plowing  is  always  desirable  for  wheat  crops. 
If  wheat  is  sown  upon  oat-stubble,  it  is  best  to  plow  the  stubble  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  off, 
and  before  the  ground  becomes  too  hard  to  plow  well.  The  scattered  oats  will  sprout,  but 
may  be  destroyed  by  harrowing  thoroughly  and  repeatedly. 

Fertilization  of  Soil  for  Wheat. — Some  soils  are  so  rich  naturally,  that  they  will 
require  but  little  or  no  addition  to  their  fertility  to  secure  a  large  yield  of  wheat,  but  these 
are  the  exceptions  rather  than  the  rule,  and  even  most  of  these  will,  after  a  few  years'  crop- 
ping, become  sufficiently  exhausted  to  necessitate  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  the  form  of  plant- 
food.  This  sustenance  should  always  be  in  a  condition  for  immediate  use;  hence,  coarse 
manures,  that  cannot  be  readily  taken  up  by  the  delicate-feeding  wheat-plant,  will  not  meet  the 
demand,  or  be  of  any  assistance  in  sustaining  its  life  until  sufficient  time  has  passed  for  them 
to  become  assimilated  to  its  use  through  atmospheric  and  other  agencies,  which  often  requires 
two  or  three  years. 

A  crop  of  wheat,  if  fertilized  by  coarse  barn-yard  manure,  for  instance,  might  starve 
before  the  plant-food  that  lay  within  the  soil  would  be  in  a  condition  to  nourish  it.  Wherever 
barn-yard  manure  is  used,  therefore,  in  the  culture  of  wheat,  it  is  essential  that  it  be  pulver- 
ized very  fine  ;  when  applied  in  this  condition,  it  is  highly  valuable. 

A  heavy  crop  of  clover,  which  has  received  a  good  dressing  of  lime,  is  sometimes  plowed 
under  with  very  good  results;  but   this  should  be  done   several  weeks  before  sowing  the 


WHEAT.  269 

wheat,  that  it  may  have  sufficient  time  to  decay  and  be  in  condition  to  stimulate  the  growth 
of  the  crop.  Lime  has  long  been  regarded  as  an  important  aid  in  the  growth  of  wheat,  and 
in  preventing  rust,  also  in  obviating  an  undue  growth  of  straw  and  assisting  in  filling  out  the 
grain. 

For  some  very  old  lands  which  show  a  tendency  to  exhaustion,  Ume  and  salt  are  often 
used  with  good  effect.  Mr.  J.  B.  Lawes  of  Rothamsted,  England,  recommends  Peruvian 
guano  as  the  best  manure  for  the  wheat  crop  in  English  soil,  to  be  sown  broadcast  and  har- 
rowed in  before  sowing  the  seed ;  he  also  mentions  that  if  mixed  with  twice  its  weight  of 
common  salt  or  ashes,  a  more  equal  distribution  through  the  soil  is  attained.  "Whatever  the 
fertihzer  used,  the  soil  should  be  made  very  rich,  and  the  material  for  making  it  so  should 
be  put  near  the  surface,  for  if  buried  too  deep  in  the  soil,  it  will  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
delicate  roots  of  the  wheat-plant,  and  hence  of  no  material  aid  in  its  sustenance.  It  is  a  com- 
mon complaint  with  farmers  in  many  sections,  that  the  lands  that  formerly  produced  large 
crops  of  wheat  now  yield  only  about  half  that  quantity.  Tliis  is  due  to  the  exhaustion  of 
soil,  attending  constant  cropping  without  the  use  of  fertilizers  to  return  to  the  lands,  thus 
drained  of  their  fertility,  an  equivalent;  hence,  their  former  fertility  cannot  be  restored  with- 
out the  application  of  an  abundance  of  plant-food. 

In  England,  the  problem  of  wheat  production  seems  to  have  approached  a  very  satisfac- 
toiy  solution,  the  average  product  of  tlnis  grain  sixty  years  ago  having  been  only  sixteen 
bushels  per  acre;  now  the  average  is  thirty  bushels,  and  many  farmers  harvest  regularly  an 
average  of  from  forty-eight  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre. 

Mr.  George  Cowan  of  England  states,  that  when  on  a  visit  to  Mr.  Mackenzie's  noted 
farm  in  Manitoba,  that  gentleman  informed  him  that  his  average  yield  of  wheat  the  previous 
year  was  forty-one  bushels  per  acre,  and,  the  year  preceding,  thirty-six  bushels,  and  that  his 
oat  crop  the  previous  year  yielded  an  average  of  eighty-eight  bushels  per  acre.  When  the 
farmers  of  the  United  States  can  attain  an  equal  average  in  the  production  of  these  grains, 
the  pursuit  of  agriculture  will  be  attended  with  more  satisfaction  and  profit  than  at  present- 
"We  beheve  this  can  be  accomplished  by  proper  tillage,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  the  right  kind 
of  fertilizing  element. 

Mr.  Fust  of  Quebec  says,  in  relation  to  this  subject:  "  It  is  my  firm  belief  that  the  real 
reason  why  our  wheat  crops  only  yield  half  as  much  as  the  English  crops  is  that  in  England 
they  utilize  sheep  as  grain-growers,  while  we  only  consider  them  as  wool  and  mutton  makers." 

The  great  value  of  sheep  as  fertilizers  is  elsewhere  treated  in  this  work,  and  therefore 
does  not  require  repetition  here,  but  we  fully  concur  in  the  above-expressed  opinion,  and 
believe,  if  our  farmers  would  utilize  sheep  for  enriching  the  soil,  they  would  realize  a  decided 
increase  in  their  yearly  crops  of  wheat. 

In  the  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  of  England,  a  repeated  cropping  of  the  same 
lands  yearly,  for  thirty  years,  gave  an  average  of  16|  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  with  mineral 
manures  alone,  while  the  unmanured  gave  14  bushels  per  acre  during  that  time.  The  addi- 
tion of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  with  the  same  repeated  cropping  of  the  same  land,  brought  the 
average  up  to  36  bushels  per  acre.  "With  the  leguminous  crops  it  was  the  reverse,  the  exper- 
iments proxang  them  to  be  most  benefited  by  mineral  manures.  They  also  found,  by  repeated 
experiments,  that  cereals  were  most  helped  by  nitrogen,  next  by  phosphates,  and  very  little 
by  potash. 

For  wheat,  we  would  advocate  the  use  of  artificial  fertilizers,  in  preference  to  farm 
manure,  for  the  reason  that  farm  manure  is  rarely  applied  in  a  mechanical  condition  to  be 
readily  assimilated  by  the  wheat-plant,  while  the  former  responds  very  quickly,  and  is  in  a 
condition  to  be  readily  taken  up  by  the  growing  plants.  This  will,  of  course,  involve  some 
outlay,  but  the  increase  of  the  crop  will  well  repay  for  the  expenditure,  experiments 
frequently  proving  that  the  judicious  apphcatiou  of  ten  dollars'  worth  of  the  proper  fertilizers 


270  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

often  brings  a  return  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  dollars'  worth  of  grain.  Too  great  importance 
cannot  be  placed  upon  finely  pulverizing  the  soil,  and  having  the  fertilizing  element  near  the 
surface,  where  it  can  be  within  the  reach  of  the  plant  when  it  first  gets  started.  Some 
farmers  apply  the  fertihzers  with  the  drill  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  grain;  when  this  is  done, 
it  is  better  to  mix  the  fertilizers  with  about  twice  the  quantity  of  earth,  or  to  apply  it  broad- 
cast and  harrow  it  in,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  covered  too  deeply;  either  of  these  methods 
prevents  injury  to  the  seed  that  might  result  by  having  the  strong  chemical  fertilizers  coming 
in  direct  contact  with  it,  which  would  have  a  tendency  to  injure  the  germ. 

Ground  bone  or  superphosphate  of  lime  is  a  very  valuable  and  available  fertilizer  for 
wheat ;  it  also  hastens  its  maturity  from  one  to  two  weeks  in  many  soils.  It  should  be  hghtly 
harrowed  in,  and  never  mixed  deeply  with  the  soil.  From  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  four 
hundred  pounds  or  more  per  acre  should  be  applied,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  It 
is  estimated  by  good  authority  that  twenty-five  bushels  of  wheat,  with  straw,  takes  from  an 
acre  of  ground  51.85  pounds  of  ammonia,  33.70  of  potash,  and  26.10  of  phosphoric  acid, 
yrhich  is  equal  to  about  57  pounds  of  bone  phosphate  lime. 

Selection  of  Seed. — In  order  to  secure  the  best  results  in  the  culture  of  wheat,  it  is 
not  only  important  that  the  soil  be  sufficiently  fertile  and  thoroughly  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  the  seed,  but  that  the  seed  upon  which  the  future  crop  is  dependent  should  be  of  the  very 
best  quality,  perfectly  sound,  fully  developed  in  kernel,  well  ripened,  and  entirely  free  from 
any  imperfections  of  any  kind.  The  natural  law  of  "  like  producing  like  "  is  as  arbitrary  in 
the  culture  of  grains  as  in  the  propagation  of  animals,  or  any  other  department  of  nature, 
and  the  deterioration  of  the  wheat  crop  so  common  in  some  sections  is  largely  due  to  care- 
lessness or  indiiierence  in  the  selection  of  seed.  The  best  soil,  and  most  careful  cultivation 
will  not  produce  a  good  crop  from  inferior  seed.  The  difBculty  and  time  required  for  sepa- 
rating the  largest  and  most  perfect  kernels  for  sowing,  is  probably  the  reason  why  so  much 
inferior  seed  is  sown.  Many  years  ago,  before  the  grading  fanning-mills  and  separators  were 
invented,  farmers  were  obliged  to  resort  to  various  devices  for  separating  the  best  kernels 
for  this  purpose.  One  method  was  to  dip  up  from  the  pile  at  one  end  of  the  barn-floor  a 
small  quantity  of  wheat  in  a  saucer,  and  throw  it  upon  the  floor  at  the  other  end  as  far  as 
possible;  by  this  means  the  heaviest  grains  would  go  farther  than  the  light  ones,  and  when  a 
sufficient  quantity  had  accumulated  at  the  farthest  end  of  the  whole  mass,  the  best  seed  was 
secured. 

Another  method  was  to  put  up  a  wire  sieve  several  feet  long,  giving  it  a  sufiBcient  slant  to 
have  the  grain,  when  poured  in  at  the  highest  end,  pass  over  its  surface;  by  gently  shaking 
this  sieve,  the  small  grains  would  drop  through,  and  the  large  ones  go  on  over  the  opposite 
end.  Others  selected  the  perfect  heads  from  the  bundles  of  wheat  and  shelled  them  by  hand, 
which  was  a  long  and  labored  process  to  obtain  a  quantity  of  seed.  The  grading-mill  saves 
much  of  this  labor  and  time,  but  it  is  by  no  means  without  objection,  since  many  imperfect 
seeds  find  their  way  among  the  selected  ones,  though  it  is  perhaps  the  best  practicable  method 
where  very  large  quantities  are  required  for  sowing.  Where  practicable,  the  selection  of  the 
best  heads,  with  a  further  grading  by  sifting  out  all  the  smaller  seeds,  will  give  a  better 
selection,  and  by  carefully  cultivating  these,  and  permitting  no  weeds  to  grow  among  the 
wheat,  yearly  repeating  this  process,  combined  with  the  best  cultivation,  will  not  only  prevent 
deterioration  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  crop,  but  improve  it  in  all  respects. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  securing  the  choicest  grains  for  seed  is  to  take  only  those  growing 
in  the  lower  half  of  the  head,  these  being  invariably  larger  and  more  plump  than  those  of  the 
upper  half.  This  process  of  selection,  of  course,  involves  much  labor  and  time,  but  it  might 
be  accomplished  easily  where  only  a  small  amount  of  seed  were  required,  for  a  choice  plot 
or  for  experiment  in  growing  for  seed.  Some  very  successful  wheat-growers  save  all  the  grain 
for  seed  that  shells  out  itself  in  handhng  the  sheaves,  since  the  largest  and  heaviest  kernels 


WHEAT.  271 

will  shell  out  the  most  readily.  A  recent  writer  on  this  subject  says  that  by  this  means  of 
selection  he  has  not  only  largely  increased  his  average  crop  of  wheat,  but  the  heads  are  much 
longer  and  heavier,  and  the  kernels  larger.     Mr.  H.  Stewart  says,  in  this  connection: — 

"  The  question  occurs  how  the  habit  of  growing  long  full  ears  is  to  be  fixed  on  a  variety. 
I  answer,  by  selection  and  constant  cultivation,  and  producing  a  pedigreed  variety.  Every 
farmer  might  do  this  for  himself,  but  few  will;  therefore  there  is  a  large  and  profitable 
business  for  farmers,  to  grow  seed  and  make  a  special  thing  of  it;  not  only  by  producing 
new  varieties  by  crossing,  but  by  cultivating  the  best  of  what  we  now  have  and  improving 
them  in  prolificness.  If  by  enriching  the  soil  we  can  produce  only  half  the  standard  number 
of  ears,  and  by  selection  of  seed  gain  an  average  length  of  five  inches  of  ear,  we  have  fifty 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  and  can  then  afford  to  snap  our  fingers  at  bonanza  farming." 

As  to  the  varieties  of  seed,  upon  the  selection  of  which  so  much  depends,  no  definite 
rule  can  be  given,  since  some  kinds  are  best  adapted  to  one  locality,  and  others  to  another; 
careful  and  repeated  experiments  will  alone  determine  their  adaption  to  certain  soils  and 
temperatures.  The  mention  of  some  of  the  most  popular  and  leading  varieties,  with  their 
characteristics  and  general  adaptation  already  given,  will  aid  the  farmer  somewhat  in  making 
his  choice  for  experiment  on  his  own  particular  lands. 

Time  of  Sowing  Spring  Wheat. — This  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  latitude  and 
season ;  but,  as  a  general  rule  for  any  climate,  we  find  that  the  earlier  in  the  season  spring 
wheat  can  be  safely  sown,  the  better  for  the  crop.  The  best  way  is  to  partially  prepare  the 
soil  in  the  autumn  by  plowing  and  reducing  it  as  far  as  practicable,  to  be  followed  by  another 
plowing  and  harrowing  in  the  spring,  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible,  without  having  the 
soil  too  wet;  and  if  properly  drained,  as  all  wheat-fields  should  be,  either  naturally  or  artific- 
ially, this  can  usually  be  accomplished  in  time  to  give  the  wheat-plants  an  early  start.  Spring 
wheat  should  always  be  sown  in  any  locality  as  early  as  the  weather  and  condition  of  the  soil 
will  admit,  which  in  different  latitudes  will  differ  with  the  season,  some  seasons  in  the  same 
latitudes  being  much  earUer  than  others. 

Time  of  Sowing  Winter  Wheat. — "Winter  wheat  should  be  sown  in  time  to  give  it 
a  good  start  before  the  ground  freezes,  which  will,  of  course,  be  modified  by  the  latitude. 
The  usual  time  at  the  North  is  from  the  the  10th  to  nearly  the  last  of  September,  although 
many  farmers  consider  it  expedient  to  have  it  sown  at  or  before  the  1 5th  of  September,  in 
order  to  give  it  time  to  root  well  before  the  frost  makes  its  appearance.  The  time  of  sowing 
at  the  South  is  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  November,  although  in  some 
sections  it  is  sometimes  delayed  until  the  early  part  of  December;  but  this,  we  think,  rather 
late  for  any  wheat-growing  section,  and  involves  some  risk  to  the  crop.  The  appearance  of 
the  Hessian-fly  sometimes  modifies  the  time  of  sowing  winter  wheat,  it  generally  making  its 
appearance  about  the  first  of  September,  and  if  sown  at  this  time  may  be  hable  to  its  attack. 
If  it  is  sown  sufficiently  early  in  any  section  to  secure  a  good,  strong  root  to  the  wheat-plant 
before  the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall,  an  earher  growth  in  the  spring  is  secured,  and,  conse- 
quently, an  earlier  ripened  crop  for  harvest. 

Quantity  of  Wheat  Sown  to  the  Acre.— There  has  been  much  discussion  upon 
the  subject  of  thick  and  thin  sowing  of  wheat,  many  of  the  advocates  of  both  methods,  as  is 
usually  the  case  on  all  subjects,  being  extravagant  in  praise  of  their  own  favorite  method, 
and  often  erring  in  carrying  out  their  ideas  to  the  extreme,  some  insisting  that  but  a  few 
quarts  per  acre  is  all  that  is  essential  for  producing  a  good  crop,  and  that  all  seed  sowed  in 
excess  of  that  quantity  is  mere  waste.  Others  would  sow  so  thick  that  the  growth  of  the 
plant  would  be  well  nigh  impossible,  for  want  of  room.  We  believe  the  medium  is  generally 
the  safer  ground  on  most  sulijects,  and  this  especially. 

When  the  largest  and  most  perfect  kernels  are  separated  from  all  others  for  sowing,  as 


272  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

they  always  should  be,  a  less  quantity  will  be  required  than  where  many  of  the  grains  are 
imperfect  and  will  fail  of  germination;  hence,  a  difference  should  be  observed  in  the  kind  of 
wheat  to  be  sown.  A  heavy  sowing  will  generally  produce  lighter  straw  and  heads,  as  all 
plants  when  crowded  thickly  are  more  slender  in  growth.  There  is  also  a  tendency  in  wheat 
and  most  of  the  other  cereals  to  tiller,  or  throw  out  new  shoots  for  future  growth,  which 
seems  to  be  an  effort  in  nature  to  cover  the  entire  ground  occupied.  Thick  sowing  will  gen- 
erally prevent  this  in  a  great  measure;  however,  if  sown  too  thick,  there  is  not  sufficient 
room  for  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  not  only  is  lighter  straw  the  result,  but,  we  think,  it 
also  modifies  in  a  measure  the  size  of  the  kernel,  as  well  as  that  of  the  heads,  and  this 
manner  of  sowing  will  soon  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  wheat.  Light  sowing  produces  a 
strong,  vigorous  growth,  with  large,  well-filled  heads.  We  would,  therefore,  advise  a  medium 
in  quantity  sown,  and  avoid  either  extreme.  Mr.  H.  Stewart  says,  in  giving  the  result  of  his 
experience  and  observation. — 

"  It  is  a  fact  that  a  field  of  good  wheat,  whatever  may  be  its  yield,  bears  a  pretty  con- 
stant number  of  ears  per  acre,  and  this  standard  number  is  about  1,250,000,  or  250  to  the 
square  yard,  or  28  to  the  square  foot.  This  would  bring  the  ears  over  the  field  to  within  2-^ 
inches  of  each  other.  Now,  every  farmer  may  know  that  this  is  possible,  for  it  is  easy  to 
grow  one  plant  on  a  square  foot  with  28  ears  on  it.  The  1,250,000  grains  are  equal  to  two 
bushels,  so  that  the  amount  of  crop  depends  upon  the  number  of  grains  to  each  ear.  This 
number  varies  greatly,  both  from  the  length  of  the  ear  and  its  contents  in  grains.  If  the  ears 
average  20  grains,  the  product  should  be  40  bushels.  I  have  found  that  good  wheat  generally 
carries  about  ten  grains  to  the  inch  of  ear,  but  that  ears  vary  in  regard  to  the  compactness 
with  which  the  grain  is  packed  in  them.  I  have  found  only  50  grains  in  an  ear  of  Clawson 
wheat  7  inches  long,  and  40  grains  in  an  ear  of  Tread  well  4  inches  long,  and  the  same  in  an 
ear  of  Red  Mediterranean,  and  several  others.  The  desirable  point  to  be  reached,  then,  is  to 
produce  long,  well-filled  ears.  I  do  not  think  this  is  possible,  except  with  thinner  sowing 
than  is  usual.  Two  bushels  of  plump  seed  will  contain  1,250,000  grains,  but  in  not  one  case 
in  a  hundred  or  in  a  thousand  will  the  crop  produce  one  ear  for  each  grain  sown,  or  one  ear 
for  every  2A  inches  each  way.  I  once  sowed  a  field  of  13  acres  with  Treadwell  wheat,  in 
strips,  from  one  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre  up  to  two  bushels;  there  being  5  strips,  increasing 
by  a  peck  of  seed  from  one  side,  crossing  these  strips  with  others  that  were  dressed  with 
superphosphate  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  100  to  300  pounds  per  acre,  there  being  5  strips  also, 
increasing  by  50  pounds  of  fertilizers.  It  was  all  manured  with  20  loads  of  good  manure 
and  of  even  character.     The  whole  field  when  threshed  averaged  25  bushels  per  acre. 

The  strip  with  4  pecks  of  seed  was  the  best  of  all;  the  ears  on  this  averaged  7  inches  in 
length,  and  one  ear  was  picked  out  that  was  nearly  9  inches  long,  and  had  92  grains  in  it. 
On  this  corner  of  the  field  the  seed  was  much  thinned  out  by  a  neighbor's  pigeons,  and 
several  stools  had  each  30  ears.  The  opposite  plat  produced  ears  not  much  over  2  inches 
long,  and  the  straw  was  quite  thin;  the  ears  were  smaller  and  thinner  all  along  this  strip  of 
the  field.  The  best  were  on  the  strip  most  thinly  seeded.  At  a  careful  estimate,  taking  the 
grains  in  average  ears,  the  best  of  the  field  produced  over  40  bushels  per  acre,  and  the  poorest 
not  more  than  15.  The  length  of  ears  was  so  conspicuous  on  tlie  thin-seeded  portion,  which 
was  next  a  public  road,  that  many  neighbors  stopped  and  gathered  liberal  bunches  for  their 
own  use  without  the  formality  of  asking  for  them. 

I  consider  this  to  have  been  a  proper  and  useful  experiment  from  which  one  could  gather 
definite  knowledge,  and  better  than  those  made  on  small  plats,  because  it  was  made  in  regular 
farm-work.  It  would  have  been  more  certain  had  the  crop  from  each  square  of  about  half 
an  acre  been  kept  separate  and  measured,  but  my  object  was  attained  as  well  by  noting  the 
size  of  the  ears  and  their  contents  in  grains.  It  proved  t-wo  things,  one  being  the  advantage 
of  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre,  and  the  other  was,  the  usefulness  of  300  pounds  per  acre  of 
superphosphate  against  the  other  quantities." 


WHEAT. 


273 


The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  to  the  acre  is  a  question  of  great  importance  to  the 
farmer,  since  it  influences  to  so  great  an  extent  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  product;  there 
are,  however,  two  important  considerations  in  connection  with  it,  as  has  previously  been  inti- 
mated, the  first  being  the  anticipated  productiveness  or  quality  of  the  soil,  and  the  second  the 
yield  of  the  variety  to  be  sown. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  grains  upon  a  square  foot,  yard,  and  acre  at 
certain  quantities  : 

Grains  per  sq.  foot.  Grains  per  sq.  yard.  Grains  per  acre. 

4  .            .           .            .            .  36  .  .  .           .                  174,240—1  peck. 

8  .           .           .            .            .  73  .  .  .           .                  348,480— 2  pecks. 

12 108  .  .  .  .                  522.720— 3  pecks. 

16  .            .            .            .            .  144  .  .  .            .                   696,960—1  bushel. 

32  .....  288  .  .  .  1,393,920—2  bushels. 

48 432  .  .  .  2,090,880—3  bushels. 

64 576  .  .  .  2,787,840— 4  bushels. 

80 720  .  .  .  8,428,800— 5  bushels. 

By  marking  a  square  foot  of  space  upon  a  board  or  paper,  and  then  dividing  it  into  four 
equal  squares,  and  placing  a  grain  of  wheat  in  the  center  of  each  square,  it  will  readily  be 
seen  how  much  space  will  be  appropriated  to  each  grain  of  wheat  when  sown  at  the  rate  of 
one  peck  to  the  acre.  By  placing  two  grains  in  each  square,  twice  this  quantity,  or  a  half 
bushel  per  acre,  would  be  indicated  ;  four  grains,  one  bushel  per  acre,  and  so  on.  Some  grains 
may  fail  to  germinate,  therefore  due  allowance  should  be  made  for  this  in  deciding  upon  the 
quantity  to  be  sown.  '•  Divide  a  square  foot  of  surface  into  sixteen  squares,  each  of  which 
contains  nine  superficial  inches,  and  place  a  grain  in  the  center  of  each  square,  and  it  will  give 
one  bushel  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  If  any  person  will  examine  his  winter  wheat,  he  will  find  that 
if  the  plant  have  a  vigorous  growth,  each  seed  fully  stooled  covers  more  space  than  it  would 
find  in  the  area  of  nine  inches.  Put  two  grains  of  oats  to  each  square,  and  it  will  give  two 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Make  three  to  each  square,  and  there  will  be  three  bushels  of  seed  to 
the  acre. 

English  wheat-growers  seed  more  heavily  than  those  of  this  country,  as  a  general  practice. 
Such  a  crowding  of  the  land  with  the  plants  as  will  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  a  proper 
development  of  the  heads  should  of  course  be  avoided,  but  the  ground  should  be  well  occu- 
pied when  active  growth  commences.  In  sowing  winter  wheat,  a  noted  English  authority 
says  :  "The  best  results  are  secured  by  using  two  bushels  per  acre  for  the  sowing  made  early 
in  October,  and  by  increasing  this  quantity  at  the  rate  of  half  a  peck  per  week,  until  three 
bushels  is  reached,  which  may  be  held  as  a  maximum.  Less  than  this  should  not  be  used 
from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  end  of  the  season."  This  quantity  would  be  quite  in 
excess  of  that  used  by  American  farmers  generally. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  quantity  to  be  sown  will  be  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  bushels  per 
acre  if  drilled,  and  from  one  and  three-fourths  to  two  bushels  if  broadcast;  this  to  be  modi- 
fied according  to  circumstances,  such  as  quality  of  soil,  productiveness  of  variety  sown,  etc. 

Sowing. — This  may  be  done  either  broadcast  or  in  drills,  the  latter  being  by  far  the 
better  and  improved  method,  and  will,  in  all  probability,  soon  supersede  broadcast  sowing, 
where  it  has  not  already,  wherever  the  land  is  in  suitable  condition  to  admit  of  it.  Its 
advantage  over  broadcast  sowing  consists  in  distributing  and  covering  the  seed  more 
evenly,  and  putting  it  in  at  proper  distances;  this  method  also  requires  less  seed,  and 
admits  of  after-cultivation,  insuring  a  stronger  and  heavier  growth  of  grain,  besides  the 
grain  grows  more  uniformly,  the  heads  being  all  about  of  a  height,  and  ripening  about 
the  same  time.  It  is  comparatively  of  recent  date  that  farmers  have  learned  that  after-cultiva- 
tion will  pay  in  the  wheat-field,  and  that  there  is  nothing  of  greater  promise  to  grain- 
growers  in  this  direction  than  the  stirring  of  the  soil  between  the  rows  of  wheat  and 
killing  the  weeds  that  obstruct  and  retard  its  growth.  Cultivation  is,  of  course,  only 
possible    where    the    grain    is    in    regular    rows,    and    regularity    of    sowing    is    only 


274 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


attained  by  the  use  of  the  drill,  hence,  the  invention  of  the  wheat  hoe  or  wheat  cultivator 
follows,  as  almost  a  necessity,  that  of  the  drill,  which  is  merely  a  seed  sower  upon  a  large 
scale.  A  box  contains  the  seed  which  is  delivered  by  tubes,  generally  eight  in  number,  at 
the  desired  distance  apart  for  the  drills,  and  which  can  be  arranged  to  distribute  a  larger  or 
less  number  of  seeds  in  a  given  place.  The  dilference  in  the  various  styles  consists  mainly 
in  the  arrangements  for  opening  the  soil,  the  covering  of  the  drills,  and  the  regular  supply  of 


IMPROVED    HOOSIER    GRAIN    DRILL. 


THE    FARMERS    FAVORITE, 


the  seed.  They  also  have  an  attachment  for  sowing  concentrated  fertilizers  with  the  grain, 
when  desired,  and  can  be  used  for  sowing  corn,  grass  and  clover  seed,  and  all  other  kinds  of 
grains  and  similar  seeds,  by  means  of  an  adjustable  feeder.  The  first  illustration  of  these 
machines  represents  the  improved  Hoosier  Grain  Drill,  manufactured  by  Deere,  Mansur  &  Co., 
St.  Louis,  Mo.     This  machine  will  sow  all  kinds  of  small  seed  in  any  quantity  desired  w  ithout 


WHEAT.  275 

any  change  of  gear  wheels,  and  may  be  adjusted  to  deposit  the  grains  either  twelve,  sixteen, 
or  twenty  inches  apart,  to  suit  the  requirements  of  various  soils  and  varieties  of  seed.  It  has 
a  land  measurer  or  surveyor  attached,  that  measures  and  registers  the  number  of  acres  gone 
over  in  drUling.  The  second  represents  a  similar  implement  of  great  excellence,  manufactured 
by  Bickford  k  Huffman,  Macedon,  New  York,  which  will  plant  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
acres  per  day.  In  whatever  manner  the  seed  is  sown,  the  soil  must  be  rich,  mellow,  and 
finely  pulverized.  When  sown  broadcast,  it  is  either  harrowed  into  the  soil  or  worked  in 
with  a  cultivator.  After  being  covered,  the  earth  should  always  be  well  pressed  down  upon 
the  seed  with  the  roller,  as  this  facilitates  germination.  Wheat  that  is  drilled,  comes  up  as 
soon  as  that  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed,  and  grows  more  vigorously,  yielding  larger  crops, 
besides  being  less  liable  to  winter-kill;  it  also  withstands  drouth  better,  and  the  roots  having 
a  firmer  hold,  the  grain  is  not  so  liable  to  be  blown  down  and  lodged  in  the  field.  It  is 
stated  by  good  authority,  that  the  Hessian  fly  is  less  liable  to  injure  wheat  that  is  in  drills 
than  that  sown  broadcast.  Thaer,  in  his  "  English  Agriculture,"  refers  to  the  benefits  derived 
from  drill  culture,  but  overlooks  in  a  great  measure  the  influence  of  the  tillage  which  it 
introduces.     He  writes  thus  : — 

"  Besides,  the  advantages  from  drill-sowing  do  not,  as  some  imagine,  consist  solely  in 
the  saving  of  seed  which  is  thus  effected,  but  in  the  increased  amount  of  produce,  which, 
under  this  system,  the  land  may  be  made  to  bear.  The  fact  of  this  increase  is  demonstrated 
by  a  thousand  experiments,  and  no  doubt  can  longer  be  entertained  on  the  subject,  even  by 
the  most  virulent  opponents  of  the  system.  No  general  estimate  as  to  the  average  amount  of 
this  increase  can  be  given,  as  most  of  the  comparative  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  it  have  been  attended  with  different  results.  In  many  of  them  the  wheat  thus 
sown  yielded  one-third  more  than  that  which  was  sown  broadcast.  According  to  another 
experiment,  it  only  yielded  one-fifth  more,  and  another  only  one  tenth.  The  variation  in 
these  results  was,  in  a  great  measure,  created  by  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil.  The 
richer,  deeper,  and  more  free  from  stones  and  weeds  the  soil  is,  the  greater  will  be  the 
advantages  arising  from  drill-sowing;  whUe  on  poor,  shallow  land,  the  benefit  wUl  be  but 
trifling." 

Where  soil  is  not  naturally  very  fertile,  it  should  be  made  so  artificially  before  appropri- 
ating it  to  the  culture  of  wheat,  as  this  crop  wLU  never  be  abundant  on  a  poor  or  shallow  soil. 
Some  farmers  whose  land  is  exposed  to  cold,  sweeping  winds  make  a  practice  of  sowing  from 
two  to  three  pecks  of  oats  per  acre  with  their  winter  wheat  as  a  protection,  since  the  oats  will 
grow  up  much  more  rapidly  than  the  wheat,  and  will  help  to  shade  and  protect  it  from  winds 
and  the  cold.  When  frosts  come,  the  oats  die,  but  in  falling  they  cover  and  shield  the 
wheat,  a  protection  to  the  roots  and  leaves  which  remains  through  the  winter,  while  the  little 
that  is  extracted  from  the  soil  by  their  growth,  is  returned  to  it  by  their  decay.  By  this 
means  the  wheat  crop  is  less  liable  to  winter-kill,  and,  being  kept  warm  through  the  cold 
weather,  has  an  earlier  start  and  more  vigorous  growth  in  the  spring.  The  different  varieties 
of  wheat  will  be  sure  to  mix  if  planted  near  each  other,  and  this  mixture  will,  almost  with- 
out exception,  be  deleterious  to  the  grain;  hence,  ii  different  varieties  are  to  be  sown  on  the 
same  or  contiguous  farms,  they  should  be  in  distant  fields,  that  the  different  kinds  may  be 
kept  pure  and  unmixed.  An  occasional  change  of  seed  should  be  practiced,  as  this  will 
increase  the  vigor  and  productiveness  of  the  plants,  deterioration  being  sure  to  follow  the 
use  of  the  same  seed  for  several  successive  years  on  the  same  soil. 

The  Depth  of  Covering  Wheat  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  nature  of  the 
soil ;  a  heavy,  moist  soil  requiring  less  depth  generally  than  one  that  is  hght  and  dry.  From 
two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  is  the  usual  depth,  although  some  very  dry  soils  may  require 
three  inches,  and  some  that  are  very  moist  and  mellow  may  not  require  more  than  one  and  a 
half,  but  this  would  be  the  exception ;  we  should  say  that  about  two  and  a  half  inches  would  be 


276 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


WHEAT.  277 

the  average  depth  for  most  soils.  A  recent  experiment,  by  a  well  known  agricultui-ist,  on  the 
depth  at  which  wheat  should  be  covered,  resulted  as  follows .  of  fifty  grains  deposited  at  the 
depth  of  eight  inches,  only  two  came  up  and  these  formed  no  heads;  at  a  depth  of  seven 
inches,  one-fourth  came  up,  but  formed  no  heads.  Ten  out  of  fifty  came  up  when  covered 
five  inches  deep,  but  had  defective  heads.  At  four  inches  covering  there  were  a  few  perfect 
heads,  but  the  majority  were  objectionable.  Of  those  covered  three  inches,  all  came  up,  but 
the  best  yield  was  from  those  covered  only  two  inches  deep.  "We  regret  to  state  that  in  these 
experiments  the  conditions  of  the  soil,  or  its  quality,  was  not  stated,  nor  the  state  of  the  sea- 
son, but  from  the  results  obtained,  we  infer  that  the  soil  was  moist,  and  that  the  season 
afforded  the  average  amount  of  rain. 

After-Culture  of  Wheat. — It  has  been  found  by  repeated  experiments  that 
loosening  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  the  growing  wheat-plants  adds  materially  to  the  crops, 
when  done  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  proper  manner;  hence,  when  wheat  is  sown  broad- 
cast, harrowing  in  the  spring  is  often  resorted  to,  and  although  it  may  result  in  the  loss  of 
some  of  the  plants,  this  process  is  thought  to  produce  such  an  increased  and  rapid  growth- 
combined  with  the  tillering  which  it  produces,  that  the  benefits  derived  more  than  compensate 
for  the  loss,  tillering  being  desired  when  it  occurs  so  that  the  heads  will  ripen  about  the 
same  time.  In  England  the  practice  of  drilling  wheat  and  hoeing  between  the  rows  or  drills 
has  been  generally  followed  for  several  \'ears,  and  the  increase  in  the  amount  thus  produced 
seems  to  well  repay  for  the  additioijal  labor.  The  practice  of  cultivating  the  growing  crop 
has  been  adopted  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country,  but  will  probably  become  in  a  few 
years  the  common  method,  especially  wliere  wheat  is  sown  in  drills.  Some  of  the  wheat  hoes 
and  cultivators  that  have  recently  been  invented  have  proved  very  efficient  and  valuable 
.  implements  for  this  purpose.  These  should  be  employed  to  loosen  the  soil  and  exterminate 
the  weeds,  but  care  should  be  used  not  to  break  or  disturb  the  roots  of  the  growing  plants. 
The  former  practice  in  England  of  hoeing  drilled  wheat  by  hand,  involved  much  time  and 
labor.  This  process  would  not,  of  course,  be  practicable  in  this  country  on  farms  where  its 
extensive  culture  is  carried  on.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  a  field  of  winter  wheat  with  the 
roller  in  the  spring,  in  order  to  press  back  those  roots  of  the  plant  that  have  been  thrown 
out  by  the  action  of  the  frost.  This  should  not  be  done,  however,  until  the  frost  is  entirely 
out  of  the  ground. 

Harvestiug. — The  time  for  harvesting  wheat  is  when  the  part  of  the  stalks  near  the 
ground  has  turned  yellow,  and  the  interior  of  the  kernel  has  passed  from  a  milk  state  into  a 
harder  consistency,  sometimes  denominated  the  "dough  state,"  which  is  when  it  is  easily 
compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  If  cut  before  this  time,  repeated  experiments 
have  proven  that  the  kernels  of  grain  will  shrink  and  give  light  weight  and  reduced  measure) 
although  the  straw  will  be  more  valuable  for  fodder,  as  a  portion  of  the  nutriment  that  goes 
to  perfect  the  formation  of  the  kernel  at  that  time  still  remains  in  the  stalk.  If  the  wheat 
stands  later  than  this  period  before  harvesting,  the  grain  will  be  liable  to  waste  from  shelling 
out  in  the  field,  and  the  straw  will  become  quite  hard  and  less  valuable  for  use  as  fodder. 
"Where  only  a  few  acres  of  wheat  are  raised,  it  can  be  cut  by  hand,  but  large  fields  require 
the  use  of  the  reaper.  Cutting  by  hand  is  a  slow  and  laborious  process,  and  where  the  field 
is  large,  much  of  the  grain  will  become  over-ripe  and  shell  out  with  a  consequent  loss;  there- 
fore, it  is  always  best  to  hire  a  reaping  machine  where  one  is  owned  on  the  premises. 

The  improved  reapers  and  binders  of  the  present  time,  that  will  reap  and  bind  from  six- 
teen to  eighteen  acres  of  any  kind  of  grain  per  day,  with  the  aid  of  only  one  man  and  a  pair 
of  horses,  show  the  advancement  made  in  agriculture  since  the  period,  comparatively  but  a 
few  years  remote,  when  all  the  grain  harvested  was  cut  by  hand.  The  McCormick  reaper 
and  twine-binder  of  which  we  have  previously  given  an  illustration  represents  one  of  these 


278 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


improved  machines  at  work  in  the  field,  showing  the  facihty  and  ease  with  which  the  grain 
is  cut  and  bound.  The  dropper,  which  is  a  machine  that  combines  both  mower  and  reaper, 
is  adapted  to  the  wants  of  those  farmers  who  raise  considerable  grass,  and  small  crops  of 
grain,  and  who  do  not  need  separate  machines  for  each  kind  of  catting.  These  machines  are 
manufactured  by  the  McCormick  Harvesting  Machine  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

'     :'   '       ..  »■    -  r^^^.;:^; ■'•'^  The  self -binding  har- 

'53  l-'.lvr^^^s^^^^i^^H.^'    5-     ^  Tester  and  New  Buckeye 

I  table  rake  represent  ma- 

chines manufactured  by 
Aultman,  Miller  &  Co., 
Akron,  Ohio.  The  small 
surface  of  straw  covered 
by  the  twine  in  binding 
does  not  prevent  the  air 
from  passing  through 
the  sheaf  readily,  hence 
it  wiU  dry  much  sooner 
than  the  straw-bound 
bundle. 

Twine  is  preferred  to 
wire  in  binding,  since 
the  wire  in  the  thresh- 
ing-machine is  injurious 
to  the  straw,  and  only 
straw  that  is  to  be 
burned  should  have 
pieces  of  wire  scattered 
through  it  ;  besides  it 
requires  considerable 
time  and  labor  to  re- 
move the  wire  bands 
fast  enough  for  the 
thresher,  difBculties 
which  are  all  obviated 
by  the  use  of  twine. 

The  Table  Eake  does 
valuable  service  as  a 
harvester,  both  in  stand- 
ing and  in  lodged  or 
tangled  grain. 

In  California  a  ma- 
chine called  the  header 
is  used  m  harvesting 
wheat,  which  cuts  off 
merely  the  heads  of  the 
grain,  leaving  the  straw 
standing  in  the  field. 
It  is  admirably  adapted 
to  that  locality  as  will 
be  seen  by  the  follow- 
ing   from   the  pen    of 


WHEAT. 


279 


Col.  Marshall  P.  Wilder 
five  bushels  to  the  acre. 


"  In  favorable  seasons  the  yield  of  wheat  in  CaUfomia  is  about  twenty- 
Instances,  are  not  uncommon  where  in  new  and  very  fertile  loca- 
tions it  has  reached 
fifty  and  even  sixty, 
and  seventy  bushels 
per  acre.  The  seed 
is  large,  plump, 
white,  and  so  well 
ripened  by  the  high 
temperature,  that  it 
may  be  stored  in 
bulk  for  months 
without  danger  of 
sweating  or  injury, 
and  in  fact  often 
requires  moistening 
before  it  is  ground. 
The  quaUty  of  the 
California  wheat  is 
w  o  r  1  d-w  i  d  e  r  e- 
nowned  for  its 
weight,  strength 
and  whiteness. 
Some  of  the  dis- 
tricts, such  as  Ala- 
meda, Santa  Clara 
and  San  Mateo,  pro- 
duce the  finest 
wheat  in  the  world ; 
and  the  quality  of 
the  whole  state  av- 
erages better  than 
that  of  the  states 
this  side  of  the  Ne- 
vadas.  A  s  there  is 
no  rain  in  the  sum- 
mer, the  grain  crops 
are  left  standing  in 
the  fields  for  weeks 
after  they  are  ripe. 
Much  of  the  grain 
is  harvested  by  a 
machine  called  the 
header,  which  pass- 
es through  the  field 
cutting  a  swath  fif- 
teen feet  wide,  taking  off  the  heads  eight  inches  long,  throwing  them  into  a  wagon  by  its 
side,  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  in  less  than  an  hour.  The  crops  are  generally  threshed  by  a 
steam  machine  brought  into  the  field.     This  machine  requires  two  horses,  two  men,  and  two 


18 


280 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


horse-forks  to  feed  it, 
and     we     were     told, 
threshed  800  to  1,000 
bushels  of   wheat  and 
put  in  bags  per  day. 
These  bags  remain  in 
the  open  field  piled  up 
in  rows  until  taken  away 
by  teams  to  the  railroad 
stations     "We  saw  acres 
of  bags  piled   up  five 
bags  high  awaiting  ship- 
ment.    On  many  of  the 
large  farms,  the  plow- 
ing  is  done  by  gang- 
plows,  six  abreast,  and 
drawn  by  ten  or  twelve 
horses.     A  sower  is  at- 
tached to  the  plow,  and 
in  this  way  nine  or  ten 
acres  of  grain  may  be 
put  in  the  ground  in  a 
day.      And    have   you 
ever    thought    of    the 
importance    of    labor- 
saving     machines,     as 
applied  to  the  arts  of 
husbandry  ?     Without 
the  modern  inventions, 
the  crops  of  our  coun- 
try could  not  be  har- 
vested,   its    prosperity 
would     be     paralyzed,- 
and    a    partial    famine 
would  soon  ensue.  How 
wonderful  the  improve- 
ments in  our  own  day  ! 
Some  of  us  remember 
the  old  wooden  plow  of 
our  boyhood,  for  which 
we  often  drove  the  team 
afield,  and  which  with 
much  hard  labor  could 
be  made  to 
turn  the  fur- 
ro ws    for 
only    about 
one  acre  per 
day.     Com- 
p  are  this 
with    the 


CEREALS. 


281 


modern  iron  plough  suited  to  all  soils  and  situations,  and  still  more  marvelous,  the  steam 
plough,  walking  like  a  thing  of  life  across  the  broad  prairie,  turning  up  its  numerous  furrows, 
at  once,  and  leaving  behind  it  a  broad  wake  like  that  of  a  majestic  ship  1  Compare  the  old 
scythe  and  sickle  of  our  fathers,  slowly  and  tediously  gathering  up  their  crops,  with  our 
mowing  and  reaping  machines,  cutting  down  their  ten  to  twenty  acres  per  day  1"  In  climates 
less  favorable  than  California,  where  wheat  cannot  be  immediately  threshed  in  the  field,  the 
boimd  sheaves  are  usually  stacked  until  ready  for  threshing,  or,  where  only  small  crops  are 
grown,  the  grain  is  put  in  a  barn  or  shed.  In  some  localities  it  is  customary  to  put  it  in  small 
stacks  or  small  collections  of  sheaves,  which  gives  the  grain  a  better  opportunity  of  drying 
where  it  is  not  fully  ripened. 

When  the  season  has  been  quite  dry,  it  is  common  for  our  large  grain  growers  to  thresh 
the  wheat  without  stacking  it,  but  when  it  has  ripened  in  very  warm  and  rainy  weather,  the 
grain  is  usually  stacked  and  goes  through  the  "sweating"  process,  which  is  a  dampness 
accompanied  with  considerable  heat  to  the  straw  and  grain,  but  which  passes  off  after  a  few 


FARQUHAR  S    THRESHER   AND  CLEANER. 

days  when  the  grain  and  straw  become  dry  and  ready  for  threshing,  which  could  not  be  done 
when  the  grain  was  damp,  as  the  kernels  would  adhere  to  the  straw.  The  color  of  the 
kernel  is  somewhat  changed,  being  brightened  by  this  process,  and  it  is  thought  to  improve 
the  quality  of  the  flour.     Grain  should  be  sufficiently  dry  when  stacked  to  prevent  moulding. 

Threshing. — The  common  practice  with  extensive  grain  growers  at  present,  is  to 
thresh  the  grain  in  the  field  with  machines  driven  by  either  steam  or  horse  power.  Before 
the  use  of  machines,  all  the  grain  was  threshed  by  hand,  which  was  a  laborious  practice,  but 
since  the  introduction  of  the  various  agricultural  implements  in  present  use,  the  amount  of 
labor  requisite  for  the  cultivation  of  agricultural  products  has  not  only  been  greatly  lessened. 
but  the  amount  of  crops  produced  vastly  increased,  resulting  in  a  proportionate  increase  of 
wealth  and  prosperity  to  the  country. 

By  the  use  of  the  thresher  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  prepare  his  grain  for  market  in  a 
short  time  if  desirable,  when  prices  favor  an  early  sale,  thus  saving  the  expense  and  labor  of 
storing  it,  and  the  possible  consequent  loss,  besides  the  trouble  of  insuring  it.  to  say  nothing 
of  the  loss  of  interest  and  annoyance  of  vermin  that  often  attend  its  storage. 


282  THE  AJEERICAN  FARMER. 

The  preceding  cuts  represent  machines  manufactured  by  A.  B.  Farquhar,  York,  Pa.  The 
first  shows  the  thresher  at  work.  The  second  represents  the  same  machine  geared,  with 
power  ready  for  work,  and  with  the  elevator  and  straw-stacker  attached.  These  machines 
thresh  the  grain,  separate  it  from  the  straw,  and  clean  and  bag  it  ready  for  market. 


wheeler's  thresher  and   cleaner. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  very  good  thresher,  manxifactured  by  the  Wheeler  and 
Meelick  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y.  It  is  a  two  horse  power  machine  and  is  a  thresher  and  cleaner 
combined. 

Diseases  and  Insects  of  Wheat. — The  diseases  and  enemies  of  wheat  are  more 
numerous  than  those  of  any  other  cereal,  and  have  sometimes,  in  certain  localities,  nearly  or 
wholly  cut  ofi  the  entire  crop.  The  most  destructive  diseases  of  wheat,  and  the  ones  which 
the  farmer  has  most  frequently  to  contend  with,  are  smut  and  rust.  The  destructive  insects 
are  numerous,  the  principal  being  the  chinch  bug  and  Hessian  fly. 

Smut  is  a  disease  of  grains  in  which  the  kernels  assume  a  dark  brown  or  black  appear- 
ance, or  are  converted  into  masses  of  blackish  powder.  It  is  caused  by  parasitic  fungi  which 
are  propagated  by  spores,  and  which  absorb  the  nutritive  juices  of  the  stalks  or  heads  to 
which  they  are  attached.  There  are  many  varieties  of  this  minute  plant  growth  or  fungus, 
hence,  that  which  attacks  wheat  (^TiJletia  caries),  is  of  a  different  species  from  that  of  oats, 
rye,  or  that  which  produces  distortions  of  the  ears  of  corn.  It  usually  first  attacks  the 
weaker  grains,  hence,  it  is  essential  that  only  the  largest  and  most  perfectly-developed 
seed  should  be  sown,  and  also  those  obtained  from  a  field  unaffected  by  the  disease.  The 
usual  remedy  is  to  soak  the  seed  in  very  strong  and  quite  hot  brine  before  sowing,  stirring  it 
well,  and  skimming  off  all  the  imperfect  kernels  that  rise  to  the  top.  afterwards  mixing  it 
thoroughly  with  slaked  lime,  and  sow  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  process  seems  to  destroy 
the  germ  of  the  fungi,  and  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  known.  Another  method  to  cleanse 
the  seed  is  to  soak  it  in  a  tub  for  two  or  three  hours  in  a  solution  made  of  four  ounces  of 
sulphate  of  copper  to  a  gallon  of  water,  or  the  grain  may  be  put  in  a  basket  on  an  elevation, 
under  which  a  board  may  be  placed  in  a  sloping  condition  with  a  tub  under  the  end  to  catch 
the  solution  as  it  is  poured  over  the  grain  and  filters  through.  A  flannel  cloth  should  be 
placed  over  the  tub  to  strain  out  the  smut  that  washes  from  the  grain.  When  it  ceases  to 
drip,  the  contents  of  the  tub  can  again  be  turned  into  the  basket  over  the  grain,  and  the  pro- 
cess repeated  until  it  is  thoroughly  cleansed,  after  which  it  should  be  spread  on  the  barn-floor 
and  dried  by  being  mixed  with  a  little  lime. 

Bust  is  also  produced  by  the  growth  of  microscopic  vegetation,  and  is  most  common  in 
wet,  hot  weather.     Winter  wheat  is  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by  it  than  spring  wheat,   and 


WHEAT.  283 

some  varieties  are  more  readily  affected  than  others.  Like  smut,  it  is  more  liable  to  attack 
the  weaker  plants,  which  is  an  added  argument  in  favor  of  always  sowing  the  best  seed, 
since  these  wUl  produce  the  most  hardy  plants,  and  consequently  crops  less  liable  to  disease  of 
any  kind.  It  affects  the  stalks  of  wheat  while  the  grain  is  forming,  the  minute  plants  making 
horizontal  ridges  along  the  stalks  of  the  wheat,  which  are  of  a  russet  orange  tint.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  spores,  or  seeds  of  the  fungus,  are  constantly  in  the  air,  and  when  they  fall 
upon  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  some  plants,  quickly  germinate,  and  subsist  upon  their  sap. 
Rusts  of  different  species  affect  the  leaves  of  many  plants;  wheat,  oats,  the  bean,  strawber- 
ry, raspberry,  pear,  apple,  quince,  hawthorn,  mountain- ash,  oak,  beet,  cabbage,  clover,  fern, 
flax,  barberry,  rose,  sorrel,  thistle,  and  many  others,  both  wild  and  cultivated.  It  is  a  ques- 
tion if  one  kind  will  not  affect  a  plant  of  another  variety;  it  is  known  that  some  rusts  infect 
other  plants  than  their  own  native  sort. 

There  seems  to  be  no  remedy  for  this  disease  when  it  once  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
field,  and  the  grain  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  admissible.  The  only  remedy  is  in  pre- 
vention, by  selecting  the  most  hardy  varieties,  and  sowing  the  most  perfectly-formed  and  ri- 
pened seed  of  such  varieties.  Sowing  on  elevated  lands  where  the  air  has  a  free  circulation, 
and  the  abundant  use  of  fertilizers  that  contain  salt,  lime,  or  gypsum  is  thought  by  some  to 
be  in  a  great  measure  a  preventive.  The  evil  may  be  largely  remedied  by  treating  the  seed 
before  sowing  as  directed  for  smut.  This  process  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  germ  of  the 
disease.  The  use  of  a  solution  of  bluestone  in  the  proportion  of  one-fourth  of  a  poxmd  to  a 
bushel  of  wheat,  is  recommended  by  Prof.  Pendleton  for  both  rust  and  smut. 

Chinch  Bug.  —  The  msects  that  are  destructive  to  wheat  are  very  numerous  and  for- 
midable, embracing  many  varieties  of  flies,  weevils,  bugs,  worms,  caterpillars,  &c.,  the  most 
destructive  of  which  are  the  Chinch-bug  and  the  Hessian-fly.  The  Chinch-bug,  (^Blissus  ca- 
copterus  Say)  is  one  of  the  most  formidable  and  destructive  pests  with  which  the  farmer 
has  to  contend,  as  it  attacks  not  only  the  wheat  crop,  but  also  indian  corn  and  the  various 
kinds  of  other  grains,  besides  grass,  garden  vegetables,  &c.  This  bug  is  about  three-twenti- 
eths of  an  inch  in  length  and  has  white  fore-wings,  each  having  a  black  spot  in  the  middle  of 
its  edge;  the  body  being  usually  black.  The  wingless  young  are  at  first  red,  with  a  white 
band  on  the  back,  and,  aside  from  this  latter  characteristic,  somewhat  resemble  the  bed-bug. 
It  is  slow  in  motion,  and  possesses  no  other  weapon  of  destruction  than  its  tiny  beak,  with 
which  it  attacks  the  tender  parts  of  the  plants,  sucking  the  juices,  apparently  poisoning  the 
part  that  is  bitten ;  yet  although  small,  it  makes  up  by  numbers  for  the  lack  of  individual  de- 
structive capacity,  being  very  prolific.  This  insect  is  not  imcommon  in  New  England  and 
other  parts  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  but  there  its  ravages  are  not  as  con- 
spicuous as  in  the  extensive  grain-growing  sections,  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  having  suf- 
fered  extensively  from  its  ravages.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  ground,  about  five 
hundred  in  number,  and  there  are  often  two  broods  of  the  larvae  in  a  single  year.  The  first 
brood  begins  its  attack  upon  the  wheat  crop  generally  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  does 
not  always  disappear  before  the  middle  of  August.  The  second  brood  appears  in  Autumn. 
In  the  year  1864  about  one-half  of  the  corn  and  three-fourths  of  the  wheat  crops  in  many  sec- 
tions were  destroyed  by  this  pest,  the  estimate  in  loss  to  the  country  being  about  a  hundred 
millions  of  dollars.  After  that  they  seemed  to  nearly  disappear  for  a  time.  They  are  now 
quite  common  again,  and  very  troublesome  in  certain  sections.  Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas  states 
that  two  successive  dry  years  are  necessary  to  the  development  of  them  in  large  and  injurious 
numbers,  and  that  wet  weather  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  both  eggs  and  larvae.  Various 
remedies  are  resorted  to  in  order  to  accomplish  the  destruction  of  these  insects.  As  they  seek 
hiding  places  in  the  stubble,  weeds,  corn-stalks,  and  all  the  rubbish  that  can  accumulate  in  a 
field,  many  are  destroyed  by  clearing  the  field  of  everything,  including  weeds  and  grass  of 
the  fence  comers,  by  burning,  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  taken  from  it.     Another  practice  is  to 


284 


THE  AiEERICAX  FARMER 


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B  H  o  Sis  <  2  ^  -      n 

O  — .^— i-i 

5  =•-  =  '-'■ 


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G  a  9 
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g£.a 


B     i 


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a      S-     ~3 


WHEAT.  285 

plow  under  very  deep  all  the  stubble  of  the  small  grain  as  soon  as  cleared  of  other  rubbish 
by  burning.  Rolling  the  field  as  soon  as  the  gram  is  sown,  and  again  when  it  is  four  or  five 
inches  high,  destroys  many  of  the  eggs. 

There  seems  to  be  no  effectual  remedy  for  exterminating  these  pests,  and  the  best  method 
is  to  make  the  land  very  fertile  and  give  the  crop  an  early  and  vigorous  growth  before  they 
make  their  appearance,  that  it  may  be  able  to  better  withstand  the  attacks,  and  be  less  injured 
by  it.     Prof.  C.  V.  Riley  says:  — 

"  Not  to  mention  the  different  means  to  be  employed  in  counteracting  the  ravages  of 
this  insect,  a  diversified  agriculture  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  effectual.  It  must  neces- 
sarily follow  that  the  more  extensive  any  given  crop  is  cultivated  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
crops,  the  more  will  the  peculiar  insects  which  depredate  upon  it  become  unduly  and  inju- 
riously abundant.  The  chinch  bug  is  confined  in  its  depredations  to  the  grasses  and  cereals. 
Alternate  your  timothy,  wheat,  barley,  corn,  etc.,  upon  which  it  flourishes,  with  any  of  the 
numerous  crops  on  which  it  cannot  flourish,  and  you  very  materially  affect  its  power  for 
harm.  A  crop  of  corn  or  wheat  grown  on  a  piece  of  land  entirely  free  from  chinch  bugs 
will  not  suffer  to  the  same  extent  as  a  crop  grown  on  land  where  the  insects  have  been  breed- 
ing and  harboring.  This  fact  is  becoming  partially  recognized,  and  already  hemp,  flax,  and 
castor  beans  are  to  some  extent  cultivated  in  localities  where  they  have  not  hitherto  received 
much  attention.  But  there  are  many  other  valuable  root  and  forage  plants  that  may  yet  be 
introduced  and  grown  as  field  crops;  and  if  the  late  calamities  only  awaken  the  farmers  of 
this  country  to  a  fuU  realization  of  the  importance  of  greater  diversification  in  their  culture, 
the  lesson  will  not  be  too  dearly  bought. 

Of  root  crops  that  would  escape  the  ravages  of  the  winged  insects,  and  which  would 
grow  in  ordinary  seasons,  and  furnish  excellent  food  for  stock,  may  be  mentioned  turnips, 
ruta  bagas,  mangel  wurzel,  carrots  (especially  the  large  Belgian),  parsnips  and  beets.  Of 
tubers  that  are  not  as  profitable  but  of  which  it  would  be  well  to  plant  small  quantities  in 
locust  districts,  for  the  reason  that  they  grow  with  such  ease,  and  are  less  likely  to  be  injured 
by  the  insects,  the  Chinese  Yam,  Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuberosw),  and  the  Chufa 
(Cyperous  esculentus),  are  worthy  of  trial." 

Hessian  Fly.  —  This  insect  is  so  called  because  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  this  country  from  Germany,  by  the  Hessian  troops,  in  their  straw,  during  the  year  1776, 
at  which  time  the  British  army,  then  occupying  Staten  Island,  received  large  re-enforcements 
of  Hessians  under  General  De  Heister.  It  is  very  destructive  to  wheat,  and  produces  two  or 
three  broods  each  year.  It  is  found  in  the  winter  wheat  from  late  in  the  autumn  through 
the  winter,  until  about  the  middle  of  April,  the  larvae  of  this  brood  being  found  between  the 
stalk  and  sheathing-base  of  the  leaf  of  the  young  grain  near  the  root,  and  slightly  beneath 
the  ground.  The  second  brood  attacks  the  wheat  m  the  late  spring  and  summer,  and  are 
an  inch  or  two  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  lower  joints  of  the  stalk. 

" In  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  therefore,"  says  Fitch,  "our  crops  of  winter  wheat 
are  liable  to  two  attacks  of  the  Hessian  fly,  one  generation  reared  at  its  roots  producing 
another,  which  occupies  the  lower  joints  of  the  stalks.  Thus  the  larvse  and  pup»  are  present 
in  it  almost  continually,  from  the  time  the  tender  young  blades  appear  above  the  ground  in 
autumn  tiU  the  grain  ripens  and  is  harvested  the  next  summer  Our  spring  wheat,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  rear  but  one  brood  of  these  insects;  they  consequently  resort  to  it  but  little, 
if  at  all.  Nor  can  the  Hessian  fly  sustain  itself  except  in  districts  where  winter  wheat  is 
cultivated,  in  which  for  it  to  nestle  during  the  autumn  and  winter." 

The  first  brood  usually  appears  in  April  and  May,  the  second  in  August  and  the  early 
part  of  September,  while  a  third  sometimes  appears  in  October.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  as 
is  the  case  with  all  other  insects,  the  varying  degrees  of  heat  and  cold  will  accelerate  or 
retard  the  various  transformations  of  the  Hessian  fly.     In  from  four  to  eight  days  after  the 


286  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

fly  has  deposited  her  eggs  upon  the  leaves  of  the  growing  plant,  they  hatch  and  the  maggots 
or  larvsB  work  down  the  leaf  between  the  sheath  and  stem  to  a  joint  in  the  stalk,  and  attach 
themselves,  feeding  upon  the  juices  of  the  plant,  which  soon  shows  unmistakable  signs  of 
their  presence  by  turning  yellow,  and  a  swelling  of  the  stalk.  Sometimes  the  joint  of  the 
plant  becomes  so  weakened,  that  it  breaks  off  at  the  point  of  their  depredations.  In  five  or 
six  weeks  they  enter  a  semi-pupa,  or  what  is  termed  the  '-flaxseed  state,"  from  which  they 
change  into  the  pupa,  and  then  become  perfect  insects. 

The  remedies  are  those  suggested  for  the  chinch  bug,  burning  all  the  stubble  and  refuse 
of  the  field  in  the  autumn,  being  the  most  effectual;  however,  this  necessitates  also  the 
destruction  of  the  parasites  of  the  fly,  which  destroy  large  numbers  of  them.  Some  recom- 
mend late  sowing  as  a  remedy  to  avoid  the  evil,  since  if  deferred  until  the  fly  has  laid  its  eggs, 
the  wheat  escapes  the  first  brood;  but  this  is  objectionable  in  respect  to  the  crop  not  being 
thus  able  to  obtain  a  good  start  before  the  frost  comes,  and  will  consequently  be  Liable  to 
winter  kill.  Pasturing  the  crop  with  sheep  for  a  day  or  two,  or  mowing  off  the  tops  of  the 
plants  and  feeding  to  stock  in  order  to  destroy  the  eggs,  together  with  the  use  of  the  roller, 
are  means  often  employed,  but,  as  we  have  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  the  chinch  bug, 
and  as  has  previously  been  stated,  we  consider  burning  the  stubble  the  most  effectual  remedy 
aside  from  that  of  giving  the  best  chance  to  the  crop  to  obtain  a  vigorous  growth  before  these 
pests  make  their  appeai'ance. 

Prof.  Cook,  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  states  that  when  the  season  approaches, 
the  flies  will  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  first  suitable  plant  they  can  find,  and  recommends 
sowing  a  narrow  strip  of  wheat  around  each  field  in  August  or  early  in  September,  and  defer 
as  long  as  the  season  will  permit,  sowing  the  wheat  from  which  the  crop  is  to  be  obtained. 
By  this  means,  the  wheat  sown  in  the  strip  will  make  its  appearance  first,  and  most  of  the 
eggs  of  the  fly  will  be  laid  upon  it,  after  which  period  it  should  be  plowed  under  very  deeply, 
that  the  eggs  may  be  destroyed,  and  the  later  wheat  then  sowed.  The  outer  strip  may  then 
be  included  also.  This  method,  if  successfully  carried  out,  will  destroy  the  fly  and  protect 
the  wheat  at  the  same  time.  These  insect  pests  come  and  go  in  occasional  and  consecutive 
years,  and  will  sometimes  disappear  altogether  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  when  they  will 
again  suddenly  make  their  appearance.  There  are  several  kinds  of  destructive  parasites  of 
the  Hessian  fly,  the  combined  attacks  of  which  are  supposed  by  entomologists  to  destroy 
about  nine-tenths  of  all  that  are  hatched.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Chalcid  four- 
winged  fly  [Semiotellas  destructor),  which  destroys  what  is  termed  the  "  flaxseed  ";  there  is  also 
another  important  parasite  that  does  much  injury  to  the  eggs.  An  application  of  unleached 
ashes  in  damp  weather  is  sometimes  beneficial  in  destroying  the  larvae,  and  lime  and  soot  are 
used  with  the  same  effect,  but  lime  should  be  applied  with  care,  as  it  is  liable  to  injure  the 
plant.  The  sowing  of  hardy  varieties  is  advisable  as  a  protection  against  most  of  the  dis- 
eases or  insect  enemies  to  which  the  wheat  crop  is  subject.  Grasshoppers  or  locusts  are  often 
very  destructive  to  the  cereal  crops  of  the  West,  coming  as  they  do  in  such  swarms  as  to  destroy 
every  green  thing,  and  leaving  no  appearance  of  vegetation  in  their  track.  We  know  of  no 
better  remedy  for  this  evil  than  the  prevention  of  the  wanton  destruction  of  birds,  which 
feed  upon  such  insects. 


RYE.  287 


RYE. 


THIS  crop  is  more  extensively  grown  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  than  in  any- 
other  section  of  the  country.  It  is  very  hardy  and  more  easily  cultivated  than  any 
of  the  other  smaller  grains,  unless  it  be  oats;  however,  it  will  thrive  where  oats  will 
not,  requiring  less  fertility,  a  sandy  soil  and  cold  climate  being  best  adapted  to  it.  It  is  often 
produced  in  the  Western  States  on  fields  that  have  become  partially  exhausted  from  the  con- 
stant  cropping  of  wheat,  large  crops  being  obtained  on  lands  that  would  utterly  fail  in  the 
wheat  crop  in  time  of  harvest.  When  we  take  into  consideration  the  cheapness  with  which 
rye  can  be  produced,  and  its  various  uses,  we  shall  find  that  there  is  scarcely  any  grain  that 
yields  so  large  a  return  for  what  is  expended.  Besides  its  various  uses  as  grain,  the  straw  is 
valuable  for  many  purposes,  such  as  for  cut-feed  for  either  horses,  cows,  or  any  other  stock, 
which  are  all  fond  of  it,  and  it  is  often  raised  for  this  purpose  principally,  and  cut  while  in 
the  blossom.  It  is  soft,  clean,  and  free  from  dust,  and  quite  nutritious  when  cut  in  the  blos- 
soming period  of  its  groivth,  is  rarely  injured  by  extreme  cold  winters,  and  grows  so  quickly 
in  the  spring  that  drouth  rarely  afiects  it;  it  is  valuable  to  supplement  the  hay  crop  in  case 
the  latter  is  for  any  reason  short.  There  is  nothing  so  cheap  and  convenient  for  use  on  the 
farm,  such  as  for  bands  to  tie  corn-shocks  and  bind  fodder,  etc.,  and  will  bring  as  high  a 
price  in  many  markets  as  the  grain  or  the  best  timothy  hay.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper. 

Rye  is  valuable  for  soiling,  producing  forage  late  in  autumn  and  early  in  the  spring;  for 
this  purpose  it  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  from  three  to  four  bushels  per  acre,  to  produce 
a  heavy  growth;  when  not  too  closely  fed,  and  on  good  soil,  it  will  often  produce  a  crop  of 
grain  also.  Such  feed  is  very  valuable  in  the  spring  for  cows  and  other  stock,  as  it  comes  on 
early  when  they  need  such  a  change  after  the  long  winter  with  its  attendant  dry  fodder.  A 
small  field  of  rye  for  this  purpose,  located  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  barn,  will  be 
found  a  profitable  investment  to  most  farmers.  When  clover  fails  to  catch,  as  it  sometimes 
will,  a  field  of  rye  will  be  found  a  good  substitute,  since  it  will  grow  so  rapidly  that  it  wUl  be 
ready  for  pasturing  stock  at  least  two  weeks  earlier  than  clover.  Some  farmers  sow  timothy 
seed  with  the  rye  in  the  fall,  which  will  come  on  and  produce  good  feed  when  the  rye  has 
become  too  old  for  the  purpose,  and  thus  good  pasturage  will  be  secured  all  summer.  Rye  is 
a  valuable  manure  when  plowed  under  lightly  in  the  fall. 

It  is  also  a  well-known  preventive  of  washing  on  rolling  lands,  where  the  soil  is  easily 
gullied  out  by  water,  as  its  roots  grow  very  firmly  and  compact,  and  will  hold  and  protect  the 
young  grass  until  a  sward  is  formed.  We  have  omitted  to  state  anything  concerning  its 
bread-making  properties.  In  this  respect  it  is  second  only  to  wheat,  and  when  grown  continu- 
ously on  sandy  soil  especially  adapted  to  it,  will  produce  flour  nearly  as  white  as  some  brands 
of  wheat;  hence,  such  grain  has  gained  the  name  of  "  White  Rye,"  which  is  only  the  result 
of  culture,  and  not  a  difference  in  variety,  for  if  this  same  seed  be  sown  on  a  rich,  loamy 
soil,  the  flour  produced  will  be  of  a  darker  color,  and  when  repeated  crops  are  produced  on 
the  same  soil,  will  finally  become  as  dark  in  color  as  that  of  the  original  grain  first  used  upon 
the  sandy  soil.  The  unbolted  flour  has  a  peculiar  flavor  not  found  in  that  finely  bolted,  and 
is  much  used  in  connection  with  corn-meal,  in  making  the  brown  bread  so  commonly  found 
in  New  England  cooking,  as  well  as  many  of  the  other  States  in  the  eastern  section  of  the 
country.  Many  farmers  use  the  rye-field  for  fall  pasturage  of  stock,  especially  sheep,  young 
calves,  and  cows,  and  claim  that  a  benefit  to  the  crop  is  attained  through  the  trampling  of 
their  hoofs  and  the  grazing  of  the  flocks,  a  more  luxuriant  growth  in  the  spring  being  the 
result.  As  we  have  never  practiced  this  method  of  treatment,  we  cannot  speak  from  expe- 
rience as  to  results,  but  would  not  think  it  safe  to  pasture  rye  except  the  soil  were  quite  dry 
and  the  growth  unusually  luxuriant  and  heavy,  and  even  then  only  by  such  animals  as  sheep 


288  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

or  calves,  and  not  allow  it  to  be  grazed  very  closely,  as  there  should  be  a  sufficient  growth  of 
the  leaves  of  the  plant  to  afford  a  protection  to  the  roots  during  the  winter. 

Varieties  of  Rye.  —  These  consist  of  the  spring  and  winter  grain,  the  former  being 
only  a  modification  of  the  latter,  produced, — as  in  the  case  of  wheat, — by  continuous  late 
sowing  in  the  fall  for  several  years  until  the  result  is  a  grain  that  can  be  successfully  sown 
in  the  spring.  The  spring  variety  can  be  easily  transformed  into  the  winter  by  reversing  the 
process,  and  sowing  continuously  earlier  each  year,  until  the  usual  time  of  sowing  winter  rye 
is  reached. 

Soil  for  Rye. — Although  rye  can  be  successfully  grown  on  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
yet  it  is  of  the  finest  and  best  quality  when  produced  on  a  dry,  sandy  one,  where  few,  if  any, 
other  grains  can  be  cultivated  with  equal  advantage.  By  this,  we  do  not  mean  the  poorest 
soil  that  can  be  found,  and  which  contains  but  little  of  the  elements  of  plant-food,  or  that  rye 
can  be  successfully  grown  with  but  slight  preparation  of  the  land,  and  the  constant  cropping 
of  the  same  fields  with  it,  and  no  manure  supplied  to  return  the  nutritive  properties  extracted 
by  the  successive  crops.  A  rotation  is  better  for  any  kind  of  crops,  J5nce  the  same,  repeated 
year  by  year,  without  any  equivalent  return  to  the  soil  of  the  plant-food  extracted,  will  drain 
it  more  surely  and  quickly  than  different  crops  succeeding  each  other,  as  different  plants 
require  different  proportions  of  the  elements  of  plant  nutrition  that  the  soil  furnishes. 

The  better  the  soil  is  adapted  to  any  plant,  the  better  its  preparation  for  the  seed  and 
the  after  cultivation,  the  better  the  crop,  as  a  general  rule,  and  while  we  do  not  think  those 
farmers  do  wisely  who  make  a  practice  of  giving  their  rye  the  poorest  soil,  with  little  or  no 
manure,  and  the  least  preparation  and  care  of  any  crop,  still  they  will  secure  a  better  harvest 
of  this  grain  under  such  unfavorable  circumstances  than  almost  any  other. 

The  most  profitable  agriculture  is  that  where  the  soil  and  cultivation  is  especially  adapted 
to  what  is  intended  to  be  produced,  and  no  farmer  has  a  right  even  to  expect  a  good  harvest 
without  giving  the  crop  to  be  cultivated  a  fair  chance  of  realizing  his  expectations. 

We  have  seen  a  good  growth  of  rye  on  a  sandy  soil  tliat  would  produce  scarcely  any- 
thing else,  but  the  soil  was  fairly  enriched  before  the  seed  was  sown.  Clay  is  not  favorable 
to  its  cultivation,  especially  a  heavy,  undrained  clay,  and  it  will  never  do  well  in  a  wet  soil 
of  any  kind.  A  clay  loam  will  produce  a  fine  growth  of  straw,  but  the  grain  will  not  be  as 
good  as  that  grown  on  a  sandy  soil,  the  latter  producing  a  more  plump  kernel  of  better  qual- 
ity than  the  former.  A  rich  loam  will  produce  a  larger  quantity  of  grain  than  sandy  soil, 
but  of  less  value.  Eye  is  a  strong  feeder,  and  will  extract  about  the  last  element  of  soluble 
plant  growth  from  the  soil;  hence,  land  that  has  become  so  exhausted  that  it  cannot  yield  rye, 
is  very  poor  indeed,  and  will  require  a  long  period  of  rest,  or  a  large  amount  of  manure  of 
some  kind  to  cause  it  to  produce  anything.  It  is  more  hardy  than  wheat  and  not  as  liable  to 
lodge  with  heavy  growth.  Almost  any  kind  of  fertilizer  is  beneficial, — finely-pulverized 
farm  manure,  that  from  a  well-prepared  compost  heap,  ashes,  or  chemical  fertilizers  having 
been  found  valuable  in  its  cultivation.  Green  manures  are  also  beneficial.  Rye  frequently 
follows  corn  in  cultivation  with  little  or  no  additional  fertilizers. 

The  color  of  the  grain,  as  well  as  its  quality  for  making  flour,  is  greatly  modified  by  the 
character  of  the  soil  that  produces  it. 

Sowing  and  Harvesting  Rye. — The  land  should  be  plowed  for  rye  to  a  moderate 
depth,  and  pulverized  with  the  harrow,  the  manure  to  be  lightly  harrowed  in  before  the  seed 
is  sown.  When  winter  rye  is  grown,  the  best  time  for  sowing  it  is  between  the  middle  of 
August  and  the  last  of  September,  although  many  farmers  delay  it  until  the  last  of  October. 
When  sown  early  it  has  a  better  chance  to  tiller  out  and  cover  the  ground  before  cold  weather 
than  that  sown  later,  also  a  better  start  in  the  spring;  consequently  late  sowing  is  not  desira- 
ble.    The  poorer  the  soil,  the  earlier  the  seed  should  be  sown,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  when 


289 


sown  early,  a  less  quantity  of  seed  will  be  required.  Winter  rye  is  to  be  preferred  to  the 
spring  variety,  but,  when  the  latter  is  sown,  it  should  be  put  into  the  ground  as  early  as  prac- 
ticable, that  is,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  a  suitable  condition  to  receive  it,  in  order  to  give 

it  an  early  growth.     The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown 
.":     ■  .        '     ,  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  time 

of  sowing.     On  light  lands,  and  if  sown  early,  from 

three  pecks  to  a  bushel  per  acre  is  the  usual  quantity 

when  sown  broadcast.     On  good  soil,  and  when  sown 

::^:     rather  late,  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  bushels  per  acre 

may  be  required.     "When  sown  principally  for  green 

__  ._    soiling  fodder,   or  pasturage,  where  a  luxuriant  and 

^^^--j.;-;,^,-,-;;;  heavy  growth  is  desirable,  from  three  to  four  bushels 

i;§  per  acre  may  be  sown,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 

soil.     When  drilled  in,  only  about  a  bushel  per  acre 

will  be  required  for  ordinary  land. 

cahoon's  broadcast  seed-soweh.  Small  fields  of  rye  are  still  sometimes  sown  by 

the  old-time  method, — by  hand,— but  the  broadcast  seed-sowers  and  drills  have,  in  a  great 

measure,  superseded  that  practice,  since  they  facilitate  labor  and  distribute  the  seed  so  much 


PHILADELPHIA    BROADCAST    SEED-SOWER. 


more  evenly  than  can  be  done  by  hand.  Where  largely  cultivated,  and  the  surface  of  the 
ground  will  admit,  it  is  usually  drilled  in  the  same  as  wheat.  In  the  use  of  the  seed-sowers, 
the  quantity  of  seed  per  acre  can  be  regulated  the  same  as  with  drills,  the  heavier  the  seed 
the  farther  it  can  be  thrown  by  the  sower.  A  hand  machine  will  sow  from  four  to  six  acres 
per  hour;   a  horse  machine,  from  twelve  to  fifteen. 

The  two  preceding  cuts  represent  machines  of  this  kind  for  sowing  broadcast  all  kinds 
of  small  seeds  and  grains,  as  well  as  the  various  chemical  fertihzers,  such  as  bone-dust,  plas- 
ter, pulverized  poultry  manure,  phosphates,  etc.  The  former  is  manufactured  by  the  Good- 
ell  Co.,  Antrim,  N.  H.,  the  latter  by  Benson,  Maule  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  following  figure  shows  a  machine  of  different  kind  for  the  same  purpose,  which  is 
attached  to  a  horse-rake  by  removing  the  teeth  from  the  latter,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  thus  com- 
bining two  farm  machines  in  one.  It  is  manufactured  by  Wheeler  &  Melick  Co.,  Albany, 
N   Y. 


290 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


Rye  should  be  covered  with  about  the  same  depth  of  soil  as  wheat,  and  should  also  be 
pressed  in  with  the  roller.  This  crop  is  sometimes  sown  among  the  standing  com  before  the 
latter  ripens,  and  is  covered  by  the  use  of  a  cultivator  or  hoe,  which  gives  the  corn  a  late 
hoeing  and  the  rye  an  early  sowing,  as  well  as  a  moist  and  sheltered  locality  at  a  period  in  the 


BROADCAST   GKAIN-SOWER,    PLASTER   AND   GUANO   DISTKIBUTOB 

season  when  drought  or  the  heat  of  the  sun  might  be  a  check  to  its  growth.  This  practice 
involves  extra  labor  in.  carrying  the  com  to  a  considerable  distance  in  harvesting  it,  or  the 
necessity  of  stacking  it  upon  the  rye,  and  we  are  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  derived 
advantage  from  it  is  not  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  extra  amount  of  labor  it  requires, 


MELICKS    RYE    THKESUEB. 


and  that  harvesting  the  com  as  early  as  it  is  ready  to  be  cut,  and   stacking  in  another  field 
and  sowing  the  rye  as  soon  as  possible  when  the  field  is  cleared,  is  a  better  one. 

No  after  cultivation  is  needed  for  rye,  except  perhaps  the  use  of  the  roller  after  it  is  well 
started,  which  is  thought  by  many  to  be  very  beneficial. 


RYE.  291 

"When  the  color  of  the  straw  changes,  and  the  kernel  passes  out  of  the  milk  state,  as  is 
the  case  with  wheat,  it  is  ready  to  be  cut,  which  may  be  done  with  the  reaper  and  self-binder, 
or  it  may  be  cradled  by  hand,  though,  of  course,  the  latter  is  a  very  slow  and  laborious  pro- 
cess, and  can  only  be  practicable  where  there  is  a  small  quantity  to  be  harvested.  When 
quite  free  from  weeds,  the  grain  will  usually  be  sufficiently  dry,  in  a  day  or  two  of  clear 
weather,  to  be  put  under  shelter;  but  if  the  weather  be  wet  and  many  weeds  have  been  har- 
vested with  it,  it  is  better  to  set  the  bundles  up  in  stacks  of  from  ten  to  twelve  each,  until 
dry.  The  practice  of  some  farmers  of  leaving  it  in  the  field  until  they  are  ready  to  thresh 
it,  is  not  one  to  be  recommended,  as  it  is  far  better  to  have  it  securely  under  cover  free  from 
exposure  to  rains,  being  often  seriously  injured  in  this  manner.  It  is  threshed  the  same  as 
wheat,  although  in  some  localities  a  special  rye-thresher  is  used,  which  sep)arates  the  grain 
from  the  straw,  without  injury  to  the  latter,  and  which  is  considered  an  advantage  in  sec- 
tions where  the  straw  is  used  for  making  paper,  or  where  it  is  put  up  in  bales  for  shipment. 

The  previous  cut  represents  such  a  thresher,  manufactured  by  the  Wheeler  &  Melick 
Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  machine  for  the  purpose. 

Diseases  of  Rye. — The  diseases  and  casualties  to  which  rye  is  subject  are  fewer  than 
those  of  wheat,  the  principal  being  ergot,  or  what  is  sometimes  termed  cockspur.  Like  rust 
and  smut,  this  is  a  fungoid  growth  or  parasitic  plant,  most  common  in  a  hot,  wet  season. 
It  grows  in  the  heads  of  rye,  causing  them  to  turn  black  and  send  out  long  spurs,  which  are  con- 
sidered quite  poisonoiis  for  man  or  beast,  when  eaten  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  are  also  supposed 
to  be  the  cause  of  serious  disease,  several  fatal  epidemics  in  Europe  having  been  traceable  to 
the  use  of  rye  when  thus  affected. 

The  sloughing  of  the  hoofs  and  horns  of  cattle  has  been  attributed  to  ergot  eaten  with 
,  grass  and  grain.  Emaciation  and  debility,  sometimes  resulting  in  the  death  of  animals,  is 
often  occasioned  by  it.  It  also  has  a  tendency  to  jDroduce  miscarriage  in  pregnant  animals. 
The  oil  extracted  from  these  spurs  or  fungoid  growths  is  sometimes  used  in  medical  practice. 
When  this  condition  of  the  grain  exists,  it  is  commonly  called  "  spurred  rye,"  and  was  long 
supposed  to  be  occasioned  by  diseased  kernels  of  the  grain;  but  microscopic  examination  has 
caused  the  present  prevalent  opinion,  that  it  grows  originally  from  the  ovary  of  the  grain, 
that  the  spores  of  the  plant  are  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  the  rye,  and  that  they  germinate 
there,  having  been  deposited  in  that  part  of  the  grain  by  the  sap. 

The  spurs  grown  on  the  rye-heads  are  generally  of  a  violet  black  or  dark  purple  exter- 
nally, and  are  whitish,  with  a  pink  tinge  within.  They  grow  from  a  third  of  an  inch  to  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and  have  an  unpleasant  rancid  taste.  The  mills  for  grinding  are 
so  arranged  that  most  of  this  poisonous  substance  is  separated  from  the  grain  by  the  grinding 
process,  and  largely  prevented  from  mixing  with  the  flour;  still,  there  is  risk  in  using  rye  that 
is  affected  by  ergot.  There  is  no  remedy  known,  when  it  attacks  the  grain,  hence  prevention 
is  the  only  means  to  be  used  in  avoiding  it.  If  possible,  the  seed  sown  should  be  from  a  field 
unaffected  by  it,  and  only  the  largest  and  most  perfect  grains  selected  for  the  purpose.  Before 
sowing,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  the  seed  into  hot  brine,  stirring  thoroughly  and  skimming  off 
all  that  rise  to  the  surface,  and  afterward  to  spread  it  and  dust  with  lime.  This  is  the  best 
preventive  of  the  evil  known.  Rust,  like  that  which  attacks  wheat,  is  also  known  to  rye,  and 
when  thus  affected  it  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  possible. 


292  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


OATS. 


THE  oat  plant  is  one  of  the  most  hardy  and  thrifty  of  grains,  and  is  a  native  of 
cold  climates,  although  it  will  adapt  itself  to  a  wide  range  of  latitude  and  a  great 
variety  of  soils.  It,  however,  succeeds  best  in  the  northern  part  of  the  temperate 
zone,  being  decidedly  a  plant  of  that  section,  but  does  not  reach  as  far  north  as  barley.  It 
can  be  grown  in  a  southern  latitude  where  the  summers  are  long  and  the  temperature  very 
warm,  but  it  does  not  flourish  as  well  in  such  localities,  and  is  apt  to  degenerate  under  such 
conditions  very  rapidly. 

As  with  most  of  the  other  cereals,  there  are  many  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  oats,  the 
difference  in  the  latter  being  due  mainly  to  difference  in  the  soil  and  chmate.  "WTiile  new 
kinds  are  being  frequently  introduced,  some  of  which  prove  very  valuable  and  fully  merit  the 
praises  they  receive  from  the  extensive  advertisements  given  them,  others  are  found  by 
repeated  experiments  and  considerable  expense  to  the  farmer,  to  be  failures,  as  far  as  their 
adaptation  to  general  cultivation  is  concerned.  Oats  that  are  imported  from  Norway  and 
Scotland  and  a  similar  latitude,  are  quite  heavy  and  have  a  plump  kernel,  also  those  from 
Canada,  but  if  sown  in  a  latitude  considerably  farther  south,  the  product,  with  the  cultivation 
they  at  present  receive,  sopn  degenerates  to  the  common  local  standard  in  quaUty.  TVe  be- 
lieve this  deterioration  is  mainly  due  to  the  indifferent  treatment  the  oat  receives  in  cultiva- 
tion almost  everywhere  in  this  country,  and  that  if  proper  care  were  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  the  seed,  and  preparations  of  the  soil  to  receive  it,  it  might  be  prevented.  The  grain  sown 
should  be  the  most  plump  and  perfect  kernels  from  a  crop  cultivated  on  good  soil  and  unaf- 
fected by  disease  of  any  kind,  such  as  rust  or  smut.  We  see  no  reason  why  oats  may  not  be 
cultivated  here  and  kept  up  to  their  original  standard  of  excellence,  or  even  improved  upon, 
as  well  as  any  other  crop,  when  properly  treated.  Tlie  general  idea  prevalent  among  farmers 
is,  that  oats  can  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  and  with  but  little  preparation,  the  poorest  land  and 
most  indifferent  cultiu'e  being  accordingly  given  them.  "Were  it  not  a  very  hardy  plant,  it  would 
utterly  fail  under  such  treatment.  With  some  pains  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  soU,  and 
a  suitable  supply  of  manure  given,  a  proiitable  crop  is  almost  always  a  certainty. 

This  grain  has  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  very  exhaustive  to  soils  upon  which  it  is 
grown,  which  we  are  inclined  to  think  is  unmerited,  and  that  if  the  soil  before  sowing  received 
the  same  amount  of  fertilizing  properties  given  to  many  other  crops,  it  would  be  found  to 
leave  that  soil  after  the  har\-est  more  fertile  than  many  crops  that  have  not  this  reputation. 
It  is  a  strong  and  vigorous  plant,  and  being  such  will  sometimes  smother  and  too  heavily 
shade  smaller  and  weaker  plants  that  may  be  grown  with  it, —  grass,  for  instance. 

It  is,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  a  very  good  practice,  and  one  adopted  by  many  farm- 
ers, to  sow  oats  with  winter  wheat  where  the  field  lies  in  an  exposed  and  cold  locality.  By 
this  means,  the  oats  soon  spring  up  and  grow  sufficient  to  give  protection  to  the  wheat  during 
the  ■ndnter,  their  leaves,  when  killed  by  the  frost,  forming  a  good  covering  for  the  wheat  crop, 
and  "  winter-killing"  is  prevented,  while  an  earlier  start  is  also  secured  in  the  spring.  The 
amotint  of  fertility  extracted  from  the  soil  by  the  growth  of  the  oats  is  returned  by  furnishing, 
in  this  way,  a  slight  dressing  to  the  surface  by  the  decay  of  their  leaves  and  stalks. 

Oats  are  cultivated  principally  in  England  as  provender  for  horses.  In  Scotland  they  are 
extensively  produced,  more  than  half  the  grain  crop  of  that  country  consisting  of  this  product. 

The  cultivated  oat  (^Avena  sattva)  is  an  annual,  although  the  genus  contains  several  peren- 
nial species.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  development  of  the  wild  oat  [Arena  fatua)  that  is  found 
in  Europe,  and  is  regarded  as  a  weed  also  in  California,  where  it  grows  wild  over  extensive 
tracts  of  land,  and  yields  a  good  quality  of  hay.  The  wild  oat  differs  from  the  cultivated 
variety  by  having  the  inner  palet  and  the  grain  covered  with  hair,  and  the  outer  palet  provided 
with  a  long  awn.    Experiments  made  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  England,  by  Prof. 


OATS.  293 

J.  Buckman,  prove  that  this  seed  when  gathered  ripe  and  sown  the  following  spring  will  pro- 
duce a  grain  differing  very  materially  from  the  original,  and  when  subjected  to  further  culti- 
vation, a  grain  is  produced  bearing  a  very  strong  resemblance  to  many  of  the  varieties  now 
cultivated.  Oats  vary  in  weight  per  bushel  according  to  the  variety,  some  of  the  large  and 
heavy-grained  variety  weighing  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds  per  bushel.  American  oats  vary 
generally  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds  per  bushel.  The  average  yield  of  oats  per  acre  in  the 
United  States  is  from  thirty  to  thirty -five  bushels.  When  the  soil  is  of  good  quality  and  well-pre- 
pared and  the  season  favorable,  the  crop  may  be  made  to  be  largely  in  excess  of  that  amount. 

As  a  proof  of  what  may  be  accomplished  with  this  crop  on  thin  soil,  a  thin,  rocky  drift 
soil  at  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  was  sown,  and  produced  without  manure,  fifteen 
bushels  per  acre.  With  a  suitable  supply  of  manure,  the  yield  was  sixty-two  bushels  per 
acre.  The  same  principle  holds  true  respecting  sowing  seed  that  is  free  from  smaller  and 
blighted  grains,  and  that  which  has  not  been  thus  separated.  At  the  Agricultural  College  at 
the  Wisconsin  University  the  experiment  was  tried  by  Prof.  Daniels  which  resulted  in  giving 
a  yield  of  48:|-  bushels  per  acre  to  the  cleaned  seed,  and  43f  bushels  per  acre  to  the 
Tincleaned.  As  a  general  result,  we  think  the  difference  would  be  considerably  greater  than 
these  figures  show. 

Oats  are  one  of  the  very  best  crops  cultivated  for  feeding  working  animals,  and  especially 
as  provender  for  the  horse,  they  are  superior  to  all  other  grains.  In  Scotland,  oatmeal  forms 
a  very  important  item  in  the  diet  of  the  peasantry,  as  well  as  that  of  the  more  wealthy  classes 
also,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  which  fact  has  been  attributed  the  robust  health,  strength  and  well- 
developed  forms  and  muscles  characteristic  of  that  nationality.  More  than  half  the  annual 
grain  crop  of  Scotland  consists  of  oats.  In  this  country  the  use  of  oatmeal  as  an  article  of 
diet  has  been  more  common  for  a  few  years  past,  and  if  the  taste  of  the  American  people 
could  be  cultivated  more  generally  in  the  direction  of  regarding  it  a  dish  to  tolerate,  (if  not  as 
a  palatable  one,)  —  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  would  do  much  towards  increasing  their  strengtli 
and  vigor  of  constitution. 

We  once  heard  a  gentleman  remark,  while  ordering  a  dish  of  oatmeal  at  a  hotel,  that  he 
did  not  Uke  the  food,  —  on  the  contrary  it  was  distasteful  to  him,  but  he  ate  it  from  prin- 
ciple, —  out  of  a  sense  of  duty,  or  "as  a  sort  of  penance  for  his  sins,"  hoping  to  receive 
good  to  the  body  thereby,  —  which  is  certainly  a  novel  theory  on  diet.  For  invalids  and 
young  children,  it  is  very  nutritious  and  strengthening  when  properly  prepared.  Oat  straw 
makes  quite  good  feed  for  farm  animals  when  cut  fine  and  mixed  with  other  materials.  When 
cut  while  in  blossom  and  cured  like  hay,  it  makes  excellent  fodder  for  cows  that  are  giving 
milk,  or  for  sheep  ;  especially,  pregnant  ewes  or  those  with  young  lambs.  When  stirred  into 
water  oatmeal  makes  a  very  healthful  beverage  for  laborers  in  hot  weather,  and  obviates  the 
evil  effects  of  drinking  too  much  water  under  such  circumstances. 

Varieties  of  Oats. — Among  the  numerous  varieties  of  this  grain,  we  shall  mention 
Bome  of  the  long-established  and  leading  ones,  together  with  a  few  of  those  of  more  recent 
origin  that  have  become  established  in  agriculture,  or  that  give  promise  of  success.  The 
White  or  common  oat  is  quite  extensively  cultivated  in  England  and  Scotland,  as  well  as  in 
this  country,  and  is  known  by  its  white  husk  and  kernel,  the  latter  of  which  is  of  medium 
size,  the  grain  weighing  from  thirty-two  to  thirty-five  pounds  per  bushel. 

The  Black  oat  is  characterized  by  a  black  husk  and  its  adaptability  to  poor  soils,  doing 
better  on  such  lands  tlian  many  of  the  other  varieties.  The  Red  oat  has  a  brownish  red 
husk,  ripens  early  and  is  suited  to  a  late  climate  ;  the  grains  are  quite  firmly  attached.  The 
Potato  oat  has  quite  large  and  plump  grains,  which  are  rather  thick-skinned  and  white,  and 
are  double  and  sometimes  treble,  the  straw  being  quite  long.  English  authorities  state  that 
this  oat  is  more  extensively  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  and  north  of  England 
than  any  other,  and  that  this,  with  the  Hopctown,  Sandy,  and  Early-Angus  are  chiefly 
cultivated   on  the  best  class  of  soils,   in  those  sections,  these  commanding   the   highest 


294 


THE  AMERICAN  EAEHIER. 


prices  in  the  Englisli  market,  the  weight  per  bushel  being  from  forty-two  to  forty-six  pounds, 

and  yielding  generally  from  fifty  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre. 

The  Poland  oat  has 
a  thick,  white  husk, 
short,  white  kernels, 
and  short,  stiff  straw. 
It  is  very  prolific  and 
does  best  in  warm, 
dry  soils.  The  Black 
Poland  has  a  large, 
black  kernel,  and  will 
sometimes  weigh 
from  forty-five  to  fif- 
ty pounds  per  busheL 
The  Friezland  or 
Dutch  oat  has  a 
plump,  white  grain, 
mostly  double,  and 
thin  skinned,  resemb- 
ling the  Poland  some- 
what, but  with  longer 
straw.  The  White 
Norway  and  New 
Brunswick  White  arc 
old  and  popular  vari- 
eties. The  Black  Tar- 
tarean is  esteemed  in 
England  for  its  large 
produce  and  adapta- 
tion to  infei'ior  soils, 
but  is  rather  coarse 
in  quality.  The 
White  Tartarean  is 
late  and  prolific,  and 
said  to  do  well  in 
southern  latitudes. 
Many  of  the  above 
mentioned  are  more 
extensively  cultivat- 
ed in  England  and 
Scotland  than  this 
country,  some  of  the 
heavier  varieties 
showing  considerable 
deterioration  when 
grown  in  our  drier 
climate,  and  requir- 
ing a  frequent  im- 
portation of  seed  to 


Prinolk's  Excelsior. 


keep  up  the  standard.     The  Wliite  Russian  is  comparatively  a  late  variety,  that  in  some 
localities  gives  very  satisfactory  results. 


OATS.  295 

Among  others  of  the  somewhat  recent  kinds  that  have  proven  very  successful,  are  the  Prob- 
steir,  Excelsior,  Challenge  and  Pringle's  Excelsior,  a  comparatively  new  variety  hybridized 
from  the  common  Chinese  Hulless  and  the  Excelsior,  which  is  a  variety  of  the  common  oat  of 
great  vigor.  The  grains  of  this  variety  are  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  Chinese,  and  Hulless. 
It  is  very  hardy  an*  prolific,  and  the  straw  quite  strong  in  growth.  The  inserted  cut  of  this 
variety,  copied  by  permission  from  the  catalogue  of  B.  K.  Bliss  &  Sons  of  New  York  city,  is  a 
very  correct  representation.  The  Surprise  is  an  oat  of  very  good  quality,  and  gives  general 
satisfaction  to  those  familiar  with  it.  As  to  which  variety  is  best  for  general  use,  is  yet  an 
undecided  question,  some  preferring  one  and  others  another.  With  this  crop,  as  most  others, 
much  depends  upon  the  soil,  climate  and  the  cultivation  given  it.  "We  are  of  the  opinion  that 
of  the  two  classes,  the  white  varieties  are  generally  preferable  to  the  black. 

A  hardy  kind,  known  as  Winter  Oats,  is  now  being  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  has  proven  very  successful  in  certain  localities  ;  but  we  doubt  whether  it  will  bear  the 
rigors  of  the  New  England  winters,  or  those  of  a  latitude  much  above  37°  or  38°,  although  a 
valuable  kind  for  a  more  genial  climate.  We  believe  it  has  thus  far  proven  a  decided  success 
in  the  South,  where  spring  oats  frequently  fail  on  account  of  rust.  A  rather  deep  sowing 
will  make  the  plants  more  vigorous,  and  serve  to  keep  the  roots  warmer  during  the  cold  sea- 
son. Time  and  pains-taking  may  eventually  result  in  producing  a  winter  variety  sufficiently 
hardy  for  even  northern  New  England  and  the  Canadas. 

Winter  oats  are  said  to  be  larger  and  the  grain  heavier  and  more  suited  to  milling  pur- 
poses than  most  of  the  spring  varieties.  The  common  White  oat  has  been  more  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  United  States  than  any  other,  but  new  varieties  have  for  a  few  years  past 
been  introduced,  and  many  of  them  proven,  for  certain  sections,  far  superior  to  the  old  in 
quality  and  productiveness.  By  testing  new  varieties,  or  depending  upon  reliable  experiments 
of  others  in  this  respect,  the  farmer  can  soon  ascertain  which  are  the  most  desirable  kinds 
and  best  adapted  to  his  own  soil  and  climate,  as  some  will  thrive  best  in  one  locality  and  oth- 
ers in  another,  the  soil,  climate  and  kind  of  cultivation  affecting  materially  the  product,  both 
in  quality  and  quantity. 

Cultivation. — Oats  will  thrive  well  on  almost  any  land  that  is  well  drained  or  natural- 
ly dry,  a  wet  soil  being  very  injurious  to  the  plants,  and  almost  sure  to  result  in  killing  them. 
Of  course,  the  better  the  soil,  as  a  general  rule,  the  better  the  crop,  but  oats  will  give  a  fair 
remuneration  for  their  culture  on  quite  poor  soil  and  with  but  little  care  in  preparation,  al- 
though we  should  not  advise  any  farmer  to  practice  this  style  of  agriculture  for  any  crop, 
for  we  believe  it  most  profitable  and  the  best  economy  to  endeavor  to  obtain  the  best  results 
always,  and  adapt  the  cultivation  to  that  end.  They  are  sometimes  sown  on  inverted  turf, 
but  this  practice  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  they  do  best  on  pulverized  soil.  They  wiU 
generally  thrive  well  to  follow  potatoes,  corn,  or  any  of  the  well-manured,  hoed  crops.  Un- 
less the  soil  is  naturally  quite  fertile  it  should  be  enriched  by  some  kind  of  manure,  which 
may  be  a  well-prepared  compost  harrowed  in,  guano,  or  any  of  the  concentrated  fertilizers  in 
use  at  the  present  time,  but  no  green  barn-yard  manure  should  be  used.  Many  of  the  special 
fertilizers  are  valuable.  Salt,  sown  broadcast  over  the  land  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  six 
bushels  per  acre,  is  highly  recommended  by  some  as  a  fertilizer,  and  as  also  useful  in  destroy- 
ing insects  injurious  to  the  oat  crop.  It  is  useful  on  lands  upon  which  grain  would  be  liable 
to  lodge,  and  should  always  be  used  when  sown  on  the  sod. 

The  soil  for  oats  should  be  plowed  to  a  medium  depth  and  well  pulverized;  we  believe  it 
a  general  rule,  with  but  few  exceptions,  that  all  small  seeds  and  grain  require  a  good  seed- 
bed and  their  "food  cut  fine."  In  a  moist  season,  oats  will  do  well  on  a  sandy  soil,  but  we 
believe  that  the  best  yields  are  made  on  a  fine  clay  loam  with  good  drainage  and  the  seed 
sown  early.  We  believe  in  sowing  as  early  as  practicable,  as  in  most  sections  a  better  harvest 
is  the  result,  but  not  until  the  soil  is  dry  and  mellow.  In  some  localities  mildew  is  quite  sure 
19 


296  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

to  affect  the  stalks  and  grain  if  Jjut  into  the  ground  late  in  the  season.  "WTiile  bright  straw 
and  a  heavy  berry  will  usually  result  from  early  sowing,  those  sown  late  are  almost  always 
light  and  of  poor  quality. 

Oats  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  with  a  drill,  some  preferring  one  method  and  others  the 
other,  each  having  their  respective  advantages,  but  we  believe  the  drill  is^ore  generally  pre- 
ferred on  large  farms  where  this  crop  is  extensively  cultivated.  Where  the  sowing  is  broadcast 
a  seed-sower  should  be  used,  as  it  distributes  the  grain  more  uniformly  and  much  more  rapidly 
than  the  old  laborious  practice  of  hand-sowing.  Seed  sown  with  a  drill  are  covered  at  a 
more  uniform  depth,  which  can  be  regulated  at  will,  and  where  they  will  come  in  contact 
with  the  moist  earth,  which  will  cause  a  quicker  germination ;  consequently  they  will  come  up 
sooner  and  much  more  evenly  than  when  sown  broadcast,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  any  ir- 
regularity from  skipping  or  lapping  spaces,  if  the  wind  blows  during  the  operation  of  getting 
the  seed  into  the  ground ;  therefore,  a  heavier  crop  per  acre  is  generally  the  result  of  the 
use  of  the  drill.  There  is  also  more  opportunity  for  the  circulation  of  air  among  the  plants, 
besides  less  liability  of  lodging.  When  sown  broadcast,  the  seed  should  be  lightly  harrowed 
in,  and  whatever  the  method  of  sowing,  the  field  should  be  rolled,  unless  the  land  is  quite 
wet  and  inclined  to  bake  or  harden;  this  presses  the  soil  upon  the  seed  and  causes  it  to  germ- 
inate more  quickly. 

In  some  portions  of  the  South,  oats  are  sown  in  the  fall,  like  winter  wheat,  which 
gives  them  an  early  start  in  the  spring.  There  is  also  a  winter  variety  that  is  cultivated 
quite  successfully  in  latitudes  as  high  as  the  mountainous  portions  of  Tennessee,  and  by 
repeated  efforts  in  acclimatizing  and  hybridizing,  we  doubt  not  that  a  winter  variety 
will  yet  be  produced  that  can  be  successfully  cultivated  considerably  farther  north.  The 
quantity  of  seed  sown  varies  from  one  to  four  bushels  per  acre.  When  the  sowing  is  early, 
about  two  bushels  per  acre,  for  most  soils,  is  a  fair  quantity.  If  the  sowing  be  rather  late  or 
the  soil  poor,  three  or  four  bushels  may  be  required.  The  richer  the  soil  and  the  more  early 
the  sowing,  the  less  the  quantity  of  seed,  as  a  general  rule.  English  authorities  speak  of  some- 
times sowing  sis  or  more  bushels  per  acre,  but  this  is  quite  beyond  the  average  rate.  As  we 
have  pre\'iously  stated,  for  most  soils,  we  believe  two  bushels  will  produce  a  larger  crop,  with 
the  grain  of  better  quality,  than  filling  the  soil  with  a  surplus  of  seed,  which  must  result  in 
crowded  stalks  and  small  heads  of  grain,  with  inferior  sized  kernels. 

The  seed  should  always  be  well  cleansed  by  running  it  through  a  fanning-mill,  or,  what 
is  better,  a  sieve  of  such  size  as  to  sift  out  all  the  inferior  and  small  kernels,  as  well  as  all 
seeds  of  weeds,  &c.,  leaving  only  the  largest  and  best  grain  for  the  sowing.  Oats  and  all 
other  kinds  of  small  grain  are  benefited  by  after  cultivation.  When  sown  in  drills,  a  wheat 
hoe  is  very  beneficial  for  this  pui"pose,  or,  if  such  a  machine  is  not  available,  a  light  harrowing 
when  the  plants  are  from  .four  to  six  inches  high  is  generally  followed  with  good  results. 
Upon  smooth  land,  the  Thomas  Harrow  is  very  good  for  this  purpose,  but  if  the  land  be 
rough  and  full  of  corn  stubble  or  other  similar  obstructions,  there  would  be  danger  of  tear- 
ing  out  and  destroying  many  of  the  plants  by  this  process. 

Greater  vigor  and  productiveness  is  secured  to  oats,  as  to  wheat  and  most  other  crops,  by 
occasionally  changing  the  seed,  although  we  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  make  such  a  change 
very  often.  Many  of  the  best  agricultural  writers  in  England  assert  that  in  making  this 
change  it  should  always,  if  possible,  be  from  an  earlier  climate  and  better  soil;  others  assert 
with  equal  confidence,  that  while  this  is  true  respecting  high-lying  lands  which  represent 
poorer  soil  and  a  colder  climate,  yet  with  a  good  soil  and  fair  climate  the  best  results  are 
obtained  with  seed  from  a  later  locality.  We  are  inclined  to  the  latter  opinion,  from  our 
own  experience  and  observation,  and  believe  that  new  seed-oats  should  always  be  brought 
from  a  northerly  locality,  as  they  are  heavier  and  larger  grained  than  those  of  a  southerly 
climate.     Many  farmers  carefully  cultivate  their  grain  for  seed  on  a  small  field  apart  from 


BARLEY.  ■  297 

the  main  crop,  giving  it  the  best  soU  and  fertilizers  in  order  to  keep  up  the  highest  qualitj  of 
the  variety  unimpaired,  or  to  improve  upon  it,  if  possible.  This  method  is  almost  invariably 
attended  with  good  results. 

Haryesting.  —  Oats  should  be  harvested  when  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  has  turned 
yellow;  the  plant  then  ceases  to  draw  nutriment  from  the  soil,  and  the  grain  has  passed  from 
the  milk  state  and  may  be  easily  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  If  cut  at  this 
period  the  straw  is  better  for  fodder  and  other  piu-poses,  and  the  grain  more  plump  than 
later;  but  if  the  cutting  be  delayed,  the  kernels  will  be  liable  to  shell  out,  and  considerable 
loss  to  the  crop  may  be  sustained,  besides  the  quality  of  the  straw  unpaired. 

Small  fields  of  oats  may  be  cut  with  a  cradle,  and  when  badly  lodged  a  scythe  is  often 
used  tor  the  purpose,  but  for  large  fields  a  reaper  seems  to  be  a  necessity ;  those  that  both 
reap  and  bind  are  of  coilrse  the  best,  since  they  economize  labor  most.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  oats  should  be  well  dried  before  being  put  away,  if  not  threshed  in  the  field,  as  they 
wiU  be  very  liable  to  heat  badly  and  the  grain  become  discolored.  Exposure  to  rain  and  dew 
will  also  have  a  tendency  to  discolor  the  grain,  and  lessen  its  value  for  market  purposes. 

It  is  very  important  that  oats  be  cut  in  dry  weather,  and  the  bundles  put  in  small  stacks 
for  a  day  or  two,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  that  they  may  become  entirely  free  from  moisture. 
When  cut  by  a  cradle  or  a  reaper  that  is  not  self -binding,  they  may  dry  in  the  swath  before 
being  bound.  Much  of  the  labor  of  handling  bundles  and  stacking  them  away  is  obviated  by 
threshing  the  grain  in  the  field  with  a  machine  that  also  cleanses  and  bags  it  ready  for  market. 
When  rain  chances  to  fall  upon  the  crop,  it  should  be  thoroughly  dried  as  soon  as  possible. 

Diseases  of  Oats. — There  are  fewer  diseases  and  insects  that  affect  oats  than  most 
grains,  it  being  seldom  injured  by  rust  or  smut.  Whenever  it  is  attacked  by  either,  it  is 
usually  in  very  warm,  damp  weather.  The  wire- worm  has  at  times  been  veiy  destructive  in 
some  localities,  and  is  most  liable  to  be  troublesome  when  fresh  sod  is  used  for  sowing.  We 
would  not  advise  the  use  of  fresh  sod  for  this  crop,  but  whenever  such  a  course  is,  pursued  it 
would  be  well  to  turn  it  over  late  in  the  fall  just  before  the  ground  freezes,  which  leaves 
these  insect  pests  without  a  retreat  from  the  frost.  The  use  of  salt  as  a  fertilizer,  and  also 
lime,  has  a  tendency  to  extirpate  them  from  the  soil.  When  rust  or  smut  are  seen  in  a  field, 
it  is  best  to  have  the  crop  cut  as  soon  as  possible.  The  brine- wash  for  the  seed  does  not  seem 
to  have  the  same  efEect  in  destroying  the  germ  of  the  fungus  in  oats  as  with  wheat  and  rye, 
owing  to  the  hard,  thick  covering  of  the  grain. 


BARLEY. 


THIS  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  of  grains.  It  was  an  important  article 
of  food  in  remote  antiquity,  and  commonly  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and 
Romans.  In  Europe  it  is  at  present  a  very  important  crop,  ranking  in  Great  Britain 
next  to  wheat  both  in  an  agricultural  and  commercial  point  of  view.  It  is  used  for  bread  in 
many  portions  of  Northern  Europe,  and  especially  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland,  where 
unleavened  cakes  or  "  bannocks  o'  barley  meal "  constitute  an  important  item  in  the  diet  of 
the  peasantry.  It  is  also  used  in  preparing  the  "barley  broth,"  so  much  esteemed  by  the 
Scotch  nationahty.  It  is  appropriated,  however,  both  in  this  country  and  Europe  quite  as 
much  to  the  manufacture  of  malt  liquors  as  any  other  purpose,  although  to  a  certain  extent 
for  fattening  live-stock,  especially  swine.  It  were  better  for  both  countries  if  its  cultivation 
were  entirely  discarded,  rather  than  it  should  be  perverted  to  the  former  use,  to  the  incalcu- 
lable injury  it  does  to  multitudes  of  human  beings,  and  we  hope  no  honest  farmer  who  wishes 


298  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

well  to  his  fellow-man  will  ever  raise  this  grain  for  such  a  purpose,  however  remunerative 
such  a  course  may  be. 

There  are  three  leading  varieties  of  this  grain,  viz.,  the  two,  four,  and  six-rowed  barley, 
besides  several  sub-varieties,  which  are  the  result  of  modifications  of  the  soil,  climate,  and 
cultivation.  Those  most  commonly  cultivated  in  this  country  are  the  two-rowed  and 
six-rowed ;  the  former  can  be  raised  in  land  less  rich  than  the  latter,  and  is  thought  to 
be  the  most  reliable  for  a  moderate  yield ;  but  if  the  soil  is  just  suited  to  it,  the  season 
and  other  conditions  favorable,  the  six-rowed  barley  will  yield  the  most,  while  a  failure 
of  the  latter  crop  is  usually  more  complete  a  failure  than  the  two-rowed.  The  six- 
rowed  ripens  a  few  days  earlier  than  the  other  variety,  and  requires  harvesting  in  many 
localities  at  the  time  wheat  does,  which  is  thought  to  be  something  of  a  disadvantage  to 
extensive  wheat-growers,  as  no  crop  suffers  more  from  neglect  in  harvesting  just  at  the 
time  it  is  ready  for  cutting  than  barley.  The  two-rowed  has  the  largest  grains,  the  sLx-rowed 
next,  and  the  four-rowed  the  smallest. 

The  early  ripening  of  barley  renders  it  a  good  fallow  crop  to  precede  wheat,  as  it  enables 
the  farmer  to  plow  two  or  three  weeks  earlier  than  he  could  after  oats,  and  get  the  land  in 
much  better  condition  than  would  be  possible  where  the  plowing  was  late.  Like  some  other 
cereals,  certain  kinds  of  this  grain  have  been  so  modified  that  they  are  regarded  as  winter 
and  spring  varieties.  The  winter  varieties  are  not  as  hardy  as  winter  wheat,  consequently  we 
would  not  advise  their  cultivation  north  of  38°  or  39°.  New  varieties  may  be  produced  by 
crossing,  as  with  wheat  and  other  grains.  A  species  sometimes  known  as  "  German  rice  "  is 
much  valued  and  cultivated  in  Germany.  The  straw  of  barley  is  very  hard  and  coarse,  and 
erf  little  value  as  food  for  stock. 

Cultivation. — Barley  thrives  best  in  a  warm,  friable  soil,  rather  rich,  but  less  so  than 
for  wheat,  and  neither  too  light  nor  too  heavy.  It  is  important  that  the  land  be  quite 
uniform  in  fertility,  or  the  grain  will  ripen  unevenly,  to  the  deterioration  of  the  crop. 
It  should  never  be  sown  on  a  cold  or  wet  soil  of  any  kind,  a  well-drained  loam  being  the  best. 
This  will  admit  of  early  preparation — as  it  is  very  essential  that  it  should  be  sown  early — 
and  such  land  will  perfect  a  good  crop,  if  the  season  is  at  all  favorable.  It  should  by  no 
means  ever  be  sown  on  a  very  sandy  soil,  or  any  that  is  easily  affected  by  drouth,  for  if  the 
land  becomes  quite  dry  at  the  critical  period  of  forming  the  head,  both  the  quality  and 
quantity  will  be  greatly  diminished.  It  will,  however,  endure  more  heat  and  drouth  at  this 
period  than  either  wheat  or  oats.  The  soil  should  be  one  that  is  free  from  weeds,  or  what  is 
termed  a  "clean  soil,"  and  the  tilth  both  fine  and  deep. 

Weeds  are  a  great  detriment  to  this  crop;  consequently  no  green  farm  manure  should 
be  used  for  the  land,  and  all  vegetable  or  animal  matter  of  any  kind  should  first  be  well 
decomposed  and  of  the  nature  of  humus  before  being  appUed. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  of  special  value  to  barley,  and  salt  is  frequently  used  with 
good  results.  The  latter  is  thought  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  hasten  the  full 
development  of  the  grain.  It  is  well  to  put  in  the  seed  when  the  land  is  rather  dry,  and  to 
be  deposited  quite  deep;  if  covered  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  inches,  or  twice  the  ordinary 
depth  of  sowing  wheat,  so  much  the  better,  in  most  soils.  Good  crops  are  often  obtained 
from  an  inverted  sod,  a  clover  sod  being  the  best. 

It  may  follow  in  rotation  corn,  potatoes,  turnips,  or  any  of  the  hoed  crops,  but  shoidd 
never  follow  wheat,  rye,  or  oats,  nor  should  two  crops  succeed  each  other,  except  the  land  be 
very  rich,  and  even  then  the  practice  is  objectionable,  as  the  quality  of  the  grain  is  liable  to 
deteriorate,  an  evil  to  which  barley  is  more  subject  than  any  other  of  the  cereals,  hence,  it 
will  not  bear  careless  or  indifferent  cultivation,  and  a  frequent  change  of  seed  is  desirable. 
"With  spring  varieties,  early  sowing  and  a  finely-pulverized  soil  are  very  essential  to  success 
with  barley,  while  the  winter  grain  wiU  require  a  good  start  before  cold  weather.     The  seed 


BUCKWHEAT.  299 

may  be  distributed  broadcast  or  sown  in  drills,  but  in  either  case  should  be  covered  deeper 
than  wheat,  rye,  or  any  of  the  other  cereals.  It  should  be  followed  with  the  roller,  a  process 
which  some  farmers  repeat  when  the  plants  are  four  or  five  inches  high,  if  the  ground  is  dry 
and  not  very  compact.  This  is  thought  to  give  support  to  the  roots  and  increase  the  vigor  of 
the  stalks,  as  well  as  to  destroy  insects. 

The  quantity  of  seed  requisite  will  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soU,  from  two  to 
three  bushels  per  acre  being  the  usual  allowance  when  sown  broadcast;  when  drilled,  about 
a  third  less.  When  sown  early,  or  on  light  and  mellow  soils,  a  less  quantity  is  generally  used 
than  for  rich  land  or  late  sowing,  yet  many  of  our  most  successful  farmers  use  only  from 
one  and  a  half  to  two  bushels  per  acre,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  A  less  quantity 
than  formerly  is  at  present  sown  in  the  cultivation  of  most  grains.  The  Hessian  fly,  smutj 
and  rust  are  sometimes  liable  to  attack  this  crop,  but  not  as  frequently  or  to  the  extent  that 
they  do  wheat. 

Harvestillg. — The  harvesting  of  barley  should  be  done  seasonably,  or  as  soon  as  the 
grain  is  fully  ripe,  since  it  is  more  Liable  to  shell  out  in  the  field  and  waste  than  any  other 
grain ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  if  cut  too  earl}'',  and  before  being  fuUy  matured,  the  kernel  will 
shrivel.  The  thin-skinned  grain,  which  is  considered  the  best,  will  sometimes  have  this 
slightly  shriveled  appearance  when  fully  matured,  owing  to  the  thin  coating  of  the  kernel, 
but  the  distinction  between  this  and  the  immature  seed  can  easily  be  seen.  The  husk  or 
coating  of  some  varieties  of  barley  is  too  stiff  and  harsh  to  shrink,  and  will  often  look  smooth 
when  the  contents  of  the  berry  are  considerably  shrunken,  and  can  only  be  detected  by  care- 
fully cutting  open  and  examining  a  few  grains.  When  harvested  at  the  right  time,  it  is  much 
brighter  than  when  allowed  to  stand  longer  in  the  field,  as  it  will  then  assume  a  dull,  brown 
color,  which  wiU  often  affect  the  market  price  of  the  grain.  It  should  be  well  dried  in  order 
to  prevent  heating  after  being  stacked  or  packed  away  in  the  barn.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  put 
the  bundles  in  small  stacks  for  a  day  or  two  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  same  as  wheat,  but 
they  will  require  careful  handling  not  to  shell  out  the  grain,  and  all  exposure  to  rain  should 
be  avoided. 


BUCKWHEAT. 

THIS  cereal  is  a  native  of  Central  Asia  and  the  basin  of  the  "Volga,  and  has  been 
known  and  cultivated  for  ages  in  different  portions  of  the  civilized  world.  In  this 
country  and  Europe  the  flour  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  for  human  consumption, 
being  employed  mostly  in  making  cakes,  for  which  it  seems  especially  adapted,  and  which  are 
considered  quite  a  luxury  in  many  portions  of  the  country,  where  "buckwheat  cakes  "  with 
maple  syrup  have  attained  considerable  celebrity  as  a  supplementary  breakfast-dish,  to  be 
enjoyed  during  the  coolest  season  of  the  year.  When  properly  ground,  the  flour  is  as  white 
as  that  of  the  best  quality  of  rye.  In  grinding,  the  outer  covering  of  the  grain  is  entirely 
removed.  Buckwheat  is  a  valuable  food  for  poultry,  and  when  mixed  with  com  is  much 
used  in  fattening  swine.  It  will  also  fit  up  a  horse  quickly  with  a  fine  sleek  coat.  When 
well  cured,  the  straw  makes  good  fodder  for  sheep  and  cattle,  and  when  spread  upon  land 
will  rapidly  decay,  and  make  a  valuable  fertilizer.  Corn  should  never  succeed  this  crop  in 
rotation,  as  it  rarely  does  well  when  this  plan  is  followed.  It  is  often  employed  as  a  fertilizer, 
its  rapid  growth  admitting  of  turning  tmder  two  crops  in  a  single  season. 

It  is  of  less  value  than  clover  for  this  purpose,  but  will  grow  on  soils  that  will  not  pro- 
duce clovar^  therefore  is  employed  in  renovating  very  poor  lands.     It  wiU  thrive  on  the  hard- 


300  THE  AJVEERICAN  FARMER. 

est  and  toughest  soil,  and  for  this  reason  is  often  used  in  subduing  wild  lands,  being  sown  on 
the  inyerted  turf,  with  but  slight  preparation,  which  it  will  penetrate  and  pulverize,  leaving 
it  in  a  mellow  and  fine  mechanical  condition. 

As  a  green  manure  for  rye,  it  is  considered  by  most  farmers  quite  valuable.  If  sown 
during  the  second  week  in  July,  it  will  be  ready  to  turn  under  in  the  early  part  of  Sep- 
tember. 

Buckwheat  is  considered  by  many  farmers  a  very  exhaustive  crop,  and  yet  the  land  that 
will  not  produce  a  single  crop  of  corn  without  manure,  will  yield  several  crops  of  buckwheat. 
It  will  also  grow  and  thrive  on  poor  soil  that  will  scarcely  give  any  yield  of  either  com, 
wheat,  or  barley,  and  do  this  for  several  years  in  succession  without  seeming  to  diminish  in 
any  large  degree  the  productive  capacity  of  the  land ;  on  the  contrary,  we  have  seen  rich  soil 
that  seemed  to  be  much  injured  by  a  single  crop  of  this  grain.  It  is  in  these  respects  a  very 
peculiar  plant.  The  theory  that  it  "poisons  the  soil,"  as  we  have  heard  some  farmers  assert,  is 
absurd.  It  is  proven  by  chemical  analysis  that  it  requires,  as  the  elements  of  plant-food,  con- 
siderable potash  and  a  moderate  amount  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid.  "We  do  not  think 
this  crop,  when  compared  with  others,  is  really  an  exhaustive  one  to  soils  generally.  A  good 
crop  yields  about  forty  bushels,  and  often  more,  per  acre. 

Cultivatioil. — Although  buckwheat  will  grow  and  produce  a  fair  crop  on  poor  soil, 
with  little  or  no  manure,  and  often  with  the  most  careless  preparation,  yet  it  yields  the  most 
remunerative  crop  only  on  those  that  are  fertile  and  properly  prepared.  Sandy  loams  are 
quite  a  favorite  with  this  grain,  especially  such  as  have  long  been  kept  in  pasture,  or  in  mow- 
ing lands,  but  require  plowing,  although  it  will  do  well  on  a  great  variety  of  soils.  Wet 
lands  are  unfavorable  to  its  cultivation.  Chemical  fertilizers  are  admirably  suited  to  it,  also 
barn-yard  manure,  when  well  composted.  Fresh  manure  is  injurious,  and  fills  the  crop  with 
weeds.  Wood  ashes  are  also  valuable  in  its  cultivation.  If  too  large  a  quantity  of  manure 
is  used,  the  straw  is  liable  to  lodge. 

Beside  the  common  variety,  or  dark-colored  grain,  there  is  another  of  a  Hght  gray  color, 
known  as  the  "silver-hulled  buckwheat,"  which  in  many  respects  is  considered  superior  to 
the  former.  The  corners  of  this  grain  are  less  prominent  than  in  the  ordinary  variety ;  it  is 
more  plump  and  heavy,  the  husks  thinner,  involving  less  waste  in  grinding,  while  the  flour  is 
thought  to  be  whiter  and  more  nutritious.  It  is  said  to  be  more  prolific  than  the  common 
variety  in  soils  suited  to  it,  but  more  tender,  and  to  thrive  best  on  high,  rolhng  lands  in  good 
condition,  and  to  require  better  soil  than  the  common  kind  generally,  or,  rather,  that  it  will 
not  produce  a  good  crop  on  certain  poor  soUs  that  result  favorably  to  the  common  variety. 

The  period  of  sowing  this  grain  wiU  vary  according  to  the  latitude,  as  it  is  necessary  to 
give  the  crop  an  opportunity  to  ripen  before  the  time  of  frost.  In  some  of  the  extreme 
Northern  States,  it  will  be  necessary  to  sow  it  as  early  as  the  middle  of  May;  in  others  of  a 
warmer  climate,  it  may  be  delayed  until  the  first  of  July;  in  some  of  the  Southern  States,  it 
is  sown  in  August.  It  is  generally  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in,  but  sometimes  in  drills. 
T\nien  the  soil  is  well -pulverized,  it  is  benefited  by  the  use  of  the  roller.  As  the  plant  branches 
out  and  covers  considerable  ground,  many  farmers  sow  comparatively  but  a  small  quantity  of 
seed,  and  we  have  known  some,  who  make  a  specialty  of  it,  to  use  even  but  a  peck  per  acre 
with  good  results;  it  is  sown  in  quantities  varying  from  this  to  two  pecks  and  a  bushel  and 
a  quarter  per  acre.  It  ripens  very  unevenly,  and,  if  allowed  to  remain  without  harvesting, 
will  continue  to  blossom  during  the  entire  season,  but  the  largest  crop  wiU  be  from  the  first 
blossoms,  and  it  should  be  cut  when  these,  the  earliest  seeds,  are  perfectly  ripe. 

Many  farmers  are  particular  to  cut  it  while  the  dew  is  on,  to  prevent  the  grain  shelling 
out.  We  subjoin  a  few  items  on  the  culture  of  this  grain  from  the  pen  of  an  intelligent  and 
practical  farmer  of  Western  New  York: — 

"  Neglect  too  often  attends  the  cultivation  of  the  land  intended  for  buckwheat,  and  the 


BUCKWHEAT.  301 

poorest  and  worst-conditioned  land  is  usually  given  this  crop.  Besides,  from  the  lateness  of 
putting  it  in,  the  land  becomes  grassy,  and  it  cannot  be  plowed  well  without  the  grass  mak- 
ing its  appearance  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop,  with  no  benefit  to  the  land.  Now,  instead  of 
this  treatment,  the  buckwheat  field,  worked  after  the  spring's  sowing,  affords  a  chance  to  im- 
prove the  land  and  insure  a  good  crop — decidedly  a  paying  one,  if  the  season  is  favorable. 
Buckwheat  is  somewhat  peculiar,  as  with  a  favoring  season  and  a  heavy  growth,  the  income 
is  sometimes  surprising.  I  have  known  a  single  crop  pay  for  the  purchase  of  the  land  at  $40 
per  acre.  The  land  was  plowed  early  enough  to  rot  the  sod,  and  re-plowed  just  before  sow- 
ing. If  put  in  good  condition,  it  does  not  need  to  be  very  rich.  What  it  needs  is  ripe  and 
uniform  fertility;  it  does  not  want  wet  soil  turned  up  and  exposed  to  the  hot  sun,  as  I  have 
often  seen,  thus  injuring  rather  than  benefiting  the  land.  Instead,  buckwheat  should  be 
made  the  means  (as  there  is  a  chance  for  it)  to  reclaim  or  improve  the  soil.  It  can  be  made 
to  equal,  if  not  exceed,  the  effect  of  summer  fallow,  and  with  less  expense — the  crop  so 
densely  shading  the  ground,  and  from  the  start,  that  not  a  weed  or  a  grass-blade  can  survive; 
all  is  smothered  by  the  exclusion  of  air  and  light,  the  ground  kept  comparatively  moist  and 
mellow,  and  the  texture  thus  improved.  The  farmer  who,  therefore,  does  not  avail  himself 
of  advantages  here  offered,  misses  his  opportunity,  unless  he  is  among  the  fortunate  ones  who 
have  their  land  all  improved.  Even  then  buckwheat  is  a  benfit  to  the  soil,  as  there  is  less 
expense  of  cultivation,  and  the  weeds  are  effectually  kept  at  bay.  It  also  adds  to  the  variety 
of  crops. 

The  time  for  sowing  buckwheat  here  is  from  the  26th  of  June  to  the  4th  of  July.  Half 
a  bushel  per  acre  is  seed  enough,  as  on  rich  ground  it  stools  out  well.  This  is  better  than 
to  have  it  closer  and  denser.  It  should  be  branching,  giving  thus  more  room  for  blossoms, 
and  affording  protection  against  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  the  plant  thus  being  in  a  measure 
self-protecting,  favoring  the  lower  or  partially  hidden  seeds,  which  sometimes  are  to  be 
depended  upon  for  the  crop,  the  more  exposed  or  outside  being  blasted.  Instead,  therefore, 
of  giving  it  careless  treatment,  buckwheat  requires  careful  management.  The  selection  of 
soil  is  also  of  some  importance,  a  sandy  loam  being  better  than  clay.  A  stiff  clay  must  be 
brought  into  a  friable  condition  before  it  is  fit  to  grow  this  crop  successfully.  Sod  or  green 
crops  turned  under,  or  coarse  manure  worked  in,  rotting  and  mixing  the  soil  and  manure  well, 
will  do  it.  Avoid  all  wet  soil  for  buckwheat,  unless  first  drained.  We  have  here  a  real  ren- 
ovator of  the  soU,  and  get  a  good  crop  besides.  Sometimes,  however,  the  crop  gets  blasted. 
When  this  is  the  case,  turn  it  down.  Instead  of  being  a  misfortune,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a 
benefit,  affording  a  large  quantity  of  good  material,  decaying  readily,  and  having  a  good 
effect  upon  the  soil." 

It  should  be  thoroughly  dried  before  being  put  away  under  cover,  as  it  will  be  liable  to 
heat ;  it  is,  therefore,  customary  to  set  it  up  in  the  field  in  small  stooks  for  this  purpose.  It 
should  always  be  liarvestgd  before  a  frost,  and  it  is  well  to  thresh  it  as  soon  as  dry,  as  this 
practice  obviates  the  liability  of  its  shelling. 

In  localities  where  both  the  common  and  sUver-hidled  buckwheat  are  cultivated,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  retain  the  latter  seed  pure  and  unmixed,  as  the  buckwheat  field  is  such  a 
favorite  pasture  with  the  honey-bees  that  cross-fertilization  with  the  common  variety  will 
constantly  occur  from  the  pollen  carried  by  these  little  workers  from  one  field  to  another. 


302  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

CORN. 

THIS  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  cereals,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  important  agri- 
cultural products  cultivated  in  the  United  States.  The  corn-plant  belongs  to  the  natural 
order — Graminae  or  grasses— and  is  indigenous  to  America,  where  it  formed  the 
principal  food  of  the  Indians,  and  for  which  reason  it  received  the  name  of  Indian  com. 

History  states  that  Columbus  found  it  cultivated  quite  extensively  by  the  natives  of 
Hispaniola,  while  it  was  found  in  the  possession  of  all  the  native  tribes  in  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent subsequently  visited  by  esplorers. 

Their  implements  of  agriculture  were,  of  course,  of  the  rudest  kind,  the  hoe  often  being 
constructed  from  the  scapula  of  the  moose,  a  thin,  sharp  stone,  or  a  crooked  stick ;  still  with 
these  imperfect  utensils,  and  although  they  had  but  a  few  varieties  of  the  grain,  compared 
with  those  of  the  present  time,  we  learn  from  undoubted  sources  that  they  cultivated 
several  distinct  varieties  that  answer  in  description  to  those  with  which  we  are  familiar,  such 
as  the  Mandan,  King  Philip,  Sioux,  Squaw,  Tuscarora,  and  probably  sweet  com. 

In  Nov.  25,  1620,  some  of  the  Pilgi-ims  found  corn  that  had  been  buried  in  the  earth, 
which,  according  to  the  description  given,  consisted,  of  "some  yellow,  and  some  red,  and 
others  mist  with  blue."  We  also  read  of  the  ''white  and  yellow,"  and  those  of  which  "the 
graine  be  big." 

Cartier,  in  1555,  describes  the  maize  at  Hochelaga — the  Indian  name  for  Montreal — -as 
great,  and  somewhat  bigger  than  small  peason."  Thus,  numerous  instances  might  be  men- 
tioned to  show  that  several  varieties  were  in  cultivation  at  that  period.  Com  is  stUl  found 
growing  in  a  wild  state  in  many  portions  of  the  continent,  and  with  each  grain  of  the  ear 
covered  with  glumes  or  husks,  that  long  cultivation  has  eradicated.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  the  table-lands  of  Mexico  or  Peru.  Its  cultivation  was  introduced  from  this  con- 
tinent to  Southern  Europe,  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa,  where  it  thrived  and  spread  rapidly; 
it  is  not,  however,  grown  in  England  to  any  extent,  as  the  summer  heat  of  that  climate  is 
not  suiScient  to  favor  its  successful  production. 

It  will  grow  in  any  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  readily  adapts  itself  to  different 
soils  and  climates,  but  thrives  best  between  the  thirty-sixth  and  forty-second  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, as  it  attains  its  most  perfect  development  under  a  hot  summer  sun,  growing  rapidly  and 
ripening  early,  which  renders  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  this  portion  of  the  northern  latitudes, 
where  the  summers  are  short  and  warm,  however  severe  the  winters  may  be.  In  high  north- 
ern latitudes,  close  attention  to  its  culture  is  necessary,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  ripen, 
ing  it.  The  value  of  the  corn  crops  annually  produced  in  this  country  may,  perhaps,  be 
justly  estimated  in  a  financial  point  of  view  as  amounting  to  a  certain  number  of  miUions  of 
dollars,  but,  in  another  senSe,  its  value  to  this  country  is  inestimable,  when  we  consider  the 
effect  of  its  cultivation  in  hastening  its  settlement  and  the  continuance  of  its  prosperity,  en- 
tering, as  it  does,  into  the  food  of  all  classes  of  people,  and  also  greatly  cheapening  and  in- 
creasing  the  product  of  beef,  pork,  and  mutton,  besides  the  many  other  uses  to  which  it  is 
appropriated,  and  the  increased  wealth  of  the  nation  resulting  from  the  annual  exportations 
of  this  product. 

Immense  as  is  the  production  of  this  staple,  the  average  yield  of  com  in  this  country  at 
the  present  time  is  far  below  what  it  might,  and  ought  to  be,  and  what  with  a  little  more  care 
in  cultivation  might  easily  be  attained.  The  average  yield  in  the  United  States  for  the  en- 
tire  number  of  acres  cultivated  does  not  at  present  exceed  thirty  bushels  per  acre,  whUe  with 
good  culture  it  might  be  made  to  reach  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  bushels  or  more,  and  thus 
the  amount  now  produced  be  more  than  doubled,  with  its  attendant  benefits  to  the  nation  and 
to  the  farmer  individually.     The  farmers  of  this  country  are  gradually  learning  more  of  the 


CORN.  303 

possibilities  of  this  crop,  and  that  there  is  more  in  its  careful  cultivation  than  was  formerly- 
supposed.  There  is  no  doubt  that  exaggerated  statements  have  often  been  made  relative  to 
the  amount  harvested,  and  which  have  caused  farmers  to  look  upon  reports  of  unusually- 
large  yields  with  distrust ;  yet  we  know  from  authentic  sources,  that  under  favoring  circum. 
stances  of  soil,  climate,  skillful  cultivation,  and  a  season  suited  to  its  perfect  development, 
immense  and  almost  incredible  yields  have  been  produced,  which  prove  the  possibilities  of 
the  crop  when  properly  managed,  and  which  should  lead  corn-growers  to  consider  the  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  their  present  method  of  culture  is  the  most  profitable  one  that  can  be 
adopted,  and  whether  more  care  in  enriching  the  soil  and  tilling  it  would  not  in  the  end  be 
more  economic  and  profitable. 

Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant  of  Massachusetts,  states  that  he  has  obtained,  from  one  acre,  one 
hundred  and  twenty -three  bushels  of  shelled  corn;  Mr.  Henry  Stewart  of  New  Jersey  says: 
"I  have  grown  a  crop  equal  to  one  hundred  and  fifty,  bushels  and  forty-eight  pounds  per  acre 
of  shelled  com  on  a  potato-stubble,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine  bushels  of  shelled  corn 
on  two  acres  of  oat-stubble." 

Mr.  E.  S.  Carman,  editor  of  "  The  Rural  New-Yorker,"  recently  raised  upon  his  Long 
Island  farm  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  bushels  and  a  half  of  shelled  corn  on  seven.-eighths 
of  an  acre,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  bushels  and  one-third  on  another  whole  acre. 
Other  reports  equally  rehable  give  the  yield  a  hundred  and  thirty-eight  and  a  hundred  and 
forty-sis  bushels  per  acre,  while  we  know  of  frequent  yields  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  bush- 
els. We  have  seen  the  published  assertion,  that  in  one  of  the  extensively  corn-growing 
States,  the  immense  yield  of  two  hundred  bushels  of  shelled  torn  have  been  grown  per  acre, 
with  exceptionally  good  cultivation,  which  may  or  may  not  be  correct,  as  the  statement  has 
never  been  authentically  verified.  "We  do  not  give  it  as  a  fact;  however,  it  would  be  well 
for  our  farmers,  if  more  of  them  would  aim  to  attain  that  result,  and  thus  approach  nearer  to 
it  than  they  now  do.  The  majority  of  our  best  farmers  have  found  it  difficult  to  reach  a 
yield  of  ninety  or  a  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  but  by  making  the  standard  of  yield  high, 
those  whose  lands  are  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  corn  will  find  that  higher  results  can  be 
reached  than  is  commonly  supposed. 

The  kind  and  quality  of  seed  will  largely  affect  the  yield,  while  other  conditions,  such 
as  soil,  culture,  &c.,  will  modify  it  still  further.  The  height  to  which  the  full-grown  plant 
attains  varies  with  different  varieties  and  soils,  sometimes  reaching  the  luxmiant  growth  of 
eighteen  feet  on  the  rich  soil  of  some  of  the  Western  prairies,  and  those  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter. The  color  of  the  kernel  depends  upon  that  of  the  hull  and  the  oil  it  contains.  In  the 
white  varieties  they  are  both  transparent;  in  yellow  corn  the  hull  is  transparent  and  the  oil 
yellow ;  the  red  and  blue  kinds  owe  their  color  to  the  hue  of  the  hull  or  covering.  In  some 
varieties  of  corn  there  is  a  larger  amount  of  oil  than  in  others,  some  being  nearly  destitute  of 
it.  Oil  is  useful  in  protecting  the  grain,  when  germinating  in  the  soil,  from  being  too  rapidly  de- 
composed in  long-continued  wet  weather,  and  in  imparting  nourishment  to  the  young  plants. 
It  also  has  a  tendency  to  keep  meal  from  souring  as  readily  as  it  otherwise  would,  that  ground 
from  corn  having  the  least  oil  becoming  musty,  or  sour,  soonest.  The  Tuscarora  corn  con- 
tains very  little,  if  any,  oil,  and  the  meal  made  from  it  will  keep  sweet  but  a  short  time.  In 
the  manufacturing  of  whisky,  during  the  process  of  fermentation,  the  oil  separates  from  the 
corn  and  rises  to  the  surface,  and  is  taken  off  and  used  for  various  purposes.  According  to 
good  authority,  rice-corn  contains  the  most  oil,  pop-corn  next,  Canada  corn  ranks  third,  and 
broom-corn  fourth;  and  as  the  lowest  varient  types  are  the  small  rice-corn  and  pop-coru,  and 
the  highest  some  of  the  most  valuable  improved  varieties,  it  would  seem  that  the  effect  of 
careful  cultivation  is  to  increase  the  starchy  properties  of  the  grain  to  the  lessening  of  the 
fatty  contents. 

As  an  article  of  food  for  man,  it  is  a  very  healthful  and  nutritive  diet,  containing,   as  it 


304 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


does,   the  elements  required  for  the  development  and  support  of  the  animal  system, 
analysis  of  corn,  as  given  by  Palson,  is  as  follows: — 

Gluten,  etc.,  .........  8.8 


The 


Starch, 

Gum  and  sugar, 

Oil, 

Bran,  etc., 

Ash, 

Water, 


54.4 
2.7 
46 

15.8 
1.7 

13.1 


100. 


Although  there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  proportionate  ingredients  that  enter  into  the 
grains  of  different  varieties,  yet  the  above  analysis  would  represent  a  fair  average  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  cultivated. 

To  show  the  difference  in  some  of  these  varieties,  as  well  as  the  difference  in  the  proper- 
ties of  water  contained  in  the  meal  or  kernel  of  that  thoroughly  or  imperfectly  cured,  we  in- 
sert  the  following  analyses  recently  made  at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  by  Prof.  S. 
W.  Johnson: — 

Analyses  of  Maize. 


Maize  Meal. 

Kernel  as  sold  in 
market. 

Unshelled  corn  raised  in 
Connecticut. 

• 

J. 

>• 

1 

1 

^ 

K 

.a 

S 

T3 

i" 

B 

s 

3  S 

ii 

s 

1 

.as 

H 

Si 
a 

1 
1 
o 

'1 
1 

E 

Water, 

14.56 

15.33 

20.68 

20.23 

16.41 

15.97 

15.57 

15.24 

16.83 

Ash 

1.33 

1.47 

1.19 

1.16 

1.35 

1.35 

1.36 

1.38 

1.19 

Albuminoids, 

9.13 

8.63 

7.88 

8.54 

8.57 

10.31 

10.00!    8.31 

8.94 

Fiber 

3.16 

1.88 

1.65 

1.67 

1.76 

1.37 

1.47]    1.59 

1.33 

Carbhydrates, 

68.89 

68.77 

64.95 

64.86 

68.16 

66.50 

67.061  69.78 

67.84 

Fat, 

4.05 

3.98 

3.70 

3.55 

3.85 

4.50 

4.44 

3.80 

3.89 

Composition  reckoned  on  dry  substance. 


Ash 

1.43 

1.74 

1.50 

1.45 

1.50 

1.60 

1.491    1.51 

Albuminoids 

10.67 

10.19 

9.88 

10.70 

10.35 

12.37 

11.88     9.80 

Fiber 

3.53 

3.16 

3.08 

2.09 

2.10 

1.62 

1.74     1.87 

Carbhydrates,  ..... 

80.63 

81.31 

81.88 

81.31 

81.55 

79.15 

79.62  82.34 

Fat, 

4.74 

4.70 

4.66 

4.45 

4.45 

5.36 

5.27     4.48 

Albuminoids,    . 
Carbhydrates,  . 

Fat, 
Nutritive  ratio, 


Digestible  Ndteients  in  air-dey  substance. 


7.66J    7.251    6.581    7.171    7.30  8 

65.561  65.32,  61.66  61.59  64.73  63.02 

3.201    3.14     2.93     2.801    3.04  3.56 

1:9.611:10.01:10.4!  1:9.5|1:10.0  1: 


8.40 
63.58 

3.51 
1:8.6 


1.43 
10.74 

1.58 
81.57 

4.68 


6.981    7.51 

66.18  64.26 

3.00     3.07 

1:10.5  1:8.7 


These  analyses  were  made  upon  the  different  specimens  as  they  reached  the  Experiment 
Station  and  before  any  of  the  moisture  was  lost  by  subsequent  drying.  Dr.  Jenkins  found,  in 
summing  up  the  results  of  sixty-three  analyses  of  corn,  that  the  amormt  of  water  ranged 
from  six  to  fifteen  per  cent.,  the  average  being  ten  and  a  half  per  cent.  Dr.  Goessman  found, 
in  eleven  analyses,  the  average  per  cent,  of  water  to  be  ten.  Other  analyses,  by  Prof.  John- 
son, from  meal  offered  in  the  market,  resulted  in  a  quantity  of  water  from  twelve  to  over 
twenty-one  per  cent.,  and  he  concludes  that  all  together  prove  that  the  quantity  of  water  in 
corn  kernel  or  meal,  as  found  in  the  markets  generally,  may  range  from  thirteen  to  nearly 
twenty -two  per  cent,  of  the  entire  weight;  that  well-cured  com  and  meal  may  contain  from 


CORN.  305 

fifteen  to  seventeen  per  cent.,  and  that  new  corn  or  meal  are  quite  likely  to  contain  as  much 
as  twenty  or  twenty-one  per  cent,  of  water.  It  will  be  readily  seen,  therefore,  that  it  is  a 
matter  of  some  importance  to  the  farmer,  in  large  transactions,  whether  corn  and  corn-meal 
be  bought  in  a  slightly,  or  thoroughly  cured  state.  There  is  quite  a  difference  between  new 
and  old  corn  in  the  amount  of  moisture  contained,  as  wiU  be  seen  by  the  analyses  previously 
given,  and  which,  if  known,  is  not  always  appreciated. 

Varieties.  — There  is  no  other  of  the  cereals  which  presents  so  many  varieties  as  com 
or  maize,  although  there  are  comparatively  but  few  which  are  distinct  in  general  cultivation. 
But  httle  effort  was  formerly  made  to  keep  the  different  kinds  pure;  more  care,  is,  however, 
being  exercised  within  a  few  years  in  this  respect  than  formerly,  and  as  new  varieties  are 
constantly  being  introduced  and  tested,  the  merits  of  the  leading  ones  will  doubtless  soon  be 
more  extensively  appreciated,  resulting  in  the  more  general  practice  of  pure-bred  varieties 
of  this  grain.  The  height  attained  by  the  plant  varies,  according  to  soil  and  kind,  from  that 
of  the  little  shrubby  stalk  of  three  feet,  to  the  beautiful  and  luxuriant  growth  of  eighteen, 
while  in  color  and  form,  we  have  white,  yellow,  red,  striated,  brown,  black,  purple,  blue,  etc., 
either  in  tiny  compact  ears  with  small,  fiat  grains,  or  with  rounded  little  kernels  closely 
wedged  and  resembling  grains  of  rice,  and  very  appropriately  called  rice-corn,  or  all  the  inter- 
mediate varieties  between  these  and  the  magnificently-formed  proportions  of  ear  and  kernel 
which  characterize  that  produced  by  some  of  the  Western  States,  where  it  attains,  in  size, 
its  most  perfect  development.  Some  of  the  cobs  are  red,  others  white,  irrespective  of  the 
color  of  the  grain,  while  the  ears  vary  in  length  from  one  inch  to  fifteen  inches  or  more,  with 
proportionate  variance  in  diameter  and  size  of  grain. 

In  many  of  the  corn-growing  sections,  the  only  recognized  distinction  is  in  the  color  of 
the  grain,  '-white  corn"  or  ''yellow  corn,"  according  to  the  color  of  the  kernel,  being  the 
only  distinguishing  terms  in  use  to  designate  the  kinds  generally  cultivated.  Although  the 
lower  types  hybridize  more  readily  than  the  more  valuable,  improved  varieties,  still  the  latter 
are  so  Uable  to  mix  with  different  kinds  grown  in  their  vicinity,  and  also  adapt  themselves 
to  different  soils  and  climates,  var3ring  to  a  certain  extent  with  almost  every  degree  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude,  that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  retain  the  original  type  unmixed  and 
unchanged. 

As  an  instance  of  the  changes  produced  by  climate, — when  some  of  the  small  varieties 
which  ripen  early  in  the  extreme  Northern  States  are  cultivated  a  few  years  in  the  Southern, 
where  the  summers  are  so  much  longer  than  at  the  North,  they  will  gradually  change,  by 
ripening  later,  and  with  a  much  larger  growth  of  ear  and  kernel.  This  change  goes  on 
from  year  to  year,  until  the  plant  has  perfectly  adapted  itself  to  its  new  location,  where  it 
remains  a  fixed  variety,  unless  it  should  be  moved  again  North,  when  it  will  gradually 
assume  its  former  type. 

The  small  "  flint "  corn  which  has  from  eight  to  twelve  rows  is,  as  a  general  rule,  found 
cultivated  mostly  in  the  New  England  States,  and  the  northern  portion  of  New  York,  as  well 
as  that  of  one  or  two  of  the  most  northern  of  the  Western  States,  these  being  sections  where 
it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  the  early-ripening  kinds,  while  in  the  South  and  most  southerly 
of  the  Western  States  the  "dent"  or  "gourd-seed"  varieties  are  at  present  more  extensively 
grown  than  any  other. 

Among  the  varieties  of  the  "  flint  "  that  are  very  popular  and  generally  considered  among 
the  best  are  the  "Holden,"  which  is  a  small  eight-rowed  sort,  and  quite  productive,  the 
Yellow  Canada,  of  similar  type,  Kingsbury's  Excelsior,  an  early  twelve-rowed  kind  of  larger 
growth  than  either  of  the  preceding,  and  the  Early  Compton,  a  fine  and  prolific  variety, 
which  is  a  seedling  from  the  Button,  and  resembles  it  somewhat  in  appearance.  The  kernels 
are  of  medium  size  and  bright  yellow;  ears  eight-rowed  and  quite  long;  ripens  early. 
Besides  these,  we  have  the  well-known  New  England  Golden,  the  White  FHnt,  Early  Dutton, 


306  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

and  Early  Scioto,  all  of  which  are  long-established  and  valuable  varieties.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  the  large  Southern  and  Western  corn,  among  which  are  the  White  Gourd  Seed, 
Early  Galena,  Southern  Big  Yellow,  Illinois  Yellow,  Long  John,  Queen  of  the  Prairie,  Ches- 
ter County  Mammoth,  Evans  and  Proctor,  all  of  which  are  largely  cultivated.  The  last  tliree 
varieties  are  of  extremely  large  growth,  both  in  stalks  and  grain,  and  thriVe  best  on  very  rich 
soil.  There  are  many  sub-varieties  intermediate  between  the  larger  and  smaller  kinds,  which 
are  known  and  valued  in  certain  localities,  and  which  seem  especially  adapted  to  those 
sections,  intermediate  between  which  the  early-ripening  and  the  larger  and  later  varieties  are 
grown.  These  are  considerably  larger  than  the  early  sorts,  but  smaller  than  the  large  gourd- 
seed  varieties.  The  "Connecticut  Valley  corn"  audits  numerous  variations  are  examples  of 
this  species,  and  are  much  more  extensively  grown  in  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  than 
any  other.  It  is  very  prolific,  ripens  in  about  four  months  from  the  time  the  seed  is  planted, 
while  its  quality  is  superior  to  the  gourd-seed  kinds.  The  Improved  King  Phihp  or  Rhode 
Island  is  of  a  similar  type,  and  has  long  been  one  of  the  leading  kinds.  The  White  ProUfic 
and  Wausliakum  Thoroughbred  are  recent  varieties  of  great  promise.  The  Sweet  corn,  with 
its  many  types,  forms  a  very  palatable  and  nutritious  article  of  diet,  when  properly  prepared, 
and  one  which  in  this  country  is  very  popular. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  particularize  the  valuable  and  popular  varieties,  as  new  ones  are 
constantly  being  introduced,  and  the  farmer  will  find  no  difficulty  in  selecting  such  as,  with 
proper  cultivation,  will  give  good  results.  At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Agriculture,  the  following  description  of  the  model  or  ideal  ear  of  corn  was  given  by  the 
committee : 

"It  has  an  ear  medium  in  size  as  regards  the  diameter;  the  kernels  are  deep;  the  cob  is 
small  at  the  butt ;  and  the  ear  holds  its  bigness  towards  the  point  until  very  near  the  tapering- 
off.  It  should  be  capped  over ;  and  the  kernels  should  hold  their  bigness  towards  the  point 
and  at  the  butt  run  out  straight,  and  not  crinkle." 

In  the  selection  of  ears  for  planting  purposes,  it  will  be  well  for  the  farmer  to  have  an 
"  ideal  ear  "  in  mind  as  far  as  the  main  points  are  concerned.  Whatever  the  kind  cultivated, 
it  should  be  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate.  Only  the  early-ripening  varieties  should  be 
grown  in  the  extreme  northern  section  of  the  country,  as  the  later  ones  will  not  have  time  to 
fully  mature  and  ripen  during  the  short  summer.  Many  of  the  early  kinds  will  ripen  in 
ninety  days  after  planting. 

Selection  of  Seed.  — The  quaHty  and  quantity  of  the  crop  is  largely  modified  by  the 
quality  of  seed  sown,  and  whatever  the  variety,  only  the  most  perfectly  developed  and  ripened 
seed  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose.  Corn  taken  from  the  bin  at  random  for  planting, 
as  is  the  custom,  with  many  farmers  can  never  give  in  result  that  of  careful  selection. 
Some  of  our  choicest  kinds  have  been  brought  to  their  present  high  standard  by  selecting 
only  the  earliest  and  largest  ears  from  the  most  prolific  and  thrifty  stalks,  and  by  careful 
cultivation  for  several  years  in  succession.  The  selection  can  best  be  made  in  the  field  before 
the  crop  is  gathered,  as  it  affords  a  letter  opportunity  of  comparison.  By  careful  selection 
and  cultivation  of  seed  for  a  few  years,  astonishing  results  will  be  produced  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  crop.     Dr.  Sturtevant  says:  — 

"  To  the  seed  must  we  look  first,  in  order  to  secure  improvement,  in  order  to  gain  the 
maximum  crop  at  the  least  expense.  It  is  not  enough  to  select  the  ear;  this  process  lias  done 
something;  but  alone,  this  is  not  sufiicient.  We  must  pay  attention  to  the  past  history  of 
our  seed ;  we  must  breed  our  corn ;  we  must  secure  prolific  ancestry,  and  use  the  seeds  from 
fecund  parents. 

My  attention  was  forcibly  called  to  the  importance  of  the  seed  in  1875,  the  seed  used 
appearing  to  the  eye  of  equally  good  quality,  but  from  dtEEerent  sources.  The  field  was  of 
like  history,  was  manured  alike  with  bam  yard  manure,  and  was  cultivated  as  one  field. 


CORN.  307 

Bnshels 
Shelled  corn. 
Seed-corn  A  yielded  with  manure,  .....        110 

SBcdcorn  A  j'ieldcd  witliout  manure,       .....  68 

Seed-corn  B  yielded  with  manure,  .....  55 

Here  the  better  seed  yielded,  without  manure,  more  than  tlie  inferior  seed  with  manure ; 
and  under  equivalent  circumstances  the  better  seed  yielded  just  double  the  crop  of  the 
inferior. 

After  thinking  over  this  result,  which  seemed  to  me  surprising,  I  concluded  to  attempt 
the  forming  of  a  seed-corn  of  prolific  habit.  I  became  aware  that  the  appearance  of  the  ear 
was  but  a  secondary  consideration,  the  past  cropping  of  the  seed  being  the  primary.  The 
summary  of  my  procedure  is  this:  as  corn  has  an  hereditary  character,  I  secured  prolific 
male  parentage  by  carefully  castrating  the  tassels  from  the  barren  stalks  in  my  seed-growing 
field,  and  then  selected  the  best  ears  of  the  crop  for  next  year's  seeding.  The  results  have 
been  marked.     I  have  secured  prolificacy,  uniformity  of  ear,  and  a  heavy  corn-grain." 

Thoroughbred  types  are  as  essential  in  the  production  of  plants  of  a  high  order  and  the 
consequent  improvement  of  crops  as  in  breeding  live-stock,  and  a  carefully  cultivated,  pure-bred 
variety  of  corn  is  as  much  superior  to  an  indifferently  cultivated  mixed  kind,  in  transmitting 
its  good  qualities  to  its  product,  as  a  thoroughbred  animal  is  in  this  respect  superior  to  a 


Some  farmers  cultivate  a  special  small  field  or  plot  for  seed  with  great  care,  and  then 
select  only  the  best  of  this  crop  for  planting.  This  is  a  practice  to  be  commended.  The  plot 
should  always  be  planted  at  a  distance  from  any  other  in  the  field,  whether  of  the  same  variety 
or  otherwise,  as  if  near  and  of  the  same  kind,  even,  there  will  be  a  liability  of  some  of  the 
ears  being  fertilized  by  the  pollen  of  inferior  plants  or  of  the  suckers,  the  product  of  which 
will  result  in  inferior  or  infertile  plants.  Imperfect  or  baixen  corn-plants, — those  bearing  no 
ears, — are  as  injurious  in  their  effect  in  a  seed-plot  as  an  inferior  male  among  choice,  thor- 
ough-bred live-stock  ;  they  perpetuate  their  kind.  Consequently  the  corn-grower  should  not 
permit  a  barren  corn-plant  to  cast  its  pollen  in  his  field.  The  perfect  corn-plant  bears  a  stam- 
inate  (the  tassel)  called  the  male  flower,  and  a  pistillate  or  female  flower  called  "  the  silk  "; 
the  imperfect  plant  has  therefore  the  tassel  or  blossom,  but  no  sUk,  and  will  produce  no  grain  ; 
but  if  permitted  to  stand  in  the  field  with  the  other  plants,  it  will  cast  its  pollen  upon  some  of 
those  plants  and  fertilize  them,  and  the  crop  produced  from  the  seed  thus  fertilized  would  be 
liable  to  be  barren  plants,  and  the  yield  of  the  crop  greatly  deteriorated.  By  going  through 
the  field  and  cutting  off  the  blossoms  or  tassels  of  all  plants  that  have  no  ears  formed  or  silk, 
the  difficulty  is  obviated,  for  such  blossoms  will  not  then  be  left  to  fertilize  other  plants. 
Many  planters  go  so  far  as  to  cut  down  every  such  stalk  entire.  This  should  be  done  before 
the  tassels  are  fully  out  or  able  to  shed  their  pollen.  In  this  manner  the  imperfect  seed  will 
soon  be  bred  out,  and  the  prolific  qualities  of  the  crop  be  largely  increased.  By  selecting 
for  seed  ears  from  a  stalk  bearing  two  or  more,  the  yield  of  the  product  of  such  seed  will  be 
greater  than  from  stalks  bearing  only  one  ear,  as  the  prolific  tendency  will  become  in  a  short 
time  fixed,  and  a  characteristic  of  the  variety.  From  such  ears  should  be  selected  those  that 
are  uniform  in  every  way  as  compared  with  each  other,  having  small  cobs,  the  kernels  com- 
pactly placed  on  the  cob  in  straight  rows,  and  uniform  in  shape  and  size  throughout.  If  a 
different  variety  be  grown  near  a  seed-plot  it  will  be  impossible  to  maintain  the  seed  pure,  as 
the  pollen  will  be  carried  even  quite  a  distance  in  the  air,  or  by  insects  that  collect  on  the 
blossoms,  and  this  explains  why  sometimes  an  occasional  ear  or  a  few  kernels  of  an  ear  of 
another  kind  will  be  found  mixed  in  the  product  of  the  pure  seed. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  occasionally  a  few  kernels  of  red,  blue,  or  sweet  com  mixed 
in  this  way  with  an  entirely  different  variety.  Mr.  J.  E.  Read  says  respecting  the  distance  to 
which  pollen  may  be  carried  and  its  affecting  adjacent  or  distant  fields  : 


308  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

"  The  habit  of  planting  several  different  kinds  of  corn  upon  one  farm  is  not  at  all  to  be 
commended.  It  is  injurious  to  the  farmer's  own  interest,  and  makes  it  still  more  difScult  than 
it  otherwise  would  be  for  his  neighbors  to  grow  the  kind  which  they  desire  to  produce.  The 
distance  to  which  pollen  is  carried  is  not  certainly  known,  but  it  is  probably  greater  than 
farmers  generally  suppose.  We  once  foimd  a  bright  red  ear  in  a  field  of  yellow  corn,  and 
there  was  not  another  red  ear  on  the  farm,  and  but  few  red  kernels  could  be  found  on  other 
ears.  There  was  no  red  corn  grown  on  the  adjoining  farm,  but  beyond  that  was  a  farm  upon 
which  there  was  a  field  of  this  colored  variety.  The  red  ear  must  have  been  fertilized  by  pol- 
len from  this  distant  field.  There  have  been  other  strongly  marked  cases,  and  they  prove  that 
it  is  unsafe  to  rely  upon  the  purity  of  seed-corn  which  is  grown  without  being  separated  from 
any  other  kind  by  a  much  longer  distance  than  is  usually  thought  necessary." 

Some  farmers  put  a  strip  of  broom-corn  or  sorghum  a  few  rods  wide  close  to  a  field  of 
corn  to  prevent  the  pollen  of  its  blossoms  from  reaching  the  plot  of  seed-corn  that  may  not  be 
sufficiently  far  away  to  be  otherwise  protected. 

"When  a  separate  plot  is  cultivated  for  seed,  great  care  should  be  used  in  the  preparation 
of  the  soil  and  after  cultivation,  and  all  the  feeble  and  inferior  plants  be  thinned  out  when 
grown  sufficiently  high  to  be  detected.  In  saving  the  seed  for  planting,  the  small  and  imper- 
fectly-developed kernels  at  the  small  end  of  the  ear  should  always  be  discarded.  Prof.  P.  A. 
Chadboume  says  :  "In  order  to  raise  good,  prolific  seed-corn  it  will  be  necessary  to  plant 
the  best  seed  that  can  be  procured,  and,  before  the  corn  tassels  out  or  produces  pollen,  to  go 
along  the  rows  and  cut  out  every  mean,  miserable  stalk,  so  that  every  ear  shall  stand  on  a 
proper  stalk,  and  shall  be  fertilized  by  pollen  that  has  come  from  a  strong,  healthy,  corn-pro- 
ducing stalk." 

Preparation  of  Seed. —  In  order  to  hasten  the  germination  of  seed  and  the 
growth  of  the  young  plants,  many  farmers  soak  the  corn  in  warm  water  a  day  or  two  before 
planting.  A  solution  of  saltpetre  or  copperas  is  sometimes  recommended  and  said  to  accom- 
plish the  same  result,  as  well  as  to  protect  the  corn  against  the  attacks  of  birds,  squirrels, 
mice,  and  worms  for  a  time;  but  there  is  a  liability  of  the  germinating  power  of  the  seed 
being  destroyed  or  injured  in  this  way,  by  getting  the  solution  a  little  too  strong  of  these  sub- 
stances, while,  unless  rather  strong,  it  has  no  effect  in  keeping  these  little  mischievous  depre- 
dators at  bay. 

Coating  the  kernels  with  coal-tar,  or  common  tar,  will  generally  prevent  birds  from  pull- 
ing up  the  plants,  or  attacks  from  any  other  of  the  common  enemies  of  this  crop  that  are  such 
an  annoyance  to  the  farmer.  When  coal-tar  is  used  the  seed  should  first  be  soaked  a  few 
hours  in  warm  water  ;  after  this  is  drained  off,  a  very  little  tar  stirred  into  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  cover  the  kernels,  a  pint  of  tar  being  sufficient  for  two  or  three  bushels  of  seed-corn. 

When  common  tar  is  used,  a  pint  of  boiling  tar  ■will  be  required  for  a  half -bushel  of  seed, 
stirring  the  corn  briskly  as  it  is  turned  in,  until  every  kernel  is  coated  with  it.  Whether  coal 
or  common  tar  be  used,  rolling  the  seed  in  plaster,  bone-dust,  ashes  or  fine  soil-dust  will  pre- 
vent either  kind  from  being  troublesome  in  planting  when  a  drill  or  corn-planter  is  used,  and 
it  can  be  done  with  these  machines  the  same  as  before  it  was  thus  treated,  except  they  must 
be  regulated  to  give  the  seed  a  little  more  room  for  outlet,  otherwise  the  grain  will  not  drop 
freely.  Before  the  tar  is  applied,  care  sh.ould  be  taken  to  soak  the  seed  thoroughly,  as  the 
coating  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  moisture  from  the  seed  and  prevent  germination. 

Various  other  preventives  are  often  recommended,  but  we  know  of  nothing  as  sure  in  its 
results  as  that  above  recommended. 

Most  birds  are  a  help  to  the  farmer  in  destropng  insects  and  worms  that  are  injurious 
to  his  crops,  and  the  few  that  sometimes  pull  up  the  corn-plants  will  generally  do  more  good 
than  harm  in  exterminating  these  pests;  hence  it  is  far  better  to  make  the  seed  distasteful  to 
them  by  the  use  of  tar  or  other  means,  rather  than  kill  them,  as  they  are  really  the  farmer's 
friends  in  the  protection  of  his  products. 


CORN.  809 

Soil  for  Corn  and  its  Preparation.  —  Corn  thrives  best  in  a  rich,  mellow  soil, 
one  that  is  warm  and  rather  dry,  although  it  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind,  being  a  plant  of 
extraordinary  aptitudes.  It  should,  however,  be  sufficiently  moist  to  make  rapid  growth,  but 
not  wet.  A  rich  loam  is  best,  and  if  it  be  of  a  dark  color  so  as  to  absorb  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
it  will  be  so  much  the  warmer  and  better  adapted  to  the  purpose.  Corn  will  not  do  as  well 
on  wet  lands  or  those  that  are  very  cold,  like  some  of  the  strong  clays,  hence  soils  that  are  wet 
should  be  well  drained  for  this  crop,  and  cold  soils  should  be  cultivated  in  ridges  and  be  planted 
with  an  early-ripening  kind,  in  order  to  mature  well.  Although  it  thrives  best  on  soils  espe- 
cially adapted  to  it,  yet  land  that  will  produce  almost  any  cultivated  crop  can  be  so  carefully 
fitted  that,  with  a  selection  of  the  variety  suited  to  it  and  the  cHmate,  a  good  crop  of  corn 
can  be  produced.  An  old  sod  plowed  under,  and  especially  a  clover  lay,  when  properly  pre- 
pared, makes  an  excellent  seed-bed  for  this  crop,  but  it  should  always  have  a  good  supply  of 
manure  in  addition,  either  farm  manure  or  chemical  fertilizers,  for  soil  can  scarcely  be  made 
too  rich  with  the  proper  kind  of  fertilizers  for  this  crop.  "  Breeding  first,  and  then  feeding," 
is  the  old  maxim  of  the  stockman,  which,  when  applied  to  cultivated  crops,  means  quite  as 
much  as  in  its  application  to  animals,  for  the  selection  of  the  seed  is  the  breeding,  and  the 
choice  of  soil,  the  fertilizers  and  the  cultivation  are  the  feeding.  With  the  corn  crop  gener 
ally  the  largest  yields  have  always  been  where  the  feeding  has  been  of  the  right  kinds  of 
plant-food,  and  the  most  liberally  supplied. 

A  well -balanced  and  uniform  fertility,  such  as  is  found  in  sod  that  has  all  the  elements 
of  plant-growth,  in  the  best  available  proportions,  or  lands  inundated  by  rivers,  are  what  give 
successful  results. 

The  corn-plant  is  vigorous  in  growth,  and  like  all  animals  that  are  such,  is  a  strong  feeder, 
and  will  appropriate  almost  any  kind  of  available  food.  It  is  said  to  take  the  place  among 
vegetable  products  that  the  hog  does  among  domestic  animals  respecting  the  food  it  con- 
sumes,— requiring  a  large  amount,  yet  not  over-particular  as  to  the  kind,  or  quality. 

Manure  from  the  barn-yard  (well  decomposed),  the  hog-pen,  sheep-yard,  poultry-yard,  or 
privy-vault,  are  all  used  with  good  effect  on  this  crop,  but  they  should  be  spread  broadcast 
and  well  mixed  with  the  soil.  The  wide-spreading  roots  of  the  plant  will  be  sure  to  find  it  if 
it  is  in  the  soil,  and  not  so  deeply  buried  as  to  be  beyond  their  reach.  When  manure  is  applied 
simply  in  the  hiU  or  drill,  the  plant  makes  an  early  and  rapid  growth,  producing  an  extension 
of  the  roots,  which  soon  go  beyond  the  fertilized  portion  in  search  of  food,  and  find  but  little 
support,  hence  its  growth  is  retarded  at  this  important  period,  preparatory  to  the  formation 
and  maturition  of  the  grain.  Sometimes  an  early  growth  of  stalks  and  leaves  is  made  at  the 
expense  of  the  grain  in  this  way. 

When  scattered  broadcast  and  well-mixed  with  the  soil,  this  difficulty  is  obviated.  The 
danger  of  over-manuring  with  strong  fertilizers  generally,  especially  those  rich  in  free  ammo- 
nia, is  that  they  have  their  effect  mainly  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  when  a  large  supply 
is  also  needed  in  the  latter  part,  to  aid  in  the  formation  and  growth  of  the  grain.  Tliere  is  how- 
ever little  danger  of  the  crop  having  a  surplus  of  fertility,  the  common  error  with  farmers 
being  in  not  suplying  a  sufiicient  amount.  Sod,  by  its  gradual  decomposition,  is  admirably 
adapted  to  this  crop,  as  it  furnishes  a  constant  supply  of  plant-growth,  and  a  rich  element  late 
in  the  season,  when  it  is  required  for  the  perfection  of  the  kernel  and  ear.  It  has  been  proven 
beyond  a  doubt  by  numerous  careful  experiments  that  the  corn-plant  requires  ammonia  in  its 
early  stages  and  nitrates  m  later  growth.  Stable-manure  should  be  weU  pulverized  before 
being  applied,  and  the  soil  be  made  mellow  in  preparation  for  the  seed,  as  it  cannot  be  readily 
assimilated  by  the  plants  unless  in  proper  condition  to  be  taken  up  by  the  tender  roots.  An 
animal  might  starve  with  an  abundance  of  food  attainable,  unless  that  food  were  first  masti- 
cated and  reduced  to  a  condition  to  be  taken  into  and  digested  by  the  stomach  ;  on  the  same 
principle,  plants  may  starve  when  the  food  to  be  appropriated  by  them  is  not  in  a  digestible 
and  available  condition  to  give  them  the  necessary  nourishment. 


310  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Plaster,  for  soils  deficient  in  lime,  is  beneficial  to  corn,  and  wood-ashes  are  also  excellent. 
Chemical  fertilizers  are  especially  valuable  for  this  crop,  and  are  very  reliable  in  securing 
successful  results,  some  of  the  largest  crops  having  been  grown  by  their  application.  They 
are  always  soluble  and  available,  hence,  are  a  good  substitute  for  barn-yard  manure.  They 
should  always  be  near  the  surface,  consequently  should  be  lightly  harrowed  in,  in  order  to  be 
within  i-each  of  the  roots  of  the  young  plants.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted,  as  a  general 
principle  in  raising  corn,  that  unless  the  soil  is  exceptionally  rich,  like  that  in  some  sections 
of  Manitoba,  for  instance,  where  fertilizers  are  unnecessary,  a  large  crop  cannot  be  produced 
without  a  liberal  apphcation  of  well-balanced  manures  or  speciallj'--prepared  fertilizers  suited 
to  the  soil  and  crop;  old  soils  require  it.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  richly- 
manured  soil  is  more  cheaply  and  easily  worked,  and  large  crops  are  more  cheaply  produced 
from  it  than  from  lands  that  are  less  liberally  fertilized ;  in  brief,  that  it  pays  the  farmer 
better  to  work  one  acre  of  good  rich  soil,  than  two  or  more  of  poor  soil.  The  quantity  of 
fertilizers  to  be  applied  wOl,  of  course,  vary  with  different  soils,  some  requiring  more  than 
others.  The  quality  of  the  seed  used  should  also  largely  modify  the  quantity  applied.  Where 
the  seed  to  be  planted  is  very  prolific,  and  capable  of  producing  from  eighty  to  a  hundred 
bushels  per  acre,  a  larger  application  of  fertilizers  will  be  required  than  where  the  seed  used 
is  able  to  produce  about  half  that  amoimt. 

Where  the  soil  is  thoroughly  cultivated,  a  larger  amount  can  also  be  profitably  used  than 
where  only  an  indifferent  cultivation  is  practiced.  Dr.  Sturtevant  states  that  in  his  own 
practice  he  finds  five  cords  per  acre  of  manure  that  has  not  been  diluted  with  other  substances 
to  be  sufficient;  but  that  the  larger  portion  of  his  fields  are  enriched  with  artificial  fertilizers, 
which  are  applied  according  to  the  past  history  of  the  field,  the  quantity  to  be  used  -being 
varied  according  to  circumstances.  Mr.  Stewart  says  that  in  producing  a  crop  equal  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  bushels  and  forty-eight  pounds  of  shelled  corn  per  acre,  he  used  artificial 
fertiUzers  alone  (Mapes'  Complete  Corn  Manure)  at  the  rate  of  six  hundred  pounds  per  acre. 
The  quantity  of  artificial  fertilizers  applied  when  used  without  other  manure  varies  from 
three  hundred  to  six  or  seven  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
soil  and  the  crop  to  be  grown. 

When  barn-yard  manure  is  used  in  considerable  quantity,  it  is  noticeable  that  its  effects 
are  seen  for  three  or  four  years  afterward,  and  each  succeeding  crop  that  follows  in  rotation 
receives  benefit  from  the  fertility  that  remains  in  the  soD.  This  is  not  because  there  was 
more  manure  in  the  land  than  the  com  crop  could  appropriate  to  its  own  use,  but  because 
much  of  the  manure  that  was  applied  was  not  in  a  suitable  condition  to  be  taken  \vp  by  the 
crop  during  the  first  year,  and  it  required  considerable  time  for  it  to  become  reduced  to  that 
condition.  The  corn  crop  probably  took  all  of  the  nourishment  from  the.  soil  that  was  readv 
for  it  to  receive  during  the  first  year,  and  would  have  taken  much  more  if  it  had  been  placed 
there  for  its  use.  It  being,  then,  a  fact,  that  only  a  portion  of  barn-yard  manure  applied  to 
land  will  be  in  a  condition  for  the  crop  to  appropriate  to  its  growth  during  the  first  year,  a 
liberal  supply  of  it  should  always  be  given  on  this  account,  or  some  commercial  fertilizer  that 
is  quickly  taken  up  by  plants  should  be  used  in  connection  with  it. 

Some  farmers  feed  their  soils  as  they  do  their  animals,  in  a  stinted  manner,  thinking 
they  are  thereby  practicing  economy,  and  receive  corresponding  results;  others  feed  liberally 
and  receive  in  return  a  liberal  compensation.  Some  of  our  most  successful  farmers  use  forty 
or  more  common  cart-loads  of  manure  or  compost  per  acre;  other  consider  from  eight  to 
twelve  sufficient;  hence,  the  one  obtains  a  fine  crop,  while  the  other  only  a  moderate  yield. 
We  know  of  no  crop  that  responds  more  freely  to  Hberal  feeding  than  corn,  although  it  is  a 
patient  plant,  and  will  often  give  very  fair  results  with  the  most  indifferent  treatment. 

The  manner  in  which  manure  is  applied  affects  in  a  measure  its  efficiency.  WTien  placed 
only  in  the  hill,  as  was  formerly  the  custom,  the  roots  soon  gro\v  beyond  it,  and  are  not 


CORN.  311 

uniformly  nourished,  as  we  have  previously  stated;  when  appHed  broadcast,  a  more  uniform 
fertility  is  secured  with  greater  benefit  to  the  crops.  Many  farmers  apply  the  manure  broad- 
cast and  harrow  it  in  well,  afterward  using  commercial  fertilizers  of  some  kind  in  the  hills 
or  drills,  according  to  the  method  of  planting;  this  secures  an  early  start  to  the  plants  and 
increases  the  formation  of  root-fibers.  Most  of  the  corn-planters  and  drills  have  the  means 
of  distributing  commercial  fertilizers  near  the  seed  at  the  time  of  sowing.  It  is  customary 
in  some  localities  to  spread  the  manure  broadcast  upon  the  sod  before  plowing,  and  then  turn 
it  under  with  the  plow.  We  do  not  recommend  this  practice,  as  it  buries  the  manure  too 
deeply  in  the  soil,  and  under  the  sod  where  it  will  remain  too  far  away  from  the  reach  of  the 
young  plants  at  the  time  they  require  its  nourishment  to  secure  a  vigorous  start;  besides, 
much  of  it  might  be  lost  altogether  by  leaching  into  the  subsoil.  The  most  successful  results 
will  attend  the  application  nearer  the  surface,  by  plowing  first,  and  harrowing  in  the  manure 
afterward.     Even  with  shallow  plowing,  the  manure  should  lie  above  the  sod  in  the  soil. 

When  the  soil  has  been  previously  cultivated  for  other  crops,  a  shallow  plowing  in  of 
manure  is  not,  of  course,  objectionable.  Chemical  fertilizers,  except  those  made  especially  for 
use  in  hills  and  drills,  are  generally  sowed  broadcast  and  lightly  harrowed  in.  It  is  not  well 
for  the  seed  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  manure  or  strong  chemical  fertilizers  of  any 
kind,  as  the  germ  of  the  seed  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  them;  to  avoid  this  diflSculty  it  should 
always  be  slightly  covered  or  mixed  with  a  little  soil  when  applied  in  hills  or  drills.  Shallow 
plowing  for  most  soils  is  best  for  corn,  as  the  most  fertile  portion  is  that  which  has  been 
exposed  to  atmospheric  influences,  and  where  the  rains  and  sun  can  exert  the  most  power; 
consequently,  as  a  general  rule,  the  richest  soil  is  near  the  surface.  For  most  soils,  unless 
they  are  very  deep  and  permeable,  plowing  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches  is  sufBcient 
for  lands  that  have  been  cultivated,  shallow  plowing  with  deep  pulverization  being  the  most 
desirable. 

Planting. — The  time  for  planting  differs  according  to  the  latitude  and  character  of 
the  season.  It  is  said  that  the  old  Indian  rule  was,  "  When  the  oak-leaves  are  grown  to 
the  size  of  a  squirrel's  foot,  it  is  time  to  plant  corn."  When  the  season  is  ordinarily  early,  and 
not  too  rainy,  the  time  of  planting  this  grain  in  the  extreme  Northern  States,  or  in  Canada,  is 
in  the  early  part  of  June;  in  Massachusetts  and  States  of  a  similar  climate,  from  the  10th  to  the 
20th  of  May;  in  the  Middle  States  and  those  of  the  same  latitude,  from  the  first  to  the  middle 
of  May;  in  the  Southern  States  of  a  latitude  and  climate  similar  to  that  of  Virginia,  .from 
the  middle  to  the  last  of  April;  in  sections  farther  South  it  is  done  in  March.  In  some 
seasons  the  planting  can  be  done  a  week  or  two  earlier  than  the  usual  time,  whUe  in  others, 
when  unusually  cold  or  wet,  it  will  of  necessity  be  delayed  as  much  later  or  longer.  It  can 
also  be  done  considerably  earlier  on  high  than  on  low  lands.  It  is  always  best  to  delay 
planting  until  the  weather  is  favorable,  as  corn  will  not  grow  until  the  ground  is  dry  and 
warm,  and  if  planted  when  cold  and  wet  the  seed  will  be  liable  to  decay  in  the  ground  before 
germinating;  still,  all  farmers  realize  the  necessity  of  getting  corn  started  as  early  as  practi- 
cable, and  it  should  not  be  delayed  later  than  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the  crop.  Early 
planting,  when  the  season  will  admit,  will  give  better  results  than  that  which  is  late;  besides, 
it  can  be  cultivated  earlier,  at  a  period  when  the  farmer  has  more  time  to  attend  to  it  than 
when  planted  later,  and  is  less  hable  to  be  disturbed  by  birds  and  insects,  or  injured  by 
diseases  of  any  kind  when  planted  early.  Early  planting  is  especially  desirable  in  those 
sections  subject  to  early  frosts  in  autumn,  as  both  the  grain  and  fodder  are  injured  by  it; 
hence,  the  earliest  planting  that  the  season  will  allow  is  always  to  be  preferred. 

Hill  and    Drill    Planting. — Corn-planting  may  be  done  by  planting-machines  or 

drOls,  and  the  seed  may  be  deposited  either  in  hills  or  drills,  some  preferring  the  old  method 

of  hill-planting,  while  others  the  newer  and  more  recently  adopted  one  of  drUling.     When 

hill-planting  is  in  squares,  the  corn  may  be  cultivated  both  ways,  which  stirs  the  soil  more 

20 


312 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


than  when  it  can  be  done  only  in  one  direction.  When  the  corn  is  planted  in  driUs,  the 
plants  can  be  more  uniformly  distributed  over  the  ground,  gi^Tng  the  sun  and  air  free  access 
to  them,  while  there  is  less  crowding.  The  advocates  of  drill  planting  claim  that  these 
benefits  more  than  offset  those  of  hill-culture.  The  advocates  of  hill-culture,  on  the  other 
hand,  claim  that  an  increased  yield  is  obtained  by  their  favorite  method.  Both  methods  have 
their  especial  advantages,  and  by  experimenting  for  himself  the  farmer  can  determine  which 
he  prefers;  we  are  inclined  to  favor  drilling.  The  best  planting-machines  can  be  so  adjusted 
as  to  drop  the  seed  either  in  hills  or  drills,  as  desired,  as  well  as  a  common  drilling-machine. 
They  will  open  the  furrow,  drop  the  seed  at  regular  intervals,  and  in  proper  quantity,  in 
straight  rows  or  drills,  which  admits  of  after  cultivation  by  machinery,  cover  the  seed  at  the 
proper  depth  as  well  as  could  be  done  by  hand,  roll  it  down,  and  measure  and  mark  off  at 
the  same  time  the  distance  for  the  next  row  or  drill  to  be  planted.  In  this  manner  a  single- 
rowed  machine,  with  one  man  and  a  horse,  will  plant  from  seven  to  ten  acres  of  corn  per 
day.  "With  a  double-rowed  machine,  planting  two  rows  at  a  time,  about  twice  this  amount 
can  be  planted,  or  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  acres  a  day;  these  machines  doing  the  work  as 
rapidly  as  a  horse  can  walk.     Some  of  the  smaller  ones  can  be  worked  by  hand,  if  desired. 


EOTABT    CHECK-EOWINO    CORN  PLWIER 


The  Check-Eowing  Planter,  manufactured  by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.,  New  York  City,  is  an 
excellent  machine  for  this  purpose. 

Whether  the  corn  be  planted  in  hills  or  drills,  it  is  well  to  give  it  sufficient  room  for 
growth,  that  the  plants  may  not  be  crowded  and  the  air  and  sun  excluded.  The  rows  should 
also  be  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of  the  movements  of  the  horse  in  the  use  of  the  cultivator 
or  horse-hoe.  Such  culture  results  in  larger  ears,  that  are  better  filled  out,  and  consequently 
a  larger  crop.  The  smaller  varieties  will  admit  of  closer  planting  than  those  of  a  larger 
growth.  Corn  is  planted  in  drills  from  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  apart,  with  drills  from 
three  to  four  feet  apart,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  its  moisture,  and  the  variety  to 
be  grown.  Wben  planted  in  hills,  opinions  and  practice  vary  with  respect  to  the  distance 
between  and  the  number  of  stalks  to  be  grown  in  a  hill.  The  distance  between  the  plantings 
should  depend  upon  the  number  of  stalks  to  be  grown  together,  the  kind  of  soil,  and  the 
variety  to  be  cultivated.  Where  only  one  stalk  is  grown  in  a  hill,  such  cultivation  will  admit 
of  closer  planting  than  where  three  or  four  stalks  occupy  a  similar  space;  besides,  a  rich  soil 
will  admit  of  more  plants  to  a  given  surface  than  a  light  one,  while  a  variety  of  corn  of  large 
growth  will  require  more  room  to  thrive  well  than  a  smaller  variety.  We  think  the  general 
fault  with  farmers  is  in  limiting  the  space  too  much  and  crowding  the  plants  too  closely 


CORN.  313 

together,  and  tliat  the  largest  varieties  should  never  have  more  than  three  or  four  stalks  to 
the  hill,  and,  in  such  a  case,  the  distance  between  the  rows  should  never  be  less  than  four 
feet.  "Where  only  one  or  two  stalks  are  grown  in  a  hiU,  the  distance  could,  of  course,  be 
lessened. 

Dr.  Sturtevant  of  Massachusetts,  gives  his  opinion  as  follows :  "  Distance  for  planting 
must  be  governed  by  the  necessities  of  the  culture,  and  also  regulated  by  the  fertility  and 
other  agricultural  conditions  of  the  field.  In  a  droughty  field  it  is  well  to  plant  sparingly, 
as  the  corn-plant  is  a  great  evaporator  of  water,  and  many  plants  call  for  more  water  than  do 
few  plants.  Water  which  may  not  be  sufficient  to  supply  3,500  hills  to  the  acre  may  be 
ample  to  supply  2,700  hills.  It  also  requires  more  fertility  in  the  land  to  carry  a  thick 
planting  through  to  maturity  than  -would  be  used  in  a  thin  planting.  The  character  of  the 
plant  must  also  be  considered,  as  a  large,  strong-growing  variety  will  require  greater  space 
for  development  than  will  a  small-growing  variety. 

The  same  principles  which  led  me,  on  Waushakum  Farm,  to  plant  6,223  hills  (in  drills) 
per  acre,  might  lead  the  farmer  in  the  South  or  West  to  plant  2,722  hills.  The  like  reason- 
ing and  experience  which  leads  me  to  use  four  kernels  in  a  place  might  lead  other  farmers  to 
use  one  kernel,  or  five ;  in  a  word,  there  can  be  no  unvarying  rule.  We  should  plant  in  the 
way  best  fitted  to  meet  the  circumstances  of  our  position. 

I  plant  in  drills  three  feet  and  a  half,  hills  in  drills  two  feet  apart,  four  kernels  in  a 
place.  This  gives  6,223  hills,  or  24,892  kernels,  per  acre.  In  careful  experiment  I  have 
found  increase  of  crop  to  follow  increased  thickness  of  planting  up  to  45,000  kernels  per 
acre;  but  the  necessities  of  farm  culture  and  profit  confine  me  to  the  number  used,  viz., 
25,000. 

The  depth  of  planting  must  necessarily  vary  with  conditions.  In  the  extreme  southwest 
the  Indians  punch  a  hole  eighteen  inches  deep  with  a  stick  hardened  in  the  fire,  and,  enclosing 
the  kernel  of  corn  in  a  ball  of  moist  mud,  they  drop  it  to  the  bottom  and  punch  it  down  with 
a  stick.  They  do  this  in  order  to  get  moisture,  and  in  that  climate  the  temperature  is  suffi- 
ciently high  at  that  depth  of  earth;  they  also  secure  apposition  of  the  earth  with  the  seed. 
We  must  secure  the  like  conditions;  we  must  have  moisture,  heat,  and  contact  of  earth  with 
the  seed.  In  this  region  about  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  fulfills  these  conditions  in 
part,  and  pressure  with  the  hoe  or  the  machine  completes.  This  statement  illustrates  how 
the  same  principles  may  be  secured  in  different  ways,  and  brings  out  the  facts  of  the  essen- 
tials which  are  to  be  secured. 

The  summary  of  rules  for  securing  large  and  profitable  crops  of  corn  seems  to  be:  — 

1.  Seed  of  a  prolific  variety. 

2.  Shallow  plowing  and  deep  pulverization. 

3.  Surface-manuring,  and  sufficient,  but  not  overmuch,  manure. 

4.  Thick  planting;  early  planting. 

5.  Thorough  and  judicious  cultivation,  carried  out  with  horse  labor. 
To  be  avoided:  — 

1.  Poor  or  unknown  seed. 

2.  Insufficient  or  overmuch  manure. 

3.  Hand  labor. 

The  seed  should  be  well  covered,  about  two  inches  being  a  depth  suited  to  a  moderately 
moist,  mellow  soil ;  a  sandy  soil  requiring  more  depth  than  clay.  It  is  always  well  to  drop  one 
or  two  more  kernels  in  a  hill  than  would  be  necessary  for  growth,  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
kernels  that  may  not  germinate  or  produce  healthy  stalks,  and  when  the  plants  are  sufficiently 
high,  to  make  a  selection  of  the  feeblest,  to  pull  up  the  latter,  and  leave  only  the  thrifty  and 
healthy  plants  to  mature. 


314 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


CultiTation. — Frequent  and  careful  culture  are  essential  to  the  highest  success  with 
the  corn  crop.  Air  and  water  are  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants  by  not  only  contributing 
to  their  sustenance,  but  also  by  aiding  in  reducing  organic  matter  to  its  mineral  elements  and 
a  soluble  condition,  and  by  effecting  a  disintegrating  and  solvent  action  on  the  mineral  particles 
that  the  soil  contains;  consequently  the  more  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  broken  and  stirred,  the 
more  moisture  is  absorbed  by  it,  and  the  more  the  circulation  of  air  is  effected  within  it. 
Among  some  of  the  large  crops  of  corn  that  we  have  had  authentic  proof  of  having  been 
harvested  from  one  acre,  was  one  of  a  hundred  and  fifty-one  bushels,  when  shelled,  and  this 
was  cultivated  once  a  week  up  to  the  time  when  the  ears  were  forming,  and  after  the  silk  had 
been  fertilized;  we  are  also  credibly  informed  that  at  this  advanced  period  a  dressing  of 
special  corn  fertilizer  was  worked  into  the  soil;  this  latter  being  done  to  promote  the  growth 
of  the  ears  and  grain,  and  as  an  experiment,  on  the  principle  that  these  shoidd  be  encouraged 
in  growth,  rather  than  the  stalks  and  leaves,  after  the  latter  had  attained  a  certain  desirable 
size.  A  requisite  amount  of  leaf-growth  is  essential  to  the  perfect  growth  and  maturity  of  the 
grain,  but,  beyond  this  requirement,  an  excessive  amount  of  leaf-growth  is  not  of  importance 
or  desirable. 


THE    BOBBINS    CITLITVATOR,    ADJUSTED    FOR    CORN. 

If  we  can,  by  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil,  aid  the  plant  in  the  production  of  more  grain, 
by  promoting  the  growth  of  larger  and  more  perfect  ears,  and  preventing  abortive  or  false 
ears,  or  vacant  spaces  in  the  ears,  we  shall  achieve  in  this  department  of  agriculture  what  will 
prove  of  immense  value  and  profit  in  the  production  of  this  crop,  and  the  labor  expended  will 
prove  a  paying  investment.  Frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  also  hastens  maturity  Mr.  Stewart 
says,  that  in  the  cultivation  of  sweet  corn  for  market  he  has  hastened  the  maturity  of  the  crop 
several  days  by  weekly  cultivation.     It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  for  weeds,  but  do  it  for  the 


CORN. 


315 


■benefit  resulting  to  the  crop.  It  too  often  happens  that  corn  receives  but  little  cultivation, 
the  most  of  it  being  required  in  the  most  busy  season  with  the  farmer,  when  other  farm-work 
demands  attention,  hence  the  corn-field  is  liable  to  be  neglected. 

With  only  the  two  or  three  workings  of  the  soil  that  the  com  crop  usually  receives,  of- 
ten hastily  performed,  there  will  be  but  little  benefit  to  the  crop,  while  the  weeds  will  soon 
be  rivals  for  the  occupancy  of  the  field.  We  think  every  farmer  wiU  find  it  more  profitable 
and  better  economy  to  cultivate  his  corn  crop  more  thoroughly  and  frequently  than  is  the 
usual  practice.  And  here  I  would  say  a  word  with  respect  to  the  use  of  improved  agricultu- 
ral machines  in  the  performance  of  farm  labor.  The  Western  farmer,  as  a  general  rule,  has 
a  more  fertile  soil  to  cultivate  than  the  Eastern  farmer;  it  is  consequently  more  easily  tilled, 
and  he  resorts  more  commonly  to  the  use  of  labor-saving  machines  than  the  latter  does, — such 
as  the  sulky  plow,  drill,  corn-planter,  reaper  and  binder,  corn-harvester,  etc., — his  larger  farm 
and  more  extensive  crops  requiring  it;  but  his  lands  are  not  as  thoroughly  cultivated  as  those 
of  the  Eastern  farmer.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Eastern  farmer  is  still  too  often  seen  labo- 
riously making  his  cross  furrows  with  a  plow,  dropping  the  seed  by  hand,  making  the  hills 
with  a  hoe,  and  performing  much  of  the  after-cultivation  with  the  plow  and  hand-hoe.  If 
you  ask  him  why  he  does  not  resort  to  labor-saving  machines,  he  will  probably  answer  that 
his  farm  is  small  and  does  not  necessitate  such  implements,  or  that  much  of  his  land  would 
require  considerable  labor  and  expense  in  removing  stones  and  other  obstructions  to  admit  of 
the  use  of  such  machines.  Now,  we  would  say  to  the  Western  farmer,  a  more  thoroiigh  cul- 
tivation of  your  lands  would  insure  to  you  a  proportionately  larger  profit  in  the  increase  of 
your  crops,  with  less  exhaustion  to  your  soil.  To  the  Eastern  farmer  we  would  say,  if  the 
labor,  time,  and  expense  involved  in  your  present  method  of  agriculture  were  expended  in 
preparing  your  lands  for  and  the  use  of  labor-saving  machines,  you  would  find  it  a  more 
profitable  and  economical  method  of  agriculture  in  every  respect,  involving  less  severe  labor, 
less  time,  less  expense,  and  better  crops;  for  hand- work  is  not  only  laborious,  and  compara- 
tively slow  in  execution,  but  expensive.  By  the  use  of  machines  for  plowing,  planting  and 
cultivating,  all  crops  can  not  only  be  more  easily,  quickly,  and  consequently  more  frequently 
cultivated,  but  with  less  labor  and  expense. 

Hilling  and  Level  Culture. — Whether  the  culture  should  be  level  or  hilled,  wiU 
depend  much  on  the  character  of  the  soil.  Where  the  la^ad  is  dry,  it  is  better  to  keep  the 
surface  as  level  as  pos- 
sible. This  admits  of 
more  uniform  warmth  i 
and  moisture,  conse- 
quently hastens  matur- 
ity, and  leaves  the  sur- 
face in  the  best  condi- 
tion after  the  crop  is 

harvested,  and  may  be  _ 

seeded     down     more  «™  ^^""^ijai        am — • — _ — L^^K^S 

easUy  to  grass  or  clov- 
er, if  desired;  besides, 
hilling  does   not   save  ^^^^( 
tlie  plants  from  being  "^^ 
blown  over  by  a  severe 
storm,    for    the    small  """       '"^i^^tor. 

support  thus  given  is  of  little  effect  when  compared  with  the  force  of  the  wind  upon  the 
broad  leaves.  On  wet  lands,  or  when  coarse  manure  is  used  in  the  hills,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  make  the  hills  higher,  but  in  all  other  cases,  level  cultivation  is  to  be  preferred.     Shallow 


316 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


THE   PLANET,    JB.,    HOBSE-HOE. 


cultivation  is  always  beneficial  to  corn;  deep  cultivation  is  always  attended  with  some  risk,  on 
account  of  breaking  or  disturbing  tlie  roots  of  the  plant,  which  extend  to  a  greater  distance  than 
is  commonly  supposed;  therefore  we  would  not  recommend  the  plow  for  corn-culture;  it  goes 

too  deep  and  breaks 
the  roots.  Farmers 
frequently  have  a 
mistaken  idea  with  re- 
spect to  the  character 
of  the  roots  of  the  com- 
plant.  It  was  a  com- 
monly-received opinion 
many  years  ago.  that 
the  roots  of  trees  and 
plants  extended  from 
the  base  of  the  stems, 
only  as  far  as  the  bran- 
ches extende  d  each 
way  from  the  trunk  or 
stems  above.  It  re- 
quires but  a  httle  observation  to  become  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  all  trees  throw  out 
roots  on  each  side  as  long  as  the  entire  height  of  the  tree,  and  frequently  to  a  much  greater 
distance;  the  same  is  true  of  many  plants.  Says  a  recent  authentic  writer  on  this  sub- 
ject:— 

""We  have  made  some  recent  examinations  of  the  roots  of  beans,  potatoes,  and  of  corn. 
Roots  of  beans  within  four  weeks  of  the  time  of  planting  the  seeds,  and  when  the  plants  were 
only  five  inches  high,  were  found  which  had  extended  a  foot  and  a  half  fi'om  the  stem ;  and 
potatoes  planted  the  first  of  May,  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  were  found  to  have  pushed  their 
fibrous  roots  by  the  middle  of  June  so  as  to  occupy  the  entire  space  between  the  rows.  Very 
careful  examination  was  of  course  required  to  ascertain  these  facts,  and  careless  observers 
would  be  likely  to  overlook  them  entirely. 

The  roots  of  corn  do  not  extend  so  far  as  those  of  beans  and  potatoes  during  the  early 
weeks  of  their  growth ;  but  early  in  summer,  before  the  com  plants  were  six  inches  high, 

they  were  found  to  have  horizontal  roots  in  some 
instances  a  foot  in  length,  making  a  circle  of  fibers 
I  two  feet  in  diameter,  or  four  times  the  height  of  the 
>  plants.  When  the  corn  had  reached  twelve  or  fifteen 
^;j^  inches,  the  roots  had  met  between  the  three-feet  rows, 
.  and  while  yet  the  plants  had  not  attained  more  than 
,  one-tenth  their  final  weight  or  bulk.  Long  before  the 
[ears  form,  the  entire  ground  between  the  rows  is 
occupied  with  their  long  and  slender  fibers. 

Observing  farmers  have  long  since  discovered  that 
much  hilling  of  the  corn  crop  is  injurious  to  its  growth,  and  lessens  its  product.  But  they 
generally  assign  wrong  reasons.  One  of  our  best  practical  writers  lately  stated  that  lulling 
does  harm  by  throwing  the  water  of  falling  rains  away  from  the  roots  of  the  plant — evidently 
supposing  that  they  are  crowded  in  a  little  mass  a  few  inches  in  length  at  the  foot  of  the 
stalks,  instead  of  actually  spreading  far  and  wide.  As  heavy  rains  soak  the  ground  alike 
over  the  field,  the  hiUing  would  make  little  difference;  or  if  it  did,  the  water  would  be  as 
fireely  thrown  on  the  roots  between  the  rows  as  in  them." 

The  writer  then  refers  lo  other  erroneous  methods  of  reasoning  and  practice  sometimes 


THE    ''DEERE    SPRENa       CULTIVATOR. 


CORN. 


317 


followed,  which  consist  of  throwing  the  soil  away  from  the  plants  for  a  time  to  admit  the 
rays  of  the  sun  to  the  roots,  and  further  says :  — 

"  This  mode  is  just  the  reverse  of  hilling,  and  if  performed  to  any  depth  would  be  as 
likely  to  cause  injury  by  uncovering  or  breaking  the  roots,  as  burying  them  unnaturally  deep 
in  high  hilling  would  occasion  harm.  Both  modes  are  founded  on  the  supposition  of  short 
roots,  and  both  deprive  the  plants  of  the  benefit  of  the  broad,  even,  mellow  bed  of  earth  for 
the  roots  to  extend  in  at  all  distances  from  the  plants,  where  there  is  little  or  no  hilling." 

Shallow  culture,  is,  therefore,  to  be  preferred  for  com,  stirring  the  soil  only  on  the  surface, 
but  very  frequently.  This  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  crop  in  dry  weather,  and  after 
rains,  when  the  surface  has  become  hardened  and  dry.  Some  farmers  go  over  the  field  with 
the  harrow  before  the  corn  makes  its  appearance  from  the  ground,  in  order  to  destroy  the 
young  weeds  when  in  the  germ  and  before  they  have  taken  hold  of  the  soil ;  this  may  be 
well  if  the  field  has  been  plowed  a  week  or  two  before  planting,  and  has  the  effect  of  cleaning 
the  soil  of  weeds.  After  the  corn  is  well  up  and  has  taken  root,  it  should  be  cultivated  fre- 
quently for  the  purpose  of  checking  the  weeds  and  promoting  the  growth  of  the  crop.  If  it 
could  be  cultivated  as  often  as  once  a  week  until  after  it  has  tasseled  out,  it  would  be  of  great 
benefit  to  the  crop.  The  old-time  custom  of  hand-hoeing,  still  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  some  sections,  especially  New  England,  is  unprofitable  and  expensive,  and  should  be  super- 
seded by  the  use  of  the  horse-hoe  or  cultivator,  which  will  be  of  more  effectual  benefit  to  the 
crop,  with  less  labor,  time,  and  expense.  There  are  various  kinds  of  these  implements:  The 
Robins  Cultivator,  manufactured  by  Luther  &  Sumner,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  is  an  excel- 
lent implement.  Also  the  Hilling  Cultivator,  made  by  the  New  York  Plow  Company,  New 
York  City;  the  Planet  Jr.  Horse-Hoe,  by  Joseph  Breck  &  Sons,  Boston,  Mass ,  and  the  Deere 
Spring  Cultivator,  Deere  &  Co.,  Moline,  Illinois,  all  of  which  are  valuable  in  the  cultivation 
of  corn  and  other  farm  crops  that  require  shallow  cultivation.  Corn  requires  a  large  amount 
of  heat,  and  frequent  showers;  stUl,  it  will  endure  quite  an  extended  drouth  with  less  injury 
than  most  crops.  Cold  and  heavy  rains  are  injurious  in  the  early  stages  of  its  growth.  The 
necessity  of  having  good,  prolific  seed  for  the  corn  crop,  a  soil  highly  enriched  and  thoroughly 
prepared,  absence  of  weeds  among  the  plants,  with  frequent  and  careful  cultivation,  are 
important  items  in  this  department  of  agriculture  that  are  being  more  fully  appreciated  and 
observed  by  the  most  successful  farmers  of  the  present  time  than  formerly,  and  which,  when 
observed  by  farmers  generally,  will  in  a  few  years  result  in  an  astonishing  increase  in  the  pro- 
duction of  this  crop.  The  old  custom  of  "  topping  "  the  corn,  which  consisted  of  cutting  off 
the  tassel  and  leaf-growth  above  the  ear,  is  now  nearly  obsolete,  it  having  been  ascertained 
that  a  valuable  amount  of  nutriment  is  evaporated  by  the  atmosphere  and  lost  by  this  means, 
while  the  grain  is  not  benefited  by  the  process,  which  is  a  laborious  and  expensive  one;  but 
if  the  plants  are  cut  at  the  roots  before 
the  grain  is  fully  ripened,  the  sap  remain- 
ing in  the  stalks  will  continue  for  a  time 
to  nourish  the  grain,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  carry  on  the  ripening  process. 
The  culture  of  corn  for  soiling  and  en- 
silage will  be  considered  in  another 
department  of  this  work. 

Harvesting. — This  should  be  done  ^^fn^ 
before  frost  makes  its  appearance,  as  the 
grain  and  fodder  will  both  be  seriously 
injured  from  exposure  to  it,  if  standing. 
In  New  England,  early  frosts  are  trouble-  IjRIe  stali  i 

some,  and  generally  necessitate  securing  the  crop  as  soon  as  it  is  ready,  which  is  when  the 


318 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


Kernels  are  well  glazed. 


In  sections  where  this  danger  does  not  exist,  it  may  stand  in  the 
field  until  fully  ripe,  if  desired.  When  the  stalks  and 
leaves  are  desired  for  fodder,  the  crop  should  be  har- 
vested as  soon  as  the  grain  is  fully  ripe,  as  it  will  con- 
tain more  nutriment,  and  the  grain  be  just  as  valuable, 
as  when  left  standing  in  the  field  longer. 

Various  methods  are  employed  in  harvesting  corn. 
The  common  custom  in  the  Eastern  States  is  to  cut  the 
stalks  near  the  roots,  and  bind  them  in  bundles,  setting 
them  up  in  stacks  of  from  eight  to  ten  bundles  each, 
where  they  remain  until  well  dried.  When  well  cured, 
the  bundles  are  taken  to  the  barn,  or  husked  in  the 

EUREKA    DOUBLE-ROW    STALK-CUTTER.       ggj^.    ^l^g  ^^^^^^  ^^^  jg^^^^   ^jj    ^^-^^    ^^^^^  f^^,  f^^^j^^.^ 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  among  Western  farmers,  and  is  at  present  to  a  certain  extent, 

of  gathering  the  ears  of  corn 
in  the  field  and  leaving  the 
stalks  to  be  trampled  by  cat- 
tle, or  to  be  plowed  in.     They 
were  also  sometimes  burned. 
Sometimes    the    grain    and 
stalks    were     permitted     to 
stand  in  the  field  till  required 
for  feeding   cattle  or  other 
stock,  when  they  were  fed  in 
an    adjoining    enclosure    as 
wanted.     Many  of  the  West- 
ern   farmers    are,    however, 
beginning  to  make  use  of  the 
leaves  and  stalks  for  fodder, 
and  reahze  its  value  for  this  purpose.     It  is  better  to 
cut  and  plow  them  into  the  land  than  to  burn  them, 
when  not  wanted  for  fodder,  as  when  decomposed 
they  furnish  something  towards  the  nutriment  of  the 
future  crop.     Small  fields  of  corn  in  many  sections 
are  still  cut  by  hand,  a  good  average  day's  work  in 
cutting  and  stacking  from  drills,  being  about  half 
an  acre  a  day  per  man ;  but  where  the  grain  is  raised 
extensively,  a  cornstalk -cutter  is  necessary.     These 
machines  cut  the  stalks  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
root,    which   can   readily   be   plowed   under.      The 
double-rowed  cutters  are  said  to  cut  from  sixteen  to 
eighteen   acres   of   corn  in  a  day.     The  Urie  and 
Eureka  stalk -cutters  are  manufactured  by  the  Eureka 
Manufacturing  Company,  Rock  Falls,  Illinois.     The 
latter  has  a  roller  attachment   for   cutting   up  the 
stalks  and  getting  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  plow, 
as  is  seen  in  the  cut. 

The  Advance  Cultivator,  manufactured  by  Deere, 
Mansur  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  has  also  a  stalk-cutter, 
which  can   be   readily  attached  to   that  implement 


MOLINE    STALK.    CUTTER. 


MOLIXE    STALK-CUTTER. 


when  desired,  thus  combining  two  machines  in. one. 


CORN. 


319 


Macldnes  for  both  cutting  and  husking  the  corn  at  the  same  time  have  been  invented, 
but  are  not  yet  in 'general  use.  As  soon  as  the  stalks  are  thoroughly  dry,  the  corn  should  be 
husked  and  stored  in  dry  bins  or  cribs,  that  are  proof  against  rats  and  other  vermin,  and  the 
fodder  put  under  cover  or  stacked  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  feeding-yards.  Machines 
for  husking  are  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labor. 

Corn  should  not  be  shelled  untU  perfectly  dry.  It  will  shrink  in  weight  and  measure 
for  several  months  after  husking,  this  shrinkage  being  generally  more  in  the  cob  than  the 
grain  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  two,  stUl  there  will  be  considerable  loss  in  the  weight 
of  the  grain  from  the  time  of  harvesting  until  spring,  even  when  comparatively  ripe  when 
harvested. 

In  order  to  have  some  reliable  data  in  regard  to  the  comparative  weight  of  corn  in  the 
fall  and  in  the  spring,  which  is  an  item  of  no  little  importance  to  the  farmer  and  dealer  in 
corn,  we  give  the  following  result  of  experiments  made  at  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  Illin- 
ois Industrial  University,  under  the  supervision  of  M.  A.  ScoviU,  Professor  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry. 

The  experiments  were  made  with  the  following  six  varieties  of  corn  grown  on  the  Uni- 
versity farm:  Mammouth,  Thomas,  Murdock.  Geneseo,  Wright's  Gold,  and  Cameron. 

In  order  to  secure  an  average  result  ten  ears  of  corn  of  each  variety  were  employed. 
The  corn  was  gathered  on  October  6th,  and  carefully  weighed.  It  was  then  properly  labeled, 
and  the  whole  placed  in  a  room,  which  was  entirely  cut  off  from  any  artificial  source  of  heat. 
On  November  6th  the  corn  was  weighed,  with  the  following  results: — 


Loss  of  weight  of  corn  from  Oct.  6th  to  Nov.  Gth,  in  100  parts. 

Cameron. 

Wright's  Gold. 

Geneseo. 

Murdock. 

Thomas. 

Mammouth. 

10.7 

17.5 

8.2 

12.2 

17.5 

25.5 

After  weighing  the  com,  it  was  put  back  into  the  room  as  before,  and  allowed  to  remain 
untU  Nov.  29th,  when  it  was  weighed  again. 

Loss  of  weight  of  corn  from  Oct.  6th  to  Nov.  29th,  in  100  parts. 


Cameron. 

Wright's  Gold. 

Geneseo. 

Murdock. 

Thomas. 

Mammouth. 

14.7 

21 

10.7 

14.3 

21.2 

30.8 

Finally  the  com  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  room  until  February  28th,  when  it  was 
again  weighed,  with  the  following  results : — 

Loss  of  weight  of  corn  from  Oct.  6th  to  Feb.  28th,  in  100  parts. 


Cameron. 

Wright's  Gold. 

Geneseo. 

Murdock. 

Thomas. 

Mammouth. 

16.1                       22.5 

17.4 

16.8 

22.8 

33 

By  the  last  figures,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  loss  in  weight  from  October  6th  to  Feb- 
ruary 28th  by  drying,  was,  on  the  average,  a  little  more  than  twenty-one  per  cent.,  and  that 
the  shrinkage  was  less  during  the  last  month  of  the  experiment  than  the  preceding.  A  simi- 
lar experiment  in  determining  the  amount  of  loss  in  bulk  by  shrinkage,  and  which  extended 


320  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

from  November  until  the  following  July,  indicated  a  loss  in  that  respect  of  about  eighteen 
per  cent. 

The  farmer  who  makes  an  early  sale  of  his  corn  will  consequently  have  larger  weight 
and  bulk  of  this  grain  at  that  time  than  at  a  later  period,  while  those  who  store  their  grain 
for  later  sale  should  govern  their  prices  accordingly. 

The  influence  of  moist  and  dry  weather  is  also  very  great  in  determining  the  weight  of 
corn.  During  those  seasons  when  severe  drouths  are  experienced,  the  corn  in  the  ear  will 
frequently  be  found  more  dry  by  the  middle  or  last  of  September  than  it  is  in  moist  s jasons  by 
the  early  part  of  winter.  It  was  found  by  careful  experiment  after  a  certain  moist  autumn, 
that  corn  which  was  weighed  in  the  ear  on  the  first  of  January  had  lost  twenty  per  cent.,  or 
one-fifth  of  its  weight,  by  the  following  October.  Under  such  circumstances,  old  corn  at  a 
dollar  per  bushel  would  have  been  cheaper  to  the  purchaser  than  the  new  at  the  rate  of 
eighty  cents  per  bushel. 

The  proportion  of  weight  that  the  cob  bears  to  the  grain  will  generally  average  about 
one-eighth.  Corn  stover,  or  the  corn-plant  after  the  ripening  and  removal  of  the  grain, 
should  be  put  under  cover  as  early  as  possible,  for  if  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  exposed  to 
the  rains,  much  of  the  nutriment  will  be  washed  out.  Its  value  for  feeding  stock  is  estimated 
to  be  about  half  that  of  good  hay. 

When  corn  is  husked  by  hand,  much  time  and  labor  may  be  saved  by  providing  the 
best  facilities  for  performing  the  work.  A  husking-bench  or  rack  will  be  found  a  great  con- 
venience, and  is  easily  and  cheaply  constructed.  This  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  two  small 
benches,  or  horses,  for  supports  at  either  end  of  the  rack,  which  are  connected  by  means  of 
two  pieces  of  wood  about  two  by  three  inches,  and  ten  or  twelve  feet  long.  Small  cross- 
boards  laid  across  at  the  ends  will  serve  as  seats  for  the  buskers,  which  can  be  moved  up  or 
back  as  desired.  The  boards  for  seats  should  have  cleats  on  the  under  side,  so  as  to  admit  of 
their  being  moved  forward  or  backward  without  dropping. 

"When  enough  stalks  are  husked  to  form  a  bundle,  they  may  be  bound  without  the 
buskers  leaving  their  seats,  and  thrown  one  side.  The  long  pieces  that  form  the  sides  of  the 
rack  should  be  two  feet  or  a  little  more  apart,  and  fully  two  feet  high,  or  rather  the  benches 
at  the  ends  should  be  this  height;  if  lower  than  this,  they  are  not  as  easy  to  rise  from.  This 
rack  may  be  used  in  the  field,  and  may  be  easily  carried  from  one  shock  to  another  by  two 
men,  one  at  each  end  to  take  hold  of  the  projecting  ends,  and  for  this  reason  it  should  be 
made  as  light  as  consistent  with  the  strength  necessary  for  the  support  required  of  it.  It  is 
stated  by  those  using  a  husking-rack  of  this  kind,  that  its  convenience  is  such  that  an 
ordinary  workman  will  husk  one-fourth  more  in  a  day  than  when  he  is  compelled  to  reach 
down,  while  standing,  for  every  ear  of  corn  that  he  husks,  or  if  he  is  compelled  to  take  any 
position  on  the  ground  to  get  at  his  work. 

Shelling  and  Grinding  Corn. — Corn  should  not  be  shelled  until  well  dried. 
Machines  for  performing  this  work  are  needed  on  all  farms  where  com  is  cultivated  to  any 
extent.  For  small  farms  the  hand-machine  will  answer  all  purposes,  but  for  large  farms, 
wliere  great  quantities  of  grain  are  used,  either  steam,  wind,  or  horse-power  may  be  utilized; 
this  can  be  easily  done  where  a  farm-engine  or  wind-mill  are  in  requisition  for  farm  use, 
while  every  farmer  has  horse-power  at  his  command.  With  these  machines,  the  farmer  can 
shell  his  corn  at  such  times  as  is  most  convenient  for  him  without  extra  expense  or  assistance, 
as  this  can  be  performed  when  other  work  is  not  pressing. 

There  are  various  shellers  in  common  use;  the  best  not  only  separate  the  cobs  from  the 
shelled  grain,  but  are  supplied  with  a  fan  that  blows  all  the  dust  and  chaff  out  of  the  corn, 
making  it  perfectly  clean. 

There  are  also  machines  that  will  shell  the  corn  clean,  either  with  the  husks  on  or  after 
they  have  been  taken  off,  which  save  the  labor  of  husking,  and  prove  quite  valuable  in  large 
corn-growing  sections. 


CEREALS. 


821 


The  first  two  illustrations  of  com- 
shellers  represent  excellent  machines, 
made  by  the  Sandwich  Manufacturing 
Co.,  Sandwich,  IlUnois — the  first  being 
a  small  hand-machine,  adapted  to  small 
farms;  the  latter  larger,  and  better 
adapted  to  farms  where  a  large  amount 
of  grain  is  utilized,  and  can  be  used  as 
a  hand-sheller  or  with  other  power,  as 
desired.  The  third  sheller  represented 
shows  a  machine  mounted  and  ready 
for  use  that  will  save  the  labor  of  husk- 
ing, as  it  shells,  equally  clean,  cither 
husked  or  unhusked  corn.  It  is 
manufactured  by  Kingsland,  Ferguson 
&  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  proves  very 
valuable  as  a  labor-saving  implement 
where  large  quantities  of  corn  are  raised. 

It  is  a  much  more  economical  meth- 
od of  feeding,  to  first  have  the  corn 
ground,  rather  than  give  it  to  stock  in 
the  ear;  this  has  not  only  been  proved 
by  many  careful  experiments,  but  by 
the  experience  of  the  majority  of  our 
best  farmers.  Mr.  Brown,  Professor  of 
Agriculture  at  the  Guelph  Farm,  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario,  has  recently  been  making  a  variety  of  "valuable  experiments;  among  others 
he  has  ascertained  that  apparently  about  one-fifth  of  the  ground  corn  passes  through  the 
stomach  and  alimentary  canal  of  cattle  undigested.  If  this  be  true,  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  unground  corn  must  pass  undigested  and  be  lost.  Besides,  when  fed  in  the  ear,  much 
of  the  corn  is  wasted  by  being  trampled  under  the  feet  of  the  animals  while  eating. 


EIGHT-HAND   COMET. 


THE    FARMER  S    SHELLER. 


Many  farmers  grind  both  corn  and  cob  together,  as  it  saves  sheUing,  and  the  cob  is  sup- 
posed to  contain  some  nutriment.  It  is  also  sometimes  ground  before  being  husked,  the  thin 
dry  husk  being  easily  reduced  by  the  grinding  process.  It  contains  the  elements  of  animal 
food  to  a  limited  extent,  and  saves  husking,  where  the  cob  is  to  be  ground.     A  difference  of 


322 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


opinion,  liowever,  exists  respecting  the  beneficial  or  injurious  effects  of  the  ground  cob  on  the 
animal  system;  some  regarding  it  as  possessing  sufficient  nutriment  to  make  it  profitable  for 
grinding,  others  regarding  it  of  no  value  as  food,  and  as  injurious  to  young  stock,  it  having 
a  tendency  to  cause  irritation  of  the  digestive  organs ;  while  for  fattening  animals  so  large  a 
quantity  is  needed  that  the  stomach  will  be  unduly  distended  by  it.  In  order  to  fatten 
animals  rapidly  very  nutritious  food  is  required,  and  not  simply  bulk.  As  we  have  never 
made  use  of  cob-meal,  we  cannot  speak  from  experience,  but  should  consider  cobs  as  more 
valuable  for  manure  than  food,  since  they  contain  quite  a  proportion  of  potash,  provided  they 
could  be  reduced  to  a  suitable  manure  to  be  returned  to  the  land. 


SHELLER    FOR    EITHER    HUSKED    0«    UNHUSKED    CORN. 

In  order  that  the  farmer  may  be  able  to  grind  his  own  grain,  and  have  it  done  at  his 
own  convenience,  farm  mills  for  grinding  com  and  other  kinds  of  grain  are  not  only  very 
desirable,  but  in  many  sections  of  the  country  where  farming  is  conducted  on  a  large 
scale,  they  are  regarded  as  an  indispensable  farm  implement ;  especially  are  they  so  on  those 
extensive  farms  devoted  mainly  to  grain-growing  and  live-stock,  and  under  such  conditions 
it  is  not  only  a  necessity  and  convenience,  but  the  practice  of  economy  as  well,  and  in  most 

cases,  although  attended  with  some 
expense  at  first,  such  a  miU  will 
pay  for  itself  in  a  short  time.  The 
power  used  for  grinding  may  be 
the  same  as  for  other  farm  work 
of  a  similar  kind,  viz.,  the  farm 
engine,  windmill,  or  horse-power. 
The  two  accompanying  illus- 
trations of  farm  mills,  from  the 
^p  manufactory  of  Deere,  Mansur  & 
Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  represent  im- 
plements that  wiU  grind  all  kinds 
of  grain,  coarse  or  fine ;  corn  can 
be  ground  either  shelled  or  in  the 
ear,  husked  or  unhusked.  The 
first  represented  is  pro'vided  with 
large  feed-boxes,  tubes  for  the  un- 
husked corn,  and  a  seat  for  the 
driver,  who  does  the  feeding.     In 


FARM    MILL,    LITTLE    GLAJJT. 


CORN. 


323 


grinding  shell  com,  wheat,  or  other  grain,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the  tubes  and 
fill  the  feed-box,  which  will  hold  from  eight  to  ten  bushels.     A  one-horse  mill  of  this  kind 

will  grind  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen bushels  per  hour;  where 
two  horses  are  used,  from  fif- 
teen to  eighteen  bushels  can 
be  ground  in  that  time.  The 
"  Large  Giant "  has  a  grind- 
ing capacity  for  about  twenty- 
five  bushels  per  hour.  Such 
mills  are  very  durable,  and 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  repair. 

Diseases  of  Corn,  etc. 

■ — The  diseases  of  corn  are 
neither  very  numerous  nor  ex- 
tensive in  their  results.  In 
some  seasons,  especially  those 
that  are  warm  and  wet,  smut 
will  sometimes  make  its  ap- 
pearance and  destroy  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  ears. 
1^;  Almost  every  farmer  is  famil- 
^^iar  with  its  appearance  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  its  results 
upon  the  crop.  It  does  not 
always  attack  the  grain,  as  it 
appears  on  the  tassel,  stalk,  and  even  upon  the  leaves.  Wherever  it  makes  its  appearance, 
there  is  an  unnatiiral  growth  of  a  spongy  nature,  an  increased  size  or  swelling  of  the  part 
affected,  which  at  a  later  period  is  broken  open,  showing  the  smut,  which  consists  of  micros- 
copically small  grains — the  spores  or  reproductive  bodies  of  the  corn-smut  fungus.  These 
grain  smuts  are  miniite  parasitic  plants,  the  portion  of  which  corresponding  to  the  root  of 
other  plants  lives  in  the  tissues  of  the  corn,  causing  the  abnormal  growth. 

How  or  when  the  smut-plant  begins  its  work  upon  the  corn  is  not  known,  various 
theories  being  entertained  respecting  it,  some  supposing  that  the  spores  are  planted  with  the 
grain,  and  germinate  and  grow  as  the  plant  increases  in  size;  others,  that  these  spores  float 
in  the  air,  and,  coming  in  contact  with  the  corn,  germinate  and  grow  upon  the  surface,  send- 
ing their  roots  through  the  tissues  of  the  corn-stems  and  leaves.  Whatever  may  be  its  mode 
of  growth  or  origin,  it  is  apparent  that  wherever  it  makes  its  appearance,  it  robs  the  plant 
upon  which  it  grows  of  nourishment  for  its  own  support,  and  produces,  after  a  time,  a  num- 
ber of  spores  by  means  of  which  the  smut-plant  is  perpetuated.  This  disease,  or  abnormal 
growth,  is  most  frequently  confined  to  the  grains,  but  may  affect  other  parts  of  the  plant. 
Wlien  the  grains  are  affected,  they  become  at  first  of  an  unusual  size,  and  gradually  turn 
dark  in  color,  and  soft;  finally,  the  covering  breaks,  and  a  dark,  dry,  dusty  powder  is  seen. 

The  results  of  eating  such  grain  are  often  very  serious,  sometimes  producing  abortion, 
and  even  death,  among  cows,  the  medicinal  effect  being  the  same  as  that  of  ergot,  or  -'spurred 
rye."  Its  effect  is  otherwise  deleterious  upon  the  animal  system,  and  such  grain  should 
never  be  fed  to  live-stock  of  any  kind.  It  is  more  apt  to  appear  upon  broken  stalks  and 
leaves  than  others,  and  to  be  most  prevalent  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  moist,  or  what 
is  termed  "  muggy."  Salt  sown  upon  the  soil  before  planting  is  suggested  by  some  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  this  disease,  which  is  not  yet  fully  understood  by  the  best  scientific  agriculturists. 


LARGE    GIANT. 


324  THE  AMERICAN  FARilER 

The  quickest  and  best  method  of  ridding  a  field  of  smutted  corn  that  we  have  ever  tried,  is  to 
pass  through  it  as  soon  as  this  disease  first  makes  its  appearance,  and  gather  all  the  parts 
affected  and  bum  them.  By  this  means,  countless  millions  of  spores  that  would  otherwise 
ripen  to  spread  the  disease,  are  destroyed,  and  the  means  of  its  perpetuation  prevented. 

Corn  should  not  be  planted  upon  the  same  field  more  than  two  years  in  succession,  and 
if  a  judicious  rotation  of  crops  is  observed,  together  with  careful  cultivation  and  a  fertile  soil, 
a  good  crop  will  generally  be  secured  in  spite  of  insects  or  disease  of  any  kind.  It  is  always 
best  to  avoid  the  spreading  of  disease  as  far  as  possible,  and  this  is  one  way  to  accomplish  it. 
If  the  soil  is  too  wet,  producing  a  surplus  of  water  about  the  roots,  com  will  not  have  a 
healthy  growth;  the  leaves  will  turn  yellow  and  have  an  unthrifty  appearance,  and  the  growth 
will  be  slow.     Such  land  should  be  drained,  if  devoted  to  corn  culture. 

The  chinch-bug,  wire-worm,  cut-worm,  corn  or  ball-worm,  and  various  other  insects,  are 
sometimes  very  troublesome  and  destructive  to  the  corn  crop  in  certain  localities.  The  wire- 
worm  attacks  the  com  before  it  comes  up,  by  eating  into  the  kernel  before  it  has  germinated; 
it  also  eats  the  roots  and  penetrates  that  portion  of  the  stem  of  the  young  plant  that  is 
covered  by  the  earth.  The  failure  of  seed  to  come  up  is  often  due  to  the  attacks  of  this  pest, 
several  of  them  often  being  found  at  work  upon  a  single  kernel.  The  cut-worms,  called  in 
Europe  surface-grubs,  attack  both  roots  and  stalks,  often  cutting  the  stalks  entirely  off,  and 
are  frequently  found  as  high  as  the  ear  on  the  stalk,  sometimes  continuing  their  depredations 
until  the  com  is  nearly  ripe.     They  are  generally  most  troublesome  on  sod-land. 

There  are  various  means  resorted  to  by  farmers  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  these 
pests,  such  as  burning  all  the  stalks  and  stubble  left  in  tbe  field  after  harvest,  fall  plowing, 
etc.     Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas,  State  Entomologist  of  Illinois,  in  referring  to  the  ■ft-ire-worms,  says: 

"  I  am  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  starving  them  out  by  refraining  from  planting  for 
a  year,  and  repeatedly  stirring  the  groimd,  is  the  only  sure  remedy.  One  great  advantage  of 
this  plan  is  that  it  not  only  tends  to  destroy  these  worms,  but  also  the  white-grubs,  cut- worms, 
and  numerous  other  species  that  reside  in  the  ground  in  the  larva  state,  and  are  not  easily 
reached  by  topical  applications  or  other  means.  It  is  not  difficult  for  farmers  to  test  this 
remedy  on  a  small  scale  where  these  insects  are  troublesome,  and  it  is  certainly  worthy  of  a 
trial.  Where  they  are  very  numerous,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  will  justify  it,  it  would  be 
well  to  spread  unslaked  lime  over  the  surface  and  tum  it  under  as  deeply  as  possible  before 
rain  falls  upon  it.  If  this  could  be  done  consistently  with  the  nature  of  the  crop  to  be 
grown,  very  early  in  the  spring,  this  would  probably  be  the  best  time;  otherwise  it  should  be 
done  late  in  the  fall.  I  am  not  aware  that  this  remedy  has  been  tried — lime  has  again  and 
again  been  used,  and" generally  without  favorable  results — but  the  use  of  unslaked  lime  in 
the  manner  indicated,  and  in  as  large  quantities  as  the  land  will  bear,  has  not,  so  far  as  I  can 
learn,  been  tried.     To  be  of  any  value  it  must  be  applied  freely,  and  well  turned  under. 

According  to  Curtis,  when  the  wire-worm  reaches  its  fuU  size  it  descends  a  considerable 
depth  in  the  earth,  where  it  forms  an  oval  cell  of  the  surrounding  particles  of  soil  not  lining 
it  with  silk;  it  then  casts  its  skin  again  and  becomes  a  pupa  or  chrysalis,  generally,  in  Eng- 
land, at  the  end  of  July  or  beginning  of  August;  the  time  here  is  probably  a  few  weeks 
earlier.  The  chrysalis  is  long  and  narrow,  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  perfect  insect, 
but  is  of  a  paler  color,  usually  yellowish  or  yellowish  white.  They  remain  in  the  pupa  state,  so 
far  as  observed,  from  two  to  three  weeks,  but  it  is  probable  some  species  remain  in  this  state 
over  the  following  winter. 

The  same  author,  in  the  summary  with  which  he  closes  his  article  on  these  worms  in  his 
^Farm  Insects,''  makes  the  foUo'^T.ng  statements  in  reference  to  their  habits  and  the  remedies 
used  to  counteract  them  : — 

'  Very  hazardous  to  re-sow  where  they  have  destroyed  a  crop  unless  the  soil  be  plowed 
repeatedly. 


CORN.  325 

They  are  most  to  be  dreaded  in  dry  seasons,  yet  they  cannot  exist  without  some  moisture. 

Affected  plants  are  known  by  the  dying  off  of  the  outer  leaves. 

They  cut  into  the  stem  above  the  roots  and  sometimes  separate  the  stalJi. 

Gardens  suffer  e.xceedingly ;  lettuce  often  falls  a  sacrifice  to  them. 

On  light  lands  they  do  most  mischief  from  the  beginning  of  March  to  June. 

Lower  parts  of  fields  bordering  on  marshes  most  infested. 

Rye-grass  most  dangerous  with  clover,  for  encouraging  wire-worms. 

Gravelly  and  sandy  soils  most  infested ;  strong  loam  and  clay  most  free  from  them. 

"Wheat  sown  in  dry  weather  most  likely  to  suffer. 

By  constantly  disturbing  the  insects  it  is  probable  they  may  be  driven  from  a  locality. 

A  summer  fallow  and  burning  the  rubbish  is  recommended  after  clover  and  grasses;  it 
iills  the  eggs  and  starves  the  worms;  but  fallows  must  be  kept  very  clear  from  grasses  and 
weeds.  Nothing  more  dangerous  than  to  leave  strips  and  patches  of  grass  or  lays  in  plowed 
Selds. 

Feeding  land  close  with  sheep  will  prevent  the  eggs  from  being  laid.  Folding  oxen  and 
sheep  in  the  spring  may  also  keep  the  beetles  from  coming  out  of  the  earth.  Harrowing  and 
hard  rolling  in  March  and  April  strongly  recommended.  Top-dressings  of  lime  useful  before 
rolling. 

Domestic  fowls  and  numerous  small  birds  eat  a  large  number  of  them.' 

Fall  plowing  has  been  found  to  be  very  beneficial ;  this  exposes  them  to  the  frost,  which 
will  have  a  tendency  to  destroy  vast  numbers  of  them.  A  Western  farmer  gives  his  expe- 
rience as  follows: — 

'Last  fall  I  commenced  to  plow  a  stubble-field  of  twelve  acres;  I  had  it  about  half  done 
when  winter  set  in,  consequently  the  other  half  was  not  plowed  till  spring.  Tlie  part  broken 
in  the  spring  was  at  least  one-fourth  destroyed  by  the  wire  and  grub- worms  while  the  other 
part  was  scarcely  touched.'  " 

Coating  the  seed  with  tar,  as  has  previously  been  suggested  under  "  Preparation  of 
Seed,"  has  also  a  very  good  effect  in  checking  the  evil. 

The  corn- worm  or  ball- worm  does  considerable  damage  to  the  ears  of  corn  in  the  latitude 
of  southern  Illinois,  also  to  both  cotton  and  corn  in  the  cotton-growing  sections.  It  attacks 
corn  in  the  ear,  eating  first  the  sUk,  and  as  it  increases  in  size  afterwards,  the  kernels,  some- 
times ruining  whole  fields  of  corn.  Fields  that  are  early  planted  are  less  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  it  than  the  late.  Fall  plowing  is  also  a  good  remedy,  and  in  fact  the  most  effectual  means 
of  destroying  these  insects,  as  the  larvte  are  brought  to  the  surface  and  frozen.  Many 
farmers  build  bonfires  near  the  corn-fields  in  the  evening  in  summer  at  the  time  the  insects 
that  lay  the  eggs  producing  these  various  pests  are  most  active,  and  by  which  means  many 
are  attracted  to  the  fire  by  the  light,  and  destroyed. 

Birds  are  sometimes  troublesome,  especially  crows  and  blackbirds,  which  will  frequently 
pull  up  the  young  corn-plants  in  order  to  obtain  the  kernels.  Blackbirds  and  birds  of  several 
kinds  will  also  sometimes  do  injury  to  the  grain  in  the  ear.  Notwithstanding  these  facts,  we 
would  say  to  the  farmer,  spare  the  birds !  The  vast  numbers  of  insects  they  destroy  daily  is 
a  great  benefit  to  the  farmer,  and,  if  the  birds  are  diminished  in  numbers,  the  insects  will 
increase.  It  is  better  to  frighten  the  birds  away  from  the  corn-fields  at  the  time  they  may  do 
the  most  mischief,  and  permit  them  to  live  to  aid  the  farmer  in  exterminating  these  minute 
pests — worms  and  insects — that  cannot  be  frightened  or  driven  away  so  easily.  Millions  of 
dollars'  worth  in  products  are  annually  destroyed  in  this  country  through  insects,  and  birds 
are  the  only  enemies  able  to  contend  against  them  vigorously.  They  are  the  noted  caterpillar- 
killers  and  insect-destroyers  generally.  Crows  will  destroy  not  only  insects,  but  mice,  young 
rats,  lizards,  small  snakes,  caterpillars,  and  other  vermin,  and  are  valuable  scavengers  on  the 
farm.     Coating  the  seed  with  tar,  as  has  been  previously  suggested,  is  a  good  remedy. 


326  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Newspapers  opened  and  spread,  about  a  field  here  and  there,  and  kept  in  place  by  a  stone, 
will  sometimes  keep  them  away,  or  a  rattling  windmill  erected  in  the  field.  Twine  put  up 
about  the  field  on  elevated  sticks  at  the  time  of  planting  will  usually  frighten  crows,  although 
blackbirds  are  more  courageous  and  saucy,  and  not  as  easily  intimidated.  Small  pieces  of 
polished  tin  or  looking-glass  suspended  from  a  bent  pole  by  a  string  in  a  manner  to  reflect 
light  from  the  sun,  are  usually  effectual  in  frightening  most  birds;  also  a  piece  of  cloth  that 
will  flutter  in  the  wind  like  a  flag.  A  blackbird  or  crow  might  be  sacrificed  for  the  purpose 
of  frightening  his  companions;  by  being  hung  in  the  field  suspended  from  a  pole  where  it 
can  be  readily  seen  it  usually  produces  the  desired  effect.  We  hope  no  farmer  will  be  so 
cruel  and  inhuman  as  to  hang  the  poor  bird  up  alive,  and  leave  it  to  suffer  and  die  in  that 
condition.  We  have  seen  this  cruelty  practiced,  and  are  of  the  opinion  that  a  man  that 
would  do  so  mean  and  cruel  an  act  to  any  helpless  creature  deserves  to  have  all  of  his  corn 
pulled  up,  and  we  think  the  whole  race  of  birds  would  be  entirely  justified  in  avenging  in 
this  manner  such  an  atrocity  perpetrated  upon  their  species !  All  remedies  for  keeping  the 
birds  away  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as  the  corn  is  planted,  if  not  before,  for  if  they  once 
get  a  taste  of  it,  it  will  be  difficult  to  frighten  them  afterwards.  New  devices  will  have  to  be 
resorted  to  occasionally,  as  what  will  prove  effectual  one  season  may  not  another.  Early- 
planted  fields  are  less  liable  to  be  attacked  by  birds  than  late,  a  fact  that  is  well  worth  the 
farmer's  attention. 


RICE. 


THE  cultivation  of  rice  in  this  country  has  not  been  one  of  its  flourishing  or  permanently 
prosperous  interests,  being  limited,  as  it  is,  and  always  has  been,  to  a  comparatively 
small  area.  Its  culture  was  formerly  confined  principally  to  the  sea  islands  and  low- 
lying  shores  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  where  it  is  now  quite  extensively  produced,  as  well 
as  in  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  several  of  the  other  Southern  States.  According  to  some 
authorities,  there  are  two  principal  species  of  this  grain,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties;  one, 
commonly  known  as  the  lowland  rice,  ( Oryza  satira,)  which  grows  on  wet  land,  and  is  cultivated 
with  excessive  irrigation;  the  other,  {^Oryza  mulica,)  a  species  adapted  to  a  dry  or  mountainous 
region,  of  which  the  product  of  Ceylon  and  Java  furnish  an  example,  and  which  will  not 
flourish  with  long  inundation,  thriving  best  in  a  dry  soil.  Other  authorities  regard  the  two 
mentioned  as  different  varieties  of  one  species,  somewhat  modified  by  a  difference  of  soil, 
climate,  and  mode  of  culture. 

Rice  forms  one  of  the  'principal  articles  of  diet  of  the  inhabitants  of  China  and  nearly 
the  entire  southern  portion  of  Asia,  as  well  as  the  numerous  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans,  and  a  large  portion  of  Africa.  It  is  extensively  cultivated,  also,  in  Southern  Europe, 
and,  in  fact,  to  a  certain  extent  in  most  of  the  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries.  A  species 
of  this  grain,  called  "cargo"  or  "  Bengal  rice,"  is  a  favorite  with  the  Orientals.  The  kernel 
is  large  and  sweet,  but  rather  coarse  and  of  a  red  color.  The  East  India  rice  is  white,  but 
small-grained.  The  variety  known  as  the  "Carolina  rice,"  which  combines  the  merits  of  the 
others,  being  large-grained,  sweet,  and  white,  is  considered  superior  to  all  others. 

According  to  Ramsay's  History  of  South  Carolina,  rice  was  introduced  into  that  state  in 
1094,  by  a  vessel  from  Madagascar,  which,  in  distress,  sought  refuge  in  Charleston  harbor. 
The  captain  of  this  ves.sel.  ha\ang  suljsequently  formed  the  acquaintance  of  a  resident  of 
Charleston, — Mr.  Landgrave  Smith, — presented  him  with  a  small  sack  of  rough  rice.  This 
gentleman  had  it  planted  in  his  garden,  and  the  plants  yielding  abundantly  soon  attracted  the 
attention   of  his  neighboring  planters,  among  whom  he  distributed  the  seed,  who  in  turn 


RICE.  327 

extended  its  dissemination  along  the  rivers  farther  towards  the  interior,  untO,  in  a  few  years  it 
became,  by  careful  culture,  one  of  the  principal  cultivated  crops  of  the  colony. 

In  some  of  the  southern  localities  the  cultivation  of  rice  is  regarded  as  more  profitable 
than  that  of  the  sugar-cane.  In  the  swamps  of  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana  and  the  rice 
lands  of  lower  Mississippi  it  yields  very  largs  crops,  and  is  cultivated  with  comparatively  little 
labor;  but  the  great  difficulty  in  its  production  is  that  the  localities  in  which  it  thrives  best  are 
generally  very  damp,  inducing  malarial  fevers,  and  is  detrimental  to  health  generally. 

Considerable  difficulty  is  also  experienced  by  planters  in  selecting  seed  free  from  the 
"  volunteer  "  or  red  rice,  which  is  the  product  of  the  self-sown  grain  left  in  the  soil  after  har- 
vest, and  which  springs  up  the  following  year,  and  grows  with  the  cultivated  crop,  the  plants 
being  indistinguishable  from  them.  The  grain  of  this  self-sown  product  will  after  a  few  years 
become  loose  in  its  attachment  to  the  stalk,  and  consequently  easily  shells  out,  so  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  eradicate  it  from  a  soil  when  it  once  gains  a  position  there.  Its  seed  is 
also  red  and  coarse,  requiring  considerable  care  in  milling  to  clear  the  harvested  crop  from  it. 
To  show  the  effect  of  climate  and  soil  on  rice,  a  few  years  since  several  samples  of  seed  were 
selected  from  the  South  Carolina  crops,  and  sent  to  India  to  be  sown  in  the  rice  fields  of  that 
country.  Specimens  of  the  product  of  that  seed  were  subsequently  sent  to  the  planters  who 
furnished  it,  who  were  surprised  to  find  the  grain  so  changed  that  it  could  scarcely  be  recog- 
nized as  the  same  variety.  The  heaviest  grain  is  usually  grown  in  the  most  northerly  of  the 
rice-growing  sections.  Rice,  as  an  article  of  food,  contains  but  very  little  oil,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  starch. 

Cultivation. — The  lands  best  adapted  to  rice-culture,  or  that  produce  the  largest  grain, 
are  those  swamps  and  rush-lands  lying  adjacent  to  tide-water  rivers  between  29°  and  30°  north 
latitude.  The  plantations  for  this  purpose  should  be  located  above  the  junction  of  salt  and 
fresh  water,  because  rice,  being  a  fresh-water  plant,  is  fatally  injured  by  salt  water  in  any  stage 
of  its  growth.  These  lands  are  of  rich  alluvial  soil,  and  by  being  easily  irrigated  are  admir- 
ably adapted  to  the  culture  of  this  grain.  Inland  swamps  are  also  valuable  for  this  purpose; 
they  are  reclaimed  by  means  of  drainage,  and  the  water  reserved  for  irrigating  purposes,  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  may  be  turned  on  or  off  at  will.  Tide-river  plantations  are  protected  by 
means  of  embankments  or  levees,  which  have  been  described  by  Mr.  Augustus  Favean 
of  South  CaroUna,  as  follows  :  "  These  levees  are  made  high  and  strong  enough  to  effectually 
bar  out  the  water  of  the  river.  Smaller  embankments,  called  check-banks,  subdivide  that 
portion  of  the  plantation  lying  between  the  main  river  embankment  and  the  highland  into 
squares  or  fields,  generally  from  fifteen  to  twenty  acres  in  area.  These  squares  are  all  sub- 
divided again  into  beds  or  lands,  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  width,  by  a  system  of  main 
ditches  and  quarter  drains.  Canals,  from  twelve  to  thirty  feet  wide  and  four  or  five  feet 
deep,  are  sometimes  cut  from  the  river  embankment,  through  the  centre  of  the  plantation,  to 
the  high  land,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  or  draining  off  the  water  to  or  from  those  fields  sit- 
uated far  back  from  the  river.  These  canals  also  form  a  very  conspicuous  feature  in  the  harvest 
scene,  as  they  serve  as  a  medium  of  navigation  for  the  large  flat-boats  which  convey  the  rice 
to  the  stack-yard  in  quantities  of  eight  or  ten  acre's  yield  at  a  load ;  and  as  rice  usually  yields 
from  two  to  three  tons  of  straw  per  acre,  the  value  of  this  immense  water-carriage  can  be 
easily  conceived. 

Flood-gates  or  trunks  having  doors  at  both  ends  are  buried  in  the  embankments  on  the 
river,  as  well  as  in  the  canal  embankments  and  the  check-banks,  those  at  the  outlet  of  canals 
being  so  constructed  as  to  permit  the  flat-boats  to  pass  into  the  river.  By  means  of  these  flood- 
gates or  trunks  the  whole  system  of  irrigation  is  carried  on  under  the  complete  control  of  the 
planter,  and  the  lands  are  flooded  or  drained  at  will." 

These  lands,  being  enriched  by  annual  alluvial  deposits  from  the  river,  do  not  require 

deep  plowing,  four  or  five  inches  being  generally  sufficient,  after  which  it  is  thoroughly  har- 
21 


328  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

rowed  in  order  to  pulverize  it  as  finely  as  possible  for  the  reception  of  the  seed;  thorough 
harrowing  also  breaks  up  the  sod  and  exposes  the  roots  and  seeds  of  grasses  and  weeds  to  the 
action  of  the  sun,  which  will  be  a  great  benefit  in  the  after-cultivation  of  the  crop.  The  seed 
is  sown  either  broadcaster  in  drills,  usually  the  latter,  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  three  bushels 
per  acre.  Two  methods  are  employed,  some  preferring  covering  the  grain  in  the  soil  two  or 
three  inches,  others  regarding  the  open-trench  system  as  preferable,  where  the  grain  is  left 
uncovered  and  the  water  immediately  turned  on  very  gradually  until  the  rice  adheres  to  the 
soil,  after  which  it  is  slowly  flooded  to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  eighteen  inches.  When  the 
grain  is  covered  by  the  soil  in  sowing,  the  water  is  immediately  turned  on  to  the  above  depth, 
and  remains  until  the  rice  is  well  germinated,  after  which  the  water  is  drawn  oil  and  kept  out 
until  the  plant  has  two  leaves.  When  the  land  is  well  flooded,  all  the  rubbish  and  drift  that 
rises  to  the  surface  is  taken  out  with  rakes  in  order  that  it  may  not  settle  upon  the  fleld  when 
the  water  is  drawn  oif .  The  sowing  is  generally  performed  in  March,  although  it  is  some- 
times done  as  late  as  the  fifteenth  of  May  and  even  later.  Germination  of  the  seed  is  hastened 
by  soaking  the  grain  in  water  a  few  hoiirs  before  sowing. 

When  the  rice  has  two  leaves  of  growth  the  water  is  again  let  on  to  the  same  depth  as 
before,  entirely  submerging  the  plants,  and  remains  at  this  depth  from  a  week  to  ten  days; 
this  gives  a  vigorous  growth  to  the  grain,  and  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  grass  and  weeds. 
Mr.  Flavean  further  says  that  "  the  planter  should  be  governed  by  the  weather  in  regard  to 
the  length  of  time  the  plants  remain  thus  submerged;  if  warm,  seven  days,  if  cool,  ten;  after 
which  the  water  is  drawn  gradually  off,  until  a  general  "verdure"  is  seen  floating  all  over 
the  field.  At  this  point  the  water  is  stopped  and  a  mark  set  upon  the  gate  as  a  "gauge- 
mark."  To  this  gauge  the  water  is  rigidly  held  for  sixty  or  sixty-five  days  from  the  day  it 
first  came  on  the  field.  It  sometimes  happens  that,  during  this  flow,  the  crop  takes  a  check 
and  stops  growing.  In  this  event  to  take  off  the  water  is  fatal,  as  it  will  produce  "foxed 
rice;  "  but  it  must  be  held  firmly  to  the  gauge,  and  in  a  few  days  the  plant  will  throw  out  new 
roots  and  recommence  growing.  If  the  maggot  attack  it  in  this  flow,  the  water  is  drawn  off 
for  a  day  or  two  and  replaced.  And  where  water  is  abundant  and  easily  handled,  the  maggot 
can  generally  be  avoided  by  beginning,  about  the  thirtieth  day,  to  change  the  water  once  a 
week.  To  do  so  skillfully,  both  gates  must  be  simultaneously  opened  at  the  "  young  flood." 
The  stale  water  will  thus  rush  out  and  fresh  water  come  immediately  back  with  the  rising 
tide  to  float  the  rice  leaves  and  prevent  them  sticking  to  the  ground  in  their  fall.  If  the 
maggot  gets  serious,  the  field  has  to  be  dried  nolens  volens.  The  maggot  is  a  tiny  white  worm, 
which  is  generated  by  stale  water,  and  attacks  the  roots  of  the  plant,  causing  serious  injury  to 
the  crop.  The  presence  of  the  maggot  may  always  be  suspected  'by  the  stiff  and  unthrifty 
appearance  of  the  field. 

If  the  land  is  fertile,  at  the  end  of  the  sixty-day  flow  it  will  be  found,  on  drawing  off 
the  water,  that  the  rice  has  attained  a  vigorous  growth  of  about  three  feet,  and  is  well  stocked 
with  tUlers,  while  also,  if  the  field  is  level,  and  the  harrowing  and  pulverizing  was  thoroughly 
attended  to  before  planting,  no  grass  will  be  seen,  nothing  but  rice  and  the  clean  soil  be- 
neath. The  field  is  kept  dry  now  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  or  until  the  land  dries  off 
nicely  and  the  rice  takes  its  second  growth,  .^nd  if  there  be  no  '  grass '  it  ought  not  to  be  dis- 
turbed with  the  hoe,  as  the  laborers,  at  this  stage,  often  do  more  harm  than  good.  This,  how- 
ever,  does  not  apply  to  'cat-tails'  and  'volunteers,'  which  should,  of  course,  be  carefully 
pulled  up  by  the  roots,  and  sheafed  and  carried  to  the  banks,  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  hot 
sun. 

At  the  end  of  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  as  above  mentioned,  the  water  is  returned  to  the 
field  as  deep  as  the  rice  and  banks  can  bear,  never,  however,  topping  the  fork  of  the  for- 
mer. This  water,  where  circumstances  permit,  is  changed  every  week  or  two,  by  letting  it 
off  on  one  tide  and  taking  it  back  on  the  next,  and  increasing  the  gauge  with  the  growth 


RICE.  329 

of  the  rice,  Wlien  the  heads  of  the  rice  are  well  filled  and  the  last  few  grains  at  the  bottom 
are  in  the  dough,  it  is  fit  to  cut,  and  as  little  delay  is  permitted  as  possible,  as  the  rice  now 
'over-ripens' very  rapidly,  and  shatters  in  proportion  during  the  harvest.  The  water  may 
be  drawn  off  the  field  from  three  to  five  days  before  cutting  the  grain,  and  the  land  will  be 
in  better  condition  for  harvesting." 

The  methods  of  culture  differ  somewhat  with  different  localities;  some  planters  harrow 
in  the  grain  and  inundate  it  until  it  germinates,  after  which  the  water  is  withdrawn,  and  is 
not  let  on  again  until  the  plants  are  about  four  inches  high.  The  water  is  then  let  on  again 
until  all  but  the  top  leaves  are  covered.  The  crop  is  then  kept  inundated  until  about  two 
weeks  before  harvest,  when  it  is  again  withdrawn  in  order  that  the  stalks  may  harden  prepar- 
atory to  harvest. 

The  method  practiced  in  Northern  Italy  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  April,  previous  to  which 
it  is  soaked  a  day  or  two  in  water  to  hasten  germination.  After  sowing,  the  ground  is  irri- 
gated to  the  depth  of  about  two  inches.  The  rice  comes  up  through  the  water,  which  is  then 
drawn  off  to  give  the  plant  strength,  and  after  several  days  it  is  let  on  again.  This  mode  is 
said  to  be  more  liable  to  mildew  the  rice  than  the  methods  practiced  in  this  country.  Aquatic 
grasses  and  weeds  are  apt  to  be  troublesome  in  some  soils,  and  should  be  destroyed  as  fast  as 
they  make  their  appearance.  The  chief  business  of  the  cultivator  is  to  do  this,  and  to  keep 
the  water  from  stagnating  and  as  fresh  as  possible,  which  may  easily  be  done  by  turning  it 
on  at  one  point  and  drawing  it  off  at  another  at  the  same  time.  When  grown  on  dry  land 
in  the  upland  sections,  its  culture  is  similar  to  that  of  other  small  grain.  It  should  be 
planted  in  shallow  drills  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart,  and  the  soil  kept  free  from  weeds 
by  the  use  of  the  cultivator  or  horse-hoe.  "When  cultivated  m  this  manner  the  crop  is  infe- 
rior to  that  grown  by  means  of  irrigation,  both  in  quantity  and  quality.  In  the  latitude  of 
Georgia  it  is  sometimes  planted  as  late  as  June;  its  straw  makes  good  forage. 

Unlike  other  grain,  rice  can  be  kept  several  years  in  a  warm  climate  without  if.s  quality 
deteriorating,  by  simply  winnowing  it  semi-annually,  to  prevent  the  weevil  and  other  insects 
from  injuring  it.  Rice  does  not  impoverish  land  upon  which  it  is  grown,  like  many  crops, 
and  is  often  used  in  upland  sections  to  precede  corn  in  rotation.  It  adapts  itself  to  the  soil, 
climate,  and  mode  of  cultivation,  but,  Uke  most  other  grains,  the  seed  wiU  degenerate  if  not 
frequently  changed  and  the  best  specimens  always  selected  for  sowing. 

After  the  land  has  been  properly  prepared  for  growing  rice,  by  ditching,  embankments, 
leveling,  etc.,  a  single  individual  can  cultivate  an  immense  crop,  and  with  comparatively  little 
labor.  The  desideratum  in  this  product  is  to  have  the  grains  as  nearly  of  a  uniform  size  as 
possible. 

Harvesting. — The  proper  stage  of  maturity  for  cutting  rice  is  indicated  not  only  by 
the  grain  being  well  filled  out  in  the  heads,  and  a  few  kernels  at  the  bottom  of  the  head  being 
in  a  dough  state,  but  also  by  the  straws  turning  yellow.  The  method  of  harvesting  is  similar 
to  that  of  other  grain,  such  as  wheat  or  oats,  except  it  is  generally  cut  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  from  the  ground,  according  to  its  growth,  which  is  usually  from  four  to  six  feet  high. 
It  is  laid  upon  the  stubble  for  a  day  or  two  to  dry,  which  is  generally  accomplished  in  twenty- 
four  hours  in  good  weather,  after  which  it  is  bound  into  bundles  and  placed  in  small  stacks. 
It  is  never  well  to  bind  it  when  the  dew  is  on  the  straw.  As  soon  as  sufficiently  dry  it  may 
be  tlireshed  in  the  field,  or  stacked  to  await  a  convenient  time  for  doing  it.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  germination  of  the  "  volunteer  "  rice,  as  soon  as  the  crop  harvested  is  taken  from 
the  land,  the  field  should  be  flooded  quite  shallow,  so  as  to  promote  fermentation ;  it  should 
be  dried  again  every  ten  or  twelve  days  for  a  day  or  two  at  a  time.  By  continuing  this  pro- 
cess untU  the  ground  freeze:,  most  of  this  foul  seed  will  be  destroyed. 

Threshing  and  Milling. — Rice  has  a  much  larger  and  more  harsh  beard  than  wheat, 
which  is  a  prolongation  of  the  outer  huU  of  the  grain;  but,  unlike  wheat,  the  threshing  pro- 


330  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

cess  does  not  separate  the  inner  hull  or  covering  from  the  grain,  consequently  special  treat- 
ment is  required  for  this  purpose.  It  may  be  threshed  and  winnowed  by  steam,  horse,  or 
any  of  the  powers  used  on  a  farm.  At  this  stage  the  grain  is  called  "rough  rice,"  and  is 
thus  shipped  to  market  from  the  plantation  in  cargoes,  or  first  subjected  to  the  milling  pro- 
cess that  removes  the  inner  hull.  The  machinery  for  this  purpose  is  too  expensive  to  be 
adjusted  to  plantations  generally,  hence  it  becomes  in  a  great  measure  the  business  of  large 
manufactories.  This  hulling  process  cleanses  the  grain  of  the  inner  covering,  and  usually 
separates  it  into  three  grades;  the  first  grade  or  whole  kernels,  the  second  grade  or  broken 
rice,  and  the  third  grade  or  flour  of  rice,  or  as  sometimes  graded,  "whole,"  "  middling,"  and 
"  small  rice."  It  is  estimated  that  a  little  more  than  half  comes  out  from  this  process  in  first 
grade  or  prime  rice,  the  remainder  being  broken  or  small  rice,  flour  of  rice,  and  chaS.  With 
good  land,  properly  irrigated  and  cultivated,  reliable  authorities  estimate  the  average  produce 
of  this  crop  to  be  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  of  clean  rice  per  acre,  and  often  the  yield  has 
far  exceeded  this  estimate.  With  suitable  conditions,  rice  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops 
that  can  be  cultivated. 


ROOTS  AND  ESCULENT  TUBERS. 

EOOT  crops,  which  form  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  agricultural  products  of  the 
English  farmer,  have  not  received  that  attention  in  this  country,  generally,  that 
their  real  value  would  seem  to  warrant,  but  are  gradually  gaining  favor,  being  cul- 
tivated more  extensively  at  present  as  food  for  stock  than  formerly.  There  are  reasons  why 
the  English  farmer  cultivates  roots  so  extensively,  aside  from  the  real  value  of  the  crops. 
The  climate  of  the  country  is  especially  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  roots,  while  it  is  not 
adapted  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  corn.  On  the  contrary,  the  climate  of  the  United 
States  is  not  as  well  adapted  as  that  of  England  to  the  cultivation  of  roots,  while  it  is  most 
admirably  adapted  to  that  of  corn.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these  considerations,  there  are 
many  reasons  why  the  farmers  of  our  country  should  devote  more  attention  to  the  cultivation 
of  roots  than  has  formerly  been  the  custom. 

Various  experiments  have  proved  the  fact  that,  although  roots  are  not  desirable  as  an 
exclusive  or  principal  article  of  food  for  animals,  yet  when  used  in  connection  with  grain, 
meal,  hay,  or  other  substances,  animals  will  thrive  better,  fatten  more  readily,  and  keep  in  a 
more  healthy  condition  than  when  roots  are  entirely  discarded  from  their  food.  It  is  also  a 
fact,  well  known  to  all  dairymen,  that  more  milk  of  a  better  quality  can  be  obtained  from 
cows  fed  with  a  liberal  supply  of  roots  during  the  winter,  than  when  hay,  meal,  and  bran 
only  are  used,  and  that  butter  made  from  such  milk  will  not  only  be  of  better  flavor  and 
color,  but  more  in  quantity.  Stock  should  have  some  kind  of  green  food  during  the  long 
winters,  and  roots  are  admirably  adapted  to  this  purpose,  taking  the  place  of  grass  in  a 
measure,  where  ensilage  is  not  used  on  the  farm.  Eoots  are  easily  cultivated,  and  large 
quantities  can  be  grown  on  comparatively  small  areas  of  land.  In  England,  turnips  form  tlie 
most  important  root  crop  in  cultivation,  being  used  for  feeding  stock,  and  also  as  a  clearing 
and  fallow  crop  in  the  regular  rotation  for  the  soil. 

Potatoes  are  the  most  important  root  crop  in  the  United  States.  Green  manure  should 
never  be  applied  to  any  kind  of  root  crop,  as  it  not  only  injures  the  quality,  but  will  cause 
potatoes  to  grow  irregular  and  deep-eyed,  turnips,  beets,  parsnips,  etc.,  to  have  forked  and  ill- 
shaped  roots,  and  onions  to  be  coarse  in  texture  and  thick-necked. 

Indian  corn  is  a  good  crop  to  precede  any  root  crop,  and  by  heavily  manuring  the  land  for 
it,  and  supplying  a  good  dressing  of  composted  manure  to  the  land  the  fall  previous  to  culti- 
vating the  roots,  or  commercial  fertilizers  well  harrowed  in  about  the  time  of  sowing  the 
latter,  good  results  will  generally  be  secured. 


POTATOES.  331 


POTATOES. 


THE  potato  has  become  the  most  extensively  cultivated  and  valuable  of  esculent  tubers, 
both  in  this  and  foreign  countries,  although  when  first  introduced  as  an  article 
of  food  it  was  regarded  with  disfavor  or  indifference  by  the  majority,  and  won  its  way 
gradually  into  popular  esteem,  until  it  has  become  an  important  article  of  diet  with  all  classes, 
from  the  opulent  to  the  very  poor,  and  is  one  of  the  leading  crops  cultivated. 

It  is  a  native  of  this  continent,  being  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  elevated  tropical  valleys 
of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  the  island  of  Chiloe,  where  it  closely 
resembles  the  cultivated  product,  except  that  the  tubers  of  the  former  are  much  smaller,  they 
rarely  being  more  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  flavor  very  impalatable;  careful  cultiva- 
tion having  not  only  greatly  increased  the  size,  but  the  edible  properties  in  a  proportionate 
degree.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Virginia  from  Florida  by  the  Spanish 
explorers,  and  was  carried  to  Spain  and  Italy  from  Peru  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Its 
introduction  into  Great  Britain  from  Virginia  was,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  the  year 
1565,  by  Sir  John  Hawkins,  and  according  to  others,  about  the  year  1586,  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  Houghton,  in  his  "Collections  on  Husbandry  and  Trade,"  gives  the  somewhat 
amusing  description  and  history  of  this  product: — 

"  The  potato  is  a  hiciferous  herb  with  esculent  roots,  bearing  winged  leaves  and  a  bell 
flower.  This  1  have  been  informed  was  brought  first  out  of  Virginia  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh; 
and  he  stopped  at  Ireland,  some  was  planted  there,  where  it  thrived  very  well,  and  to  good 
purpose;  for  in  their  succeeding  wars,  when  all  the  corn  about  the  ground  was  destroyed, 
this  supported  them ;  for  the  soldiers,  unless  they  had  dug  up  all  the  ground  where  they 
grew,  and  almost  sifted  it,  could  not  extirpate  them;  from  whence  they  were  brought 
to  Lancashire,  where  they  are  very  numerous,  and  now  they  begin  to  spread  all  the  kingdom 
over.  They  are  a  pleasant  food,  boiled  or  roasted  and  eaten  with  butter  and  sugar.  There  is 
a  sort  brought  from  Spain  that  are  of  a  longer  form,  and  are  more  luscious  than  ours;  they 
are  much  set  by,  and  sold  for  sixpence  or  eightpence  the  pound." 

The  potato  was  at  first  regarded  in  Europe  as  a  dehcacy,  but  it  was  not  until  near  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  it  acquired  any  real  importance  there  outside  of  Ire- 
land. It  was  also  unknown  in  New  England  imtil  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  there  from  Ireland.  It  is  sometimes  called  a 
root,  which  is  an  erroneous  term,  as  the  roots  are  entirely  distinct  from  these  tubers,  or  under- 
ground stems.  It  is  allied  to  several  powerful  narcotics,  such  as  tobacco,  henbane,  and  bella- 
donna, and  other  common  esculents,  viz.,  the  tomato  and  egg-plant.  According  to  the  best 
authority,  the  strong,  bitter  principle  of  the  potato  is  more  or  less  poisonous,  and  is  aggravated 
by  the  light,  such  as  exposure  to  the  sun  by  having  the  soil  long  removed  from  it  in  the  hill, 
and  which  causes  the  portions  of  the  tubers  thus  exposed  to  turn  green.  All  such  parts 
should  be  removed  before  cooking.  The  potato  consists  (aside  from  water)  almost  entirely 
of  starch,  the  analysis  of  it  giving  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  water  and  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  dry  nutritive  matter;  it  is,  therefore,  deficient  in  nitrogen,  and  not  adapted  for  an 
exclusive  article  of  diet.  Its  composition  shows  it  to  be  designed  as  an  accompaniment  of 
meat,  instead  of  a  substitute  for  it,  and  all  nations  now  using  it  appropriate  it  to  this  purpose. 

The  proportions  of  its  constituents  vary  according  to  the  different  stages  of  ripeness  and 
different  varieties.  The  more  mature,  the  less  the  quantity  of  water,  some  of  the  richer  vari- 
eties furnishing  as  high  as  thirty -two  per  cent,  of  dry  nutritive  matter,  the  latter  consisting 
mostly  of  starch,  with  a  small  proportion  of  sugar,  gum,  cellular  fiber,  fatty  matter,  mineral 
matter,  etc. 

Aside  from  its  use  as  food  for  the  human  family  and  all  domestic  animals,  it  is  largely 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  starch,  as  well  as  alcohol.     Sugar  has  even  been  made  from 


332  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

it,  but  not  very  extensively,  owing  to  its  being  more  cheaply  made  from  other  products. 
Previous  to  the  appearance  of  the  disease  known  as  the  potato-rot,  which  occurred  in  1845, 
and  destroyed  nearly  the  entire  product,  this  was  a  very  productive  crop  and  was  cultivated 
with  little  expense,  and  extensively  used  in  fattening  all  kinds  of  stock;  but  since  that 
period,  the  varieties  then  most  esteemed  have  been  replaced  by  others,  and  the  yield  has 
largely  decreased.     The  cost  of  production  has  also  proportionately  advanced. 

About  the  time  of  this  decline  in  the  crop,  Rev.  Chauncy  E.  Goodrich,  of  Utica,  N.  Y., 
imported  a  number  of  wild  varieties  directly  from  South  America,  and  proceeded  to  raise 
seedlings  by  crossing  them  with  various  kinds  then  in  use,  and  from  which  a  vast  number  of 
varieties  were  produced,  some  of  which  were  very  popular,  one  or  the  principal  being  the 
Garnet  ChiM,  from  which  many  of  our  most  valuable  kinds  have  descended.  This  gentleman 
devoted  more  time,  zeal,  and  skill  in  propagating  the  potato  than  any  other  man.  He  care- 
fully studied  and  experimented  with  regard  to  it  for  sixteen  years.  In  1848  he  imported 
from  South  America,  the  home  of  this  plant,  some  of  the  native  tubers,  and  from  these 
commenced  his  experiments  in  producing  new  varieties.  He  succeeded  in  originating  in  all 
about  fifteen  thousand  seedlings,  which  he  divided  into  seventy-four  distinct  famihes.  After 
testing  these  seedlings  for  four  or  five  years,  he  selected  the  best,  rejecting  such  as  did  not 
reach  his  expectations  in  yield,  habits  of  growth,  health,  edible  qualities,  etc.  Mr.  Goodrich 
died  in  the  midst  of  his  useful  experiments,  but  not  until  he  had  been  successful  in  establish- 
ing in  public  favor  several  varieties,  among  which  were  the  Garnet  Chili,  Early  Goodrich, 
Cuzco,  Gleason,  and  Harrison  varieties,  which  for  a  long  time  were  the  leading  ones  in  culti- 
vation in  the  country,  being  of  fine  quality,  very  productive,  and  healthy. 

While  American  varieties  often  succeed  fairly  weU  in  England,  the  English  varieties,  as 
a  general  rule,  are  not  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate.  Frequent  experiments  have  resulted 
in  a  large  proportion  of  the  tubers  being  affected  with  rot  at  the  time  of  digging.  The 
climate  of  the  British  Isles  seems  more  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  potato-rot  than 
our  own,  which  makes  it  a  matter  of  great  importance  there,  as  well  as  with  us,  that  such 
varieties  as  will  resist  this  destructive  malady  be  procured,  as  far  as  practicable,  for  planting. 
The  potato  crop  is  one  for  which  there  is  always  a  demand  in  the  market,  and  in  which  an 
increasing  interest  is  being  taken  at  present  by  agriculturists  in  producing  constantly  new  and 
improved  varieties. 

Varieties. — In  the  early  period  of  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  it  was  regarded  as  a 
species  of  vegetable  having  no  distinct  varieties.  For  the  introduction  of  different  varieties 
we  are  indebted  to  the  market-gardeners  near  Manchester,  England,  who,  being  encouraged 
by  the  demand  for  this  product,  vied  with  each  other  in  endeavoring  to  produce  the  best  and 
earliest  kinds  for  market.  They  did  this  by  marking  the  plants  that  blossomed  earliest, 
saving  and  sowing  their  seeds,  and  again  securing  the  earliest  from  their  product,  until  they 
finally  obtained  varieties  which  were  two  months  earlier  than  those  previously  cultivated. 
They  also  preserved  the  seed  of  the  most  farinaceous  and  best  flavored,  most  productive  and 
best  shaped  tubers,  and  in  this  manner  improved  both  edible  and  productive  qualities,  as 
well  as  early  maturity. 

The  varieties  at  the  present  time  are  almost  innumerable;  difEering  in  form,  size,  color, 
texture,  smoothness  of  surface,  flavor,  time  of  ripening,  productiveness,  hardiness,  etc., 
those  being  most  preferred  that  are  the  most  farinaceous,  fine  textured,  delicate  flavored,  and 
have  a  smooth  surface,  combined  with  the  other  desirable  qualities,  such  as  vigor  of  growth, 
hardiness,  productiveness,  and  freedom  from  disease.  A  potato  that  is  termed  "soggy,"  that 
is,  watery  and  deficient  in  farinaceous  properties,  is  one  of  the  most  undesirable  articles  of 
food,  and  however  productive  or  hardy  such  a  variety  may  be,  it  is  unprofitable  as  far  as  the 
market  value  is  concerned,  except  as  food  for  live  stock,  and  even  then  such  kinds  are  not  as 
nutritious  for  this  purpose  as  those  that  are  light  and  flaky  when  cooked.  A  deep  eyed 
potato  is  also  objectionable. 


POTATOES. 


333 


SNOWFLAKE. 


Some   varieties 

thrive  best  in  one 

locality    and    kind 

of  soil,  and  others 

in    another,    there 

being     nearly     as 

much  difference  in 

this  respect  in  the 

several    kinds,    as 

in  those  of  apples, 

pears,  or  any  of  the 

varieties    of    fruit. 

The    early     kinds 

are     distinguished 

from   the   late   by 

early     blossoming 

and  decay  of  the 

tops. 

Among  the  many  valuable  kinds  at  present  cultivated,  it  is  difScuIt  to  particularize  those 

of  especial  and  superior  merit;  besides,  new  and  choice  varieties  are  constantly  being  intro- 
duced, and  it  often  happens,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  that  certain  varieties  will  be  most 

popular  and  produce  the 
best  results  in  certain 
localities,  the  soil  being 
especially  adapted  to  their 
perfect  development, 
while  others  will  produce 
similar  results  in  a  locality 
and  character  of  soil  in 
which  the  former  might 
not  prove  as  satisfactory; 
however,  different  varie- 
ties have  their  special 
qualities  and  character- 
istics by  which  they  are 
distinguished,  and  which 
are  in  a  measure  unaf- 
fected by  soil  or  climate, 
although  in  a  general 
sense  largely  modified  by 
both.  Many  of  the  old 
favorites  are  still  culti- 
vated in  some  sections. 
Some  of  the  varieties 
that  are  quite  popular  in 
many  localities  are  the 
Early  Peach  Blow,  Early 
Rose,  Tjate  Eose,  Ruby, 
Snowflake,  Improved  Peach  Blow,  Late  Beauty  of  Hebron,  Late  Snowflake,  Early  Ohio, 
Mammoth  Pearl,  Silver  Skin,  White  Star,  The  American  Giant.  Extra  Early  Vermont, 
Manhattan,   Alpha,   Magnum  Bonum,   and  Compton's  Surprise,   all  of  which  possess  fine 


Improved  Peachblow. 


334 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


qualities,  and  are  quite  prolific,  tJie  two  latter  being  especially  productive.     Our  illustrations 
representing  some  of  the  different  varieties  of  potatoes  and  the  diagram  for  cutting  to  a 


Late  Beauty  of  Hebron. 

single  eye,  were  obtained  through  the  courtesy  of  the  well  known  firm  of  B.  K.  Bliss  &;  Sons, 
New  York  city,  being  copied  by  permission  from  their  catalogue. 

Soil     and     its 
preparation. 

Although  good 
crops  of  potatoes 
may  be  grown  on 
a  great  variety  of 
soils,  that  best 
apted  to  this 
product  is  a  rich, 
sandy  loam,  neith- 
er too  wet  nor  too 
dry;  should  there 
be  a  clay  subsoil,  it 
will  require  drain- 
ing to  make  it  suf- 
ficiently dry.  Clay 
soils  are  unfavor- 
able to  the  health 
of  the  potato  in  a 
wet   season,    since 

they  closely  envelop  the  tubers  and  bury  them  so  compactly  that  they  prevent  the  access  of 
air,  light,  and  heat,  so  essential  to  their  perfect  development.  Should  the  surface  of  the 
tmnpe  potato  be  kept  constantly  wet,  as  it  would  be  in  a  clay  soil  in  a  wet  season,  this  alone 
will  be  suflBcient  to  induce  decay,  although  the  vines  might  be  perfectly  healthy.  A  wet  soil 
of  anv  kind  is  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the  product,  it  being  generally  coarse,  watery,  and 


Silver  Skin. 


POTATOES.  335 

deficient  in  farinaceous  quality.     A  cool,  moist  soil  will  produce  larger  potatoes,   but  in  a 
northerly  climate  a  warmer  soil  is  to  be  prefevred,  as  being  less  liable  to  injure  the  quality. 

A  calcareous  soil  yields  a  potato  of  fine  quality,  and  can  generally  be  depended  upon  for 
the  production  of  a  good  crop,  and  when  such  soil  contains  but  little  lime  or  plaster,  this 
should  be  used  in  fertilizing.  Early  potatoes  will  mature  much  quicker  in  a  warm,  light  soil 
than  a  heavy  one,  and  also  present  a  brighter  and  cleaner  appearance  when  dug.  Old  sod- 
land,  especially  clover  sod,  is  excellent  for  this  crop.  It  should  be  turned  under  in  the  fall 
(August  or  September  being  the  best  time),  and  lightly  plowed  and  harrowed  in  the  spring. 
Lands  should  never  be  plowed  while  wet  and  heavy,  as  it  is  an  injury  to  the  soil,  and  is  labor 
lost.     Mr.  A.  Hyde,  of  Massachusetts,  says: — 

"The  inverted  sod  of  an  old  pasture  is  one  of  the  best  for  potatoes.  "With  a  little  well- 
rotted  compost  harrowed  in  thoroughly  upon  such  a  sod,  to  give  the  plants  a  good  start,  we 
have  raised  good  crops  upon  comparatively  poor  soil.  An  old  pasture  contains  much  vege- 
table matter,  and  the  tubers  delight  in  the  mellow  bed  which  such  a  soil  affords,  and  come 
out  in  the  fall  clean  and  healthy.  We  have  also  raised  good  potatoes  in  a  mucky  soil  apfiar- 
ently  having  little  but  vegetable  matter  in  it.  Tliis  can  only  be  done  in  a  dry  season.  In  a 
wet  summer  the  muck  retains  too  much  water,  and  has  the  same  influence  on  the  tubers  as 
compact  clay.  Leached  ashes  should  also  be  put  in  the  hill  with  potatoes,  when  planted  on 
muck,  to  furnish  the  inorganic  matter  in  which  muck  is  deficient.  A  compost  made  of  muck 
and  leached  ashes  is  one  of  the  best  possible  manures  for  the  potato.  The  muck  makes  the 
soil  porous,  and  furnishes  a  bed  in  which  the  potato  delights  as  much  as  our  mothers  formerly 
did  in  a  feather-bed.  Sufficient  potash  is  left  in  the  leached  ashes  to  furnish  this  essential 
ingredient  of  the  potato. 

Sand  soils  are  often  as  much  too  open  to  atmospheric  influences  as  clay  soils  are  closed 
against  them.  Sand  both  cools  and  Iieats  too  rapidly,  and  feels  the  sudden  changes  of  tern- ' 
perature  which  are  so  trying  to  the  potato.  Still,  on  poor,  sandy  soils  good  crops  of  potatoes 
can  be  raised  by  the  aid  of  muck  and  ashes.  The  perfect  drainage  and  slow  growth  secure 
this  result.  The  seed  shoidd  be  planted  deeply  and  cultivated  on  a  level,  so  that  the  tubers 
may  be  less  affected  by  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  We  have  known  potatoes  to  rot 
as  badly  on  sand  as  on  clay  when  planted  superficially  and  hilled  up  in  contracted  hills." 

One  of  the  leading  agricultural  writers  of  the  "  Country  Gentleman  "  expresses  the  fol- 
lowing facts  and  opinions  respecting  potato  culture : — 

"  From  such  facts  as  have  come  to  my  notice,  I  am  led  to  the  conclusion  that  when  pota- 
toes, and,  indeed,  aU,  or  nearly  all  vegetables,  and  perhaps  the  cereals,  which  have  originated 
in  cool  climates,  are  grown  under  a  warmer  latitude  tlian  where  they  make  the  strongest  and 
best  development,  they  require  a  soU  very  much  stronger  in  the  inorganic  elements  of  plant- 
food,  such  as  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  demand  also  to  be  grown 
wider  apart,  one  from  the  other,  because,  perhaps,  the  extra  stimulating  forces  of  a  hot  cli- 
mate shorten  the  period  of  growth,  and  there  must  not  only  be  room  enough  for  the  feeding 
roots,  but  the  soil  must  be  full  of  plant-food.  Going  South,  one  notices  that  nearly  all  com- 
mon northern  vegetables  have  a  tendency  to  grow  above  ground,  and  I  was  told  that  unless 
the  soil  is  heavily  manured  with  stable  manure,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  get  cabbages  to 
head,  turnips  to  bottom,  or  potatoes  to  come  to  full  growth.  In  the  truck  patches  about 
Mobile,  where  cabbages  are  planted  out  in  November  and  potatoes  in  February,  an  experi- 
enced grower  informed  me  that  his  success  with  cabbages  and  potatoes  was  just  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  stable  manure  and  cotton-seed  meal  he  used  in  the  case  of  the  cabbages,  and 
potash  in  the  form  of  the  ash  of  cotton-seed  hulls,  in  an  incredible  quantity,  was  absolutely 
essential  to  success  with  the  potato  crop.  Perhaps  the  absence  of  vegetable  gardens  in  the 
South,  which  so  forcibly  strikes  the  northern  observer,  is  quite  as  much  due  to  the  want  of 
manure  (on  account  of  the  limited  quantity  of  stock  of  aU  kinds,  which  is  seldom  yarded  and 
rarely  stabled)  as  to  any  indisposition  to  do  the  work  of  successful  truck  patching. 


336  THE  AMERICAN  FAR3IER. 

Potash  in  the  soil  is  not  only  essential  to  the  vine  growth  of  the  potato,  but  to  its  quality, 
since  the  mealiness  so  much  sought  after  results  from  the  presence  of  starch  in  the  tuber, 
not  a  grain  of  which  can  be  formed  in  the  absence  of  this  salt.  In  cool  climates,  the  growth 
and  ripening  of  the  potato  extend  over  some  months,  and  the  processes  of  the  elaboration  of 
starch  occupy  many  weeks;  hence  it  will  be  found  that  a  poor  soU,  in  a  high  northern  lati- 
tude, will  grow  better  potatoes  and  more  of  them  than  a  richer  one  farther  south.  When 
potatoes  are  grown  on  the  worn,  sandy  first  and  second  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
north  of  Cairo  and  as  far  north  as  St.  Louis,  the  crops  are  not  unfrequently  tolerably  large 
ones;  but  the  tubers  are  apt  to  be  soft,  watery,  and  waxy,  showing  that  while  there  is  stLU 
enough  potash  present  in  the  soil  to  answer  the  purpose  of  vine  and  tuber  growth,  there  is 
not  enough  to  admit  of  the  changing  of  the  cellulose  into  starch,  in  the  brief  space  of  the 
intensely  hot  summer  season  allowed  for  this  process.  But  the  growers  for  the  St.  Louis 
market  manure  highly  with  material  obtained  in  the  city  stables,  and  the  crop,  though  never 
comparable  to  northern-grown  tubers  in  quahty,  is  a  fairly  good  one.  Probably  the  extraor- 
dinary fine  quality  of  Peerless  potatoes  I  have  eaten,  grown  for  the  northern  spring  market  in 
the  winter  vegetable  gardens  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans,  owed  that  excellence  to  the  very 
liberal  use  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  ash,  in  connection  with  stable  manure,  as  in  the  case  of 
those  in  the  suburbs  of  Mobile. 

Probably  the  best  form  of  potash  for  potatoes  is  in  that  of  wood-ashes,  leached  or 
unleached, — the  former  being  of  more  than  half  the  value  of  the  latter, — while  soft  coal-ashes 
are  by  no  means  to  be  despised,  especially  in  the  western  country,  where  more  or  less  wood 
is  burned  in  connection  with  coal.  Indeed,  for  vegetables  of  any  kind,  coal-ashes,  whether 
hard  or  soft,  are  to  be  sought  after,  since  they  are  always  valuable  as  an  amendment  to  the 
soil,  and  possibly  though  they  may  contain  no  plant-food,  they  do  contain  ingredients  which 
render  certain  forms  of  insoluble  plant-food  soluble. 

The  lesson  to  be  learned  is  that  potash,  and  an  abundance  of  it,  is  essential  to  successful 
potato-growing;  that  its  best  form  is  wood-ashes,  not  forgetting  soft  coal-ashes  and  well- 
rotted  stable  manure,  and  that  as  one  goes  south  he  must  increase  the  quantity  of  potash  and 
other  inorganic  elements  of  plant-food,  in  order  that  the  starch  in  the  tuber  may  be  quickly 
elaborated." 

Virgin  soil  with  httle  or  no  manure  will  produce  the  best  quality  of  potatoes,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule. 

"Whatever  the  character  of  the  soil,  it  should  be  plowed  deeply,  and  thoroughly  pulver- 
ized with  the  harrow  before  planting.  A  deep,  mellow  soil  is,  according  to  the  best  author- 
ity, better  adapted  to  resist  the  extremes  of  moisture  and  drought  than  any  other. 

"When  barn-yard  manure  is  used,  it  should  be  well  decomposed,  or  composted,  fresh 
manure  being  objectionable  for  potatoes,  as  it  causes  them  to  grow  ill-shaped,  with  deep  eyes, 
and  gives  them  a  strong,  unpleasant  flavor. 

Poultry  manure,  wood-ashes,  and  plaster,  mixed  in  equal  proportions,  make  an  excellent 
fertilizer  for  this  crop.  Superphosphate  of  lime  also  gives  very  good  results,  as  well  as  marl, 
bone-dust,  guano,  and  similar  fertilizers,  and  on  wet  soils  are  very  beneficial  in  rendering 
them  more  dry,  as  they  are  of  an  absorbent  nature. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  potash  is  highly  beneficial  to  this  crop,  and  may  be  applied 
in  the  form  of  wood-ashes,  which  should  be  placed  in  the  hill  in  planting. 

As  a  general  rule,  fall  plowing  is  to  be  preferred,  unless  the  soil  is  very  friable.  When 
sod  is  used  for  the  crop,  or  heav)^  land  with  a  hard-pan  or  clayey  subsoil,  it  should  be  plowed 
rather  deep  in  the  fall,  and  harrowed  and  plowed  again  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  it  is  dry 
enough  to  be  friable. 

If  the  manure  is  of  a  fine  texture,  it  should  be  spread  on  and  harrowed  in,  but  if  coarse 
manure  is  used,  it  can  be  spread  on  before  the  spring  plowing  or  put  in  the  hill  or  furrow. 


POTATOES.  337 

Some  prefer  to  spread  a  part  broadcast,  and  the  remainder  to  be  applied  either  in  the  hill  or 
drill,  according  to  the  method  of  planting.  Chemical  fertilizers  are  often  used  in  this  manner 
in  connection  with  yard  manure,  the  former  deposited  near  the  seed,  and  the  latter  spread 
broadcast  and  harrowed  in.  Chemical  fertilizers  should,  however,  be  mixed  with  the  soil,  for 
if  applied  directly  to  the  seed,  they  wOl  be  liable  to  destroy  the  eyes  or  young  sprouts. 

New  land  is  commonly  considered  the  best  for  producing  large  crops  that  are  free  from 
disease.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  new  land  contains  more  potash  than  that  long  cul- 
tivated, which  is  an  element  necessary  to  the  perfect  development  of  the  potato. 

Many  of  the  chemical  fertilizers  made  especially  for  this  crop,  of  which  superphosphates 
are  the  principal  basis,  often  prove  highly  beneficial  in  producing  large  yields  of  the  best 
quality. 

Potatoes  do  not  require  as  much  fertility  as  corn,  but  still  thrive  best  with  an  abundance 
of  it,  and  in  as  nearly  a  mineralized  condition  as  may  be, — well  composted,  ready  to  be  easily 
taken  up  as  plant-food. 

The  quantity  should  be  suited  to  the  nature -of  the  soil,  new  lands  requiring  less  manure 
than  those  that  have  been  long  in  cultivation. 

If  the  soil  is  manured  too  heavily,  and  the  growth  over  rapid,  many  of  the  varieties  will 
be  hollow  in  the  center  of  the  tuber,  or,  as  is  commonly  termed,  "  hollow-hearted."  A  long, 
slow  growth  is  better  than  a  forced,  hasty  maturity,  giving  a  better  quality  as  well  as  a  larger 
crop  that  can  be  better  preserved,  being  less  liable  to  disease. 

Some  farmers  use  from  eighteen  to  twenty  two-horse  loads  of  good  yard-manure  per  acre, 
spread  broadcast,  and  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  pounds  of  chemical  fertilizers  in  the  hills 
in  addition,  and  consider  this  the  most  desirable  amoimt  for  this  crop;  otliers  use  twice  this 
quantity  of  manure  with  the  artificial  fertihzers.  The  quantity  of  fertility  supplied  to  this 
crop  should  be  modified  in  a  great  measure  by  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Selecting  and  Cutting  Potatoes  for  Planting.— The  varieties  chosen  for  cultiva- 
tion, should  be  those  possessing  fine,  edible,  and  productive  qualities,  and  also  those  best 
adapted  to  the  soil.  The  most  perfect  specimens  of  tubers  should  be  selected  for  planting, 
that  is,  those  of  medium  size,  not  too  large  or  too  small,  and  which  are  as  nearly  perfect  in 
size  and  condition  as  possible,  carefully  avoiding  any  that  have  the  least  appearance  of  dis- 
ease. Since  it  is  the  law  of  nature  that  "like  produces  like,"  if  diseased  potatoes  be  planted, 
the  crop  will  be  very  liable  to  be  not  only  a  small  one,  but  an  unsound,  diseased  one  as  well; 
or,  if  disease  does  not  make  its  appearance  with  the  maturity  of  the  crop,  it  will  be  liable  to 
at  a  later  period,  and  necessitate  quite  a  loss  before  the  following  spring. 

There  is  still  quite  a  diversity  of  opinions  among  farmers  as  to  whether  it  is  better  to 
plant  pieces  of  the  largest  potatoes,  or  whole  small  ones;  also  if  pieces  be  used,  which  is  the 
best  end  of  the  tuber  for  planting,  and  the  best  size.  There  has  also  been  quite  a  variety  of 
opinions  as  to  whether  the  perfectly  ripe  tuber  should  be  used,  or  those  not  fully  ripened, 
some  claiming  that  the  latter  are  more  vigorous  and  early  in  sending  out  shoots. 

Repeated  and  careful  experiments,  by  some  of  our  most  successful  agriculturists,  as  well 
as  long  practice,  go  far  in  establishing  the  opinion,  that  potatoes  of  a  mediimi  size  are  best 
for  planting,  and  that  pieces  are  better  than  the  whole  tuber  for  this  purpose,  although  good 
crops  are  often  obtained  from  small  whole  ones;  that  those  perfectly  ripe  are  to  be  preferred 
to  those  not  fully  ripened,  and  that  the  eyes  from  one  part  of  the  potato  are  as  prolific  as 
those  of  another  part. 

Some,  however,  according  to  the  old  custom,  still  make  a  practice  of  planting  whole 
potatoes,  one  large  or  two  small  ones  to  a  hill;  on  the  other  hand,  Mr.  M.  J.  Wheeler  of 
Massachusetts,  says  that  the  best  crop  of  potatoes  he  ever  produced  came  from  sprouts  taken 
oif  the  potato.  Cutting  to  a  single  eye  is  at  present  quite  extensively  practiced,  and  is  a 
method  highly  recommended  by  some  of  our  best  authorities  on  this  subject.     Mr.  B.  K. 


338  POTATOES. 

Bliss  says:  —  "  Cutting  is  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  to  be  considered  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  potatoes,  and  there  is  such  a  diversity  of  opinions  regarding  the  manner  and  method 
of  doing  it,  that  many  pages  could  be  filled  in  giving  the  different  experiences  of  the  pro- 
fessors in  this  art.  While  we  do  not  attempt  to  decide  this  question  to  the  satisfaction  of 
every  one,  we  shall  give  our  own  views,  and  claim  that  in  our  method  an  enormous  quantity 
of  the  tubers  now  annually  planted  may  be  thrown  into  the  market,  causing  a  reduction  in 
the  prices  charged  for  this  common  and  necessary  crop. 

Without  discussing  the  respective  merits  of  planting  whole  potatoes,  or  half  a  dozen 
pieces  in  a  hill,  each  piece  containing  three  or  four  eyes,  we  shall  state  what  has  been  proven 
by  so  many  cultivators,  that  two  good  eyes  are  ample  for  one  hill,  and  the  yield  of  large, 
marketable  potatoes  is  larger  than  when  more  are  planted." 

This  practice  will  seem  a  small  allowance  for  a  field  crop  by  those  who  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  use  a  larger  quantity;  still,  we  know  it  has  many  advocates,  and  that  too  much  seed 
is  usually  planted,  which  results  in  crowding  in  the  hills,  and  producing  a  large  number  of 
very  small  tubers,  which  are  nearly  worthless,  except  as  food  for  farm  animals,  too  much 
seed  being  as  detrimental  to  the  crop  as  too  little. 

Mr.  Terry,  of  Summit  county,  Ohio,  gives  the  result  of  his  method  of  planting  a  single 
eye,  as  follows:  —  "For  seed  I  use  only  the  very  choicest  specimens,  of  perfect  shape,  in  size 
varying  from  medium  to  large,  having  large,  strong  eyes. 

These  potatoes  are  cut  to  one  eye.  At  the  seed  end  one  eye  is  left  on,  and  the  others 
cut  off  and  thrown  away.  The  most  expert  and  careful  hands  are  set  at  this  job.  One  piece 
is  dropped  every  12  to  14  inches  in  the  drill,  and  the  drills  are  made  32  inches  apart,  for  such 
varieties  as  Clark's  No.  1,  Early  Rose,  Beauty  of  Hebron,  and  Snowflake.  The  cutting  and 
dropping  are  done  the  same  day,  and,  if  the  sun  shines,  the  coverer  follows  the  droppers 
closely.  Such  seed,  cut  to  one  eye  and  put  in  as  I  have  described,  will  produce  fewer 
potatoes  to  the  hill  usually,  but,  with  moderately  favorable  weather  and  good  care,  they  will 
be  large  and  fine,  and  of  No.  1  quality.  On  this  point  I  will  give  a  little  of  my  experience, 
to  show  whether  it  pays  to  take  all  this  trouble  or  not. 

A  few  years  ago  potatoes  were  very  low  in  the  market  to  which  I  go.  Early  in  July  I 
took  a  sample  of  large,  fine  ones,  and  spent  all  day  in  trying  to  get  an  order  for  a  load  at  40 
cents.  At  last  A  decided  to  buy  a  load,  they  were  '  such  beauties.'  The  market  was  full  of 
ordinary  potatoes,  and  at  no  time  did  they  sell  for  more  than  25  cents.  After  this  I  had  to 
work  night  and  day  to  supply  the  demand,  and  made  a  fair  profit,  whereas  at  25  cents  I 
should  have  lost  money. 

Two  years  ago  the  season  was  favorable,  and  my  potatoes  were  very  large  and  fine.  I 
took  my  first  load  (30  bushefe  from  16  square  rods)  to  a  very  particular  customer.  There 
were  bushels  of  potatoes  in  it  that  would  weigh  one  pound  each.  I  had  nearly  2,000  bushels 
of  those  potatoes,  and  within  three  days  they  were  all  spoken  for  at  my  price.  I  have  passed 
men  drawing  their  potatoes  home  (small,  dirty-looking  things),  unable  to  get  a  bid,  at  a  time 
when  I  was  over-working  men  and  teams  to  supply  the  demand,  and  they  would  say:  'Terry, 
you  are  the  luckiest  man  I  ever  knew.'  There  was  no  luck  about  it;  I  simply  did  the  best  1 
could  to  raise  a  choice  article  and  get  it  to  the  market  in  nice  shape.  The  way  is  open  to  all. 
Luck  rarely  comes  to  those  who  do  not  strive  for  it.  It  pays  on  the  farm,  as  well  as  else- 
where, to  do  everything  the  very  best  we  know  how,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  the 
very  best  possible  results." 

The  quantity  of  seed  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  soil  and  variety,  and  we  would  advise 
each  farmer  to  experiment  for  himself,  which  can  be  very  easily  done  by  marking  off  some 
small  portion  of  his  potato-field  for  this  purpose,  first  preparing  it  so  that  it  will  be  of 
uniform  fertility.  By  planting  one  row  of  hills  with  a  single  eye,  another  with  two  eyes, 
another  with  three,  then  with  four,  etc.,  on  the  same  field,  giving  each  the  same  cultivation 


ROOTS  AND  ESCULENT  TUBERS. 


339 


and  carefully  measuring  the  product  of  each  separate  row,  each  fanner  could  easily  settle  this 
question  to  his  own  individual  satisfaction,  providing  the  soil  of  each  of  the  different  plant- 
ings were  of  about  equal  fertility.  Some  of  the  old  works  on  agriculture  recommend 
from  six  to  eight  eyes  to  a  hill,  but  repeated  and  careful  experiments  have  proven  this  to  be 
altogether  too  large  a  quantity. 

Tlie  following  cut  will  show  how  a  potato  can  readily  be  cut  to  a  single  eye  and  each  eye 
be  supported  by  an  equal  amount  of  flesh,  which  will  be  suiEcient  to  start  it  into  a  healthy 
and  vigorous  growth.  Many  may  consider  this  method  of  cutting  too  troublesome  where  the 
common  varieties  are  used,  but  by  it 
only  about  half  the  usual  amount  of 
tubers  need  be  used  for  planting  ;  and 
to  those  who  wish  to  obtain  a  large  crop 
from  a  small  quantity  of  choice  potatoes 
this  method  will  prove  quite  valuable. 

This  is  done  by  holding  the  stem-end 
down,  keeping  it  in  a  perpendicular  po- 
sition throughout  the  cutting.  With  a 
thin-bladed  sharp  knife  the  first  eye 
nearest  the  stem-end  can  be  removed  by 
placing  the  knife  equally  distant  between 
it  and  the  eye  next  above  it  in  the  rota- 
tion,  sloping  the  cut  towards  the  inden- 
ture  at  the  stem-end,  and  taking  the 
,  flesh  of  the  tuber  with  it ;  then  turn  the 
potato  around  until  the  next  eye  appears 
— which  will  be  in  a  line  a  little  above 
the  former — and  remove  it  in  the  same 
manner  ;  and  thus  continue  until  all  the 
eyes  have  been  removed.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  after  three  or  four  eyes  have 
thus  been  removed  the  bottom  part  of 
the  tuber  will  have  something  of  a  pyr- 
amidal form,  also  that  each  piece  will  be 
similar  in  form,  the  eye  near  the  central 
portion  of  the  flesh  of  the  tuber  which 
is  to  start  it  into  growth  and  give  it  sup. 
port.  The  cut  on  the  right  shows  what 
remains  of  the  potato  after  all  but  the 
small  eyes,  sometimes  called  the  "  seed 
end,"  have  been  removed,  and  the  dot- 
ted lines  represent  how  to  separate  these 
in  a  similar  manner.  Cutting  to  a  Single  Eye. 

Plantingt — A  fertile  soil,  ploughed  rather  deep,  and  finely  pulverized,  in  order  to  render 
it  as  mellow  as  possible,  gives  the  most  successful  results  in  growing  potatoes.  Deep  tillage, 
fine  pulverization,  with  good  drainage,  wiU  give  a  Hght  friable  soil,  and  aUow  the  excessive 
moisture  of  an  unusually  wet  season  to  pass  readily  through  it,  leaving  an  increased  fertility 
for  the  benefit  of  the  crop  ;  while  if  the  season  be  an  unusually  dry  one,  abundant  facts  sub- 
stantiate the  truth  of  the  statement,  that  such  conditions  render  the  soil  better  able  to  with- 
stand drought,  however  contradictory  and  paradoxical  it  may  seem.  Potatoes  may  be  planted 
either  in  hills  or  drills,  some  preferring  the  former  method  and  others  the  latter.  Hill-planting 
admits  of  a  more  thorough  stirring  of  the  soil  in  after  cultivation,  as  it  permits  the  cultivator 


340 


THE  AMERICAN  FAR3IER. 


or  horse-hoe  to  run  in  both  directions,  whUe  experiments  prove  that  the  yield  of  both  methods 
is  about  the  same,  the  drills,  perhaps,  giving  slightly  the  larger  crop.  If  planted  in  drills 
and  the  land  is  sloping,  the  drills  should  be  made  to  run  in  tlie  direction  of  the  slope,  so  as  to 
admit  of  partial  drainage,  and  prevent  washing  in  heavy  showers.  If  drill  planting  is 
decided  upon,  and  the  planting  is  to  be  done  by  hand,  the  rows  should  be  marked  with  a 
plow  suited  to  the  purpose,  making  small  furrows  about  four  inches  deep,  the  furrows  about 
three  feet  apart.  If  planted  in  hills,  the  furrows  should  be  marked  across  the  field  at  the 
same  distance,  so  that  the  marking  will  be  in  squares. 

When  chemical  fertilizers  are  used,  they  should  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed, 
but  should  be  mixed  with  four  or  five  times  their  bulk  of  soil  before  being  put  in  the  hills  or 
drills,  or  should  be  slightly  covered  with  soil  before  dropping  the  seed.  The  seed  should  then 
be  dropped,  two  or  three  pieces  to  the  hill,  or  if  in  drills,  a  single  piece  every  ten  or  twelve 
inches,  after  which  the  covering  can  be  done  by  a  plow  or  hand  hoe.  Planting  is  done  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  many  localities  by  a  potato  planter. 

These  machines  mark  the  rows,  cut  the  potatoes  for  dropping,  drop  and  cover  the  seed 
at  one  operation.  The  following  cut  represents  one  of  these  implements,  — manufactured  by 
Nash  &  Brother,  New  York  City.  The  hopper  will  hold  about  a  bushel  of  potatoes,  and  the 
knife  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  cut  pieces  without  one  or  more  eyes 
in  them.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  planting  should 
be  done  early  in  the  sea- 
son.  Farmers  frequently 
delay  this  until  so  late  that 
the  crop  does  not  have  suf- 
ficient time  to  mature.  It 
was  formerly  the  custom 
to  plant  potatoes  after  the 
corn  planting  was  com- 
pleted, but  our  best  farm- 
ers now  have  the  planting 
of  this  crop  precede  that 
of  corn.  Even  the  late- 
ripening  varieties  should  be 
planted  as  early  as  the 
ground  wiU  admit.  Mr. 
H.  Stewart,  of  New  Jersey,  says,  as  the  result  of  his  experience: — "  I  presume  that  the  precise 
meaning  of  the  word  late,  as  applied  to  any  soil  product,  is  that  it  has  a  longer  period  of 
growth  than  the  early  kinds.  Thus  early  peas,  potatoes,  or  corn  may  mature  in  forty  or  fifty, 
seventy  or  eighty  days  respectively,  while  late  sorts  may  take  fifteen  or  twenty  days  longer 
to  mature.  But  practice  does  not  conform  to  this  natural  characteristic,  and  it  seems  to  be 
based  rather  on  a  supposition  that  these  later  maturing  kinds  require  to  be  planted  late. 

A  neighbor  expressed  surprise  to  see  me  planting  Evergreen  sweet  corn  on  the  same  day 
with  Early  Concord,  and  that  Early  Vermont  and  Late  Rose  potatoes  should  go  into  the 
ground  the  same  week,  and  each  kind  be  treated  precisely  alike  as  regards  planting.  But 
that  is  my  way,  and  I  think  I  am  right.  Last  year  I  had  an  excellent  crop  of  Peachblows, 
a  kind  which  I  plant  for  my  own  use,  on  account  of  their  superior  quality,  and  the  seed  was 
put  in  the  ground  the  day  after  Early  Rose  and  Snowflake.  The  Peachblow  was  green  in 
November  after  having  been  in  the  groxmd  more  than  six  months,  and  in  yield  surpassed 
greatly  the  Early  Rose. 

Do  we  give  the  late  varieties,  when  we  plant  them  so  late  as  is  usually  done,  sufficient 


TKL'E  S    POTATO    PLANTER. 


POTATOES.  341 

time  for  tlieir  full  growth?  I  think  not,  and  I  have  the  impression  that  it  is  to  this  imma- 
turity of  growth  that  the  failure  of  some  excellent  varieties  to  yield  may  be  due.  I  have  also 
found  that  a  long  season  of  growth  with  moderate  manuring  will  produce  sounder  potatoes 
than  when  the  maturity  of  growth  has  been  forced  by  more  copious  use  of  manures.  Heavily 
manured  late  potatoes — and  early  ones  too,  of  some  kinds — are  apt  to  be  hollow-hearted; 
plainly  an  effect  of  over-rapid  growth.  These  grow  to  a  great  size,  but  like  overgrown  roots, 
are  unsound  and  of  poor  quality.  Slow,  sound  growth  is  consistent  with  excellence  of 
quality  and  moderate  size.  With  a  long  season  of  growth,  there  will  be  a  full  production  of 
moderate-sized  tubers,  with  no  small  ones,  and  this  long  season  can  only  be  secured  by  early 
planting.  Therefore,  I  would  plant  late  potatoes  as  soon  as  the  early  ones  were  in  the 
ground,  and  I  would  plant  them  deep.  Deep  planting  encourages  a  large  growth  of  roots, 
and  this  produces  a  strong,  aerial  vegetation,  which  gives  great  vigor  to  the  plants,  and 
greatly  assists  the  formation  of  tubers.  Eight  inches  is  not  too  deep  planting  for  late  potatoes, 
or  for  early  ones  either,  but  especially  for  late  ones,  which  have  then  an  opportunity  for 
making  a  substantial  growth,  and  a  large  space  of  soil  to  forage  in." 

The  above  accords  with  our  own  experience,  and  we  believe  that  if  those  farmers  who 
are  accustomed  to  plant  their  potatoes  late  would  plant  as  early  as  the  season  and  condition 
of  the  soil  would  admit,  they  would  not  only  have  a  larger  crop  of  more  uniform-sized  tubers, 
but  of  better  quality,  also. 

It  is  the  custom  with  many  farmers  to  put  a  good-sized  forkful  of  manure  on  each  hill 
after  the  seed  is  well  covered,  or,  if  in  drills,  cover  the  tops  of  the  drills  with  manure.  This 
economizes  the  use  of  inanure,  and  tends  to  keep  the  moisture  about  the  roots  and  young 
potatoes,  which  greatly  facilitates  their  growth  before  drouth  can  affect  the  plants.  Their 
progress  is  in  this  way  further  facilitated  by  the  leaching  of  the  manure  by  the  rains,  which 
sends  the  plant  nutriment  directly  to  the  rootlets.  The  manure  will  become  covered  with 
soil  in  the  after  cultivation.  Deep  planting  is  also  desirable,  since  it  affords  protection  to  the 
roots  in  time  of  drouth,  furnishes  them  a  cool,  moist  bed,  and  promotes  a  stronger  and  more 
vigorous  growth  of  plants  as  well  as  that  of  tubers.  Besides,  the  potatoes  are  less  liable 
to  become  washed  or  uncovered  by  rains  and  ruined  in  this  way.  It  will  be  noticed  by  a 
little  attention  to  the  subject,  that  diseased  potatoes  are  frequently  found  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  that  those  planted  rather  deep  are  less  liable  to  disease.  Deep  planting  also 
admits  of  a  more  thorough  use  of  the  harrow  in  destroying  weeds,  and  thus  facilitates  the 
after-culture,  as  the  field  can  be  harrowed  two  or  three  times  without  disturbing  the  seed  or 
the  young  shoots,  and  the  weeds  at  first  kept  easily  in  check.  "We  should  prefer  a  depth  of 
six  or  more  inches  to  that  of  any  less.  By  planting  as  early  as  the  soil  and  season  will  admit, 
and  to  a  suitable  depth,  the  many  evils  resulting  from  late  and  shallow  planting  will  be  avoided. 

An  intelUgent  farmer  in  Fort  Plain,  N.  Y.,  gives  the  result  of  his  test  in  planting 
potatoes  at  different  depths  thus:  —  "Selecting  the  soundest  seed  I  could  find,  I  planted 
some  in  the  usual  way,  covering  2  or  3  inches  deep;  others  6  and  8  inches.  The  first  were  a 
failure  —  a  few  small  potatoes  in  a  hill  and  of  poor  quality.  This  agreed  with  the  general 
crop  of  the  neighborhood.  It  was  a  matter  of  gratification  —  and  to  the  neighbors  a  surprise 
—  to  see  the  fine,  bright  tubers  that  came  up  when  the  deep-planted  were  dug  —  which  was 
the  middle  of  June  ;  those  covered  six  inches  ripening  earlier,  as  they  also  came  up  earlier 
after  planting.  They  were  clean  and  sound,  and  when  cooked  were  white,  mealy,  and  sweet, 
with  no  rank,  unhealthy  odor." 

Deep  planting  necessitates  working  the  soil  correspondingly  deep,  with  the  manure  well 
and  deeply  mixed  with  it.  If  the  seed  lies  on  a  cold,  hard  subsoil,  failure  will  be  the  result, 
since  the  roots  cannot  penetrate  it,  or  subsist  upon  it  There  should  be  a  few  inches  of  rich, 
mellow  soil  hehiv  the  seed  for  the  roots  to  feed  upon.  The  objection  to  planting  too  much  seed 
is,  as  we  have  previously  stated,  an  over-crowding  in  the  hill,  and  the  crop  will  in  consequence 


342 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


be  a  large  supply  of  very  small  tubers  tliat  will  bo  nearly  worthless,  and  but  very  few  large 
ones.  The  same  objection  holds  true  in  planting  whole  potatoes,  there  will  be  too  many 
stems  for  the  space  occupied,  and  therefore  not  room  for  the  proper  development  of  the 
tubers.  The  objection  to  selecting  the  largest  potatoes  for  seed  is,  that  when  such  a  course  is 
practised  there  is  a  tendency  to  reproduce  largo,  overgrown  tubers  of  a  coarse  texture  and 
less  delicate  flavor  than  those  of  a  medium  size;  besides  they  are  liable  to  be  hollow-hearted. 
The  following  cut  shows  the  product  of  a  single  eye  to  the  hill  of  the  Compton's  Surprise, 
a  very  prolific  variety.  If  each  farmer  would  experiment  for  liimself,  as  wo  have  previously 
suggested,  planting  different  rows  with  a  quantity  of  seed  varying  from  one,  two,  and  three 
or  more  eyes,  and  carefully  noting  the  product  of  each  row,  this  question  could  easily  be 
settled  individually  in  one  season.  As  far  as  our  own  practice  is  concerned,  we  should  never 
plant  over  two  or  three  eyes  to  the  hill.  A  diversity  of  opinion  also  exists  respecting  hilling 
and  level  cultui'e,  each  method  having  zealous  advocates.  Hilling  would  be  the  most  desir- 
able on  clay  lands  or  those  with  a  tendency  to  retain  undue  moisture,  as  the  soil  would  thus 


COMPTON  b  &URPKISE  POTATOES. 

Showing  the  growih  from  a  single  eye  in  the  grounds  of  F  Setter,  Verona,  New  Jersey, 
who  raised  384  lbs  from  one  Tb  of  the  tubers,  viUi  ordtnai-y  culture. 

be  better  drained.  Level  culture  usually  gives  good  results  on  rather  dry  soils,  and  la  gener- 
ally less  affected  by  drought  or  changes  of  temperature.  Where  hilling  is  practiced,  it  must 
not  be  done  after  the  roots  have  been  well  established,  or  there  is  any  appearance  of  blossoms, 
as  it  will  then  leave  the  fine  roots  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  cause  a  new  set  of  tubers  to  start, 
thus  proving  a  great  injury  to  the  crop.  "We  believe  hilling  is  the  more  general  practice  with 
this  crop;  whether  this  be  from  a  choice  of  the  two  methods  resulting  from  careful  experi- 
ment, or  from  long  habit  principally,  we  are  not  able  to  positively  state,  but  it  is  to  be  pre- 
sumed that,  as  but  few  farmers  make  any  distinction  in  the  culture  of  wet  and  dry  soils,  the 
practice  is  due  mainly  to  established  habit. 

It  is  said  that  the  natural  life  of  a  variety  of  the  potato  will  average  from  fourteen  to 
twenty  years,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  hence  the  necessity  of  getting  new 
seedlings  from  the  best,  most  vigorous,  and  prolific  varieties.  When  propagated  from  the 
tubers  in  the  usual  manner  the  potato  is  quite  liable  to  deteriorate  or  revert  to  its  original 
condition,  and  one  of  the  fruitful  causes  of  this  deterioration  is  a  continual  planting  upon  the 
same  soil,  without  a  change  of  seed;  therefore  a  rotation  of  crops  and  change  of  seed  is  as 
necessary  with  this  product  as  others.  It  has  also  been  found  that  a  dry  season  will  not  have 
the  effect  to  produce  a  dry  and  mealy  quality  of  the  tubers,  but  generally  the  reverse. 


ROOTS  AND  ESCULENT  TUBERS. 


343 


In  order  to  produce  an  early  crop,  tlie  see^  should  be  planted  just  as  soon  in  the  spring  as 
the  ground  can  be  put  in  proper  condition ;  the  earliest  kinds  can  be  marketed  in  from  sixty- 
five  to  seventy  days  from  the  time  of  planting,  if  the  season  be  as  favorable  as  the  average. 
Seed  potatoes  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  cold  before  planting,  as  they  will  not  produce 
healthy  vines  under  such  circumstances,  even  if  the  cold  is  not  sufficient  to  change  their 
outward  appearance.  The  severe  cold  seems  to  lessen  the  vitality  and  vigor  of  the  embryo 
sprouts,  or  buds  of  the  tubers.  Whenever  there  is  a  prospect  of  frost,  after  the  shoots  make 
their  appearance  from  the  soil,  a  little  light  earth  thrown  hastily  over  them  will  furnish  ample 
protection  from  injury,  and  will  not  be  detrimental  to  the  crop,  as  they  will  in  a  few  days  push 

themselves  out  of  it.  Some 
varieties  require  more  space 
for  growth  than  others,  not 
only  on  account  of  diilerence 
in  size,  but  in  root  extension, 
having  rootlets  that  wander  in 
the  soil  much  farther  than 
others. 

The  two  preceding  figures 
show  the  habit  of  growth  of 
the  Compton's  Surprise,  and 
the  Alpha — one  of  the  ear- 
liest varieties  known — which 
illustrate  this  point.  When 
the  seed  is  changed,  as  it  should 
be  occasionally,  it  is  better  to 
obtain  it  Irom  a  northern  local- 
ity rather  than  a  southern,  as 
a  product  from  the  former, 
having  a  shorter  season  in 
which  to  mature,  will  have 
Alpha.  estaolished  this  habit,  and  ripen 

earlier  than  from  the  latter  source,  which  would  mature  more  slowly.  Prof.  Goodale  says  that 
his  observations  and  experiments  lend  him  to  believe  that  an  important  advantage  results  from 
such  change  of  seed,  and  as  an  instance,  he  gives  it  his  opinion  that  farmers  in  New 
Jersey  would  add  one-third  to  their  product  by  planting  tor  seed,  potatoes  that  were  grown 
in  Maine.  Different  varieties  should  be  planted  separately,  otherwise  they  will  become 
mixed  and  the  value  of  the  crop  greatly  deteriorated. 

Forcing  Potatoes. — When  an  unusually  early  start  is  desirable  for  a  crop,  the  growth  of 
the  young  plants  can  be  greatly  facilitated  by  selecting  whole  and  perfectly  sound  tubers,  of 
medium  size,  of  some  early  variety,  and  placing  them  quite  cloae  together  in  a  moderately 
heated  bed  especially  prepared  for  them,  and  composed  of  either  light  loam  or  partially  decayed 
leaves,  or  both  combined.  Mr.  Bliss  recommends  this  to  be  done  three  or  four  weeks  previous 
to  the  time  of  planting.  The  tubers  will,  by  this  time,  have  become  sufficiently  well  sprouted 
to  be  set  out  in  the  field,  which  should  have  a  warm  soil,  well  fertilized  and  pulverized.  The 
potatoes  should  then  be  carefully  cut  for  planting,  especial  pains  being  required  not  to  injure 
or  break  the  young  shoots,  and  also  to  give  each  sprout  a  proper  amount  of  the  tuber  for 
support,  according  to  previous  directions.  Plant  the  pieces  thus  started  from  three  to  four 
inches  deep,  having  first  placed  a  little  horse-manure  in  the  bottom  of  each  hill  to  secure 
warmth  and  furnish  fertility  to  the  young  plants.  By  this  process  a  much  earlier  crop  can 
be  produced  than  the  ordinary  method  of  planting,  and  although  attended  with  a  little  extra 
trouble,  will  be  valuable  to  the  farmer  who  wishes  to  raise  au  unusually  early  crop  for  market 
or  family  use.  Another  way  of  accomplishing  the  same  result  with  comparatively  little 
22 


344  THE   AMERICAN   FARMER. 

trouble,  is  to  put  a  few  well-selected,  smooth  tubers  of  medium  size  in  a  warm  room  in  the 
latter  part  of  winter  or  early  in  the  spring,  anS  placed  where  they  can  have  the  Ught  of  the 
sun  and  artificial  heat  of  the  room.  This  should  be  done  long  before  there  are  any  indications 
of  the  soil  being  ready  to  work.  The  sprouts  will  soon  begin  to  start  and  will  continue  to 
expand  and  grow  vigorously,  though  slowly,  producing  very  desirable  plants  for  the 
future  crop.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  and  warm  enough  for  planting,  these  tubers  should 
be  carefully  cut  the  same  as  for  ordinary  planting,  taking  care  not  to  break  off  the  sprouts. 
The  pieces  should  be  set  out  with  care  as  above  directed,  and  if  properly  managed  will  sur- 
prise the  grower  by  the  early  maturity  of  the  crop. 

Cultivatioil. — Fi-equent  stirring  of  the  soil  and  freedom  from  weeds  are  indispensable  to 
a  large  yield  of  potatoes.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  plant  rather  deep,  and  give  the  soil  one  or  two 
good  harrowings  before  the  young  plants  make  their  appearance  from  the  ground,  in  order  to 
cheek  the  weeds.  Even  after  they  are  well  started  and  are  from  two  to  three  inches  highi 
many  farmers  use  the  harrow  with  little  or  no  injury  to  the  plants,  as  they  are  then  well- 
rooted  and  have  a  firm  hold  upon  the  soil,  and  if  a  few  become  broken  off,  the  new  shoots 
will  grow  very  rapidly  to  take  their  places.  By  these  repeated  harrowings  in  the  early  stages 
of  growth,  the  after  cultivation  is  made  much  more  easy,  as  it  effectually  checks  the  weeds  at 
this  period  and  prevents  their  getting  a  hold  upon  the  soil. 

When  the  plants  are  well  up,  the  cultivator  or  horse-hoe  can  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
If  the  planting  is  in  hills,  the  ground  should  be  stirred  between  them  by  running  the  cultivator 
in  both  directions,  which  can  be  brought  quite  close  to  the  plants  without  injury  ;  if  planted 
in  drills  it  can  be  used  only  in  one  direction,  between  the  rows.  This  stirring  of  the  soil 
should  be  frequent,  in  order  to  check  the  weeds  and  keep  the  ground  mellow  and  open  to 
atmospheric  influences. 

After  the  plants  have  made  their  appearance,  some  farmers  make  a  practice  of  top-dress- 
ing with  compost,  chip  manure,  or  a  little  plaster  and  ashes  in  which  a  small  proportion  of  salt 
has  been  mixed ;  this  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  the  latter  has  also  a  tendency  to 
keep  off  for  a  time  injurious  insects.  The  hilling  horse-hoe  is  often  used  for  this  purpose. 
Some  farmers  follow  the  practice  of  harrowing  the  whole  surface,  as  has  previously  been  sug- 
gested, regardless  of  rows,  a  week  or  more  before  the  shoots  come  up,  and  then  drag  with  a 
smoothing  harrow  just  before  they  break  the  ground,  which  will  kill  all  the  weeds  that  are 
then  up,  using  it  once  or  twice  after  they  are  above  ground.  After  this,  the  cultivator  is  run 
between  the  rows  two  or  three  times  before  the  plants  blossom,  after  which  they  will  require 
no  further  cultivation,  providing  the  weeds  have  previously  been  properly  kept  down. 

No  culture  should  be  given  after  the  blossoms  begin  to  appear,  as  it  will  cause  the  set- 
ting of  a  new  lot  of  tubers  and  thus  prove  a  great  injury  to  the  crop.  The  use  of  the  hand- 
hoe  may  be  necessary  in  potato  culture,  in  order  to  destroy  a  few  weeds  that  are  nearest  the 
plants  and  may  be  so  located  as  not  to  be  accessible  to  the  cultivator  or  horse-hoe.  It  was 
formerly  a  custom  among  some  farmers  to  pick  off  all  the  buds  before  they  opened  in  blossoms, 
in  order  to  improve  the  crop,  but  the  slight  gain  thus  obtained  does  not  repay  the  labor,  and 
the  practice  is  now  obsolete. 

How  to  Raise  from  Cuttings.  —  An  ordinary  hot-bed  is  usually  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  starting  the  tubers.  These  should  be  cut  lengthwise  in  halves  and  planted  with 
the  fiat  or  cut  side  down  upon  the  soil.  They  are  to  be  kept  dry  until  the  cut  part  has  become 
healed  and  the  sprouts  begin  to  start.  When  the  sprouts  are  grown  about  four  inches  they 
may  be  cut  off  from  half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  above  the  eye,  and  set  in  the  soil  of  the 
hot-bed  an  inch  or  more  in  depth.  They  should  be  kept  shaded  from  the  sun,  and  the  soil 
moistened  until  they  are  well  rooted  and  the  leaves  begin  to  develop,  when  they  can  be  trans- 
planted to  a  well-prepared  field,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  roots  in  so  doing,  and  to  press 


POTATOES.  345 

the  soil  around  the  bottom  of  the  stem  to  retain  moisture  about  the  roots  until  they  have 
become  established  in  their  new  home.  A  cloudy  day,  or  near  evening,  is  the  best  time  for 
doing  this,  as  the  hot  sun  will  otherwise  be  liable  to  wither  and  destroy  many  of  the  young 
plants.  They  can  be  set  in  drills  or  hills  the  same  as  tubers  are  planted.  These  plants  are 
generally  quite  vigorous,  after  getting  well  started,  and  wUl  grow  rapidly.  The  pieces  of  potato 
from  which  these  cuttings  or  slips  are  taken  will  continue  to  send  out  shoots  to  an  almost 
incredible  extent,  which  can  be  removed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first  as  soon  as  they  are 
long  enough  for  the  purpose.  In  order  to  increase  the  crop  still  more,  the  first  cuttings  may 
themselves  furnish  sHps  when  they  are  eight  or  ten  inches  high,  by  having  their  toi^s  removed 
about  four  inches,  and  planted  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first.  Sprouts  will  soon  start  from 
the  base  of  the  lower  leaves  of  the  first  set,  when  this  method  is  practiced.  This  is  a  laborious 
mode  of  propagating,  but  may  be  employed  with  advantage  and  profit  where  new  and  high- 
priced  varieties  are  being  introduced.  No  cuttings  should  be  planted  after  the  middle  of 
July  in  a  northerly  climate,  as  they  will  not  have  sufficient  time  to  mature  before  cold  weather. 
It  is  stated  that  a  pound  of  tubers, — which  will  contain  about  four  of  medium  size, — will  fur- 
nish by  three  cuttings  a  total  of  about  two  thousand  slips  or  plants  to  be  set  out. 

Two  Crops  of  Potatoes  a  Year.  —  The  following  method  of  producing  two  crops 
of  potatoes  in  one  season  is  recommended  by  B.  K.  BUss  &  Sons,  of  New  York,  and  will 
prove  of  advantage  to  those  who  may  wish  to  increase  their  potato  product  in  this  manner, 
which,  whether  regularly  practiced  or  not,  may  be  desirable  in  certain  circumstances,  such  as 
for  the  propagation  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  seed  potatoes  of  some  choice  kinds  for  the 
succeeding  year. 

"  Take  good,  sound,  early  potatoes  and  cut  into  single  eyes  (as  shown  in  the  cut  previously 
described).  Allow  these  pieces  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  plant  as  early  as  the  ground 
can  be  worked  (a  slight  frost  will  not  injure  the  potato  after  being  well  planted).  "With  ordi- 
narily favorable  weather  the  new  crop  of  tubers  will  mature  in  from  eight  to  ten  weeks.  As 
soon  as  they  are  ripe,  dig  them,  and  after  remaining  a  day  or  two  in  some  dry  and  warm 
place  proceed  to  cut  them  to  a  single  eye  as  before.  Place  the  pieces  thus  obtained  in  pans 
or  boxes  containing  dry  plaster  or  gypsum.  This  absorbs  the  moisture,  which  would  other- 
wise greatly  check  the  growth  if  it  did  not  destroy  the  sets  entirely.  AUow  them  to  remain 
in  the  plaster  for  ten  or  twelve  days,  or  until  the  eyes  commence  to  start,  when  they  are  to  be 
taken  out  and  planted  as  before.  In  the  latitude  of  New  York  this  is  only  applicable  to  early 
varieties,  like  the  famous  Early  Rose,  or  Extra  Early  Vermont,  which  are  of  quick  growth, 
and  early  maturity  ;  but  in  many  parts  of  the  South,  where  the  growing  season  is  long,  it  may 
be  practiced  indiscriminately  upon  all  varieties.  A  gentleman  raised  two  crops  of  Early 
Rose,  a  short  time  since,  in  this  vicinity,  the  two  crops  yielding  an  aggregate  weight  of  twenty- 
five  hundred  pounds.  He  planted  his  pound,  cut  into  single  eyes,  early  in  March,  and  dug 
his  first  crop  about  the  middle  of  May.  These  were  then  treated  as  above  described  and 
planted  the  1 0th  of  June,  and  the  second  crop  dug  the  1st  of  September.  The  yield  from  the 
one  pound  at  the  first  digging  was  fifty  pounds,  and  the  second  crop  of  this  increase  was  twen- 
ty-five hundred  pounds,  or  over  forty  bushels.  This  method  is  within  the  reach  of  all,  and 
there  is  no  extra  expense  incurred  for  hot-bed  sashes  or  any  other  forcing  requisites." 

Hybridizing  Potatoes.  —  Many  of  our  best  varieties  of  potatoes  were  produced  by 
hybridization,  which  usually  results  in  a  larger  number  of  good  kinds  than  by  planting  the 
seed  of  the  seed-balls  at  random.  It  is  accomplished  by  selecting  for  this  purpose  a  few  of 
the  most  perfect  flowers  from  the  most  thrifty  and  vigorous  stalks,  and  removing  all  the  other 
flowers  except  those  to  be  hybridized  ;  the  anthers  (or  those  parts  of  the  stamens  containing 
the  pollen  or  fertilizing  dust,)  of  the  blossoms  to  be  impregnated  are  carefully  cut  out  with  a 
pair  of  sharp  scissors.     This  should  be  done  just  before  they  commence  to  cast  their  pollen. 


346  THE  A3IERICAN  PARJEER  . 

Then  when  the  flowers  ara  free  from  dew  or  moisture  of  any  kind,  shake  the  blossom  contain- 
ing the  pollen  of  the  variety  that  is  selected  for  crossing  with  the  latter  over  it,  being  partic- 
ular to  do  this  when  the  anthers  of  the  flower  used  in  crossing  are  ready  to  discharge  their 
pollen  freely.  The  blossom  will  thus  be  impregnated,  after  which  a  piece  of  thin  muslin  or 
fine  lace  should  be  carefully  tied  over  the  flower  to  prevent  bees  or  other  insects  from  intro- 
ducing poUen  from  other  flowers.  When  the  seed-ball  matures,  its  seeds  will  contain  the 
germ  of  varieties  partaking  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  the  characteristics  of  both  parents. 
Blossoms  of  all  plants  can  be  hybridized  in  this  manner. 

The  covering  of  the  flower  can  be  removed  after  a  few  days.  It  should  be  left  to  ripen 
undisturbed,  and  when  fully  ripe  can  be  removed  from  the  stalk.  This  seed  shoiild  be  planted 
and  the  product  carefully  saved.  The  tubers  will  be  about  the  size  of  walnuts  the  first  year, 
though  sometimes  of  considerably  larger  size.  When  perfected  in  size  and  other  qualities, 
which  requires  three  seasons,  their  real  value  as  varieties  can  be  ascertained,  and  if  any  are 
found  of  sufficient  worth  to  be  propagated  they  should  be  planted  apart  from  otliers  to 
prevent  mixing. 

How  to  Eaise  Seedlings.  —  It  is  generally  known  that  all  new  varieties  of  potatoes 
are  produced  by  hybridizing  or  crossing  different  varieties  as  previously  described,  or  by 
planting  the  seed-balls  at  random  and  selecting  from  the  product.  It  may  rarely  happen  that 
seed  thus  sown  will  produce  the  same  variety  of  that  which  produced  it;  we  have  known  such 
instances,  but  they  are  very  rare  indeed  ;  the  general  rule  being  that  there  will  be  nearly  as 
many  different  varieties  resulting  from  the  product  of  one  such  seed-ball  as  there  are  seeds 
within  it. 

A  good  way  for  starting  the  seedlings  is  to  save  the  well-ripened  seed  of  some  good 
variety,  and  plant  it  in  the  early  spring,  in  boxes  that  may  be  well  drained  in  order  to  pre- 
vent an  excess  of  moisture.  The  soil  best  adapted  is  a  sandy  loam.  Sow  the  seed  on  the  sur- 
face rather  sparingly,  and  sift  fine  soil  over  it  to  the  depth  of  one-third  of  an  inch;  water  but 
little,  but  just  enough  to  keep  the  seed  a  Httle  moist,  and  hasten  germination.  Set  the  boxes 
in  a  place  where  the  soil  will  receive  warmth  and  light  from  the  sun.  When  the  young  plants 
are  three  or  four  inches  high  they  can  be  transplanted  directly  to  the  field,  taking  pains  not 
to  disturb  the  roots  in  removing.  It  is  always  best  to  take  up  a  httle  of  the  soil  with  each 
root.  These  should  be  set  in  a  soil  well  pulverized,  and  properly  prepared  for  a  seed-bed,  in 
order  to  thrive  well.  They  may  be  set  in  drills,  one  plant  in  a  place  about  a  foot  apart,  the 
drills  about  tliree  and  a  half  feet  apart,  or  in  hills  the  same  as  in  planting  pieces  of  tubers. 
Instead  of  sowing  the  seed  in  boxes,  some  very  successful  growers  sow  in  beds  prepared  in 
the  open  ground,  generally  selecting  a  partially  shaded  place. 

If  sown  in  rows,  they  should  be  about  ten  inches  apart.  When  sown  in  the  open  ground 
a  little  more  depth  will  be  required  in  covering,  a  half-inch  of  soil  not  being  too  much.  When 
the  tubers  are  harvested,  they  will  not  usually  be  much  larger  than  walnuts.  They  should 
be  carefully  stored  in  a  cool  place  until  the  next  spring,  when  they  may  be  planted  the  same 
as  any  mature  variety.  Three  years  are  generally  required  to  fully  mature  the  seedlings  or 
to  ascertain  their  true  value,  and  not  more  than  one  or  two  varieties  will  be  commonly  found 
among  the  product  that  will  be  considered  worth  propagating;  sometimes  none;  however,  if 
only  one  valuable  kind  can  thus  be  produced,  it  amply  repays  for  all  the  trouble. 

Harvesting. — The  decay  of  the  potato-vines  indicates  the  maturity  of  the  tubers;  and 
the  crop  should  be  harvested  soon  after.  The  tops  should,  however,  be  mainly  dead  before 
this  is  done,  as  the  ripening  process  goes  on  until  this  period,  and  if  dug  before  they  are  per- 
fectly mature,  it  will  greatly  deteriorate  the  good  qualities  of  the  product,  while,  if  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  a  long  time  in  the  soil  after  ripening,  they  will  be  Hable  to  decay.  Very 
late  harvesting  in  some  locaUties  might  result  in  a  loss  of  the  crop  through  freezing. 


POTATOES. 


347 


POTATO-DIGGEK. 


Potatoes  maybe  thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  various  implements  —  the  horse  potato- 
diggers  being  the  best.  The  plow,  hand-hoe,  and  potato-hook  are  also  used ;  but  the  former 
often  injures  many  of  the  tubers,  and  buries  others  in  the  soil,  while  digging  by  hand  is  a 
slow  and  laborious  process.  Where  large  crops  are  raised,  a  potato-digger  is  almost  a 
necessity. 

The  following  cuts  represent  different  kinds  of  these  implements,  the  former  manufac- 
tured by  A.  Speer  &  Sons,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  the  latter,  Joseph  Breck  &  Sons,  Boston,  Mass. 

When  properly  worked, 
a  good  potato-digger  will  pay 
for  itself  several  times  over 
in  a  single  season,  where  a 
farmer  has  a  large  crop  to 
harvest.  Their  use  is  a  great 
saving  of  labor.  The  digging 
should  always  be  performed 
when  the  soil  is  dry.  Mr.  A. 
Hyde  of  Massachusetts,  of 
whom  we  have  made  previous 
reference  in  connection  with  this  crop,  gives  the  following  sensible  advice  on  harvesting 
potatoes:  — 

The  time  of  digging  must  depend  upon  circumstances.  If  the  crop  is  designed  for 
winter  and  spring  use,  and  the  soil  is 
dry,  we  should  prefer  to  let  the  pota- 
toes he  in  the  ground  till  the  weather 
is  cool  enough  to  allow  them  to  be 
immediately  stored  in  the  cellar.  But 
if  the  soil  is  moist  and  the  crop  shows 
a  tendency  to  rot,  it  should  be  dug  as 
soon  as  mature,  and  placed  on  some 
dry  knoll,  scattering  with  every  half 
dozen  bushels  a  quart  of  fresh-slacked 
lime.  Over  the  pUe  the  potato  vines 
may  be  thrown,  and  over  the  whole  a 
few  inches  of  dry  soil  in  a  conical  form,  making  a  pit  much  like  the  charcoal-pit.  The  lime 
checks  the  tendency  to  rot,  and  we  have  never  known  potatoes  thus  treated  to  fail  of  keep- 
ing well.  Some  recommend  charcoal  dust  instead  of  Ume,  and  we  presume  it  is  useful,  as  it 
is  an  antiseptic ;  but  we  cannot  recommend  it  from  personal  experience.  When  the  weather 
becomes  cool  the  potatoes  can  be  removed  to  the  cellar  or  taken  to  market. 

By  all  means  dig  in  dry  weather,  and  store  the  potatoes  away  as  dry  as  possible,  with 
but  little  exposure  to  the  sun.  The  skin  of  the  potato  is  of  a  corky  nature,  impervious  to 
water,  and  designed  to  keep  external  moisture  from  the  potato  and  the  internal  moisture  from 
evaporation,  and,  if  too  long  exposed  to  wet,  will  sometimes  rot,  when  the  tuber  must  perish. 
A  well-ripgned  potato,  put  up  dry  in  the  fall,  will  lose  little  weight  during  the  winter,  its  skin 
preventing  evaporation  as  effectually  as  does  the  tight  cork  of  a  bottle.  In  the  warm  weather 
of  summer,  the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar,  and  slowly  evaporates  through  the  pores  of 
the  skin. 

All  cutting  and  bruising  of  potatoes  must  be  carefully  avoided.  They  must  be  treated  as 
things  of  Ufe,  and  not  like  the  stones  which  can  be  tossed  about  without  sensation.  Every 
cut  and  every  bruise  increases  the  tendency  to  decay.  The  potato  may  not  be  quite  as  sensi- 
tive as  the  apple,  may  stand  more  hard  whacks;  but  still,  every  bruise  breaks  the  cellular 


NEW   YORK   POTATO-DIGGER. 


348  THE  AMERICAX  FAR3IER 

tissue  and  puts  the  vitality  of  the  tuber  to  a  hard  test.     The  digging  must  not  be  entrusted 
to  careless  boys,  or  the  potatoes  wiU  look  sadly  hacked." 

The  practice,  common  in  some  localities,  of  leaving  the  crop  exposed,  for  several  hours 
after  digging,  to  the  injurious  efiects  of  the  strong  Ught  and  heat  of  the  sun,  is  very  detri- 
mental, and  should  be  avoided.  It  injures  the  quality  of  the  tubers;  therefore,  if  the  harvesting 
is  not  performed  on  a  cloudy  day  so  that  they  may  lie  exposed  on  the  ground  without  harm, 
it  is  better  to  gather  them  into  small  heaps,  with  some  of  the  tops  spread  over  them,  xmtil 
the  moistiire  of  the  surface  be  dry,  when  they  are  ready  to  be  stored. 

Storing. — The  usual  method  of  storing  potatoes  is  to  put  them  in  large  bins  in  a  cel- 
lar. It  is  important  that  the  cellar  be  not  too  damp  or  too  warm,  a  cool,  dry  one  being  the 
best  for  keeping  them  in  a  healthy  condition  until  spring.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  the 
windows  of  the  cellar  open  until  late  in  the  autumn,  and  thus  maintain  as  cool  a  temperature 
as  possible  without  freezing  the  tubers.  The  potatoes  should  always  be  dry  when  put  into 
the  bins.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  washed  potato  never  keeps  in  as  good  a  condition  as 
one  that  is  simply  dried,  just  as  it  is  dug  from  the  soil.  "When  they  are  wet  from  a  sudden 
shower,  or  any  other  cause,  before  being  put  under  cover,  many  farmers  put  a  Uttle  air- 
slacked  lime  over  them  in  storing  them  away.  This  has  a  tendency  to  keep  them  dry  and 
prevent  decay.  It  is  common  in  some  sections  to  bury  potatoes  in  the  ground  in  large  pits 
or  trenches  prepared  for  the  pxirpose. 

A  dry  hillside  with  a  northern  exposure,  or  under  a  shade,  is  to  be  preferred,  as  it  will 
preserve  them  from  the  effects  of  the  sun  as  spring  approaches.  When  a  trench  is  dug  for 
the  purpose,  it  should  be  cut  up  and  down  the  hill  to  prevent  any  trouble  from  water  getting 
to  them,  thus  securing  good  drainage.  It  is  better  to  make  several  pits  rather  than  have 
too  large  a  quantity  stored  together,  as  they  will  in  this  way  keep  better;  about  fifteen  or 
eighteen  bushels  to  a  pit  being  sufficient.  A  trench  is  usually  filled  in  sections,  beginning  at 
the  bottom  or  lower  end  of  the  trench ;  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bushels  may  be  put  in  to  the 
required  depth;  at  the  upper  end  of  the  pile  a  few  bundles  of  straw  and  some  dirt  are  placed, 
and  another  section  made  in  the  same  manner  until  the  trench  is  filled.  Straw  should  be 
placed  over  them  in  covering  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  followed  with  a  sufficient 
depth  of  soil  to  prevent  them  from  freezing.  It  is  best  to  cover  with  the  straw  and  boards 
simply  for  a  few  days,  to  prevent  injury  from  rain,  until  they  are  well  dried,  after  which  the 
soil  may  be  added,  and  the  covering  complete. 

If  not  covered  sufficient  to  prevent  injury  from  frost,  the  tubers  will  be  ruined,  while  if 
covered  too  deep  they  will  be  liable  to  decay;  consequently,  more  or  less  loss  is  usually  sus- 
tained with  this  method  oi  storage.  A  narrow  ditch,  or  a  few  furrows  plowed  on  each  side 
of  the  trench,  will  aid  in  drainage  to  prevent  a  surplus  of  water.  This  is  especially  necessary 
on  clayey  soils,  and  is  a  safer  practice  for  those  of  any  kind. 

A  large  cellar  or  pit,  constructed  similar  to  a  silo  for  ensilage,  with  walls  of  concrete, 
brick,  or  stone,  a  cover  of  planks  and  earth  or  other  material,  and  a  door  at  one  side  or  end, 
would  be  very  valuable,  and  much  better  than  the  above-mentioned  pits  for  keeping  potatoes, 
as  well  as  all  kinds  of  roots  and  even  fruit;  and  where  large  farms  are  cultivated,  requiring 
storage-room  for  immense  crops,  it  will  well  repay  any  farmer  for  constructing  such  a  cellar 
near  his  farm-buildings  for  this  purpose. 

Such  potatoes  as  are  designed  for  seed  should  be  put  in  dry  bins  or  barrels  in  a  cool 
place,  where  they  will  be  kept  drv  and  at  a  low  temperature,  but  will  not  be  in  danger  of 
being  frozen.  A  covering  of  dry  sand  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  them  better  than  an 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 

Diseases,  etc. — The  most  destructive  disease  to  which  the  potato  is  subject  is  the  rot, 
while  the  insect  that  eSects  the  greatest  injxuy  to  the  crop  is  the  Colorado  Beetle,  commonly 


POTATOES.  349 

designated  the  potato-bug.  Other  difficulties  are  occasionally  met  by  the  farmer  in  raising 
this  crop,  such  as  the  scab,  and  attacks  from  the  grub,  but  these  are  slight  when  compared 
with  the  effects  of  the  former. 

Potato  Rot. — In  1845  the  potato  rot  was  very  destructive  to  the  crops  in  the  United 
States  and  a  large  portion  of  Europe.  In  Ireland  especially,  where  the  potato  constitutes 
the  principal  article  of  food,  great  distress  was  experienced  at  this  time.  This  disease  was 
so  violent  in  its  attacks,  in  many  sections,  that  whole  fields  often  turned  black  and  rotten  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours.  In  other  localities  its  progress  was  more  gradual,  but  none  the 
less  efEective.  This  disease  has  made  its  appearance  several  times  since  1845,  but  never  with 
as  much  severity  and  the  occasion  of  such  extensive  loss  as  at  that  period ;  in  fact,  it  is  liable 
to  occur  to  a  limited  extent  in  almost  any  damp  season,  being  caused  by  a  parasitic  fungus 
which  attacks  the  plant,  and  to  which  a  damp  and  rather  warm  season,  or  such  a  condition  of 
the  atmosphere  as  is  commonly  termed  "muggy,"  is  best  adapted. 

This  disease  is  still  but  imperfectly  understood,  and  there  is  no  effectual  remedy  known 
when  it  once  makes  its  appearance.  The  stems  and  leaves  of  all  diseased  plants  should 
always  be  destroyed,  to  prevent  its  spreading.  By  the  use  of  hme  in  the  hills  and  dusting 
the  growing  plants  occasionally  with  it.  as  well  as  a  simUar  use  of  either  salt,  charcoal  dust 
or  gypsum,  crops  have  been  known  to  escape  its  attacks  in  localities  where  other  fields  were 
destroyed  by  it.  Avoiding  the  use  of  fresh  stable  manure  is  also  advised  as  a  preventive. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  a  fresh  sod  that  has  remained  untiUed  for  several  years  is  also 
less  Hable  to  its  attacks,  and  that  early-planted  fields  are  not  as  apt  to  be  infected  as  those 
later  planted.  When  a  field  is  slightly  attacked,  sometimes  the  preventive  measure  of  mow- 
ing off  the  tops  of  the  plants  will  prove  effectual  in  checking  it.  It  has  also  been  found  that 
those  crops  cultivated  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  less  liable  to  this  disease  than 
where  farm  manures  and  composts  of  various  kinds  are  applied  to  enrich  the  soil. 

Potato  Bug,  or  Colorado  Beetle. — This  insect  has  become  the  scoiirge  of  the 
potato  crop,  and  the  greatest  pest  known  to  the  farmer  in  the  cultivation  of  this  product, 
which  is  one  of  such  vast  importance  in  the  agriculture  of  our  own  and  foreign  countries.  Its 
destructive  powers  are  so  great,  and  its  dissemination  has  been  so  extensive  since  1860,  that 
few  insects  have  attracted  more  attention  during  that  period.  In  the  year  1819  the  noted 
entomologist,  Mr.  Thomas  Say  of  Philadelphia,  accompanied  the  United  States  government 
exploring  expedition  to  the  Northwest  Territories,  he  being  at  that  time  the  zoologist  of  the 
expedition.  While  on  this  tour  of  exploration  numerous  species  of  beetles  were  found  on  the 
upper  Missouri  near  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  among  them  the  Donjphosa  lO-Iineata, 
which  has  since  become  commonly  known  as  the  Colorado  Beetle,  and  which  was  first  described 
by  him  in  1824.  It  gradually  extended  its  course  eastward,  and  in  1859  we  first  learn  of  its 
invading  the  potato  fields  in  Nebraska.  In  1861  it  becomes  known  in  Iowa,  being  assisted  in 
its  course  by  railroads,  doubtless,  as  they  were  often  found  in  and  on  the  cars  of  the  trains 
that  had  passed  an  infested  district.  They  traveled  eastward  in  a  direct  line  over  fifteen 
hundred  miles  in  sixteen  years,  and  became  spread  over  an  area  of  about  1,500,000  square 
miles  during  that  time,  until  now  its  ravages  are  extended  throughout  the  entire  country, 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  method  known  of  wholly  exterminating  them,  Paris  green  being 
the  most  effectual  remedy  thus  far  tried  for  checking  their  increase.  With  this  insect,  as 
with  many  others,  it  is  the  larva  that  is  the  most  destructive  to  plants. 

Prof.  C.  V.  Riley  says  of  it:  "  This  insect  hibernates  in  the  perfect  or  beetle  state  under  old 
rubbish  or  in  sheltered  situations  of  whatever  kind,  but  normally  in  the  ground,  generally  but  a 
few  inches  beneath  the  surface,  but  exceptionally  at  a  depth  of  three  feet.  A  s  vegetation  starts  in 
the  spring,  it  issues  forth  from  the  ground,  and  long  before  potatoes  are  up,  or  even  planted,  it 
may  be  seen  flying  on  genial  days  in  search  of  food  and  company,  the  rose-red  imderwings 


350  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

^  contrasting  prettily  with  the  yellow  and  black  of  the  elytra.  It  will  frequently  work  into  a 
sprouting  hill  of  potatoes,  as  these  are  raising  the  soil,  and  feed  upon  the  tender  sprouts  and 
tubers;  and  as  soon  as  the  plant  shows  itself  the  female  begins  to  lay  her  oval  orange  eggs 
in  clusters  of  from  ten  to  forty,  each  attached  by  one  end  to  the  under  side  of  a  leaf,  or  to  a 
stem.  With  favorable  weather,  there  hatches  in  the  course  of  a  week  from  each  egg  a  small, 
dark,  Venetian-red  hunch-backed  larva,  which  becomes  paler  and  acquires  a  double  row  of 
lateral  black  spots  as  it  advances  towards  full  growth.  This  period  arrives  in  about  three 
weeks  from  hatching,  and  the  larva  finally  burrows  into  the  ground,  where,  within  a  simple 
earthen  cavity,  it  becomes  a  pupa,  and  finally  a  beetle  in  from  seven  to  ten  days;  the  whole 
cycle  of  its  transformation  from  the  egg  to  the  beetle  requiring  rarely  more  than  a  month." 
Mr.  J.  C.  Tache,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  "  La  Mouche,  ou  la  Chrysomele  des  Palates,"  says 
respecting  the  number  of  eggs  deposited : 

"The  eggs  are  deposited  in  rows  and  by  groups,  of  which  the  number  most  frequently 
ranges  from  ten  to  forty;  but  groups  have  often  been  observed  of  all  degrees  of  numerical 
value.  In  the  course  of  numerous  experiments  which  I  have  made  with  insects  kept  separate, 
I  have  seen  groups  of  all  numbers,  from  a  deposit  composed  of  a  single  egg,  up  to  one  of  122 
eggs,  laid  without  quitting  the  spot,  by  a  female  kept  in  close  seclusion." 

From  two  to  four  broods  are  hatched  and  perfected  during  the  season,  according  to  the 
locality  and  length  of  the  season,  the  last  brood  going  into  the  ground  in  a  perfect  beetle 
state,  to  lie  dormant  during  the  winter,  reappearing  as  soon  as  the  ground  becomes  warm 
enough  in  the  spring  to  revive  them.  Each  female  is  said  to  lay  from  five  to  ten  hundred 
eggs  during  the  season;  therefore,  if  in  the  spring,  when  they  first  make  their  appearance 
from  the  ground,  some  practical  method  of  destroying  them  could  be  efEected,  large  numbers 
^prospective  could  be  disposed  of  in  every  female  bug  that  should  be  killed.  Destroying  by 
hand  the  first  beetles  and  eggs  that  make  their  appearance  on  the  young  plants  is  often 
resorted  to,  but  this  is  a  slow  and  laborious  process;  it  will  well  repay,  however,  in  the  check  it 
may  give  early  in  the  season.  Machines  for  horse  and  hand  power  have  been  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  some  sections  after  the  plants  have  attained  considerable  growth,  but  it  is 
better  to  prevent  their  depredations  upon  the  crop  before  this  period,  if  possible,  as  much 
injury  may  be  done  the  tender  plants  when  they  first  make  their  appearance  from  the  ground. 

Paris  green,  (arsenite  of  copper,)  is  the  most  effectual  remedy  yet  known  in  exterminating 
these  pestSf  but  it  must  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution,  being  a  deadly  poison.  Nothing  in 
which  it  has  been  placed  should  ever  be  used  for  any  other  purpose,  and  it  should  be  kept 
from  all  animals,  as  when  mixed  with  water  and  carelessly  left  where  horses  or  other  animals 
could  have  access  to  it,  it  has  often  been  drank  by  them,  and  valuable  stock  lost  in  this 
manner.  When  used  in  the  powder  or  in  water,  animals  gaining  access  to  the  field  would  be 
very  liable  to  be  poisoned  by  cropping  the  vines  or  other  herbage  containing  it. 

Paris  green  may  be  applied  either  in  a  dry  or  liquid  state;  each  method  has  its  peculiar 
advantages  as  well  as  disadvantages.  When  used  in  the  powder,  it  is  usually  applied  when 
the  dew  is  on  the  vines,  or  after  a  shower.  The  advantage  of  this  method  over  the  liquid  is 
in  its  adhering  better  to  the  leaves  and  stalks ;  in  the  absence  of  heavy  rains  it  retains  its 
power  longer  than  when  applied  in  a  liquid  form.  The  advantage  of  the  liquid  application 
consists  in  the  facility  with  which  it  is  applied,  and  the  less  danger  attending  its  use.  Like 
many  other  substances  of  general  commerce,  Paris  green  is  frequently  adulterated  and  its 
effects  proportionately  diminished;  hence,  there  are  many  grades  of  the  poison,  the  pure 
article  being  of  course  more  effective  than  any  of  its  adulterated  forms  and  requiring  a  less 
quantity  to  accomplish  the  results  intended.  When  the  pure  article  is  used,  a  tablespoon ful 
of  the  powder  to  three  gallons  of  water  is  the  usual  quantity.  Some  also  mix  a  little  molasses 
in  the  solution  to  render  it  sticky  and  cause  it  to  adhere  to  the  plants.  This  poison  is  not 
readily  soluble  in  water,  and  will  sink  to  the  bottom;  therefore  it  must  be  frequently  stirred 


POTATOES.  351 

to  secure  a  uniform  distribution  over  the  field.  It  may  be  applied  witii  a  common  watering- 
pot,  if  performed  by  hand,  or  a  small  brush-broom  with  a  handle  sufficiently  long  to  keep  the 
hands  protected  from  the  water.  By  passing  down  the  rows  with  a  pail  of  the  solution,  and 
frequently  inserting  the  broom  and  sprinkling  the  plants  and  insects,  taking  both  rows  right 
and  left  in  passing,  the  labor  will  be  made  more  easy  than  when  only  one  row  is  sprinkled  at 
a  time,  as  this  process  reduces  the  labor  of  traversing  over  the  whole  field,  by  one  half. 

Several  machines  for  sprinkling  with  horse-power  have  been  devised  and  are  in  use  in 
some  sections.  The  fields  should  be  sprinkled  as  often  as  the  larvje  make  their  appear- 
ance in  order  to  hold  them  in  check.  "When  the  powder  is  used,  it  is  generally  mixed  with 
thirty-five  or  forty  parts  of  some  dilutant,  like  lime,  ashes,  or  flour;  the  latter  is  considered  the 
best  by  many,  as  causing  it  to  adhere  to  the  leaves  and  stalks  best,  while  hme  is  highly 
recommended  by  others  as  being  an  aid  in  exterminating  the  insect  as  well  as  a  fertilizer  and 
invigorator  to  the  vines.  Many  farmers  use  a  considerably  less  proportionate  quantity  of  the 
poison,  and  consider  one  pound  of  Paris  green  sufficient  for  seventy-five  pounds  of  the  lime 
or  other  mixture;  much  depends  upon  the  quantity  sifted  upon  each  plant.  We  prefer  the 
liquid  form  as  being  most  safe  and  more  easily  accomplished. 

There  is  great  danger  of  inhaling  the  powder,  when  applied  dry.  Various  dusters  have 
beea  invented  and  are  employed  when  this  method  is  practiced.  Some  farmers  make  a 
duster  for  their  fields  by  puncturing  a  tin  box  in  the  bottom  and  attaching  it  to  a  long 
handle,  and  with  this  sift  the  powder  over  the  plants.  Applying  it  in  this  manner  would  be 
dangerous  when  there  was  a  breeze,  unless  the  operator  kept  carefully  to  windward,  as  there 
would  be  a  liability  of  inhaling  the  poison  or  getting  it  into  the  eyes,  either  of  which  would 
produce  serious  results. 

We  would  recommend  the  liquid  form  of  application  as  preferable  to  the  latter.  A 
heavy  shower  will  wash  off  much  of  the  poison  when  either  methods  are  practiced.  It 
requires  but  a  very  small  quantity  to  kill  these  insects.  Mr.  Tache.  the  French  author,  to 
whom  previous  reference  has  been  made,  recommends  even  a  smaller  quantity  than  American 
■writers;  he  says:  — 

"  In  the  application  by  the  liquid  method,  which  I  think  should  be  generally  adopted  to 
the  exclusion  of  any  other,  a  teaspoonful  (level,  not  heaped),  is  sufficient,  that  is,  about  a 
hundred  and  ten  grains  (quarter  of  an  ounce)  of  Paris  green,  of  superior  quality,  to  an  ordi- 
nary pail.  Holding  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  gallons  of  water.  A  pound  of  Paris  green  is 
sufficient,  therefore,  for  sixty-four  pails  of  water,  or  about  one  hundred  and  forty  gallons. 
Should  the  Paris  green  be  of  inferior  quality,  or  adulterated,  a  greater  quantity,  proportioned 
to  the  reduced  value,  would  be  necessary." 

We  are  reluctant  to  recommend  the  use  of  any  poison  so  dangerous  in  its  results  if  acci- 
dentally or  carelessly  used,  and  we  hope  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  some  equally 
effective  but  harmless  substance  may  be  found  to  take  its  place  for  this  purpose.  Many  of 
the  harmless  insect-powders  have  been  tested  with  unsatisfactory  results.  London  purple 
is  cheaper  than  Paris  green,  and  may  be  used  as  a  substitute,  but  its  effects  are  not  as  speedy 
as  the  Paris  green;  therefore  the  latter  is  to  be  preferred. 

A  field  that  has  been  once  attacked  by  this  insect  will  be  liable  to  continue  to  be  so,  as 
they  have  a  habit  of  remaining  where  tliey  once  obtain  a  foothold.  Concert  of  action  in 
exterminating  them  is  also  necessary  among  farmers,  as  they  will  spread  rapidly  to  contigu- 
ous fields  or  those  in  the  same  vicinity.  This  insect,  like  aU  others,  has  its  natural  enemies 
that  aid  in  checking  its  increase,  and  if  the  farmer  would  befriend  and  encourage  these,  they 
would  be  of  great  benefit  to  him  in  largely  reducing,  if  not  whoUy  exterminating  the  pest. 
Among  these  enemies  of  the  potato  beetle.  Prof.  Riley  mentions  the  various  species  of  birds, 
and  states  that  the  rose-breasted  grosbeck  often  entirely  clears  a  potato  field  of  these  insects. 
The  quail  is  also  useful  in  this  direction,  as  well  as  the  crow,  and  many  other  birds.     Chick- 


352  THE  AMERICAN  FARilER. 

ens  can  also  be  taught  to  acquire  a  taste  for  them,  although  they  will  not  always  eat  them  at 
first,  and  in  many  sections  have  proved  very  valuable  to  the  farmer  in  this  way.  Mr.  Ware, 
of  Massachusetts,  says:  — 

"  One  way  of  protecting  the  potato- vines  from  potato-bugs  is  to  train  a  flock  of  Light 
Brahma  fowls  to  eat  them.  The  fowls  can  easily  be  trained  to  work  down  the  rows  by 
scattering  a  Little  corn  in  them.     Twenty  fowls  will  usually  protect  an  acre  of  potatoes." 

An  Iowa  farmer  gives  his  method  of  raising  potatoes,  as  follows:  — 

='  Plant  them  in  good,  rich  soil,  close  to  the  house  or  barnyard  where  the  chickens  run, 
the  more  chickens  the  better;  hoe  them  as  soon  as  they  are  out  of  the  ground,  then  plow 
them  at  least  once  a  week  till  they  are  in  bloom.  The  chickens  will  keep  the  bugs  o£E  if  the 
latter  are  not  too  numerous.  If  there  are  more  bugs  than  the  chickens  can  consume,  knock 
them  ofi  the  %nnes  just  before  the  plow  and  plow  them  under  every  day  till  they  disappear. 
In  this  way  I  have  raised  plenty,  while  my  neighbor's  crops  were  all  destroyed." 

Among  the  reptiles,  the  toad  is  a  valuable  assistant,  while  of  quadrupeds  the  skunk  is 
known  to  feed  upon  these  bugs.  Some  species  of  spiders  make  prey  of  them,  but  still  larger 
numbers  are  destroyed  by  insects  of  a  similar  class  to  its  own.  These  are  very  numerous, 
and  our  limits  will  admit  of  a  mention  of  only  a  few  of  the  more  important  specified  by  Prof. 
Riley,  among  which  are  the  fiery  ground  beetle  {Calossoma  calidum)  and  those  of  its  order, 
the  convergent  ladybird  [Hippodamia  coni-ergens).  the  fifteen-spotted  ladybird  {Mysia  jifteen 
punctata) — a  larger  variety  than  the  former — the  spined  soldier  bug  {Arnia  spinosa),  the  many- 
banded  robber  (Harpedor  cinctus),  and  the  ring-banded  soldier  bug  (Perillus  nrcumnncius). 
Besides  these  a  trichina-fly,  which  resembles  the  common  house  fly,  destroys  vast  numbers  by 
lajing  its  eggs  on  the  larvae,  which,  when  hatched,  enter  the  body  and  feeding  upon  it,  thus 
destroy  it. 

"When  the  potato  beetles  are  collected  in  large  quantities,  precaution  should  be  used  in 
burning  or  scalding  them,  as  the  oil  of  their  bodies  is  very  poisonous,  and  the  inhaling  of 
steam  or  vapor  from  them  has  been  known  not  only  to  severely  poison,  but  to  cause  death. 
Early  planted  fields  are  not  as  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  beetle  as  those  planted  later. 

Scabby  Potatoes.  —  It  is  supposed  that  the  scab  on  potatoes  is  produced  by  mites  or 
minute  animals  which  burrow  in  the  skin  of  the  young  tubers,  causing  bHsters  and  subse- 
quently leaving  holes  or  pits  which  give  them  that  peculiar  rough  appearance#when  fully 
matured.  The  use  of  Hme  or  ashes  in  the  hill  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  preventive,  but 
these  win  prove  ineffectual  in  some  soils.  Land  on  which  potatoes  have  not  been  raised  for 
several  years  is  less  liable  to  this  evil,  than  where  a  less  period  has  intervened,  while  new  soils 
will  generally  prove  an  entire  exemption  from  it.  llie  exclusive  use  of  commercial  fertilizers 
is  also  said  to  be  an  infallible  remedy. 

How  to  Tell  a  Good  Potato.  —  But  few  persons  are  able  to  judge  of  the  quality  of 
potatoes  without  cooking  them,  as  it  is  often  the  case  that  the  external  appearance  may  be 
deceptive  and  cannot  be  wholly  relied  upon;  hence,  a  few  reUable  hints  for  testing  may 
prove  valuable  to  such  as  are  not  already  familiar  with  them. 

.Take  a  sound  potato,  and,  paying  no  attention  to  its  outward  appearance,  divide  it  into 
two  pieces  with  your  knife  and  examine  the  exposed  surfaces.  If  there  is  so  much  water  or 
"juice  "  that  seemingly  a  slight  pressure  would  cause  it  to  fall  off  in  drops,  you  may  be  sure 
it  will  be  "  soggy  "  after  it  is  boiled. 

The  following  are  the  requisite  qualities  for  a  good  potato  which  must  appear  when  one 
is  cut  in  two:  For  color,  a  yellowish  white  is  desirable;  if  it  is  a  deep  yellow  the  potato  wUl 
not  cook  well:  there  must  be  a  considerable  amount  of  moisture,  but  not  too  much;  rub  the 
two  pieces  together  and  a  white  froth  will  appear  around  the  edges  and  upon  the  two 
surfaces;  this  signifies  the  presence  of  starch,  and  the  more  starch,  and  consequentlv  froth. 


POTATOES.  353 

the  better  the  potato,  while  the  less  there  is,  the  poorer  it  will  cook.  The  strength  of  the 
starchy  element  can  be  tested  by  releasing  the  hold  upon  one  piece  of  the  potato,  and  if  it 
still  clings  to  the  other,  this  in  itself  is  a  very  good  sign.  These  are  the  tests  generally  made 
by  experts,  and  which  are  usually  reliable,  a  failure  being  the  exception  rather  than  the 
rule. 

Sweet  Potatoes.  —  The  sweet  potato  is  a  native  of  Southern  Asia,  and  was  formerly 
considered  an  exclusively  Southern  product;  but  repeated  experiments  demonstrated  to 
Northern  farmers  a  few  years  since  that  it  might  be  grown  in  almost  any  of  the  Northern 
States  with  very  fair  success.  It  is  now  quite  commonly  cultivated  in  many  sections  North, 
although  the  quality  of  this  product  is  not  generally  considered  quite  equal  to  that  of  some 
of  the  Southern  or  Middle  States,  and  Northern  growers  are  obliged  to  take  better  care  of 
the  crop  than  those  of  a  southern  latitude  in  order  to  insure  success,  and  to  have  the  tubers 
mature  before  the  frost  makes  its  appearance. 

With  the  exception  of  precautionary  measures  against  frost,  the  general  methods  of 
cultivation  for  both  North  and  South  are  essentially  the  same.  This  crop  is  an  article  of 
food  as  common  in  every  Southern  household,  white  or  black,  rich  or  poor,  as  the  Irish  potato 
is  at  the  North,  or  rice  is  in  China,  while  throughout  the  entire  country  it  is  regarded  as  a 
very  delicious  and  valuable  vegetable.  It  was  stated  some  time  since  on  the  authority  of 
Dr.  Voelcker,  who  analyzed  this  potato  sent  him  by  Colonel  Ott,  of  Virginia,  that  the  starch 
obtained  from  it  was  proven  to  be  more  valuable  than  that  from  the  Irish  potato.  It  seems 
surprising  that  a  product  of  so  much  value  as  the  sweet  potato  should  be  so  little  known  in 
Europe.  In  some  localities  the  yield  is  surprisingly  large,  it  having  been  known  to  reach  as 
high  as  four  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  varying,  of  course,  according  to  the  soil,  climate, 
season,  and  cultivation;  the  average  yield,  with  fair  culture,  being  about  a  hundred  and 
twenty-five  or  fifty  bushels  per  acre. 

Tai'ieties. — There  are  comparatively  but  few  varieties  of  the  sweet  potato.  A  yellow 
variety,  known  as  the  Nansemond,  is  generally  preferred  and  the  most  extensively  cultivated 
at  the  South.  A  large  light-yellow  variety,  called  in  some  sections  the  "  yam,"  is  more  pro- 
ductive and  early,  and  also  keeps  well,  but  does  not  equal  the  former  in  quality.  For 
Northern  culture,  the  Early  Peabody  is  generally  regarded  as  the  best,  being  of  good  quality, 
large  size,  hardy,  and  quite  productive.  Those  raised  North,  though  fair  in  quality,  do  not 
equal  those  of  Southern  cultivation  in  this  respect. 

Cultivation. — Like  the  Irish  potato,  the  sweet  variety  may  be  propagated  from  either 
tubers  or  sprouts,  but  the  latter  is  the  more  common  and  better  method.  They  may  be 
grown  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  but  one  that  is  dry,  warm,  and  sandy  will  give  a  product  of 
the  best  quality.  A  sandy  loam  will  give  very  good  results  both  in  quality  and  quantity. 
The  ground  should  be  plowed  to  a  moderate  depth,  about  six  or  seven  inches  being  sufBcient, 
and  well  pulverized  with  the  harrow.  In  the  Northern  States  this  may  be  done  about  the 
first  of  May,  although  the  plants  should  not  be  set  out  in  that  latitude  until  the  last  of  May 
or  first  of  June,  as  they  are  quite  tender  and  might  be  injured  by  the  cold,  being  easily 
chilled,  which  will  stunt  their  growth.  In  a  latitude  farther  South  an  earlier  transplanting 
would  be  admissible.  The  fertilizers  used  are  horse  manure,  or  any  other  from  the  farm- 
yard. Lime  is  also  valuable  as  a  fertilizer,  and  likewise  aids  in  decomposing  the  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil,  and  rendering  it  available  for  plant-food. 

After  the  soil  has  been  well  pulverized,  the  field  should  be  marked  out  with  a  plow  for 
drills  or  hills,  according  to  the  method  of  culture.  If  for  hills,  the  furrows  should  run  each 
way  across  the  field,  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart,  marking  it  off  in  squares, 
running  the  plow  twice  in  each  furrow  to  make  high  hiUs  or  ridges.  If  for  drills,  the  furrows 
will  run  only  in  one  direction,  which  should  be  north  and  south,  to  secure  the  most  warmth. 


354  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Manure  should  be  well  pulverized  and  liberally  applied  in  the  hill  or  furrows,  which  should 
be  covered  in  the  drill  with  a  plow  by  turning  the  furrow  on  each  side  so  that  it  ■w'ill  fall 
upon  and  cover  the  manure.  Where  hills  are  used,  the  manure  can  be  covered  by  hand  with 
a  hoe.  The  drill  culture  is  preferable,  as  it  does  not  necessitate  hand  labor  in  covering  the 
manure.  Both  hiUs  and  drills  should  be  made  high  and  their  tops  smooth  and  compact  by 
spatting  down  with  a  hand-hoe,  in  order  to  be  in  a  good  condition  to  receive  the  plants.  The 
ridges  should  be  a  foot  or  more  high,  and  not  less  than  a  foot  wide  at  the  base;  the  top  may 
be  five  or  six  inches  wide.  Some  planters  think  a  close,  hard  bottom  to  the  ridge  induces 
the  tubers  to  grow  more  plump,  or  less  long  and  slim,  and  for  this  purpose  sometimes  put 
strips  of  sod  in  the  bottom  of  the  ridges,  where  only  a  few  are  grown,  as  in  the  garden,  for 
instance. 

Plants  for  setting  out  may  be  -obtained  of  those  who  have  them  for  sale,  or  they  may  be 
grown  for  that  purpose.  The  usual  method  of  securing  sprouts  or  sUps  for  planting  is  to 
grow  them  in  a  hot-bed  or  cold-frame,  and,  when  four  or  five  inches  high,  separate  them  from 
the  tuber  and  set  them  out  in  the  field.  Stable  manure,  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches, 
should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed,  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  sandy  loam 
or  sand.  The  seed  potatoes  should  be  cut  lengthwise,  and  placed  in  the  soil  with  the  cut  side 
down.  They  may  be  placed  quite  near  each  other,  without  touching,  and  covered  to  the 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  They  should  be  kept  rather  warm  and  moist,  but  great  care 
will  be  required  in  order  to  secure  the  proper  degree  of  both  heat  and  moisture,  as  an  excess 
of  either  will  rot  the  tubers,  while  if  there  is  not  a  sufficiency  of  either  they  will  be  liable  to 
be  affected  with  the  black-rot. 

Excessive  heat  or  d  ryness  will  also  prevent  a  healthy  growth  of  sprouts.  In  cool  lati- 
tudes they  should  be  protected  at  night  by  a  covering  of  boards  or  straw,  where  not  otherwise 
covered  by  glass,  but  they  should  have  an  abundance  of  air  and  sunshine  during  the  day. 

"When  the  sprouts  are  four  or  five  inches  high,  they  may  be  separated  carefully  from  the 
tubers,  one  at  a  time,  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  potato,  which,  if 
uninjured,  will  send  up  other  shoots  in  a  short  time.  These  sprouts  or  shoots  may  then  be 
set  out  in  the  field,  the  preparation  of  which  we  have  already  given.  ITie  sprouts  are  placed 
from  twenty  inches  to  two  feet  apart,  and  should  be  set  out  on  a  cloudy  day,  or  towards 
evening.  The  hot-bed  should  be  started  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  April,  depending  much 
upon  the  locality,  the  last  week  of  May  or  first  week  of  June  being  a  good  time  for  setting 
out  the  slips  in  the  latitude  of  Massachusetts,  while  an  earlier  period  may  be  suited  to  a  more 
southerly  section ;  the  latitude,  climate,  and  season  always  being  taken  into  consideration  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  starting  the  gi-owth  of  the  crop.  In  the  latitude  of  Florida,  they  are 
set  out  from  April  to  August,  and  mature  from  July  to  November.  A  bushel  of  good  sound 
potatoes,  when  properly  managed,  will  yield  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  sprouts  at  the 
first  drawing,  and  about  three-fourths  of  that  number  at  the  second. 

The  tubers  selected  for  planting  should  be  of  medium  size  and  rather  smooth,  aU  diseased 
or  injured  ones  to  be  carefully  excluded  in  making  the  selection,  as  they  will  be  liable  to 
propagate  a  diseased  crop.  If  thrifty  slips  are  secured  they  will  grow  very  rapidly,  and  the 
high  hills  or  ridges  should  not  be  leveled  in  after-cultivation.  It  is  better  to  pull  the  weeds 
quite  near  the  plants  by  hand,  as  the  use  of  the  ho3  may  injure  the  tubers  that  lie  near  the 
surface.  The  cultivator  or  horse-hoe  should  be  run  between  the  rows  to  exterminate  the 
weeds,  which  should  be  kept  out  of  the  field,  as  they  will  greatly  injure  the  crop.  After  the 
vines  have  attained  a  length  of  two  or  three  feet,  they  will  take  root  at  many  of  the  joints, 
and  wherever  they  do  so,  a  new  set  of  tubers  will  start,  which  will  not  attain  any  size,  and 
will  greatly  injure  the  crop,  especially  at  the  North,  as  they  will  not  have  time  to  mature,  and 
will  exhaust  the  productive  power  of  the  plants  to  such  an  extent  that  those  in  the  hills  will 
not  be  perfected  in  growth.     These  vines  should  therefore  be  loosened  from  the  soil  and  pra 


POTATOES.  355 

vented  from  rooting.  This  may  be  done  by  hand  or  with  a  wide  fork,  which  should  be  used 
with  care  in  order  not  to  injure  the  vines.  This  should  be  done  several  times  during  the 
season.  "When  the  tubers  are  sufficiently  matured,  or  when  the  frost  has  killed  the  vines, 
the  crop  may  be  harvested.  They  should  never  be  left  in  the  soil  when  it  is  sufficiently  cold 
to  freeze  the  ground,  as  it  will  ruin  the  crop.  Cold,  wet  weather  has  a  tendency  also  to 
deteriorate  the  quality.  The  principal  essentials  to  the  successful  culture  of  this  crop  at  the 
North  are  generally  conceded  to  be  liberal  manuring,  ridge  culture,  freedom  from  weeds,  and 
frequent  loosening  of  the  vines  to  prevent  them  from  taking  root. 

The  following,  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  James  G.  Tinsley,  of  Virginia,  an  experienced  and 
successful  sweet-potato  grower,  will  give  the  method  of  cultivating  this  crop  in  that  section 
of  the  country,  which  differs  in  some  minor  respects  from  that  already  described: — 

"  Sprouting  the  sweet  potatoes  in  the  bed  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken.  In  this  latitude 
the  best  time  to  put  the  beds  down  is  the  1st  of  April,  as  the  sUps  cannot,  with  safety,  be  put 
out  before  the  10th  of  May;  this  gives  ample  time  to  get  them  large  enough. 

First,  dig  out  a  pit  nine  inches  deep,  five  feet  broad,  and  as  long  as  you  may  desire  it, 
say  fifteen  feet,  as  that  is  a  convenient-sized  bed ;  then,  to  keep  moles  and  ground-rats  out, 
plank  up  the  sides  by  nailing  the  plank  to  stakes  driven  in  the  ground,  raising  the  plank  on 
the  north  side,  say  one  foot  above  the  ground,  and,  on  the  south  side,  six  inches  above  ground; 
then  slant  the  short  sides  of  the  bed  that  run  from  north  to  south,  so  that  the  cover,  that  is 
usually  of  plank  or  slabs,  will  make  a  tight  fit;  now  throw  the  dirt  that  you  have  thrown  out 
of  the  pit  back  against  the  plank  that  is  above  ground.  The  object  in  having  the  lower  side 
to  the  south  is  to  have  a  better  exposure  to  the  sun.  The  next  step  is  to  fill  this  bed  so  as  to 
generate  a  moderate  heat  to  sprout  the  potatoes.  There  is  as  much  danger  of  too  much,  as 
too  little  heat. 

I  will  now  try  to  describe  the  simplest  and  cheapest  way,  and  one  that  is  used  almost 
universally  in  this  section.  First  put  oak  leaves  in  the  bed,  watering  and  trampling  them 
well,  and  continue  to  do  it  until  there  are  six  inches  of  leaves  well  moistened  and  trampled. 
Now,  upon  these  leaves,  put  three  inches  of  fresh  stable  manure,  after  it  has  been  well  packed 
in  the  bed — not  putting  as  much  as  three  inches  in  the  middle  of  the  bed,  as  the  heat  is 
always  greater  in  the  center  than  on  the  sides;  upon  this  manure  put  three  inches  of  mold 
from  the  woods,  or  light  dirt  if  you  cannot  procure  the  mold ;  on  this  put  the  .potatoes  as 
thick  as  you  can  without  letting  them  touch  each  other;  after  you  have  completed  the  layer 
of  potatoes  then  cover  with  mold  or  dirt  two  inches. 

Now  you  have  finished  the  business  of  putting  down  the  potatoes  to  get  sprouts.  Examine 
your  bed  every  day  to  see  whether  you  have  too  much  or  too  little  heat;  if  you  want  to 
increase  the  heat,  it  is  a  very  good  plan  to  cover  the  dirt  on  the  top  of  the  bed  with  three  or 
four  inches  of  pine  tags,  as  that  helps  to  keep  in  the  heat.  Raise  the  covers  every  warm, 
clear  day  about  nine  o'clock,  remove  the  pine  tags  and  put  them  in  the  sun,  and  let  the  beds 
be  exposed  to  the  sun  until  about  four  o'clock  in  the  evening,  when  the  tags  must  be  again 
put  on  them  and  the  covers  let  down.  Continue  to  use  the  pine  tags  imtil  sprouts  are  about 
to  come  through  the  ground,  then  dispense  with  them  altogether.  When  you  find  you  have 
too  much  heat  on  your  bed,  the  best  thing  you  can  do  will  be  to  drive  a  short  stake  in  the 
center  of  the  bed  through  to  the  bottom  and  shake  around  sufficiently  to  make  a  vent  for  the 
heat  to  escape.  After  the  plants  come  up,  continue  to  cover  them  as  long  as  there  is  danger 
of  frost;  then  remove  the  covers,  as  it  is  necessary  to  harden  them  before  setting  out.  In 
drawing  the  plants,  be  very  particular  not  to  mash  or  trample  the  bed,  and  draw  the  slips  one 
at  a  time,  drawing  them  sideways  to  keep  from  pulUng  up  the  potato.  After  the  plants  have 
been  drawn,  water  the  bed  well  and  continue  to  keep  the  ground  moist  as  long  as  you  wish 
to  raise  plants,  as  nothing  makes  them  grow  faster  than  for  them  to  be  well  watered. 

We  usually  try  to  set  out  all  we  can  in  the  month  of  May — set  out  after  that  time  the 


356  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

crop  is  not  generally  remunerative.  The  proper  soil  is  a  light  sandy  one,  or  any  land  that  is 
well  impregnated  with  sand.  Stable  manure  is  the  best  fertilizer,  and  after  that  cow-pen 
manure.  In  this  section  mold  from  the  woods  and  pine  tags  are  used  in  large  quantities,  the 
same  land  being  often  put  in  potatoes.  I  never  have  been  able  to  make  good  sweet  potatoes 
with  guano  or  artificial  fertilizers  alone;  but  it  is  necessary  to  supply  coarse  manure  of  some 
kind  to  mix  with  it.  My  plan  is,  to  drill  all  the  stable  and  cow-pen  manure  I  can  spare  for 
my  potatoes,  and  by  that  means  it  goes  much  farther.  Three  feet  is  the  best  distance  for  the 
rows  to  be  apart,  and  I  am  accustomed  to  list  on  the  manure  that  I  have  drilled  in  the  rows, 
throwing  up  the  list  as  high  as  I  can  with  a  single  plow,  putting  two  furrows  together.  I 
make  it  a  rule  never  to  list  in  a  day  more  than  I  can  set  that  day,  as  the  plants  live  better  in 
a  fresh  soil. 

The  distance  apart  for  the  plants  in  the  row  is  twenty  inches,  and  it  is  best  to  set  them 
deep  in  the  ground,  as,  if  they  should  be  cut  oS  by  cut-worms  or  anything  else,  they  will  be 
more  apt  to  come  out  again.  The  evening  is  the  best  time  for  setting  out,  and  after  a  good 
rain  in  May,  you  can  set  usually  for  four  or  five  evenings.  In  June  the  sun  is  so  hot  it  is 
very  diflBcult  to  get  plants  to  live  without  a  good  season.  In  the  cultivation  of  potatoes  the 
secret  of  success  is  never  to  let  them  get  grassy,  but  work  them  as  soon  as  a  crust  forms  on 
the  ground.  If  they  get  grassy,  it  is  impossible  to  remove  the  grass  without  injuring  the 
potato  roots;  and  it  is  easier  to  work  them  three  times  when  there  is  no  grass,  than  once 
when  they  are  grassy.  You  must  always  see  that  the  hoes  do  not  cut  into  the  hill,  but 
merely  scrape  the  ground  around  the  plant  and  then  pull  up  a  little  dirt  to  it. 

Now,  by  my  plan  of  horse  cultivation,  I  save  a  great  deal  of  hoe  work.  First,  throw 
out  in  about  ten  days  after  setting  out  the  plants  the  little  balk  that  was  left  in  throwing  up 
the  list,  and  try  to  get  the  dirt  as  high  as  you  can  on  the  list,  so  as  to  smother  out  any  grass 
that  might  start  to  grow  on  the  list  where  the  potato-plant  is.  Before  this  dirt  that  I  have 
thrown  up  by  this  plowing  commences  to  put  wp  grass,  I  run  a  cotton-scraper,  (which  is 
attached  to  Watt's  A  and  B  plow,)  as  close  as  I  can  to  the  potato-plants,  throwing  the  dirt 
from  them — trying  not  to  let  it  cut  more  than  half  an  inch  deep.  A  good  plowman  can  run 
the  point  of  the  scraper  in  less  than  an  inch  of  the  potatoes. 

If  the  vines  have  run  any,  of  course  I  have  to  send  a  man  ahead  to  throw  the  vines  in 
every  alternate  balk,  and  the  scraper  has  to  first  run  all  through  the  patch  on  one  side  of  the 
list,  and  then  have  the  vines  thrown  back  on  that  side  that  has  been  worked  and  run  to  the 
other  side.  The  last  working  with  the  plow  is  to  throw  all  this  dirt  the  scraper  has  pulled 
away  from  the  list  back  to  it,  moving  the  vines  out  of  the  way  just  as  you  did  for  the 
scraper,  and  plowing  one  side  of  the  list  all  through  the  patch,  and  then  come  back  and  plow 
the  other  side  in  the  same  way,  trying  to  make  this  fresh  dirt  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  hst. 
Let  your  hands  come  on  behind  and  see  that  no  vines  are  covered  up,  as  nothing  lessens  the 
size  of  the  potatoes  in  the  hill  more  than  to  have  the  vines  covered  with  dirt." 

Harvesting.  —  A  slight  frost  will  kill  the  vines  of  sweet  potatoes.  When  ready  for 
harvesting, — which  should  be  before  the  cold  is  sufficient  to  affect  the  tubers, — the  vines 
should  be  cut  off  quite  near  the  ground ;  this  may  be  done  with  a  scythe  or  a  sharp  corn- 
knife,  the  former  being  the  easier  method.  In  some  sections  a  sharp  hoe  is  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  it  is  very  objectionable,  since  the  tubers  lie  so  near  the  surface  that  they  will  be 
liable  to  be  injured  by  being  cut  during  the  process.  If  a  few  potatoes  are  desired  for  house- 
hold purposes  before  the  crop  is  fully  matured,  they  can  be  obtained  by  carefully  detaching 
them  and  replacing  the  soil.  This  can  be  done  by  running  the  finger  down  beside  the  vine 
until  a  large  tuber  is  met,  when  it  can  be  taken  out,  leaving  the  smaller  ones  to  grow.  Sweet 
potatoes  should  always  be  dug  when  the  soil  is  dry,  and  in  a  clear  day.  It  is  better  to  dig 
them  in  the  forenoon  that  they  may  have  a  warm  sun  in  which  to  dry.  After  the  vines  have 
been  cut,  they  should  be  taken  out  of  the  way  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  digging,  which 


POTATOES.  357 

may  be  performed  in  various  ways.  A  plow  is  frequently  used  for  throwing  the  potatoes  out 
of  the  ground,  but  they  are  liable  to  be  cut  or  bruised  in  this  way;  besides,  many  will  be  buried 
in  the  soil.  A  good  potato-digger  is  the  best  implement  we  know  of  for  this  purpose,  where 
large  quantities  are  to  be  harvested,  as  the  crop  is  less  injured  by  its  use  than  by  the  plow, 
and  the  labor  is  greatly  facilitated.  Where  extreme  care  is  observed,  and  only  a  small  crop 
is  to  be  harvested,  a  six-tined  fork  is  often  used  for  liftmg  them  out  of  the  soil. 

The  tubers  should  be  handled  very  carefully,  as  even  slight  bruises  or  cuts  will  cause 
them  to  decay  very  quickly.  When  first  taken  from  the  soil,  they  should  be  left  on  the  ground 
two  or  three  hours  fully  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air  to  dry.  They  are  then  sometimes  sorted 
in  the  field,  when  desired  for  ready  market,  and  put  into  barrels  or  boxes  for  that  purpose, 
taking  care  not  to  injure  them  by  bruising  or  otherwise. 

Storing. — When  intended  for  winter  storage,  sweet  potatoes  are  usually  spread  in  a 
warm,  dry,  sheltered,  and  airy  place  for  a  week  or  two,  that  the  moisture  from  the  surface  of 
the  tubers  may  be  absorbed,  after  which  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pack  them  carefully  in  dry  sand, 
in  boxes  or  barrels,  rejecting  all  that  are  not  perfectly  sound,  or  that  have  been  cut  or  braised 
in  the  least.  They  will  keep  best  when  packed  like  eggs,  or  so  placed  that  each  tuber  will  be 
separated  from  others  and  entirely  surrounded  by  the  sand,  which  must  always  be  very  dry. 
After  being  well  packed  they  should  be  put  away  in  a  rather  warm,  dry  place,  as  they  are 
very  easily  chilled  and  are  entirely  worthless  if  once  touched  by  the  frost  ;  but  if  put  in  to  a 
place  where  the  temperature  is  too  warm,  the  dry  rot  will  be  liable  to  attack  them.  Moisture 
or  cold  are  equally  detrimental,  and  the  principal  things  to  be  avoided  in  storage. 

Some  care  will  be  required  to  have  the  temperature  kept  uniform  and  other  conditions 
just  suited  to  their  perfect  preservation.  It  is  always  best  to  pack  them  without  transferring 
from  one  place  to  another  more  than  necessary,  as  the  more  they  are  moved  about  the  more 
liable  they  are  to  get  bruised,  and  consequently  the  less  liable  to  keep  well. 

Where  sand  suited  to  the  purpose  is  not  convenient  of  access,  chaff,  fine-cut  straw,  or 
fine  shavings  are  frequently  used  for  packing  instead,  but  dry  sand  is  the  best  material  we 
know  of  for  this  purpose.  In  some  sections  where  this  crop  is  largely  produced,  store-houses 
are  built  especially  for  this  crop,  the  walls  sometimes  being  made  double  and  filled  with  saw- 
dust or  earth,  where  they  are  stored  in  shallow  bins  or  boxes  without  being  packed  in  any- 
thing ;  but  with  this  method  careful  attention  is  always  necessary  in  order  to  maintain  a  r  roper 
degree  of  temperature  and  sufficient  ventilation,  as  well  as  to  also  remove  any  unsound  ones 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  decay. 

The  Tarn.  — This  is  an  esculent  tuber  cultivated  to  a  certain  extent  in  this  country,  but 
is  not  as  highly  esteemed  as  the  sweet  potato.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  as  well  as  other  tropical  countries.  There  are  a  number  of  different  varieties,  which 
vary  in  quality,  size,  productiveness,  and  hardiness.  The  yam  can  be  propagated  by  small 
tubers  produced  by  covering  the  vines  with  earth  and  severing  them  near  the  angles  of  each 
pair  of  leaves  after  they  have  taken  root,  or  by  planting  small  pieces  of  the  root. 

The  Chiuese  Yam  was  introduced  into  this  coimtry  from  France  in  1855,  in 
the  form  of  small  tubers  about  the  size  of  peas,  wliich  had  been  obtained  by  covering  vines 
with  earth  as  above  described.  It  is  similar  in  appearance,  though  smaller  than  the  yam  of 
the  Indies,  and  thrives  in  both  the  Northern  and  Southern  States.  It  has  a  cKmbing  vine 
with  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  clusters  of  small  white  flowers. 

The  Chinese  yam  requires  two  seasons  to  mature  when  produced  from  the  small  bulbs, 
but  a  crop  suitable  for  cooking  purposes  can  be  obtained  the  first  season  when  the  propaga- 
tion is  from  the  roots,  which  are  club-shaped.  When  fully  matured  and  cooked,  it  is  dry  and 
farinaceous,  and  much  resembles  in  taste  the  common  potato.  The  flesh  is  also  very  white 
when  cooked.     The  land  in  which  it  thrives  best  is  that  of  a  deep,  rich  soil,  which  should  be 


358  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

well  pulverized  and  plowed  very  deep,  as  the  roots  have  a  tendency  to  penetrate  perpendicu- 
larly into  the  ground,  growing  from  two  to  three  feet  or  more  in  length,  the  larger  end  always 
being  deepest  in  the  soO.  This  is  the  great  objection  to  its  culture,  as  considerable  digging  is 
required  to  obtain  them. 

The  vines  may  either  be  made  to  climb  poles  like  some  kinds  of  beans,  or  may  creep  on 
the  ground.  They  may  be  planted  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  season  is  sufficiently  advanced 
to  preclude  the  danger  of  frost,  placing  them  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart,  and  may  be 
cultivated  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  sweet  potato  or  yam  of  the  Southern  States, 
except  it  should  be  left  undisturbed  in  the  ground  from  one  year  to  another  until  desired  for 
use.  The  principal  growth  of  the  roots  takes  place  in  the  autumn;  therefore,  when  used  the 
first  season,  they  should  not  be  dug  until  November.  They  will  not  be  injured  by  frosts,  even 
in  New  England,  but  will  live  through  the  winter,  and  when  once  started,  will  continue  to 
grow  and  spread  with  as  much  rapidity  as  artichokes,  requiring  very  little  care.  They  will 
not,  however,  be  injured  in  quality  and  become  strong  and  woody  like  the  roots  of  the  pars- 
nip, and  some  other  plants,  after  the  first  year's  growth.  It  is  well  to  give  them  a  covering 
of  straw,  leaves,  or  spruce  boughs  for  the  winter,  in  those  sections  where  the  climate  is  very 
severe,  which  covering  should  be  removed  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  a  very  nutritious  and 
healthful  article  of  food,  but  will  never  be  valued  as  highly  in  this  country  as  the  sweet  or 
common  potato,  although  it  might  prove  quite  a  good  substitute  for  either,  in  case  there 
were  a  necessity  for  a  substitute,  by  a  failure  of  the  former  crops.  They  may  be  roasted  or 
boiled,  possessing  something  of  the  rice  flavor  as  well  as  that  of  the  Irish  potato.  The  vines 
of  the  Chinese  yam  make  a  very  pretty  climbing  plant,  and  suitable  for  screens,  arbors,  or 
coverings  for  unsightly  places.  They  will  not  blossom  until  the  roots  are  two  years  old,  after 
that  the  flowering  is  very  abundant,  the  blossoms  having  a  fragrance  similar  to  that  of  cinna- 
mon. A  few  tubers  planted  near  a  door  or  window,  with  the  vines  trained  over  or  about  it, 
make  a  very  desirable  ornament. 


TURNIPS. 


THE  value  of  the  turnip  product  of  this  country  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  of  Eng- 
land, where  it  forms  one  of  the  most  important  of  field  crops,  as  food  for  stock,  and 
where  they  are  also  commonly  fed  to  sheep  from  the  fields,  which  are  enclosed  with  hur- 
dles or  movable  fences.  There  is,  however,  scarcely  a  farmer  in  this  country  but  that  has  his 
turnip-field,  although  usually  limited  when  compared  with  the  extent  of  land  appropriated  to 
many  other  crops.  The  nutritive  properties  of  the  turnip,  when  compared  with  some  other 
root  crops,  are  not  great,  on  account  of  the  large  proportion  of  water  in  their  composition, 
which  is  about  ninety  per  cent. ;  but  they  are  valuable  when  fed  with  other  substances.  The 
turnip  is  found  growing  wild  in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  but  cultivation  has  improved 
it  almost  beyond  recognition  as  the  same  species  of  plant. 

The  common  flat  turnip  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  our  English  ancestors, 
and  has  ever  since  that  time  been  regarded  as  a  palatable  vegetable  for  the  table.  In  this 
country,  turnips  are  used  for  feeding  sheep,  more  than  other  stock,  carrots  and  mangel-wurtzels 
being  generally  considered  more  valuable  food  for  cows  and  horses.  Turnips  are  a  crop  that 
can  be  raised  with  comparatively  little  labor  and  in  large  bulk,  the  average  yield  of  many  sec- 
tions being  from  800  to  1,000  bushels  per  acre,  and  hence  in  this  respect  are  an  economical 
crop  for  those  farmers  having  lands  and  stock  suited  to  their  cultivation  and  use. 
They  are,  however,  considered  rather  cold  food  for  severe  winter  weather,  and  when  given  to 
pregnant  ewes  in  this  season,  should  be  mixed  or  fed  in  connection  with  something  having  a 
tendency  to  produce  warmth,  such  as  corn  or  meal. 


TURNIPS.  359 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  comparative  nutritive  value  of  some  of  the  leading  root-crops,  we 
append  the  following  table  of  analyses  from  the  work  of  Drs.  Voelcker  and  Lankester  : — 

TABLE  OF  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OP  BOOTS. 


Water. 

Flesh  Formers. 

Fat  Formers. 

Woody  Fiber. 

Ash. 

Sugar  Beets, 

81.05 

1.00 

15.40 

1.03 

.80 

Mangel-Wurtzels,   . 

87.78 

1.54 

8.60 

1.13 

.96 

Rutabagas, 

89.40 

1.44 

5.93 

2.54 

.62 

Yellow  Aberdeen  Turnip, 

90.57 

1.80 

4.64 

2.34 

.65 

Large  Globe  Turnip, 

90.43 

1.14 

2.96 

2.00 

1.03 

Carrot, 

85.00 

1.50 

10.80 

1.70 

1.00 

Varieties.  —  There  are  many  varieties  of  both  the  white  and  yellow  turnip,  while  the 
ruta-baga,  Swedish  or  Russian  turnip, — also  known  as  the  "  French  turnip," — form  a  distinct 
class.  The  following  are  some  of  the  best  white-flesh  varieties  :  Early  Flat  Dutch,  Early 
Snow-Ball,  White-Top  Strap-leaved,  Red-Top  Strap-leaved,  Purple-Top  Globe,  White  Globe, 
Long  White  Jersey,  Large  White  Norfolk,  Long  White  Tankard,  and  Long  White  or  Cow 
Horn.  The  first  two  are  of  medium  size,  quick  growth,  tender  and  juicy  when  young,  but  if 
overgrown  or  long  kept,  will  become  spongy  and  inferior  in  quality.  Both  the  strap-leaved 
varieties  are  early,  of  medium  size,  and  nearly  round  in  form  ;  they  have  but  few  leaves, 
which  somewhat  resemble  the  horse-radish  in  shape.  They  are  essentially  alike,  except  the 
Red-Top  is  either  red  or  purple  above  ground,  while  the  other  is  pure  white.  They  are  now 
taking  the  place  of  the  old  Early  Dutch  varieties.  The  Purple-Top  Globe  is  a  fine  market 
variety  and  keeps  well. 

The  White  Globe  attains  a  large  size  and  is  better  adapted  to  stock-feeding  than  table 
purposes,  being  too  coarse  in  texture  for  the  latter.  The  same  might  be  said  of  the  Norfolk, 
which  is  a  large  English  variety,  and  valuable  for  field  culture  and  feeding  stock.  The  Long 
White  Jersey  and  Long  White  Tankard  are  both  good  early  varieties.  The  Long 
White  or  Cow  Horn,  attains  a  large  size,  and  is  in  shape  similar  to  the  carrot  ;  it  grows  half 
out  of  the  ground  with  tops  small  and  spreading,  is  sweet  and  tender  and  valuable  for  general 
cultivation.  It  should  be  harvested  before  severe  frosts,  or  its  quality  will  be  liable  to  be 
injured,  being  exposed  to  frost  more  than  those  covered  wholly  by  the  soil.  Some  of  the 
leading  yellow  varieties  are  the  Yellow  Malta,  Early  Yellow  Dutch,  Early  Yellow  Finland, 
Aberdeen  Purple-Top,  Robertson's  Golden  Ball,  and  Large  Yellow  Globe.  The  first  three  are 
early,  with  small  or  medium-sized  globular  roots,  and  are  excellent  garden  varieties  for  sum- 
mer and  autumn  use.  The  Yellow  Aberdeen  is  globular,  hardy,  and  solid,  and  valuable  for 
general  cultivation.  Robertson's  Golden  Ball  is  globular,  of  rich  flavor,  and  has  unrivalled 
keeping  qualities  ;  it  is  valuable  for  both  culinary  and  stock  purposes.  The  Large  Yellow 
Globe  has  a  large  globular  root  of  pale  yellow,  and  is  one  of  the  best  for  general  use  ;  it  will 
keep  hard  and  brittle  until  late  in  the  spring.  The  Ruta-baga  is  close-grained,  very  hard, 
and  will  endure  considerable  cold  without  injury,  but  is  not  in  perfection  for  table  use  until 
nearly  spring.  It  is  much  richer  and  sweeter  than  the  common  turnip,  and  will  keep  much 
longer  in  good  condition. 

Among  the  choice  varieties  of  the  ruta-baga  are  the  Skirving's  Purple-Top,  Laing's 
Improved,  the  Bloomsdale,  Carter's  Imperial  Swede,  Sutton's  Champion  Swede,  Improved 
American,  Sweet  German,  and  Long  White  French.  The  first,  by  its  quick  vegetation,  gen- 
erally escapes  the  ravages  of  the  enemy  of  the  turnip,  the  fly,  and  is  of  strong  growth  and 
well  adapted  to  field  culture.  Laing's  Improved  is  a  very  handsome  variety,  of  globe  shape 
and  fine  quality.  Carter's  Imperial  Swede  is  a  new  English  variety,  highly  recommended  for 
both  its  quality  and  for  producing  extraordinarily  large  crops.  The  Bloomsdale  is  an  improved 
purple-top  variety  and  is  regarded  with  much  favor.  Sutton's  Champion  Swede  is  also  an 
English  variety,  and  is  said  to  be  the  hardiest,  heaviest  cropping,  and  one  of  the  most  nutri- 
23 


360  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

tious  kinds  known.  The  Improved  American  is  largely  grown  in  this  country  both  for  table 
and  stock-feeding  purposes,  and  is  of  fine  quality  and  keeps  well  vmtil  summer.  The  Sweet 
German  and  Long  White  French  are  both  sweet-flavored  and  fine-grained  and  valuable  for 
table  purposes  ;  they  are  quite  similar  in  all  respects,  the  latter  being  a  variety  of  the  former. 
In  good  soil  and  under  favorable  circumstances,  the  Sweet  German  wUl  grow  very  smooth 
and  regular  in  form,  but  under  unfavorable  conditions  it  often  grows  very  uneven  ;  they  both 
require  earlier  sowing  than  other  varieties  of  turnips. 

Cultivation. — Turnips  can  be  grown  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  from  sand  down  to 
heavy  clay  and  muck,  but  the  common  EngUsh  turnip  does  best  on  a  light  sandy,  or  gravelly 
loam  well-manured  with  superphosphates,  bone-dust,  or  guano,  and  ashes  applied  at  the  time 
of  sowing  the  seed.  Ruta-bagas  thrive  best  on  a  heavy  soil  made  very  rich.  Land  that  has 
been  newly  cleared  and  burnt  over,  and  old  pasture  ground  plowed  two  or  three  times  during 
the  summer,  and  enriched  with  superphosphates,  bone- dust,  or  guano  and  ashes,  as  above 
recommended,  will  produce  the  smoothest  and  sweetest  turnips.  When  farm  manure  is 
applied,  it  must  be  thoroughly  decomposed,  and  made  very  fine,  besides  being  well-mixed 
with  the  soU.  Fresh  stable  manure  should  never  be  used  for  turnips,  as  it  injures  the  quality 
of  the  crop  for  table  use,  giving  them  a  strong,  unpleasant  flavor;  besides,  they  are  more  ha- 
ble  to  be  eaten  by  worms  when  farm  manure  is  used  than  when  commercial  fertilizers  are 
applied;  neither  will  the  bulbs  grow  as  regular  in  form,  or  as  smooth. 

Land  for  turnips  should  be  plowed  to  a  moderate  depth  in  the  spring,  about  the  time 
of  plowing  for  corn,  and  kept  free  from  weeds  by  an  occasional  harrowing.  Just  before  sow- 
ing the  seed,  it  should  be  plowed  again  and  thoroughly  harrowed,  that  the  soil  may  be  well- 
pulverized  and  moist,  to  induce  an  early  germination  of  the  seed,  and  rapid  growth. 

The  fertilizers  used  should  be  applied  broadcast,  and  well-mixed  with  the  harrow.  A 
rapid  growth  is  of  importance  in  order  to  get  the  plants  beyond  the  danger  of  injury  by 
insects  as  soon  as  possible.  The  sowing  may  be  broadcast  or  in  drDls,  though  the  largest 
crops  are  obtained  by  the  latter  method,  which  admits  of  after-culture,  and  which  is  a  great 
benefit  to  the  crop,  while  the  former  does  not. 

From  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  of  seed  will  be  required  per  acre  for  broadcast  sow- 
ing, and  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  sowed  in  drills.  This  is  a  larger  quantity  than  would 
be  required  providing  all  the  seeds  should  germinate,  and  the  plants  thrive;  but  as  some  will 
not,  and  many  plants  will  be  destroyed  by  the  turnip-fly,  or  other  insects,  it  is  safe  to  sow 
liberally.     One-half  inch  is  a  sufficient  covering  for  the  seed. 

It  is  best  to  put  in  the  seed  just  before  a  rain,  as  this  will  afford  a  better  escape  from 
the  fly,  and  induce  a  quick  germination  and  growth. 

For  the  fall  and  principal  crop  of  the  English  or  common  turnip,  the  sowing  at  the 
North  may  be  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  last  of  August;  at  the  South,  it  may  be  delayed 
until  later,  according  to  the  latitude.  If  in  drills,  the  rows  should  be  from  sixteen  to  eigh- 
teen inches  apart.  When  the  plants  are  well  started,  or  when  the  rough  leaf  is  fairly  devel- 
oped, they  should  be  thinned  out  to  about  six  or  eight  inches  apart.  This  may  be  done  with 
a  small  hoe  the  first  time,  cutting  out  rows  so  as  to  leave  small  tufts  of  four  or  five  plants  at 
regular  intervals.  After  the  plants  rally  from  this  operation,  the  surplus  ones  may  be 
removed,  leaving  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous  plant  of  each  tuft  for  growth.  Tliis  may 
be  done  by  hand,  but  it  involves  considerable  labor  in  a  stooping  posture,  which,  to  say  the 
least,  is  very  uncomfortable.  This  labor  can,  with  little  practice,  be  very  easily  performed 
with  a  hand-hoe;  it  is  accompUshed  by  an  alternate  thrusting  and  drawing  motion  of  the  hoe, 
a  Uttle  practice  of  which  will  enable  the  operator  to  perform  so  successfully  that  double  plants 
or  vacant  spaces  will  be  very  rare  in  the  rows.  The  single  plants  should  be  from  eight  to  ten 
!  inches  apart  after  the  last  thinning  process. 

The  weeds  should  be  kept  down  with  a  cultivator  or  horse-hoe,  and  the  soil  stirred  in 


TURNIPS  361 

this  manner  several  times  during  the  season,  which  cultivation  should  be  completed  before 
the  leaves  attain  a  very  large  growth.  A  hand-hoe  will  be  required  for  use  betVeen  the  plants. 
Shortly  after  the  plants  are  out  of  the  ground,  they  should  receive  a  sprinkling  of  lime-dust 
early  in  the  morning,  when  wet  with  dew,  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  turnip-fly.  This 
application,  repeated  a  few  times  with  three  or  four  days  intervening,  will  prove  an  efficient 
safeguard.  After  putting  out  the  rough  leaf,  they  are  safe  from  the  attack  of  the  fly.  Many 
farmers  give  the  soil  a  top-dressing  of  plaster  and  wood- ashes  immediately  after  sowing  the 


THE    BOSTON    HORSEi-HOE. 

The  above  cut  represents  the  Boston  horse-hoe,  which  is  extensively  used  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  corn  and  all  kinds  of  roots.  The  rear  plows  or  moulds  are  reversible,  so  as  to  throw 
the  earth  to  or  from  the  plants,  as  desired.  It  can  also  be  contracted  to  fifteen  inches  in 
width,  or  expanded  to  thirty -six  inches,  and  is  gauged  to  work  any  depth  from  three  to 
seven  inches. 

Cultivation  of  Spring  Turnips. — For  an  early  crop,  the  seed  should  be  sown  as 
soon  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  will  admit  of  preparation,  and  should  be  well-pulverized  and 
enriched,  as  previously  recommended. 

The  Early  White  Dutch,  or  Strap-leaved  varieties,  are  very  good  for  this  purpose.  They 
should  be  sown  in  drills,  and  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds,  the  culture  given  to  be  the  same 
as  that  for  the  fall  crop. 

Mr.  B.  K.  Bliss  advises  that,  when  the  roots  begin  to  enlarge,  the  earth  should  be  brushed 
away  about  them  to  the  depth  of  a  half-inch  or  more,  and  a  light  dressing  of  wood-ashes 
given  them.  He  says  this  is  the  surest  mode  of  obtaining  fair  and  smooth  spring  turnips  in 
old  gardens,  where  they  are  almost  certain  to  grow  wormy,  if  the  earth  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  contact  with  the  roots.  It  is  important  to  get  them  started  very  early,  so  that  they  may 
have  time  to  grow  of  sufBcient  size  before  the  very  hot  weather,  when  they  will  soon  become 
tough  and  strong. 

They  may  be  started  much  earlier  by  sowing  in  a  hot-bed,  or  cold-frame,  and  trans- 
planting in  a  wet  day,  when  they  have  attained  to  five  or  six  leaves.  They  should  have  the 
earth  pressed  close  about  the  roots  in  setting  out,  and  be  watered  well  for  a  few  days  after. 
A  fine  crop  of  spring  turnips  may  be  raised  by  the  ordinary  method  on  fresh  land,  or  land 
that  has  not  been  subjected  to  cultivation  for  several  years. 

Cultivation  of  Ruta-Bagas,  or  Swedish  Turnips. — Heavy  soils  are  best  adapted 
to  this  crop,  and  the  land  should  be  rather  dry  and  rich.  It  frequently  follows  corn  or  wheat 
in  rotation,  but  roots  of  the  best  quality  are  obtained  from  fresh  soils,  being  less  liable  to 
worms  or  insect  enemies.  Very  good  crops  are  obtained  from  freshly-turned  sod.  The 
quality  of  fertilizing  material  to  be  applied  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  but  they 


362  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

will  require  a  richer  soil  than  the  common  turnip,  although  the  same  kind  of  fertUizers.  The 
seed  should  be  sown  from  the  20th  of  June  to  the  1st  July.  Drill-culture  is  the  usual  mode, 
although  some  set  them  in  hills.  The  drills  should  be  at  a  distance  of  two  feet,  and  the 
plants  either  thinned  out  or  transplanted  ten  inches  apart.  It  is  customary  in  many  sections 
to  sow  the  seed  in  a  bed  and  transplant  afterward.  The  after-culture  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
common  turnip  previously  given. 

The  following  method  of  cultivating  the  Swede  turnip  is  given  by  a  gentlemen  of 
Ontario:  "This  crop  is  one  which  only  a  few  farmers  can  raise  to  perfection;  but  for  these  few,  it 
is  not  a  difficult  matter.  When  once  its  requirements  and  manner  of  cultivating  the  soil  are 
understood,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  raise  a  crop  of  turnips.  Neither  does  the  land  chosen  for 
the  crop  need  to  be  free  from  weeds,  or  in  a  high  state  of  fertility.  In  this  township — Pick- 
ering, Ont.,  noted  for  its  large  number  of  stock-breeders,  and  the  excellent  quahty  of  its 
stock — every  farmer  has  his  turnip-Oeld  (I  know  of  only  one  exception)  sowed  generally  at 
the  rate  of  5  acres  on  a  100-acre  farm.  The  field  chosen  is  next  to  the  fallow,  the  weediest 
on  the  farm.  It  is  first  plowed,  well-harrowed  and  rolled ;  then  between  fifteen  and  twenty 
loads  of  manure  to  the  acre  are  drawn  on.  By  loads,  I  mean  as  much  as  two  good  farm- 
horses  can,  without  straining,  draw  on  a  wagon.  Then  it  is  plowed  twice  more,  at  intervals 
of  a  week  between  each  plowing,  giving  at  least  three  harro wings,  and  a  rolling  between  each 
plowing.  This  may  be  thought  to  be  a  great  deal  of  work,  but  as  the  destruction  of  weeds 
is  one  of  the  objects,  this  object  is,  as  regards  thistles,  thoroughly  reached  by  the  repeated 
plowings  and  harrowings,  especially  if  it  be  a  dry  season.  This  large  quantity  of  work,  also, 
both  pulverizes  and  mixes  well  tlie  manures  with  the  soil,  and  renders  available  all  the  fer. 
tiUty,  a  great  part  of  which  would  otherwise  he  dormant. 

The  field  is  then  ridged  up,  either  with  a  double  mould-board  plow  made  for  the  purpose, 
or  with  a  common  plow,  and  the  seed  is  sowed  as  fast  as  ridged,  so  that  it  is  sure  to  be  placed 
in  the  yet  moist  earth.  The  sowing  is  done  by  a  drill,  somng  two  rows  at  once.  Generally 
two  pounds  to  the  acre  are  put  in,  as  the  young  plants  do  better  when  a  little  crowded.  The 
seed  must  not  be  sowed  until  after  the  15th  of  June,  as  the  fly  will  eat  the  young  plants  as 
fast  as  they  appear  if  sown  earlier  than  that  date.  After  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  hoe, 
a  hoe  about  ten  inches  long  and  two  wide,  made  for  the  purpose,  is  used,  and  the  soil, 
together  with  the  supernumerary  plants,  is  pushed  away  from  the  plant  left.  The  plants, 
after  thinning,  are  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart,  and  lying  on  their  sides.  The  rows  must 
first  be  scufiied  as  closely  as  possible.  After  this,  one  or  two  scuflBings  and  another  hoeing 
are  all  that  are  required. 

The  last  week  in  October  and  first  week  in  November  is  the  harvesting  season.  Two 
rows  are  pulled  at  once.  The  knife  being  held  in  the  right  hand,  the  turnip  is  pulled  with 
the  left,  cleaned  and  topped,  then  thrown  into  the  furrow  at  the  right,  while  the  tops  are 
thrown  to  the  left;  thus  four  rows  are  thrown  into  one,  leaving,  after  pulhng,  just  room  for 
a  wagon  or  cart  to  be  driven  between  the  rows.  September  and  October  is  the  growing 
season.  Frosts  that  do  not  freeze  the  ground  solid  have  no  efEect  on  the  Swede  turnip.  By 
this  manner  of  cultivation  crops  averaging  from  three  to  nine  hundred  bushels  per  acre  are 
grown,  often  yielding  as  high  as  a  thousand  bushels,  while  the  land  is  left  in  the  best  condi- 
tion, rich  and  free  from  weeds." 

Harvesting. — Turnips  should  be  gathered  before  severe  frosts  set  in,  although  on  those 
sections  of  the  country  not  affected  to  any  extent  by  frost  they  are  often,  when  on  dry  soils, 
left  on  the  field  during  the  winter ;  the  quality  is,  however,  improved  by  gathering,  as  they 
are  liable  to  grow  rank  in  flavor  and  wormy  by  remaining  in  the  ground  so  long.  The  tops 
are  most  easily  cut  with  a  sharp  hoe  before  pulling  the  turnips,  a  common  hoe  ground  sharp 
being  used  for  the  purpose.  It  is  better  to  cut  off  the  tops  about  an  inch  from  the  bulb  if 
possible,  as  they  will  keep  better  than  when  cut  close.     The  roots  may  afterwards  be  pulled 


TURNIPS. 


363 


with  a  chain  harrow,  a  hoe,  or  by  hand.     The  following  method  of  harvesting  turnips  is 
given  by  a  leading  farmer  in  the  State  of  New  York:  — 

"  The  one  thing  that  makes  labor  in  the  root-field  so  unpalatable  to  Americans  is  the  con- 
stant stooping  that  it  nearly  always  involves.  I  obviate  this  almost  entirely  in  harvesting 
by  using  the  hoe,  ground  sharp.  With  this  in  your  hands,  begin  at  the  outside  row,  and 
as  you  follow  it  down,  cut  the  top  clean  from  each  turnip  with  the  blade,  striking  right  or 
left,  as  is  most  convenient.  The  impetus  given  to  the  top  will  carry  it  about  half  way  to  the 
adjoining  row.  Returning  in  this,  you  strike  in  the  same  direction,  and  so  proceed.  After 
a  few  minutes  practice,  two  or  three  tops  may  be  cut  with  one  blow,  and  almost  any  one  can 
"top"  as  fast  as  he  ordinarily  walks.  After  the  field  has  been  thus  "topped,"  it  will  present 
this  appearance:  Two  rows  of  turnips  will  alternate  with  each  row  of  tops.  In  pulling  the 
roots,  strike  the  blade  of  the  hoe  back  of  the  turnip,  and  with  a  quick  jerk,  pull  it  toward  the 
adjoining  row,  pulled  or  unpulled.  The  blade  of  the  hoe  cuts  many  of  the  lateral  roots,  thus 
rendering  the  task  of  pulling  comparatively  easy.  After  topping  and  pulling,  a  row  of 
turnips  will  alternate  with  a  row  of  tops;  and  in  hauling,  the  wagon  should  be  driven  between 
these  rows  of  turnips.  I  have  myself  topped  and  pulled  by  this  method  four  hundred  and 
five  hundred  bushels  in  ten  hours."     The  tops  are  worth  gathering  as  food  for  stock. 


ROOT  CUTTEK. 


ROOT  CUTTER. 


Storing. — Turnips  require  a  cool,  dark  place  for  storage.  When  raised  only  in  small 
quantities  they  may  be  stored  in  a  cellar,  either  in  bins  or  upon  the  ground.  They  will  keep 
better  to  have  but  a  few  bushels  in  a  place,  and  cover  slightly  with  earth  or  sand.  Heat 
is  detrimental,  but  they  will  bear  considerable  cold  without  injury. 

They  may  be  preserved  in  very  good  condition  in  trenches ;  in  fact,  all  root  crops  will 
keep  better  in  trenches  than  in  a  common  cellar,  and  come  out  in  the  spring  almost  as  fresh 
as  when  put  in,  providing  the  trenches  are  properly  managed.  They  should  not,  however, 
be  piled  deep  in  such  pits.  Trenches  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  wide  and  two  and  a 
half  feet  deep,  and  as  long  as  required  for  the  quantity  to  be  stored,  are  the  best  for  this 
purpose.  The  turnips  should  be  put  in  to  the  depth  of  only  a  foot  and  then  covered  with  the 
earth  that  was  thrown  out  in  digging.  It  is  better  to  have  the  soil  for  the  pits  quite  dry,  and 
the  land  a  little  sloping,  to  admit  of  drainage.  Should  the  weather  be  very  severe,  a  covering 
of  stable  manure  thrown  upon  the  tops  of  the  trenches  will  prevent  freezing.  A  root-cellar, 
made  similar  to  a  silo,  and  which  has  been  previously  recommended  for  the  storage  of  potatoes, 


364  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

is  one  of  the  best  means  of  storage  for  turnips;  they  are,  however,  somewhat  expensive  in  con- 
struction, but  when  once  made,  are  serviceable  for  many  years.  It  is  customary  in  some  sections 
to  lay  them  upon  the  dry  ground,  in  a  locality  slightly  sloping  to  the  south,  in  long  piles  like 
hay- windrows,  the  piles  about  three  feet  through;  they  are  then  covered  with  straw  about 
six  or  eight  inches,  and  earth  eight  or  ten  inches,  leaving  a  straw  ventilator  every  ten  or 
twelve  feet.  Another  method  is  to  put  them  in  large  round  pUes  of  from  thirty  to  forty 
bushels  each,  and  cover  in  the  same  manner.  These  methods  involve  considerable  labor  and 
some  risk  in  freezing  in  extreme  cold  weather,  which  are  obviated  in  a  properly-constructed 
root-cellar. 

Turnips  and  ruta-bagas  are  best  fed  to  cattle  and  sheep  in  an  uncooked  state;  they  should 
always  be  first  properly  cut  before  being  fed  to  stock  of  any  kind.  They  should  also  never 
be  fed  to  cattle  on  the  ground  in  a  yard  or  field,  but  always  in  the  manger,  where  they  can 
eat  them  more  quietly  without  danger  of  getting  choked  or  hooked  by  others,  and  where  they 
can  also  get  their  proper  share,  as  a  few  in  every  herd -are  the  "master  spirits,"  and  will 
drive  and  fight  all  others  when  they  have  the  opportunity. 

Raising  Turnip  Seed.  —  For  growing  seed,  the  best  turnips  should  be  selected  from 
the  crop  in  the  fall,  and  placed  apart  from  the  others  where  they  wiU  be  well  preserved, 
leaving  an  inch  or  so  of  the  tops  on  the  bulbs.  As  soon  as  the  ground  will  admit  in  the  spring, 
these  should  be  set  out  in  land  that  has  been  plowed  and  pulverized,  setting  in  rows  that  are 
three  or  four  feet  apart,  and  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  setting 
should  be  carefully  done,  making  provision  for  the  end  root,  and  covering  the  bulb  entirely 
with  the  soil,  leaving  only  the  sprouts  at  the  top  out  of  the  ground.  The  plants  should  be 
kept  free  from  weeds,  which  will  involve  the  use  of  the  hand-hoe;  or  if  a  large  quantity  of 
seed  is  to  be  grown,  the  cultivator  or  horse-hoe  may  be  serviceable  for  this  purpose.  When  the 
plants  are  about  blossoming,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  bring  the  earth  up  around  the  stalks  in  order 
to  give  them  support  and  keep  them  in  an  upright  position.  When  a  majority  of  the  pods 
have  become  dry,  the  stalks  should  be  cut  and  put  in  some  safe  place  to  dry.  It  is  well  to 
cut  them  when  the  dew  is  on  them  or  just  after  a  shower,  as  the  pods  will  open  very  easilv, 
and  the  seed  shell  out;  careful  handling  will  be  necessary,  even  with  this  precaution,  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  seed.  Different  kinds  should  never  be  set  near  each  other,  as  they  will  be 
liable  to  become  mixed,  and  the  distinct  varieties  thus  lost.  WTien  the  pods  have  become 
dry,  the  seed  may  be  easily  shelled  out  and  cleaned,  the  same  as  clover  or  grass  seed. 


BEETS. 


THE  beet  may  be  used  as  an  esculent  in  all  stages  of  its  growth,  and  is  universally  culti- 
vated in  some  of  its  varieties,  of  which  there  are  many.  There  are  also  a  few  varieties 
grown  specially  for  stock -feeding  purposes. 
Beside  these  uses,  large  quantities  are  annually  utihzed  in  Europe,  and  to  a  limited  extent 
in  this  country,  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  but  whether  beet  sugar  will  ever  become  a 
profitable  product  in  America  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  demonstrated  to  place  the  question 
beyond  a  doubt,  in  the  minds  of  many  of  our  leading  agriculturists.  The  different  varieties 
vary  in  size,  form,  and  color,  but  more  especially  in  the  latter  respect,  although  the  color 
does  not  seem  to  affect  their  quality.  They  are  deep  red,  purple,  pink,  yellow,  white,  or 
mottled  with  varieties  of  shades.  The  culture  of  all  varieties  is  similar.  It  is  estimated 
that  an  acre  of  this  crop  can  be  grown  as  cheaply  as  the  same  area  appropriated  to  potato 
culture,  but  that  the  yield  will  be  four  or  five  times  that  of  the  latter,  in  bushels. 

The  abundance  of  the  crop  will,  however,  depend  much  upon  the  soil  and  method  of 


BEETS.  365 

culture.  Beets  are  one  of  the  cheapest,  most  productive,  and  nutritious  roots  that  can  be 
raised  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  and  are  especially  valuable  as  food  for  mUch-cows,  and 
breeding-ewes. 

Varieties. — There  are  so  many  varieties  of  the  beet,  some  of  which  are  of  a  local 
character,  that  it  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them.  The  following,  however, 
are  some  of  the  most  popular  among  the  leading  varieties  generally  cultivated.  The  Early 
Bassano,  originally  from  Italy,  is  one  of  the  earUest  varieties  known.  The  root  is  flat  and 
light  red  in  color,  the  flesh  being  white,  encircled  with  rose  color.  It  is  tender  and  juicy.  "When 
designed  for  winter  use,  it  should  be  sown  late,  as  early-grown  varieties  will  not  keep  through 
the  winter.  Other  standard  varieties  are  Bastian's  Extra  Early  Red,  Bastian's  Half-long 
Blood  Beet,  the  Egyptian  Blood  Turnip,  Early  Blood  Turnip,  Early  Yellow  Turnip,  or 
Orange,  Long  Blood  Red,  Lamb's  Improved  Imperial  Sugar,  and  the  French  Sugar-Beet. 
The  last  two  mentioned  are  especially  valuable  as  containing  a  larger  percentage  of  sugar 
than  the  ordinary  varieties,  and  may  be  used  for  table  purposes,  feeding  stock,  or  sugar  man- 
ufacture. The  French  variety  is  cultivated  e.xtensively  in  France  for  the  latter  purpose. 
The  Swiss  Chard,  sometimes  called  ''Sea-Kale  Beet,"  is  cultivated  for  its  leaves,  which  are 
used  as  spinach. 

Cultivation. — A  fair  crop  of  beets  may  be  grown  from  a  variety  of  soils;  very  fine 
jdelds  being  generally  obtained  from  one  of  a  rich,  strong,  and  partially  clayey  nature,  but 
that  upon  which  it  thrives  best,  and  which  is  most  suited  to  its  successful  culture,  is  a  rich 
but  rather  light  loam,  which  has  been  well  manured  the  previous  season. 

Where  this  cannot  be  had  conveniently,  manure  that  has  been  thoroughly  composted  may 
be  used,  as  fresh  yard-manure  injures  the  quality  of  the  crop  and  causes  the  roots  to  grow 
tough  and  forked,  while  smooth,  straight  and  medium-sized  roots  are  the  most  desirable.  Unless 
well-fermented  farm  manure  can  be  had  for  the  purpose,  guano  may  be  successfully  used 
instead;  bone-dust  or  superphosphate  will  also  answer  the  same  purpose.  Some  farmers 
apply  a  light  dressing  of  guano  after  the  plants  are  up,  in  addition  to  previous  application  of 
fertilizers  to  the  land. 

The  soil  should  always  be  well  pulverized  for  this  crop,  and  is  best  rendered  so  by  a  fall 
plowing,  to  be  followed  by  another  plowing  and  harrowing  in  the  spring;  the  manure  to  be 
well  harrowed  in.  For  an  early  crop,  the  seed  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked  iu  the  spring;  but  for  winter  use,  the  sowing  should  be  delayed  until  June  or  the 
early  part  of  July.  The  sowing  should  be  in  drills  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and 
covered  about  an  inch  deep  with  friable  soil.  A  dry  day  is  best  for  this  purpose,  and  if  the 
seed  has  been  soaked  in  tepid  water  for  twenty-four  hours  previous,  it  wiU  germinate  much 
sooner. 

Sowing  in  a  hot-bed  or  cold-frame,  and  transplanting,  is  sometimes  resorted  to  by  those 
desiring  an  extra  early  small  crop.  An  ounce  of  seed  will  sow  a  drill  of  one  hundred  feet 
in  length,  and  from  four  to  five  pounds  is  sufficient  for  an  acre.  When  the  plants  are  from 
two  to  three  inches  in  height,  they  should  be  thinned  out  from  seven  to  nine  inches  apart  with 
a  hoe,  the  same  as  turnips,  taking  care  not  to  injure  or  cut  the  leaves  of  those  left  for  growth, 
leaving  the  plants  in  little  tufts  of  two  or  three.  When  these  have  rallied  from  the  thinning 
process,  another  thinning  should  be  given,  leaving  only  one  plant  in  a  place.  All  vacant 
spaces  should  also  be  filled  by  transplanting.  The  wheel-hoe,  or  a  similar  implement,  should 
be  frequently  used  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  and  the  surface  be  well  stirred  about  the  roots 
of  the  young  plants,  which,  when  last  thinned,  should  be  from  two  to  twelve  inches  apart. 
Cultivation  should  be  continued  until  the  leaves  nearly  cover  the  ground.  When  the  extra 
long  varieties  are  grown,  the  manure  may  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  inches  at  the 
second  plowing,  and  the  drills  made  a  little  farther  apart  than  for  the  smaller  kinds.  In  all 
after-culture,  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  breaking  the  leaves  of  the  plants. 


366 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


1.  Swiss  Chabd  Beet. 

2.  Bastian's  Extra  £aei,t  Red  Beet. 
S.  Bastian*s  Half-Lono  Blood  Beet. 
4.  EdYPTiAJf  Blood  Tubnip  Beet. 


Improved  Long  Blood  Bed  Beet. 
Yelix)w  Globe  Manoel-Wurzel  Beet. 
Drerr's  Improved  Lima  Bean. 
Conovf.r'k  Colossal  Asparagus, 
a&tichokk. 


Large  Green  G 
Copied  by  permiesion  from  Catalogue  of  H.  A.  Drecr,  PhUadelpliia,  Pa, 


BEETS.  367 

The  winter  crop  should  be  harvested  before  severe  frosts,  the  last  of  October  being  the 
usual  time  in  the  Northern  States.  Beets  are  subject  to  but  few  diseases  and  but  slight 
injuries  from  insects. 

Mangel  Wurzels. — This  is  a  large,  coarse-textured  variety  of  beet,  which  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  for  feeding  stock.  The  roots  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  but  are  similar  in 
their  constituent  properties  to  the  common  beet, — although  of  coarser  texture.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  the  Mangel  Wurzel,  among  the  most  desirable  of  which  are  the  Long 
Red  Mangel,  which  is  sometimes,  when  young,  used  for  table  purposes;  the  Mammoth  Long 
Red,  which,  as  its  name  indicates,  grows  to  a  very  large  size,  a  single  root  weighing  fifty 
pounds  having  been  exhibited  not  long  since  at  the  Smithfield  Club  Cattle-Show;  it  is  also  of 
very  good  quality.  The  Yellow  Globe,  Red  Globe,  and  the  Ovoid,  both  Yellow  and  Red,  are 
also  good  varieties. 

In  the  feeding  of  Mangel  "Wurzels,  only  a  small  quantity  should  be  given  at  first,  as  they 
will  have  a  tendency  to  irritate  the  bowels  if  fed  too  liberally,  until  the  stock  is  accus- 
tomed to  the  food,  or  if  fed  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter,  before  the  ripening  process  is  com- 
pleted, and  the  starch  they  contain  is  converted  into  sugar.  Where  turnips  are  used  for 
stock  food,  it  is  better  to  feed  those  first,  and  reserve  the  mangolds  until  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  the  winter,  when  they  are  more  nutritious,  and  will  not  be  as  liable  to  have  an  irritat- 
ing or  diuretic  effect  upon  the  system  of  animals.  Prom  twenty-five  to  thirty  tons  per  acre 
is  the  average  yield,  although  under  favoring  circumstances  as  many  as  eighty  tons  to  the 
acre  have  been  produced,  the  yield  depending  much  upon  the  variety,  soil,  etc.  They  will 
keep  well  until  the  middle  of  the  summer,  if  properly  stored. 

Culture. — The  soil  and  its  preparation  for  Mangel  Wurzel  should  be  similar  to  that  for 
the  ordinary  beet,  except  that  land  intended  for  the  former  crop  should  be  plowed  and  finely 
pulverized  long  enough  before  sowing  the  seed  to  admit  of  its  settling  down  a  little  firmly 
before  the  seed  is  deposited,  which  should  be  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  May, 
the  quantity  required  being  four  or  five  pounds  per  acre.  The  seed  should  be  sown  about 
two  inches  apart,  in  drills  that  are  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  in  order  to  admit 
of  the  use  of  horse-power  in  the  cultivation  of  the  crop.  If  the  soil  be  light  and  the  weather 
dry,  the  roller  should  be  used  to  press  the  earth  down  upon  the  seed  and  hasten  its  germina- 
tion. When  the  plants  are  up  about  two  a.nd  a  half  inches,  they  should  be  thinned  out  to  twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  apart,  and  the  after-culture  be  similar  to  that  of  the  common  beet.  In  cul- 
tivating, as  much  care  as  possible  should  be  used  to  prevent  breaking  the  leaves.  Two  or 
three  hundred  weight  of  salt  per  acre  mixed  with  the  manure,  is  thought  by  many  growers 
to  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  crop. 

Harvesting  and  Storage. — Beets  should  be  harvested  before  there  is  danger  of 
injury  from  frosts.  The  tops  should  be  cut  to  within  one  inch  of  the  bulb,  and  the  small 
roots  remain  on  such  as  are  intended  for  late  keeping.  In  puUing  and  cleaning  the  roots, 
care  should  be  used  not  to  wound  or  cut  off  any  of  the  large  fibers,  as  it  injures  the  quality 
and  induces  a  tendency  to  decay;  neither  should  they  ever  be  allowed  to  wilt,  for  having 
once  become  wilted  or  shriveled,  they  will  never  recover  their  firm  and  brittle  texture.  In 
stacking  them,  they  will  keep  better  if  the  crowns  are  placed  outward.  They  may  be  stored 
in  a  cool  cellar  and  slightly  covered  with  dry  earth,  or  in  piles  of  from  twenty  to  thirty 
bushels  each,  and  covered  with  sufiicient  straw  and  earth  to  keep  out  the  frost,  as  recom- 
jnended  for  ruta  bagas. 


368  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

CARROTS. 

THE  carrot  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  roots  for  feeding  stock,  besides  being  quite 
hardy  and  easy  of  cultivation.  It  is  of  especial  value  for  feeding  horses  and  cattle. 
Milch-cows  will  give  an  increased  flow  of  mUk,  with  rich,  yellow  cream,  when  fed  upon  it. 
While  horses  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  with  a  considerably  less  quantity  of  oats  than 
the  usual  allowance  when  about  twenty  pounds  of  carrots  are  given  them  daily ;  they  also 
promote  a  healthy  condition  of  animals  and  give  a  sleek  appearance  to  the  coat.  Larger 
crops  can  be  obtained  on  light  soil  than  of  turnips,  and  with  less  exhaustion;  in  fact,  if  the 
land  is  well  manured,  carrots  can  be  grown  upon  the  same  soil  for  several  successive  years 
without  deterioration  to  the  crop  or  soil.  They  can  be  kept  to  an  advanced  period  in  the  spring 
when  properly  stored.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  sa\'ing  the  seed  from  only  the  best 
selected  roots,  as  there  is  a  tendency  in  this  crop  to  degenerate,  if  the  seed  is  not  of  the  best 
quality. 

The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  East,  and  in  its  wild  state  is  a  small  root,  sticky  and  strong- 
flavored,  which  cultivation  has  changed  almost  beyond  recognition. 

The  leaves  of  the  carrot  were  considered  so  beautiful  during  the  reign  of  Charles  1,  that 
they  were  worn  for  ornaments,  in  place  of  feathers,  by  the  ladies  of  England.  They  are 
eaten  by  stock,  either  green  or  dry. 

Yarieties. — There  are  several  varieties  of  the  carrot,  which  differ  with  respect  to  size, 
form,  color,  quahties,  and  period  of  ripening.  The  following  are  considered  the  best  for  field 
culture  and  stock  feeding:  the  Improved  Long  Orange,  Long  Red  Altringham,  Half-long 
Scarlet,  Danvers  (an  intermediate  variety).  Orange  Belgian,  and  the  Large  White  Belgian. 
The  last  two  are  a  large  variety,  grown  in  this  country  exclusively  for  stock;  they  are  less 
fine  in  texture  than  the  other  varieties,  although  the  yield  is  larger.  The  roots  grow  high 
out  of  the  ground,  which  renders  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  quite  easy.  The  Large  White 
Belgian  is  much  cultivated  in  France  for  soups  and  seasonings  as  well  as  for  stock. 

Among  the  varieties  for  garden  culture  are  many  of  the  above  mentioned,  together  with 
the  Earliest  French  Farcing,  a  small  root  prized  for  its  earliness  and  superior  flavor;  the 
Early  Scarlet  Horn,  an  early  variety  of  deep  orange  color  and  abrupt  termination  of  root; 
Early  Short  Horn,  and  Early  Half-long  Carentan.  The  carrot  is  said  to  be  next  to  the  potato 
in  nutritive  value. 

Cultivation. — The  soil  best  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  carrots  is  a  light,  deep,  sandy 
loam,  or  one  of  a  peaty  character,  although  very  fair  crops  can  be  obtained  from  almost  any 
that  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry,  and  that  is  made  very  rich.  Farm-yard  manure  should 
not  be  applied  until  after  it  has  been  well  fermented,  as  it  will,  if  fresh,  induce  the  growth  of 
forked  and  ill-shaped  roots  of  inferior  quality;  therefore  it  is  best  to  select  land  that  has  been 
heavily  manured  the  previous  season,  or  if  that  is  not  practicable,  most  of  the  manure  should 
be  applied  in  the  fall.  The  plowing  should  be  very  deep,  and  the  soO  finely  pulverized  and 
free  from  stones,  but  most  of  the  manure  should  be  near  the  surface,  within  reach  of  the 
young  plants  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth.  The  manure,  as  well  as  the  soil,  should  be 
made  very  fine.  Bone-dust,  guano,  or  superphosphate  may  be  used  as  a  substitute,  or  to  sup- 
plement farm  manure  for  this  purpose.  Artificial  manures  are  often  apphed  after  the  plants 
are  out  of  the  ground.  It  is  well  to  plow  the  land  for  this  crop  early  in  the  spring,  and  agam 
just  before  sowing  the  seed,  in  order  to  secure  a  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil  and  the 
destruction  of  the  weeds.  The  best  crops  are  generally  secured  where  the  soil  is  deeply 
trenched  and  ridged,  as  long  before  sowing  as  possible. 

The  early  varieties  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  a  working  condition  in  the 
spring,  but  the  main  crop  should  be  sown  in  the  early  part  of  May.     The  seed  should  be 


CARROTS. 


369 


sown  in  drills  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  apart,  the  larger  varieties  requiring  more  space 
than  the  smaller.  If  the  seed  of  the  early  varieties  is  put  in  early  in  the  spring,  the  crop 
will  be  liable  to  ripen  too  soon  and  not  keep  as  well  during  the  winter  as  those  sown  later  in 
the  season ;  but  if  the  sowing  be  delayed  too  late,  the  young  plants,  being  rather  weak  when 
they  first  come  up,  will  be  liable  to  be  dried  and  withered  in  the  hot  sun.  The  seed  should 
be  covered  evenly  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch.  If  soaked  a  day  or  two  in  tepid  water 
before  sowing,  and  mixed  immediately  after  in  dry  plaster  or  ashes,  the  plants  will  come  up 
much  sooner,  and  the  first  weeding  will  thus  be  much  easier.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are 
suflSciently  strong,  they  should  be  thinned  out  so  as  to  leave  about  six  inches  between  each 
plant,  if  of  the  smaller  kinds,  or  eight  inches  of  the  larger  varieties.  The  ground  should  be 
kept  clear  of  weeds,  but  deep  stirring  of  the  soil  should  be  avoided,  as  it  would  have  a  ten- 
dency to  injure  the  roots,  and  cause  them  to  grow  forked  and  irregular.  There  are  various 
weeders,  and  both 
horse  and  hand  hoes 
admirably  adapted  to 
this  pui'pose. 

Cultivating 
Seed . — It  is  very  im- 
portant to  secure  seed 
of  the  previous  year's 
growth,  for  if  older, 
their  germination 
cannot  be  depended 
upon  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty. 
An    ounce    of    seed 

will  sow  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  drill,  and  from  two  to  three  pounds  will  be  sufficient  for 
an  acre.  In  securing  seed  for  carrots,  it  is  important  that  the  best  roots  be  selected  for  the 
purpose — those  of  good  size,  form,  and  color.  These  should  be  set  out  as  early  as  the  ground 
will  admit,  without  danger  from  frost,  in  land  deeply  plowed  and  properly  fertilized.  The  roots 
should  be  well  covered,  and  if  they  are  very  long,  holes  should  be  made  for  them  in  the  soil 
with  an  iron  bar.  The  rows  should  be  from  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  the  roots  from  one 
and  a  half  to  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  They  should  have  an  occasional  hoeing  and  be  kept 
free  from  weeds.  When  the  branches  become  dry  and  yellow  and  the  seed  turns  brown,  the 
heads  may  be  cut  and  put  in  a  dry  place.  The  heads  will  ripen  unevenly,  and  will  require 
cutting  at  different  times. 

Harvesting  and  Storing. — The  crop  should  be  gathered  before  being  injured  by 
the  frost,  and  in  dry  weather  when  the  roots  will  come  out  of  the  ground  dry  and  clean. 
They  may  be  harvested  with  facility  by  running  a  plow  on  one  side  of  the  rows,  after  which 
they  can  be  easily  removed  by  hand;  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  or  bruise  them 
in  any  way,  as  it  will  cause  them  to  decay.  The  tops  should  be  cut  close  to  the  crown  to 
prevent  sprouting  in  winter.  They  should  lie  a  day  in  the  sun,  and  become  well  dried  and  a 
little  wilted  before  storing.  They  may  be  deposited  in  small  heaps  in  a  cool  cellar  and 
covered  with  dry  sand,  or  stored  in  trenches,  the  same  as  other  roots.  Carrots  are  apt  to 
sweat  and  heat  when  packed  away  in  large  quantities.  They  will  keep  best  in  a  dry  place 
and  one  that  is  sufficiently  cool  to  avoid  freezing,  dampness  and  heat  being  detrimental  to 
their  good  preservation. 


KNOX  S    CARROT    AITD    COTTON    WEEDER. 


370 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


1.  Impbovid  Lono  Obanoi  Carrot. 

S.   EiRLV    HaLF-LoNO    SCAELtT   CaRBOT. 

5.  Early  Very  Short  Horn  Scarlet  Carrot, 
4.  Eablt  Scarlet  Horn  Cabbit. 

6.  Eablt  Halt-Lono  Carestan  Carrot 


6.  Larob  Whiti  Biloun  Carrot. 

7.  Small  Ghebkin,  or  Burr  Cccumber, 

8.  Impboted  Impcbial  Sugar  Beet. 

9.  Long  Red  Mangel-Wurzel  Beet. 

10.  Lenobmand'b  Short-Stem  CAULtrLOWSB 


Copied  by  permission  from  Catalogue  of  H.  A.  Dreer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


PARSNIPS.  371 

PARSNIPS. 

THE  parsnip  is  a  delicious  table  vegetable,  especially  in  the  early  spring;  besides,  it  is 
excellent  for  feeding  stock,  being  nearly  equal  to  the  carrot  in  nutritive  value.  It  is 
relished  by  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  but  is  thought  to  be  not  as  good  for  horses  as 
carrots.  The  leaves  furnish  fodder  for  cattle  whether  green  or  dry.  In  its  wild  state  the 
roots  are  fibrous,  small,  and  strong  flavored,  but  cultivation  has  changed  it  into  a  root  of  fine 
texture,  good  size,  and  most  delicate  flavor. 

Varieties. — There  are  but  few  varieties  of  the  parsnip;  the  principal  are  the  Early 
Round  French,  an  early  variety  of  delicate  flavor,  the  Long  Smooth,  or  Hollow  Crown,  with 
long,  smooth  roots,  tender  and  sweet,  the  tops  of  which  are  small  with  a  red  tinge  at  the 
crown,  which  rises  from  the  center  surrounded  by  a  slight  depression.  It  is  very  hardy  and 
keeps  through  the  winter  well  without  any  protection.  The  Student  is  a  new  variety  of  fine 
quality,  improved  from  the  wild  parsnip  by  Prof.  Buckman  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College, 
Cirencester,  England,  which  has  met  with  much  favor. 

Cultivation. — The  soil  for  parsnips  should  be  heavier  than  that  for  carrots,  this  crop 
thriving  best  in  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and,  unlike  the  latter,  favors  that  in  which  clay  predomi- 
nates. The  soil  for  all  root  crops  should  be  deeply  tilled,  and  finely  pulverized.  The  culture 
given  should  be  similar  to  that  for  carrots.  All  fresh  manure  for  fertilizing  should  be 
avoided,  being  injurious  to  the  crop,  and,  as  is  recommended  for  carrots,  the  best  lands  are 
those  that  have  been  heavily  manured  the  previous  season.  When  farm  manure  well  fer- 
mented is  used,  it  should  be  made  very  fine.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  drills  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  apart,  scattered  sparingly,  and  covered  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  with 
finely  pulverized  soil.  Soaking  the  seed  a  day  or  two  in  tepid  water  before  planting  will 
cause  them  to  germinate  more  quickly.  The  sowing  should  be  early  in  the  season,  as  they 
require  considerable  time  to  mature,  and  will  bear  the  frost  well.  When  the  plants  are  about 
two  or  three  inches  high,  they  should  be  thinned  out,  leaving  them  from  six  to  eight  inches 
apart.  The  soil  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  frequently  stirred.  Keeping  them  in 
the  ground  during  the  winter  improves  them.  If  the  roots  are  small  in  the  autumn,  and  a 
light  snow  falls  before  the  ground  freezes,  they  will  frequently  continue  to  grow,  and  some- 
times nearly  double  their  size  before  spring.  They  should  be  taken  out  of  the  ground  before 
commencing  a  spring  growth,  for  if  not,  the  quality  of  the  crop  will  be  greatly  injured.  A 
few  may  be  harvested  and  stored  like  other  roots  in  the  fall,  for  use  during  cold  weather. 
An  ounce  of  seed  will  sow  about  two  hundred  feet  in  drills,  and  from  four  to  five  pounds 
wiU  be  required  to  the  acre.     The  seed  is  cultivated  the  same  as  for  carrots. 


ARTICHOKES. 


THIS  is  a  crop  that  produces  an  immense  yield  with  comparatively  little  culture,  and, 
when  once  estabUshed  in  the  soil,  will  continue  to  grow  abundantly  for  successive  years, 
with  little  care.  The  quality  of  the  tubers  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  potato,  which 
they  resemble,  but  as  this  crop  yields  so  abundantly,  growing  freely  on  poor  soils  and  with 
but  little  attention,  it  is  a  profitable  one  for  culture.  The  tubers  are  used  for  feeding  stock, 
especially  swine,  which  will  fatten  upon  them  when  freely  fed,  or  allowed  to  do  their  own 
harvesting  by  being  turned  into  a  field,  and  thus  considerable  labor  in  gathering  the  crop 
saved.  In  such  cases,  enough  will  be  left  in  the  ground  to  reproduce  for  successive  seasons. 
They  are  much  in  favor  with  the  pork-producers  of  the  West.     Milch  cows,  sheep,  and  in 


372  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

fact  all  kinds  of  stock,  seem  to  thrive  when  fed  upon  them,  which  proves  that  they  contain 
considerable  nutritive  matter,  as  well  as  the  following  analysis  of  it  by  "Wolff  and  Knop,  com- 
paring its  nutritive  value  with  the  Irish  potato,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  artichoke 
has  as  much  flesh-forming  material  as  the  potato,  and  nearly  as  much  heat  and  fat-producing 
material. 

TFoto-        Organic  ,.i,         Albumin-       Carbo-  Crude        „„,     , 

^'""-        mStter.  -'^^^-  oids.         hydrates.        fiber.         Fat,  etc. 

Potato 75.0  24.1  0.9  2.0  21.0  1.1  0.3 

Artichoke,      .        .        .        80.0  18.9  1.1  2.0  15.6  1.3  0.5 

The  tubers  are  sometimes  used  for  the  table,  when  pickled,  or  for  slicing  in  vinegar 
like  the  cucumber  They  are  usually  fed  to  stock  raw,  but  are  said  to  be  more  nutritious 
when  boiled.  The  tops,  when  cut  and  cured  as  hay,  furnish  a  fodder  that  is  relished  by 
cattle  and  sheep.  It  is  rather  a  difficult  crop  to  exterminate  from  the  soil  when  once  established 
in  a  locality.  This  can  be  done,  however,  by  plowing  the  land  when  it  is  about  a  foot  high, 
or  by  mowing  them  in  the  latter  part  of  August. 

Varieties. — There  are  but  few  varieties  of  the  artichoke.  The  Jerusalem  is  quite 
extensively  grown,  and  one  of  the  oldest,  although  some  of  the  newer  ones,  such  as  the 
Improved  Wlute  French  and  the  Eed  Brazilian,  are  generally  considered  more  productive 
and  superior  in  quahty.  The  yield  varies  with  the  soil  and  variety,  but  it  is  always  large, 
even  on  inferior  land,  while  the  reports  from  some  sections  give  the  astonishing  product  of 
from  eighteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  bushels  per  acre.  On  good  land,  from  a  thousand  to 
twelve  hundred  bushels  per  acre  are  not  uncommon.  Dr.  Pollard,  former  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture  of  Virginia,  refers  to  this  crop  as  follows:  — 

"Mr.  A.  C.  "Williams;  of  Ohio,  says:  —  'The  keep  of  my  hogs  in  warm  weather  is  blue 
grass  and  Brazilian  artichokes.  Forty  head  of  hogs  and  their  pigs  may  be  kept  without 
other  food  on  an  acre  of  artichokes  from  the  time  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  until  first 
of  June  (about  two  months),  and  from  September  to  October,  trntU  the  ground  is  again 
frozen.'  We  suppose  this  means  that  the  hogs  are  to  be  taken  off  first  of  June  and  the 
artichokes  permitted  to  grow  and  form  fresh  tubers  until  the  fall.  They  fill  the  ground  so 
thickly  with  their  tubers  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for  the  hogs  to  get  them  all  in 
the  two  months,  and  thus  bear  seed  enough  for  the  summer's  growth.  I  am  prepared  to 
believe  this  statement  of  Mr.  "Williams  from  an  experiment  I  made  with  them  this  year. 
The  variety  I  planted  was  the  •  "White  French;'  procured  from  the  United  States  Agri- 
cultural Department.  I  could  not  procure  the  'Red  Brazihan,'  which  is  preferred  in  the 
"West.  In  spite  of  the  drought,  I  tliink  each  hill  would  average  half  a  peck.  They  are  not 
all  yet  taken  up.  Two  hills  selected  as  having  large  stalks  yielded  one  and  a  half  pecks.  At 
half  a  peck  to  the  hiU,  and  planted  three  feet  by  one  foot,  the  usual  distance,  the  yield  would 
be  upwards  of  1,800  bushels.  A  neighbor  of  mine,  from  one  hill  of  the  common  artichoke 
heavily  manured,  produced  a  measured  peck — upward  of  3,600  bushels  to  the  acre." 

There  is  an  entirely  different  plant,  known  as  artichoke,  {^Cynara  scolymus,)  a  native  of 
Barbary  and  Southern  Europe,  which  is  cultivated  for  its  flower  heads,  which,  in  their  imma- 
ture state,  are  boiled  and  eaten  as  food.  T"lie  bottom  of  the  heads  are  very  fleshy,  which  is 
the  edible  part.  There  are  two  principal  varieties  of  this  plant,  the  Large  Globe,  producing 
large  globular  heads  of  a  dusky  purple  color,  and  which  is  considered  the  best  for  general 
culture,  and  the  Large  Paris,  with  large  oval  heads,  a  kind  much  cultivated  and  esteemed  by 
the  French. 

Planting,  Cnltivation,  etc. — The  artichoke  will  grow  on  almost  any  kind  of  land, 
and  in  shady  localities,  but  does  best  on  a  light,  rich  soil,  with  open  exposure.  It  is  very  hardy, 
and  will  endure  severe  cold  without  injury,  living  through  the  winters  in  the  ground  in  any 
part  of  the  United  States. 


ROOTS  AND  ESCULENT  TUBES.  373 

To  grow  them  with  the  best  success,  the  soil  should  be  rich,  and  plowed  rather  deeply, 
followed  by  harrowing.  They  are  usually  planted  in  hills,  though  sometimes  in  drills,  but  as 
they  grow  and  spread  so  rapidly,  the  former  is  the  better  mode.  The  ground  should  be  pre- 
pared as  for  potatoes,  although,  if  moderately  fertile,  a  good  crop  can  be  produced  without 
any  manui-e.  The  hills  should  be  about  three  feet  apart.  About  three  bushels  of  the  tubers 
will  be  required  per  acre,  planting  the  small  ones  whole,  and  the  larger  ones  in  pieces  con- 
taining one  or  two  eyes,  with  only  about  two  of  such  pieces  to  a  hill.  A  potato-planter  may 
be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  they  may  be  dropped  by  hand  and  covered  with  a  light  plow  or 
hand-hoe,  the  covering  to  be  about  as  deep  as  that  for  potatoes.  The  planting  should  be  done 
as  eai-ly  as  the  ground  will  admit.  They  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  by  the  use  of  the 
cultivator  or  hoe. 

Soon  after  blossoming,  which  is  in  August,  the  tubers  begin  to  form,  and  continue  to 
grow  rapidly  until  the  frost  kills  fhe  stalks,  or  they  are  cut  down. 

It  is  said  that  the  tubers  can  be  largely  increased  in  size  by  pinching  off  the  tops  Just 
previous  to  flowering.  If  the  crop  is  harvested,  instead  of  being  left  in  the  ground  during 
the  winter,  it  wiU  be  ready  for  gathering  as  soon  as  the  tops  have  withered.  They  may  be 
stored  the  same  as  potatoes  or  turnips. 

Chufas. — This  crop  is  cultivated  mostly  in  the  Southern  States  for  its  tubers,  which  are 
used  principally  as  food  for  swine  and  poultry.  They  have  a  sweet,  nut-like  flavor,  and  pos- 
sess considerable  nutrition.  They  are  difficult  to  eradicate  from  the  soil,  very  productive, 
and  easily  cultivated. 

Cultivation. — This  crop  is  propagated  by  means  of  the  tubers.  It  will  thrive  on 
almost  any  soil,  a  sandy  loam  being  the  best.  The  land  should  be  plowed  to  a  moderate 
depth,  and  harrowed.  On  rich  land,  good  crops  can  be  produced  without  much  manure 
being  applied,  but  where  the  soil  is  not  naturally  fertile,  a  good  supply  of  manure  should  be 
given  it.  The  planting  should  be  done  about  the  time  of  corn  planting,  in  drills  from  two 
to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  the  tubers  being  about  a  foot  apart  in  the  row. 

The  tubers  should  be  dropped  singly  and  covered  with  about  two  inches  of  soil.  The 
weeds  should  be  kept  down,  and  the  soil  occasionally  stirred  with  a  horse-hoe  or  cultivator, 
the  same  as  for  potatoes.  It  is  a  plant  that  is  best  adapted  to  a  Southern  climate,  although  it 
wiU  grow  in  much  cooler  temperatures,  and  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts. 

Ridge  Culture  for  Root  Crops. — Ridge  culture  has  some  special  advantages  in 
growing  root  crops,  especially  where  the  soil  is  heavy  and  rather  wet;  but  it  will  fail  if  the 
manure  is  coarse,  and  not  well  mingled  with  the  soil.  It  is  often  resorted  to  when  lands  are 
insufficiently  drained,  thus  securing  the  advantage  of  drainage. 

The  use  of  coarse  manure  in  a  wet  season  will  not  affect  the  crop,  however,  to  the  extent 
that  it  will  if  the  season  is  unusually  dry,  as  plants  will  always  suffer  in  time  of  drought,  if 
large  pieces  of  manure  are  left  under  them.  In  sections  possessing  Hght  soil  and  subject  to 
severe  drought,  ridging  would  not  be  advisable,  providing  the  whole  surface  be  well  manured, 
and  the  soil  deeply  pulverized  before  planting. 

The  usual  method  of  ridging  is  to  first  get  the  soil  in  a  fine,  mellow  condition,  and  then 
plow  the  land  into  furrows,  the  distance  apart  varying  according  to  the  kind  of  crop  to  be 
grown.  The  common  practice  is  to  turn  two  furrows  together  from  opposite  directions,  and 
plant  upon  the  top  of  the  ridges.  The  manure  in  such  cases  is  sometimes  applied  broadcast, 
and  harrowed  into  the  soil  before  ridging,  and  sometimes  placed  in  the  furrows  and  covered 
with  the  soil.  The  former  method  requires  more  manure,  but  less  labor  in  preparing;  the 
latter  economizes  manure,  but  involves  extra  plowing  to  throw  the  soil  over  the  manure,  and 
change  the  furrow  where  it  was  deposited  into  a  ridge.  This  method  is  as  follows:  After 
pulverizing  the  soil  and  throwing  it  into  ridges  with  the  plow,,  finely-pulverized  manure  is 


374  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

thrown  into  each  furrow,  partially  filling  it.  The  plow  is  then  run  through  the  center  of  each 
ridge,  throwing  the  soU  over  the  manure,  and  forming  ridges  over  it.  A  light  roller  or 
drag-plank  drawn  over  the  field  wiU  sinooth  down  the  ridges,  and  fit  them  for  the  seed,  which 
may  be  put  in  with  a  drill. 

The  ridge  method  of  culture,  as  well  as  all  other  modes  for  root  crops,  requires  a  deep, 
clean  soil,  finely-pulverized,  and  after-culture  sufficient  to  exterminate  the  weeds.  A  cultiva- 
tor can  be  set  sufficiently  narrow  for  this  purpose,  or  the  wheel-hoe  may  be  used. 

The  ridge  system  of  cultivation  requires  more  labor  in  preparing  the  field  for  seed,  and, 
usually,  a  larger  area  of  land  than  the  common  method. 

How  to  Construct  Tentilators  for  Root-Pits. — In  storing  vegetables  in  pits,  it 

is  necessary  to  pro\'ide  some  means  of  permitting  the  vapor  and  moisture  from  them  to 
escape  without  admitting  the  rain  or  frost,  as  either  would  cause  a  speedy  decay  of  the  roots. 
The  American  Cultivator  recommends  the  following  simple  and  sensible  methods  of  ventilating 
root-pits,  which  may  prove  of  value  to  many  farmers  who  make  use  of  such  modes  of  storage 
for  these  crops: 

"In  pitting  roots,  abundant  openings  should  be  provided  for  the  escape  of  the  heated 
air  and  moisture,  produced  by  the  ripening  and  fermentation  of  the  roots.  AU  moist  veg- 
etable matter,  when  packed  closely  in  a  heap  or  mass,  will  begin  to  heat  and  ferment  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours.  The  heat  produces  considerable  vapor,  which  must  pass  off,  and  in 
its  escape  carry  off  the  heat  with  it,  else  the  temperature  will  increase,  and,  before  long, 
decomposition  wiU  begin,  and  the  mass  will  rot.  Danger  of  tliis  is  averted,  both  by  having 
the  roots  free  from  outside  moisture  when  pitted,  and  by  facilitating  the  escape  of  that  which 
they  give  off.  This  is  usually  done  by  leaving  open  spaces  every  few  feet  at  the  top  of  the 
pits,  into  which  bundles  of  straw,  or  drain-tiles,  are  placed,  to  serve  as  flues.  But  it  is  well 
to  open  a  ventilator  from  the  bottom  of  the  heap,  into  which  the  hot  and  moist  air  may 
escape  from  all  sides.  This  may  be  done  by  tying  a  number  of  rails  together  (the  more 
crooked  the  rails,  the  better,  as  they  will  provide  more  spaces),  and  placing  a  bundle  in  the 
pits  at  about  every  six  feet  of  their  length.  The  top  of  each  bimdle  projects  a  few  inches, 
and  this  may  be  protected  by  a  cap  of  straw.  This  cap  should  be  tied  firmly  to  the  top  of 
the  rails,  to  secure  it  from  winds,  and  to  shed  rain.  If  small  bunches  of  straw  were  fixed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pit.  half-way  between  the  ventilators,  so  long  as  the  weather  is  not  too  cold, 
they  would  greatly  facilitate  the  cooling  and  drying  of  the  roots.  When  frosts  are  looked 
for,  these  bottom  air-holes  should  be  securely  closed,  and  then  the  roots  can  take  care  of 
themselves." 


ONIONS. 


THE  onion  is  an  important  culinary  vegetable.  It  was  cultivated  in  Eg3rpt  and  Asia 
ages  ago,  and  has  been  introduced  from  thence  into  nearly  all  civilized  coimtries.  As 
an  article  of  food,  it  is  healthful,  nutritious,  and  also  often  used  for  its  medicinal 
properties.  There  are  numerous  varieties  which  may  be  largely  modified  by  the  influence  of 
soil  and  climate. 

Some  localities  are  especially  noted  for  the  culture  of  this  crop,  such  as  Wethersfield, 
Conn.,  Danvers,  Mass.,  and  the  Bermuda  Islands,  where  the  soil  seems  especially  adapted  to 
its  most  successful  production. 

The  supply  of  onions  found  in  our  city  markets  is  produced,  to  a  large  extent,  by  market 
gardeners,  although  many  farmers  make  this  crop  a  specialty,  and  find  it  a  very  profitable 
one.     Onions  may  be  grown'from  sets  or  bulbs,  or  from  seed. 


ONIONS.  375 

In  the  southern  latitude,  onions  cannot  be  grown  from  native  seed  in  one  season,  as  the 
hot  weather  prematurely  checks  the  growth  of  the  plant,  when  southern-grown  seed  is  sown, 
and  the  tops  die  down  before  the  bulbs  have  matured,  or  attained  a  suiEcient  size  for  use; 
consequently,  these  small  bulbs,  or  "  sets,"  as  they  are  called,  require  another  season's  growth 
in  order  to  become  of  desirable  size  and  good  quality.  They  are  gathered  in  the  usual  man- 
ner the  first  season,  and  set  out  the  following  spring  to  complete  their  growth.  It  is  stated 
from  good  authority,  that  northern-grown  seed,  with  favorable  conditions,  will  mature  good- 
sized  bulbs  at  the  South  during  the  first  season.  We  have  never  tested  this  assertion,  but 
know  that  such  a  result  cannot  be  attained  with  seed  ripened  in  a  southern  climate. 

The  most  favorable  region  for  raising  onions,  is  that  north  of  40°.  South  of  this  paral- 
lel, the  summers  are  too  dry  and  hot  for  their  successful  culture;  hence,  as  previously  stated, 
a  second  season's  growth  is  required  where  native  seed  is  sown.  The  method  of  culture  by 
setting  out  bulbs  is  practiced  at  the  North  when  an  early  crop  is  desired,  which  will  be  ready 
for  the  market  in  June. 

Yarieties. — The  varieties  of  the  onion  are  quite  numerous,  some  of  which  are  much 
more  productive  and  desirable  in  quality  than  others. 

Among  those  raised  from  seed  are  as  follows:  the  Early  Red,  which  is  of  medium  size, 
quite  productive,  and  mild  in  flavor;  the  Early  Cracker,  which  is  much  earher  than  the  Large 
Yellow,  and  of  good  quality;  the  White  Portugal,  delicate-flavored,  of  medium  size,  but  not 
as  productive  as  some  varieties,  and  not  as  good  to  keep,  being  hable  to  gather  moisture  and 
decay  early  ■  unless  spread  very  thin  in  storing;  the  Danvers  Yellow,  a  fine  variety,  which 
originated  in  Danvers,  Mass. ;  it  is  a  favorite  in  the  Boston  markets,  and  is  considered  one  of 
the  best  for  general  cultivation  at  the  North,  being  very  vigorous  and  productive;  ripens 
early  and  keeps  well.  It  is  rather  large,  straw-colored,  and  mild  in  flavor.  Another  very 
popular  variety,  and  which  is  the  staple  for  the  New  York  market,  is  the  Large  Red 
Wethersfield,  which  is  fine-grained,  productive,  of  large  size,  and  keeps  well.  It  requires  a 
long  season  for  growth,  and  ripens  in  September. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  that  are  favorites  in  certain  localities,  but  the  above-men- 
tioned are  the  most  extensively-cultivated  and  popular  varieties. 

Among  the  Italian  varieties  which  are  of  very  fine  size  and  quality,  and  which  are  said 
to  be  particularly  adapted  for  cultivation  in  the  Southern  States,  are  the  following:  the  Mar- 
zagole,  which  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  matures  early ;  if  sown  in  the  autumn  in  warm  cli- 
mates it  will  be  ready  for  use  in  March ;  the  Large  Italian  Red  TripoH,  of  fine  flavor,  and 
grows  very  large ;  the  Giant  Rocca  of  Naples,  a  variety  of  large  globular  form,  light  brown  skin, 
and  delicate  flavor ;  the  Giant  White  Tripoli,  a  large  white  Italian  variety  of  quick  growth, 
and  nearly  flat.  Another  variety  remarkable  for  its  keeping  qualities,  as  well  as  the  rapidity 
of  its  growth,  is  the  New  Queen.  If  sown  in  March,  it  will,  under  favoring  conditions,  pro- 
duce bulbs  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter  early  in  the  summer,  which  will  keep  sound 
until  the  following  summer;  or,  if  sown  in  July,  the  crop  will  be  ready  to  harvest  late  in  the 
autumn,  and  remain  sound  until  the  following  autumn. 

Top  or  Button  onions  are  a  variety  that  is  propagated  from  little  bulbs  which  grow  on 
the  top  of  the  flower  stalk,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  ten  or  a  dozen,  growing  in  the 
same  manner  and  place  on  the  stalk,  as  the  ordinary  seeds,  but  are  small,  distinct  bulbs, 
which  are  transplanted  the  following  spring.  They  are  coarse  in  quahty,  and  do  not  keep  as 
well  as  some  of  the  varieties  raised  from  seed,  but  are  quite  early,  of  mild  flavor,  and  easily 
cultivated,  which  constitutes  their  principal  merit,  instead  of  fine  quality. 

The  Potato  Onion  is  a  marked  variety,  producing  bulbs  in  the  soil,  which  are  offsets 
growing  near  the  root  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  growth  of  top  onions  at  the  top  of  the 
flower-stalk.     It  is  easily  cultivated,  but  of  inferior  quality. 

The  Shallot  is  similar  to  the  Potato  Onion,  growing  in  clusters  something  like  the  garlic. 
24 


376  THE  A5IERICAN  FARMER. 

The  tops  and  bulbs  are  sometimes  both  eaten.  It  never  attains  a  very  large  size,  but  when 
the  little,  irregular  bulbs  are  set  out  early  in  the  spring,  will  be  ready  for  market  several 
weeks  before  seed-sown  onions  are  matured.  In  quality  they  are  superior  to  the  Potato 
Onion,  and  also  keep  well. 

The  Rareripe  is  another  form  of  this  product  differing  from  the  sets,  from  the  fact  of  their 
being  mature  onions  which  have  been  kept  through  the  winter,  and  which,  if  set  out  in 
the  spring  and  prevented  from  going  to  seed,  will  increase  in  size  and  be  ready  for  market 
early.  It  is  customary  with  farmers  to  sometimes  select  the  small  mature  onions  of  the  crop 
and  set  them  out  early  in  the  spring  for  a  larger  growth,  which  is  secured  by  keeping  the 
stalks  cut  down  to  where  they  begin  to  enlarge.  They  wtU  be  ready  for  market  early,  but 
win  not  be  of  very  fine  quality. 

Sets,  are  immature  onions  set  out  for  larger  growth  and  maturity. 

Cultiyation  from  Seed.  —  A  deep,  rich,  loamy  soQ  is  best  adapted  to  the  culture 
of  onions;  it  should,  however,  be  neither  too  heavy  nor  too  light,  and  of  medium  moisture, 
the  extremes  of  either  wet  or  dry  being  equally  objectionable.  Land  with  a  slight  declivity, 
well  drained,  should  be  selected,  and  it  should  be  neither  stony  or  poor  in  any  respect.  A 
sandy  or  gravelly  loam  well  manured  will  yield  fine  crops;  some  other  soils  wiU  also  yield 
fairly  well.  Where  very  large  bulbs  are  desired,  a  deep,  rich  loam,  rather  strong,  is  neces- 
sary; the  growth  in  such  a  soU  will  also  be  more  rapid,  and  there  will  be  less  Hability  to 
the  attacks  of  the  onion-fly  or  maggot  than  on  a  light,  dry,  sandy  soil.  TTnlike  most  crops, 
onions  can  be  cultivated  for  several  years  in  succession  on  the  same  field,  and  seem  to  do 
better  by  this  method  of  culture,  while  it  is  much  less  labor  than  to  follow  a  rotation  and 
change  every  year  or  two,  they  being  one  of  the  rare  exceptions  to  the  theory  of  rotation  of 
crops.  "Weeds  are  detrimental  to  this  crop,  consequently  their  successful  production  necessi- 
tates a  clean  soU.  For  this  reason,  carrots  or  celery  are  very  good  preparatory  crops  to 
grow  on  land  previous  to  its  being  occupied  by  onions.  Near  large  cities,  it  is  quite  a  com- 
mon practice  to  have  every  sixth  row  in  the  onion  field  occupied  with  celery.  After  remov- 
ing  the  onions,  the  celery  is  baiiked  up  with  the  soU  for  blanching,  thus  giving  a  second 
crop  from  the  same  land,  which  is  generally  about  as  profitable  as  the  first.  Land  designed 
for  onions  should  be  plowed  late  in  the  fall,  just  before  winter  sets  in;  this  wiU  insure 
the  destruction  of  the  wire-worms,  and  a  more  thorough  pulverization  of  soil  by  the  aid  of 
the  frosts.  The  plowing  should  not  be  very  deep,  four  or  five  inches  being  sufficient,  and 
if  the  land  is  a  slight  dechvity,  the  plowing  should  be  across  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  the  rains  washing  the  soil  by  nmning  down  the  furrows.  Stable  manure,  hog 
manure,  and  night  soil  are  beneficial  to  this  crop,  also  wood  ashes,  the  sulphate  of  potash, 
land  plaster,  and  many  of  the  other  commercial  fertilizers.  Stable  manure  should  always 
be  well  rotted  or  fermented  for  onions,  and  very  finely  pulverized.  A  heavy  dressing  of 
manure  is  essential  to  a  good  crop,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  cords  per  acre  being  none  too 
much;  in  addition  to  this,  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  of  unleached  wood  ashes,  and  about 
four  hundred  pounds  of  plaster  are  desirable.  Where  the  manure  is  not  to  be  had  for  this 
purpose,  about  six  hundred  pounds  of  superphosphates  will  answer  as  a  substitute,  to  which 
the  ashes  and  plaster  should  be  added. 

As  a  general  practice,  those  interested  in  the  cultivation  of  onions  do  not  enrich  the 
soil  sufficiently  to  make  it  a  profitable  crop,  or  rather,  by  enriching  it  more,  the  profits  would 
be  much  larger.  We  believe  this  is  why  so  many  in  their  first  attempts  in  growing  onions 
fail,  as  with  proper  fertility  and  care  they  are  one  of  the  surest  of  crops.  We  have  known  of 
several  who  have  cultivated  onions  from  eight  to  fifteen  years  in  succession,  and  have  never 
experienced  a  single  failure  during  all  that  period,  which  is  more  than  can  be  said  of  many 
crops. 

Some  farmers  spread  the  manure  in  the  fall  immediately  after  plowing,  and  harrow  it 


ONIONS.  377 

in,  or  where  this  is  not  conveniently  done,  they  work  it  over  during  the  winter  occasionally, 
to  make  it  very  fine,  and  plow  it  under  in  the  spring  about  three  inches,  after  which  the 
ground  is  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller.  Others  prefer  to  apply  the  manure  very  fine,  only  two 
or  three  days  before  sowing  the  seed.  Commercial  fertilizers,  wood  ashes,  and  plaster  should 
always  be  applied  about  that  time,  or  within  a  short  time  of  sowing.  If  the  manure  is 
spread  in  the  fall,  the  land  should  be  plowed  to  the  depth  of  three  inches  and  harrowed 
thoroughly  in  the  spring  just  before  sowing, — a  disc  harrow  being  best  for  this  purpose, — 
after  which  the  ground  should  be  rolled.  Rolling  crushes  the  clods  and  lumps  and  thus 
aids  in  pulverizing  the  soil.  When  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  this  process  should  be  repeated 
in  the  spring. 

All  stones  should  be  removed,  and  the  finer  the  soil  can  be  made,  the  better.  After  the 
soil  is  made  as  fine  as  possible  with  the  harrow  and  roller,  the  surface  should  be  carefully 
raked  with  a  fine-toothed  hand-rake  to  further  remove  all  the  small  lumps  of  earth  and 
stones  that  may  yet  remain.  It  requires  considerable  labor  and  pains-taking  to  prepare  a 
field  for  onion  culture,  but  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  be  done  well,  as  the  yield  of 
the  crop  will  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  prepared;  besides,  if 
thoroughly  done  the  first  season,  much  labor  will  be  saved  in  the  growing  of  subsequent 
crops  of  the  same  kind  which  may  follow  in  succession  for  several  years  with  advantage,  if 
the  land  continues  to  be  heavily  manured  each  year. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  seed  sown  should  be  of  the  very  best  quality  and  that 
grown  the  preceding  year.  It  cannot  be  of  the  best  quality  unless  the  best  and  largest  bulbs 
are  selected  for  producing  it,  and  it  is  fully  matured  before  beiug  gathered,  besides  being  well 
dried  and  cleaned. 

Some  farmers  are  indifferent  in  this  respect,  and  often  raise  seed  from  inferior,  ill- 
formed  bulbs,  but  such  seed  will  not  only  produce  a  crop  of  inferior  quality,  but  will  make 
a  difference  in  many  bushels  of  the  product,  in  quantity  per  acre.  It  is  also  equally  essen- 
tial that  the  seed  be  fresh  and  of  the  preceding  year's  growth,  as  old  seed  will  not  germi- 
nate  well,  and  is  very  unreliable.  It  is  stated  by  good  authority  that  of  seed  two  years  old 
less  than  half  will  ordinarily  germmate,  while  that  three  years  old  will  scarcely  germinate 
at  all;  consequently  it  is  always  safer  and  the  best  economy  to  secure  fresh  seed  for  planting, 
and  never  to  risk  the  old,  as  planting  over  is  an  injury  to  the  crop,  besides  involving  a 
great  deal  of  extra  labor,  all  of  which  may  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  fresh  seed  of  the  best 
quality. 

The  sowing  for  large  crops  should  always  be  done  by  a  machine,  as  hand-sowing  is  not 
only  slow  and  very  laborious,  but  results  in  the  loss  of  considerable  of  the  seed,  and  cannot 
be  done  as  uniformly  as  by  a  small  machine  that  will  drill  it  in  uniformly  and  cover  it  evenly. 
There  are  several  garden  seed-sowers  for  this  purpose  in  the  market  that  can  be  procured  at 
slight  expense,  and  will  do  the  work  much  better  and  easier  than  can  be  done  by  hand.  A 
seed-sower,  hand-cultivator,  and  weeder  combined  will  be  the  best  implement  of  the  kind  for 
the  purpose,  as  it  includes  three  machines  in  one. 

The  main  crop  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  is  in  working  condi- 
tion, since  it  is  best  to  secure  as  large  a  growth  as  possible,  before  the  usual  drouths  of 
August.  The  seed  should  be  deposited  in  drills  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  apart,  the 
latter  width  being  the  most  desirable  for  large  or  medium-sized  bulbs.  It  should  be  sown 
evenly  and  rather  sparingly,  and  covered  a  half  inch  in  depth.  About  four  seeds  an  inch 
is  considered  the  desirable  distance  in  sowing.  Most  of  the  seed-drills  cover  the  seed  and 
press  the  soil  down  upon  it,  but  where  this  is  not  done  by  the  machine,  it  is  well  to  go  over 
tihe  ground  with  a  light  roller  after  the  seed  is  covered,  which  has  a  tendency  to  quicken  the 
germination  of  the  seed.  Four  pounds  of  seed  are  sufiBcient  for  an  acre,  whore  the  drills 
are  about  sixteen  inches  apart.     Should  the  drills  be  neaxer,  a  little  more  may  be  required. 


378  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

An  ounce  of  seed  will  sow  a  bed  four  and  a  haK  feet  by  thirty  feet.  It  is  important  that  the 
seed  be  sown  early,  as  the  bulbs  will  all  be  more  liable  to  mature  well  and  there  will  be  no 
"scullions,"  as  they  are  called,  which  are  merely  unripe  onions. 

It  is  customary  to  weed  this  crop  three  or  four  times  during  the  season.  As  soon  as 
the  plants  make  their  appearance,  a  wheel-hoe  or  cultivator  should  be  used  between  the  rows 
to  check  the  weeds  which  will  always  start  vigorously  in  any  soil  newly  worked  over,  and 
which  will  ruin  the  crop,  if  not  kept  down.  If  this  cultivation  is  delayed  until  the  weeds  get 
well  started,  it  will  require  a  great  amount  of  labor  to  exterminate  them,  and  which  more 
prompt  attention  might  obviate.  If  this  cultivation  be  done  once  a  week  or  oftener  for  the 
first  few  weeks,  the  weeding  in  the  drills  by  hand  will  not  be  very  laborious;  besides,  as 
onions  do  not  shade  the  ground  much,  and  the  soil  must  of  necessity  be  very  rich,  weeds  in 
an  onion  field  will  grow  very  fast  and  be  sure  to  ruin  the  crop  unless  prompt  and  vigorous 
attention  be  given  to  keep  them  constantly  in  check.  They  must  be  exterminated  as  soon  as 
they  make  their  appearance  in  the  rows.  This  is  commonly  done  by  hand,  and  is  hard  work, 
as  it  involves  the  getting  down  of  the  operator  upon  his  hands  and  knees.  If  a  good  weeder 
or  cultivator  is  used  between  the  rows,  and  so  operated  as  to  work  close  to  the  drills,  there 
will  be  but  few  weeds  between  the  plants  to  be  pulled  out.  There  are  various  little  weeding 
hoes  invented  for  this  purpose,  to  take  the  place  of  hand-weeding,  but  many  farmers  prefer 
the  latter  as  being  more  effectual  in  results. 

An  experienced  farmer,  who  has  cultivated  onions  for  over  ten  years  successfully,  says 
that  a  useful  tool  to  weed  with,  where  the  ground  is  hard,  can  be  made  from  an  old  hoe,  by 
cutting  off  the  sides  of  the  blade  until  there  is  a  strip  left  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width;  after- 
wards grind  the  sides  and  edge  of  this  miniature  hoe,  shai-p,  and  put  in  a  handle  ten  inches 
long.  This  may  be  used  very  successfully  where  the  soil  is  rather  hard,  but  where  it  is  soft, 
fingers  can  do  more  rapid  and  efBcient  work.  If  the  fingers  get  tender  and  sore,  rubber 
finger-stalls,  or  fingers  cut  from  an  old  kid  glove,  are  a  great  protection. 

After  the  first  weeding,  many  consider  it  beneficial  to  give  the  crop  a  light  dressing  of 
wood-ashes.  Two  or  three  other  hand-weedings  with  frequent  use  of  cultivator  or  weeder 
between  the  rows,  will  be  required  before  the  crop  will  be  ready  for  harvesting.  All  sickly  and 
diseased-looking  plants  should  be  pulled  up  and  thrown  off  the  field  from  time  to  time.  It  is 
a  crop  that  cannot  be  neglected  and  fair  results  follow  ;  the  work  must  all  be  thoroughly  and 
promptly  performed,  if  a  good  crop  is  to  be  obtained.  When  the  bulbs  begin  to  ripen,  the 
tops  will  fall  over  to  the  ground  ;  for  a  short  time  after  this  period  the  bulbs  will  grow  very 
fast,  therefore  they  should  not  be  harvested  too  early. 

When  the  tops  are  nearly  all  fallen  over  to  the  ground,  and  are  dry  where  they  join  the 
hnlh,  they  are  ready  for  pulling.  Sometimes  it  happens  that  the  crop  ripens  unevenly.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  usual  practice  is  to  roll  something  light,  such  as  an  empty  flour  barrel, 
over  the  rows  in  order  to  bend  down  the  tops  of  the  green  upright  stalks,  which  will  hasten 
the  ripening  process.  If  onions  remain  in  the  ground  too  long  after  being  ready  to  be  pulled, 
they  will  commence  a  second  growth  by  sprouting  again,  which  will  ruin  the  crop.  Should 
the  maggot  make  its  appearance,  as  it  often  does,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  crop,  a  little  plas- 
ter, guano,  or  unleached  wood  ashes  scattered  along  the  rows  of  plants  will  be  an  aid  in  its 
extermination. 

Cultivation  of  Sets. — It  is  quite  common  in  the  Southern  States  to  grow  onions 
from  sets,  also  in  the  Northern,  when  a  very  early  crop  is  desired ;  but  the  main  product  is 
produced  in  the  latter  section  by  seed-sowing.  Southern-grown  sets  are  to  be  preferred  to 
those  of  a  northern  latitude. 

To  produce  sets,  the  land  should  be  made  moderately  fertile,  be  very  finely  pulverized, 
and  made  smooth  and  even,  the  same  as  for  the  reception  of  seed  for  the  seed-crop.  The 
seed  should  be  drilled  in  rows  nine  or  ten  inches  apart,  the  drills  to  be  broad,  to  secure  a  large 


ONIONS.  379 

number  of  bulbs  to  the  drill,  sowing  the  seed  thickly,  which  will  require  five  or  six  times  the 
amount  for  the  mature  crop  from  seed.  They  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  when  the 
tops  indicate  that  they  are  ready  for  gathering,  should  be  pulled  and  stored  through  the  win- 
ter in  a  cool,  dry  place,  well  ventilated.  To  insure  their  keeping  well,  they  should  be  spread 
very  thinly,  otherwise  they  will  gather  moisture  and  be  liable  to  decay.  In  the  following 
spring  these  little  bulbs  may  be  set  out  as  early  as  the  weather  will  admit  in  rich  land,  finely 
pulverized  and  mellow.  Tliey  should  be  placed  in  drills  from  ten  to  twelve  inclies  apart,  the 
bulbs  being  about  six  inches  apart  and  lightly  covered  with  the  soil.  SuflBcient  cultivation 
should  be  given  them  to  keep  out  the  weeds.  When  they  are  well  ripened  they  should  be 
pulled,  dried,  and  stored. 

The  Cultiration  of  Top  Onions  is  similar  to  that  from  sets.  The  tops,  containing 
the  small  bulbs,  are  gathered  when  ripe  and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  In  the  spring  they 
are  set  out  and  the  culture  given  similar  to  that  recommended  for  onion  "sets." 

Cultivation  of  tlie  Potato  Onion  and  Shallot. —  The  bulbs  should  be  planted 
in  rich  soil  in  drills  about  fourteen  inches  apart,  the  bulbs  to  be  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart  in 
the  rows.  The  planting  should  be  as  early  in  the  season  as  the  soil  can  be  worked,  the  largest 
bulbs  to  be  selected,  the  crowns  of  which  should  be  set  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
They  should  be  kept  clear  from  weeds,  and  a  little  earth  gathered  about  them  from  time  to 
time  in  the  process  of  after-cultivation.  The  harvesting  should  be  as  soon  as  the  tops  are  dead. 

The  Culture  of  Rareril)es  is  not  to  be  recommended  very  highly,  as  they  are  of 
pjor  quality  generally,  but  as  small  onions  can  be  economically  used  for  the  purpose  of  a 
larger  growth,  many  farmers  resort  to  this  expedient  to  find  an  early  and  ready  market  for 
them.  As  we  have  previously  stated,  this  is  a  form  of  the  onion  that  differs  from  the  sets  for 
which  they  are  often  mistaken,  by  being  small  mature  onions.  These  are  generally  selected 
from  the  crop,  and  set  out  the  following  spring  for  a  larger  growth,  as  early  as  the  condition 
of  the  ground  wUl  admit.  Sometimes  large  onions  that  are  badly  sprouted  are  treated  in  the 
same  way.  They  will  soon  begin  to  send  up  seed-stalks,  which  should  be  cut  off  just  below 
where  the  stalk  begins  to  enlarge,  and  as  soon  as  the  swelled  appearance  of  the  stalk  is  noticed. 
By  this  method,  and  keeping  the  soil  free  from  weeds,  the  bulbs  will  grow  quite  fast  and  will 
be  ready  for  an  early  market.  They  require  a  little  more  room  than  sets,  when  the  bulbs  are 
larger  than  the  former. 

Cultivating  Onion  Seed.  —  As  the  weight  of  theonion  crop  depends  largely  upon 
the  quality  of  the  seed  used  to  produce  it,  it  is  very  important  that  the  utmost  care  should  be 
exercised  in  the  selection  of  bulbs  and  the  subsequent  attention  given  them  in  growing  the 
seed.  Many  prefer  to  buy  this  seed  of  a  reliable  dealer  or  some  one  who  raises  it,  in  whom 
they  have  confidence.  To  the  latter  we  would  say — unless  you  are  able  to  grow  that  of  the 
very  best  quality,  it  will  be  better  to  buy  seed  of  such  quality  than  to  depend  upon  your  own 
skill  in  this  respect,  for  it  is  only  the  first-class  seed  that  will  give  a  first-class 
crop,  and  it  is  not  every  farmer  that  can  raise  seed  of  that  quality  without  consid- 
erable experience.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  a  careful  selection  of  bulbs  be 
made,  that  is,  a  selection  of  the  form  and  size  that  it  is  desired  to  produce  in  the 
future  crops.  These  bulbs  should  be  set  out  very  early  in  the  season,  in  rich  land  and 
be  well  cultivated.  They  should  be  hoed  repeatedly,  with  all  weeds  kept  in  check,  and 
the  earth  kept  heaped  up  about  the  stalks  for  protection.  A  frame-work  of  slats  or  a  stake 
and  strings  should  be  used  for  the  support  of  the  stalks  and  heavy  seed-heads,  otherwise  they 
will  be  liable  to  break  or  so  liend  over  that  the  seed  will  either  be  injured  or  entirely  ruined. 

When  the  ssed  stalks  indicate  maturity  by  turning  yellow  near  the  ground,  and  the  seed- 
ceUs  begin  to  open,  the  tops  or  heads  should  be  cut,  leaving  about  six  or  eight  inches  of  the 


380  THE  A3EERICAN  FARMER. 

Stalks  attached  to  them  to  aid  in  perfecting  the  ripening  process.  These  should  be  spread 
thinly  in  a  warm,  dry  place,  and  frequently  stirred,  that  the  drying  may  be  uniform,  and 
moulding  prevented.  When  thoroughly  dried,  the  seed  should  be  shelled  and  cleaned 
through  a  fine  seive.  It  is  well  to  afterwards  winnow  it  in  order  to  get  out  as  many  of  the 
imperfect  seeds  as  possible.  It  is  customary  for  some  seed-growers  to  separate  the  imperfect 
from  the  sound  seed  by  putting  the  whole  in  water,  and  after  stirring  it  thoroughly,  skim  off 
aU  that  rise  to  the  surface,  after  which  all  the  seed  that  sinks  to  the  bottom  is  taken  out  and 
carefully  dried.  If  this  practice  is  to  be  followed,  we  would  not  recommend  it  in  the  autumn, 
but  rather  in  the  spring,  just  before  sowing;  then  there  would  be  no  danger  of  loss  of  seed 
from  molding,  through  excess  of  moisture,  and  imperfect  drying.  The  drjang  should  be  in 
a  warm  place,  but  not  near  a  fire.  After  the  seed  is  thoroughly  dried,  it  should  be  stored  in 
a  dry  place,  where  it  will  not  be  liable  to  gather  moisture.  The  seed  used  should  be  fresh 
every  year,  it  being  of  little  value  the  second  year. 

Harvesting  and  Storing.  —  When  most  of  the  tops  are  fallen  over  and  look  dead, 
the  onions  are  ready  to  be  harvested.  The  usual  method  is  to  pull  them  by  hand,  throwing 
the  product  of  six  or  eight  rows  together  into  a  windrow  to  dry,  but  this  is  a  laborious  pro- 
cess. Wlien  very  ripe  they  may  be  raked  out  with  a  common  hand  rake.  It  would  be  well  if 
some  machine  were  invented  for  cutting  the  tops  first,  after  which  they  could  easily  be  raked 
out.  An  implement  of  some  kind  for  running  under  the  rows  to  cut  the  roots  aids  materially 
in  the  harvesting  prdcess,  as  the  bulbs  can  then  be  very  readily  raked  out.  They  should  be 
left  on  the  ground  until  the  tops  are  all  dead  and  the  bulbs  feel  hard  and  solid  ;  this  sometimes 
requires  two  weeks  or  more  ;  during  the  time  they  should  be  raked  over  with  a  hay  rake  every 
two  or  three  days,  especially  after  every  rain,  in  order  to  hasten  the  drying  process.  When 
the  tops  are  well  cured  and  the  bulbs  hard  and  solid,  they  may  be  taken  off  the  field  in  a  dry 
day,  and  stored  on  the  floor  in  a  dry  shed  or  barn,  tops  and  all,  if  not  spread  over  three  feet 
deep.  Careless  handling,  causing  cuts  or  bruises,  will  result  in  a  loss,  as  such  bulbs  wiU  decay 
in  a  short  time. 

Where  the  crop  is  not  to  be  sold  for  use  at  once,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  tops  are  dry 
close  to  the  bulbs,  as  nearly  the  whole  top  will  sometimes  seem  to  be  dry  when  the  neck  is  green, 
and  if  cut  in  this  state  the  bulb  will  soon  decay.  In  order  to  keep  well,  therefore,  the  tops 
must  be  entirely  dry  and  dead  before  cutting.  WTien  not  convenient  to  cut  at  this  stage,  and 
they  are  not  intended  for  immediate  sale,  the  cutting  is  often  delayed  until  winter.  This  may 
be  done  with  a  sharp  knife,  but  the  best  implement  for  doing  it  is  an  old  pair  of  sheep  shears, 
or  a  pair  of  common  shears  with  the  blade  cut  off  nearly  half-way  down.  The  larger  ones 
may  then  be  separated  from  the  small  ones,  and  are  ready  for  market,  or  storage  until  spring. 
The  smallest,  or  those  about  the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  will  sometimes  bring  a  fair  price  for 
use  as  pickles. 

WTiether  it  will  pay  the  grower  best  to  sell  the  crop  in  the  fall,  or  to  store  them  for  sale 
in  the  spring,  will  depend  upon  a  combination  of  circumstances,  such  as  the  state  of  the  mar- 
ket, the  locality,  etc.  This  crop  sometimes  brings  a  very  high  price  in  the  spring  when  they 
are  scarce  in  the  market;  still  there  is  considerable  risk  in  keeping  them,  as  they  are  liable  to 
decay  badly  during  some  seasons.  When  they  are  very  plenty,  and  the  prices  are  low  in  the 
spring,  they  will  not  prove  as  profitable  to  the  grower  to  be  kept  over  as  a  fall  sale. 

When  designed  for  winter  sales,  they  are  generally  kept  in  a  cold,  dark  cellar  in  barrels 
or  bins,  after  the  cold  weather  sets  in.  If  the  barrels  in  which  they  are  stored  have  pieces 
cut  out  of  their  sides  with  a  hatchet,  thus  giving  better  ventilation,  they  will  be  liable  to 
keep  better.  The  barrels  should  be  covered  at  the  heads  to  exclude  the  light,  in  order  to 
prevent  sprouting,  and  all  bins  used  for  storage  should  have  the  light  excluded  by  some  kind 
of  covering  that  will  not  keep  out  the  air,  and  cause  them  to  gather  moisture  and  become 
heated.     Good  ventilation  and  a  cool,  dry  temperature  are  essential  to  their  keeping  well. 


ONIONS.  381 

They  will  bear  about  as  much  frost  as  apples,  without  injury;  in  fact,  when  intended  for 
spring  sales  it  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  freeze  them,  and  then  cover  with  hay  or  other 
material  to  prevent  their  thawing,  keeping  them  well  covered  and  frozen  until  a  few  days 
before  selling.  Once  freezing  them  does  no  injury,  but  repeated  freezing  and  thawing  is 
ruinous. 

Some  farmers  who  cultivate  this  crop  extensively,  have  a  cold,  airy  building  constructed, 
especially  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  storage,  with  bins  of  lattice  work  where  they  are  stored, 
about  three  feet  deep,  and  covered  well  to  keep  them  from  thawing  until  spring,  or  where 
they  are  spread  in  pUes  and  covered  with  hay  and  other  material  for  the  same  purpose. 
"When  wanted  for  sale,  they  should  be  uncovered  and  allowed  to  thaw,  and  then  spread  a  few 
days  to  dry;  they  are  then  ready  for  market.  Much  labor  could  be  saved  in  the  spring,  if, 
as  soon  as  the  crop  is  taken  off  the  field  in  the  fall,  all  the  decayed  onions  and  tops,  as  well  as 
weeds,  are  cleared  off,  and  the  ground  be  well  harrowed.  The  harrowing  sho\ild  be  repeated 
in  a  few  weeks.  This  will  cause  the  germination  and  subsequent  destruction  of  any  weed 
seeds  that  may  remain  La  the  soil.  Just  before  winter  sets  in,  the  field  should  be  plowed,  in 
order  that  the  frost  may  assist  in  mellowing  and  pulverizing  the  soil  for  the  next  year's  crop, 
which  plowing  also  causes  the  destruction  of  worms  and  insect  eggs  by  freezing.  From  four 
to  sis  hundred  bushels  per  acre  is  considered  a  fair  crop  of  onions,  but  we  have  known  of 
authenticated  cases  where  a  thousand  and  even  twelve  hundred  bushels  per  acre  have,  in  rare 
instances  of  peculiarly  favorable  soil,  season,  and  culture,  been  grown  from  an  acre. 


MISCELLANEOUS  AGRICULTUKAL  PRODUCTS. 


COTTON. 

COTTON  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  agricultural  products  of  the  country,  and  has  for 
many  years  been  one  of  its  principal  exports;  in  fact,  the  plant  which  will  supply  the 
material  for  one  of  our  leading  industries,  as  well  as  for  the  clothing  of  all  nations  of 
the  globe,  should  claim  a  rank  second  to  none  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  except  it  be  that  which 
supplies  the  necessary  sustenance  of  life  to  the  human  family  in  the  form  of  food.  It  is  a  plant 
indigenous  to  all  inter-tropical  regions,  and  can  be  cultivated  with  success  in  no  other.  Its  culture 
antedates  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  the  first  mention  of  it  of  which  we  have  any 
record  being  by  Herodotus,  about  450  B.  C.  He  says  of  it,  "  There  is  a  plant  in  India  which 
produces  wool  finer  and  better  than  that  of  sheep,  of  which  the  Indians  make  their  clothes." 
Pliny,  late  in  the  first  century,  says,  "  There  grows  a  shrub  called  Gossypium  or  Xylon,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  producing  a  stuff  from  which  the  white  garments  of  the  priests  are  made."  In 
the  Chinese  records,  no  mention  is  made  of  cotton  until  about  two  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  from  which  time  to  the  sixth  century  cotton  cloth  was  regarded  as  something 
exceedingly  rare  and  precious,  and  was  paid  in  tribute,  or  offered  in  presents  to  the  emperors ; 
it  is  also  recorded,  as  an  incident  of  importance  of  the  Emperor  Ou-ti,  who  ascended  th.e 
throne  in  502,  that  he  had  a  robe  of  cotton. 

Columbus  found  cotton  in  the  possession  of  the  natives  of  Hispaniola,  and  the  plant  was 
found  growing  wild  in  the  Mississippi  valley  and  Texas  by  the  early  explorers  of  the  country. 
It  was  first  cultivated  by  the  early  settlers  as  an  ornamental  garden  plant,  and  it  was  not  until 
1739,  according  to  reliable  authority,  that  it  was  first  exported,  this  exportation  consisting 
of  but  one  bag  of  the  product,  from  Savannah,  Ga.  It  is  an  incident  of  record,  that  in  the 
year  1784,  an  American  ship  having  on  board  eight  bags  of  cotton,  bound  for  Liverpool,  was 
seized  on  the  ground  that  so  much  cotton  could  not  have  been  produced  in  the  United  States! 
In  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  in  1519,  it  is  stated  that  Cortes  received  garments  of  cotton  as 
presents  from  the  natives  of  Yucatan,  as  well  as  cotton  cloths  for  coverings  to  his  huts. 
Specimens  of  cotton  fabrics  have  also  been  taken  from  the  ancient  Peruvian  tombs.  In  the 
year  1785  the  cultivation  of  the  short-staple  cotton  was  commenced  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  ten  years  from  that  period  one  million  pounds  were  exported  from  Charleston,  South 
Carolina.  Since  that  time  the  immense  increase  in  this  product  in  the  Southern  States,  and 
the  revenue  brought  to  that  section  from  its  exportation  (the  latter  amounting  to  a  hundred 
and  fifty  millions  of  dollars  annually),  has  been  mainly  due  to  inventions  of  improved 
machinery,  the  principal  of  which  was  the  saw  cotton  gin,  a  machine  for  separating  the  cotton 
from  the  seeds,  which  adhere  to  the  fiber  quite  tenacioxisly,  and  which  was  invented  by  Mr. 
Eli  Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1793.  Although  it  brought  the  inventor  but  small  profit, 
and  a  vast  amount  of  troublesome  litigation,  this  invention  resulted  in  great  benefit  to  the 
human  race,  by  immensely  increasing  the  cotton  industry  of  the  whole  world.  Previous  to 
this  invention,  the  separating  of  the  cotton  seed  from  the  fiber  was  mainly  performed  by 
hand,  being  a  slow  and  expensive  process.  Mr.  "Whitney's  machine  cleaned  a  thousand 
poimds  in  the  same  time  that  one  pound  could  be  cleaned  by  hand,  and  consequently  very  soon 
caused  a  revolution  in  the  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  the  cotton  product. 

The  United  States  stands  first  among  the  countries  of  the  world  in  the  amount  and  value 
of  its  cotton  products,   British  India  ranking  next,  but  the  fiber  is  inferior  to  that  of  this 

(382) 


COTTON. 


383 


country.  American  seed  and  American  plants  have  been  introduced  from  time  to  time  into 
India,  but  witliout  the  desired  result,  as  the  fiber  after  a  little  while  deteriorates,  loses  its  elas- 
ticity, and  becomes  short,  dry,  and  harsh,  with  a  low  rate  of  yield.  Egypt  is  quite  prominent 
in  cotton  production,  both  in  quality  and  amount,  the  best  from  that  source  taking  a  high 
rank,  and  second  only  to  the  famous  Sea  Island  product,  which  is  universally  considered  the  best- 


QDEEN    OF    THE    SOUTH    COTTON    PLANTER. 


DEDERICK    COTTON    PRESS. 


384  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  constant  cropping  wliicli  the  cotton  fields  of  the  Southern  States  formerly  received, 
with  little  or  no  fertility  restored,  together  with  poor  cultivation,  have  caused  the  soil  in 
many  parts  of  that  section  to  become  nearly  exhausted,  and  large  areas  that  were  once  rich 
cotton  lands,  are  now  regarded  as  unproductive,  but  with  improved  methods  of  agriculture, 
and  an  intelligent  use  of  fertihzers  suited  to  the  necessities  of  the  soil  and  crops,  this  evU  may 
in  the  future  be  remedied  and  avoided.  The  adoption  of  a  more  thorough  system  of  agricul- 
ture at  the  South  within  the  past  few  years,  together  with  the  estabHshing  of  cotton  mills  and 
other  industries,  have  been  the  means  of  increasing  and  improving  the  cotton  product  of  the 
country,  with  at  present  a  still  brighter  outlook  for  the  future  in  this  respect. 

The  poems  and  romances  of  the  Chinese  literature  of  the  seventh  century  are  much  given 
to  the  description  and  celebration  of  the  beauty  of  the  cotton  flower.  The  blossoms  are 
indeed  very  attractive,  and  a  field  of  cotton  in  full  bloom  is  a  beautiful  sight.  Though 
varying  slightly  with  different  varieties,  the  flower  of  the  cotton  plant  resembles  that  of  the 
althea  in  size  and  shape.  The  color  of  the  variety  most  commonly  cultivated  in  this  country 
is,  on  first  opening,  a  creamy  white,  changing  to  a  light  yellow  the  second  day,  and  a  purplish 
red  on  the  third,  when  it  drops.  The  bolls  are  egg-shaped,  varying  in  size,  one  the  size  of  a 
goose-egg  being  considered  extraordinarily  large.  As  they  ripen  or  mature,  the  outer 
covering  turns  brown  and  opens  generally  into  four  parts,  the  white  fiber  bursting  out  of  its 
enclosure,  so  that  a  cotton-field  divested  of  its  leaves  resembles  a  field  of  white  roses.  The 
leaves  are  a  deep  glossy  green.  By  planting  the  seed  in  boxes,  in  order  to  secure  an  early 
start,  and  transplanting  as  soon  as  the  weather  will  admit,  cotton  plants  could  easily  be 
grown  in  Northern  gardens  as  an  ornament,  their  beauty  exceeding  many  of  the  popular 
varieties  of  cultivated  flowers.  Besides  the  extensive  use  of  the  cotton  fiber  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fabrics,  and  afterwards  of  paper,  the  seed  is  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
oil,  that  which  remains  after  expressing  the  oil  being  valuable  as  food  for  stock,  and  also  as  a 
fertilizer  of  the  soil.  In  Brazil  and  some  other  cotton-growing  countries,  the  leaves  of  the 
cotton  plant  are  thought  to  have  important  medicinal  qualities.  The  root  is  used  to  a  limited 
extent  in  medicine. 

Varieties  of  Cottoili — There  are  several  varieties  of  the  cotton  plant,  although  botanists 
differ  with  respect  to  the  exact  number  of  species.  Without  going  into  a  discussion  of  the 
subject,  as  to  whether  there  are  five,  seven,  ten  or  more  species  of  this  plant,  but  leaving  that 
question  for  the  botanists  to  settle  among  themselves,  we  shall  mention  only  the  most  exten- 
sively cultivated  kinds  that  furnish  the  great  cotton  product  of  the  world.  The  two  principal 
divisions  of  the  cotton  product  are  those  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  or  what  are  known  as 
the  Indian  and  American  cottons,  the  difference  in  the  botanical  characteristics  being  slight, 
but  sufficiently  marked  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  the  seed  of  the  eastern  plant,  or 
that  of  India,  never  being  black  or  divested  of  lint,  while  the  curvature  at  the  base  of  the 
leaf  lobes  is  composed  of  two  opposite  curves,  instead  of  being  heart-shaped  like  that  of  the 
Western  Continent.  The  cottons  most  in  demand  are  those  of  the  United  States,  as  we  have 
previously  stated,  while  British  India  is  second  in  this  respect.  The  principal  cotton  crop,  or 
that  most  extensively  grown,  is  of  the  short-staple  variety,  as  the  best  quality  of  the  long- 
stapled  or  Sea  Island  cotton  can  be  grown  successfully  only  in  certain  localities,  hence  its 
cultivation  is  necessarily  limited  to  a  comparatively  small  territory.  The  cottons  most  in 
demand  are  the  Sea  Island  and  the  New  Orleans  or  Upland  varieties.  The  former  receives 
its  name  from  its  being  grown  mainly  upon  the  low-lying  islands  near  the  coast  of  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  South  Carolina,  where  the  soil,  climate,  and  peculiarly  favoring  conditions  render 
them  especially  adapted  to  the  production  of  this  variety,  which  surpasses  all  others  in  the 
length,  strength,  and  beauty  of.  its  staple,  its  fiber  being  very  long  and  silky.  It  is  used  for 
making  the  best  quality  of  sewing  thread,  for  mixing  with  silk,  etc.,  and  brings  the  highest 
price  in  the  market.  The  seed  of  the  Sea  Island  or  long-stapled  variety  is  black  and  smooth, 
with  a  little  of  the  cotton  fiber  adhering  to  the  small  end.  The  variety  known  as  the  Georgian 
Upland  cotton  is  the  result  of  cultivating  the  Sea  Island  cotton  on  the  uplands  of  Georgia;  it 
is  also  sometimes  known  as  "Boweds." 


COTTON.  385 

Of  the  New  Orleans  or  Upland  cotton,  there  are  two  principal  varieties,  each  of  which  have 
several  sub-varieties.  One  of  these  has  green  seeds  and  is  quite  hardy,  the  other  has  grayish 
seeds  and  a  more  flexible,  silky  staple,  but  is  shghtly  less  hardy  than  the  former.  Both  are 
quite  prohfic. 

The  New  Orleans  and  Boweds  cottons  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the  production  of  the 
country,  and  are  known  in  European  markets  as  '-American  cottons."  There  are  a  number 
of  forms  of  the  Hirsute  or  Orleans  type,  one  of  which  is  the  Cuba  Vine,  "  a  large  and  showy 
plant,"  as  it  is  described  by  one  writer;  another  is  a  plant  bearing  yellow  or  brown-stapled 
cotton,  known  as  the  "  Nankeen,"  from  which  nankeen  cloths  are  made,  and  still  another 
type  known  as  "  Bourbon  "  cotton,  but  they  are  neither  of  them  considered  as  profitable  for 
culture  as  most  of  the  other  varieties.  Some  of  the  long-stapled  cottons  of  the  Sea  Island 
type  have  been  so  widely  scattered  over  the  cotton  zone  of  the  world,  and  in  consequence 
have  become  so  modified  and  diversified  in  characteristics,  that  they  have  been  classed  as 
different  and  distinct  species,  among  which  are  the  Peruvian  and  Brazilian  cottons;  the  latter 
being  remarkable  for  its  peculiar  arrangement  of  seeds,  eight  or  ten  of  which  adhere  closely 
together  in  a  compact,  slightly  oval  form,  which  has  given  it  the  name  in  some  locahties  of 
"kidney  cotton." 

In  some  portions  of  India  the  cotton  plant  becomes  a  tree  [Gossypium  arboreum),  and 
tears  dark  green  leaves  and  reddish  purple  blossoms,  the  product  being  a  silky  fibre.  It  is  there 
r'egarded  as  sacred,  and  grown  about  the  temples.  Attempts  made  to  improve  its  cultivation 
by  hybridizing  have  thus  far  been  unsuccessful.  Though  there  are  many  varieties  and  sub- 
varieties  of  the  cotton  plant  grown  in  this  country,  some  of  which  seem  best  adapted  to  one 
locality  and  soU,  and  others  to  another, — thus  giving  rise  to  a  local  popularity  more  or  less 
extensive,  yet  doubtless  not  a  few  of  these  could  be  traced  to  the  same  source,  the  difference 
being  mainly  changes  produced  by  climate  and  cultivation,  which  have  caused  them  to 
become  fixed  in  certain  characteristics,  until  they  differ  so  widely  from  the  original  plant, 
that  they  seem  new  types  or  distinct  varieties. 

Among  the  long-established  varieties  of  the  widest  popularity  are  the  Dixon,  which  has 
a  fibre  of  medium  length  and  is  quite  hardy  and  prohfic;  the  Peeler,  producing  a  fibre  of 
unusual  length  and  fineness,  but  not  quite  as  prolific  as  the  former;  Boyd's  Prolific,  of  medium 
length  of  staple  and  quite  productive.  Other  varieties  that  have  been  much  in  favor  in  cer- 
tain sections  are  the  Early  Simpson,  McClenden  Prolific,  Boyd's  Prolific,  Petit  Gulf,  Johnston, 
and  Hurlong's  Improved.  Of  the  last  two,  the  former  has  been  cultivated  more  extensively 
west,  than  east  of  the  Mississippi,  while  the  latter  is  more  frequently  found  in  the  region 
from  Alabama  to  Texas.  The  Mammoth  Prolific  has  also  been  quite  popular  in  some  sections. 
Beside  those  already  mentioned,  various  other  kinds  of  greater  or  less  popularity  are  grown 
in  certain  sections,  and  new  varieties  are  being  introduced  from  time  to  time,  and  their 
respective  merits  tested. 

New  and  improved  varieties  will  doubtless  be  obtained  by  careful  and  patient  experi- 
ments in  hybridizing,  the  same  as  from  other  cultivated  crops,  while  the  older  sorts  may 
have  their  quality,  of  staple  and  productive  capacity  more  nearly  perfected  by  improving  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  general  method  of  cultivation  and  the  adoption  of  a  judi- 
cious system  of  rotation,  which  will  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  soil  that  has  formerly  charac- 
terized the  production  of  this  crop  at  the  South. 

The  Cotton  Growing  Belt. — Although  the  extremes  of  the  cotton  belt,  or  the  sec- 
tion where,  according  to  the  most  authentic  sources  of  information,  cotton  can  be  grown  with 
profit,  are  included  between  the  twenty-eighth  and  thirty-eighth  degrees  north  latitude;  yet  it 
is  possible,  with  favoring  conditions  of  season  and  locality,  to  cultivate  it  considerably  farther 
north  of  this  limit,  the  crop  having  been  fairly  successful  as  far  north  as  Missouri  and  Dela- 
ware in  favorable  seasons. 


386 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


In  the  period  of  the  early  settlement  of  Central  Illinois,  or  between  the  years  1818  and 
1828,  cotton  was  in  that  locality  a  common  crop,  not  for  exportation,  but  simply  for  home 
consumption,  to  be  used  in  connection  with  wool  in  manufacturing  clothing  for  the  settlers. 
But  since  that  period,  the  experiments  made  to  cultivate  it  in  that  section  have  generally 
proved  a  failure.  This  difference  is  probably  not  so  much  due  to  a  change  in  climate  or  in 
the  length  of  the  seasons  as  from  the  fact  that  the  early  settlers  of  Illinois  confined  their 
corn  and  cotton  culture  to  the  timber  fields,  which  were  sheltered  and  warm;  therefore  the 
crops  would  mature  earlier  than  in  unsheltered  localities  in  the  same  climate.  Cotton  requires 
a  warm  climate  to  be  successfully  grown,  and  in  such  a  temperature  can  be  cultivated  with 
less  expense  and  no  danger  of  failure  from  causes  which  render  its  culture  beyond  its  natural 
habitat  attended  with  considerable  risk — an  early  frost  or  backward  season  often  resulting  in 
a  partial  or  complete  failure  of  the  crop  in  such  sections. 

"We  doubt  if  its  culture  nor4h  o<f  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  will  be  attended  with  as 
much  profit  as  that  of  other  crops  better  adapted  to  the  latitude.  It  can,  it  is  true,  be  grown 
considerably  beyond  this  limit,  but  the  question  to  be  settled  in  the  mind  of  the  planter  is, 
Will  it  be  as  profitable  a  crop  to  cultivate  as  some  others  better  adapted  to  that  locality  ? 

Prof.  Pendleton,  of  Georgia,  gives  as  his  opinion,  that  north  of  the  thirty-fourth  degree 
of  latitude  the  seasons  are  not  sufficiently  long  to  give  imiform  success  with  the  cotton  plant, 
while  south  of  the  thirty-first  degree  the  seasons  are  so  wet,  and  insects  so  abundant,  that 
results  will  be  quite  uncertain,  and  the  cost  of  its  culture  he  also  greatly  increased.  While 
there  may  be  some  few  exceptions,  such  as  in  warm  and  sheltered  localities,  where  an  earlier 
growth  and  quicker  maturity  of  the  crop  can  be  secured,  yet,  in  the  main,  the  belt  between 
the  two  above-mentioned  degrees  of  latitude  \vill  be  found  to  be  the  most  favorable  region 
for  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  cotton  plant. 

The  following  table  from  the  Census  Report  for  1880  shows  the  total  cotton  production 
in  each  of  the  cotton-growing  States  during  the  previous  year  (1879),  the  average  product  per 
acre,  etc.,  the  names  of  the  States  being  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  order  of  their  rank 
in  the  amount  produced. 

Table  I. — Showing   Total   Cotton  Production  and  Average  Product  Per  Acre. 


States  in  order  of 
prodactlon. 

POPULATION. 

COTTON 
PRODUCTION. 

h 

s 

AVERAGE 
FEE  ACRE 

PRODUCT 
,   IN  LBS. 

Total. 

WUte. 

Colored. 

Acres. 

Bales. 

faction' 
of  bale 

(475  lbs). 
Seed- 
cotton. 

1^ 

Lint. 

Cotton- 
seed. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Total, 

•Mississippi, 

Georgia, 

16,808,664 

11,024,123 

5,784,541 

14,441,993 

6,737,257 

0.40     507 

189 

878 

1,362,699 

2,725,197 

1.131.692 

1,542,180 

1,692,574 

1,262,505 

802,525 

995,1577 

9-39,946 

1,399,750 

1,542.413 

269,493 

2,168,804 

479.371 
816.906 

1,197,499 
662,185 
591,531 
391,105 
454.954 
867.242 

1,139,120 
142,605 

2.023,568 

sso'sss 

1,377,179 

652,221 
725,274 
395,076 
600.320 
210.994 
604,472 
484,992 
5.32.508 
403,.343 
126.888 
146,2:J6 

■  b'si'w 

271,511 

2,093.3.30 

2,617,1.38 

2,173,7.32 

2.:i30,a% 

1,042,976 

1,. 364.249 

864.787 

893,153 

722,569 

24').595 

32,711 

35,000 

24,000 

2,667 

955,808 
814.441 
803,642 
699.654 
608.256 
522,.548 
608.569 
389.598 
3.30.644 
54.997 
19,733 
17,000 
11,000 
1,367 

8 
12 
11 
13 

3 
10 

9 

14 
1 
6 
6 
4 

0.46  •  661 
0.31     444 
0.37     528 
0..30     499 
0.5S     S31 
0,33      546 
0.59      837 
0.44     621 
0.46      651 
0.22      318 
0.60     861 
0  49     693 

217 
148 
176 
143 
277 
182 
279 
207 
217 
106 
287 
231 
218 
213 

4.34 
296 
352 
286 
664 
364 
658 
414 
4»» 
212 
574 
462 
4,36 
486 

227.004 

193.430 

190,865 

166,168 

144.461 

124,105 

120.785 

92,530 

78,528 

13,062 

4,687 

4,037 

2,612 

326 

454.009 
386,859 
.381,730 

10 

11 

Alabama, 

Arkansas 

South  Carolina,.. 

Louisiana, 

North  Carolina,.. 
»Tennessee, 

Florida 

♦Missouri 

Indian  Territory, 

Virginia, 

Kentucky, 

332,336 
288,922 
248,210 
241.570 
185.059 
167.056 
26,124 
9,373 
8,076 

13 
14 

1.512.56.5 
1,648,690 

0.46 
0.51 

6.54 
729 

5,225 
649 

*  The  population  figures  are  still  subject  to  possible  correction. 

The  first  three  columns  give  the  population  of  the  several  States,  divided  according  to 
color.  The  acreage  and  total  production  are  given  in  the  next  two  columns.  Column  G  gives 
the  ratio  between  the  figures  of  columns  4  and  5  in  decimal  fractions  of  a  bale  produced  per  acre. 


COTTON.  387 

The  average  weight  of  a  bale  of  cotton  is  estimated  at  475  pounds.  Upon  this  basis, 
and  upon  the  commonly-accepted  average  proportion  of  one  part  of  lint  to  two  of  seed  in  the 
"seed-cotton"  as  it  comes  from  the  field,  are  based  the  data  given  in  columns  7  to  11.  Of 
these,  the  first  three  give  the  weight  in  pounds,  severally,  of  seed-cotton,  of  lint  or  fiber,  and 
of  cotton  seed  produced  per  acre,  on  the  average,  in  each  State,  while  columns  10  and  11  give 
the  weight  in  tons  of  the  total  product  of  each  of  the  States,  in  lint  and  cotton-seed. 

It  will  be  seen  by  a  comparison  of  the  total  population  of  the  States  of  the  cotton-belt 
proper,  from  North  and  South  Carolina  to  Texas,  that  in  all  but  two  cases  there  is  an  approx- 
imation to  the  proportion  of  one  bale  to  every  two  persons,  or  rather  one-half  a  bale  to  each 
inhabitant.  These  exceptional  States  are  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  in  which  the  ratio  is  from 
two-thirds  to  more  than  three-fourths  of  a  bale  per  head.  As  will  be  seen,  Mississippi  stands 
first  in  the  total  production  of  cotton,  while  sixth  in  population  among  the  cotton  States, 
making  its  product  to  .84,  or  more  than  eight-tenths  of  a  bale  per  head.  It  appears  that  the 
high  production  of  this  State  is  due  to  the  great  fertihty  of  the  soil  together  with  the  circum- 
stance that  the  culture  of  this  product  is  the  leading  pursuit  of  the  population.  In  Wash- 
ington County,  Miss.,  the  product  per  acre  averaged  .87  of  a  bale  or  413  pounds  of  lint, 
which  is  equal  to  1,239  pounds  of  seed-cotton  per  acre.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  Professor  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  University  of  California,  says,  with  respect  to  the  above  table: — 

"  Even  with  the  imperfect  tillage  and  incomplete  picking  of  the  cotton  crop  now  pre- 
vailing in  the  Yazoo  bottom,  Miss.,  the  present  average  product  per  acre  is  over  three-fourths 
of  a  bale;  and  estimating  the  lands  reclaimable  by  simple  exclusion  of  the  Mississippi  over- 
flow at  three  million  acres,  the  annual  production  could  thus  readily  be  raised  to  2,250,000 
bales,  without  any  change  in  the  methods  of  culture,  in  the  Yazoo  bottom  alone.  With 
improved  cultivation  the  production  could  easily  be  brought  up  to  5,000,000  bales,  and  thus, 
with  a  similar  improvement  in  the  culture  of  the  uplands,  it  is  evident  that  the  State  of 
Mississippi  alone  could  produce  the  entire  crop  now  grown  in  the  United  States.  So  far  from 
this  being  an  over-estimate,  this  statement  does  not  adequately  state  the  possibilities  within 
reach  of  careful  culture.  Fully  1,000  pounds  of  lint  have  repeatedly  been  picked  from  an 
acre  of  the  '  buckshot '  soil  of  the  Yazoo  bottom. 

Georgia  stands  second  in  total  production;  but  examination  shows  the  causes  that  place 
the  State  so  near  to  the  highest  in  position  to  be  widely  different  from  those  in  Mississippi. 
With  half  a  million  more  inhabitants  than  Mississippi,  the  cotton  product  of  Georgia  is  a 
little  over  half  a  bale  (.53)  per  head,  and  the  average  product  per  acre  is  but  two-thirds  of 
that  of  Mississippi.  A  detailed  examination  of  the  soils  of  Georgia  shows  that  her  area  of 
what  in  Mississippi  are  considered  first  and  second-class  soils,  is  very  limited;  far  more  so  than 
is  the  case  in  the  neighboring  State  of  Alabama.  Yet  Georgia  stands  ahead  of  Alabama  in 
the  average  cotton  product  per  acre,  and  is  only  a  trifle  behind  in  production  per  capita.  In 
other  words,  the  high  position  of  Georgia  is  due,  not  to  natural  advantages,  but  to  better 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  the  thrift  of  an  industrious  population. 

The  geographical  position  of  Alabama  between  the  States  standing  at  the  head  of  the 
list  gives  double  interest  to  the  question  regarding  the  cause  of  her  position  in  the  same, 
which  would  be  the  third  place,  but  for  the  enormous  area  of  Texas,  where  the  sparse  popu- 
lation has  thus  far  picked  the  best  lands.  Alabama  is  a  newer  State  than  Georgia,  and 
there  reach  into  it  from  Mississippi  the  two  belts  of  rich  prairie  lands,  which  terminate  short 
of  the  Chattahoochie.  Northern  Alabama  is  almost  identical  in  its  agricultural  features  with 
Northern  Georgia;  and  we  should  therefore  expect  to  find  a  much  more  marked  difference 
in  favor  of  Alabama  than  is  shown  in  the  figures  above  quoted.  The  inference  seems  irre- 
sistible, that  while  Mississippi  is  still  partly  within  the  period  of  the  first  flush  of  fertihty,  and 
Georgia  has  reached  the  stage  when  the  use  of  fertilizers  is  renovating  her  fields,  the  soils  of 
Alabama  have  passed  the  first  stage,  and  her  population  has  not  yet  realized  the  necessity  of 
sustaining  the  soil's  powers  by  fertilization. 


388  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Cotton  culture  in  Florida  is  cliiefly  confined  to  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  lying 
adjacent  to  Georgia.  This  is  mostly  pine  land,  and  is  cultivated  without  manui-e;  hence  the 
low  product  of  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  bale  per  acre.  Notwithstanding  this,  there  has  been 
a  respectable  increase  in  production  since  1870,  though  not  so  large  as  that  of  the  population ; 
a  circumstance  doubtless  due  to  the  prominent  position  which  the  culture  of  tropical  fruits 
has  assumed  during  the  past  decade,  and  to  which  most  of  the  new-comers  have  given  their 
attention.  No  cotton  is  returned  from  the  portion  of  the  State  lying  south  of  Tampa  Bay, 
and  but  little  from  the  coasts,  as  well  as  from  the  extreme  western  part.  The  cotton-growing 
counties  show  an  average  product  of  0.26,  or  a  little  over  a  quarter  of  a  bale  per  inhabitant. 

Tennessee  presents  the  striking  fact  of  a  total  production  less  than  half  of  that  of  Ala- 
bama, but  with  an  average  product  per  acre  one-half  greater;  equal  even  to  that  of  Missis- 
sippi. The  cause  of  this  state  of  things  becomes  apparent  when  we  circumscribe  the  regions 
of  production  in  accordance  with  the  natural  divisions  of  the  State.  It  then  appears  that  the 
portion  of  Tennessee  lying  east  of  the  "  central  basin,"  *  from  the  eastern  highland  rim  to 
the  line  of  North  Carolina,  and  comprising  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  State,  produces 
only  about  one  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  cotton;  while  eighty- four  per  cent,  of  this 
total  is  produced  in  the  country  lying  between  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  rivers.  More 
than  this,  within  this  region,  the  average  production  per  inhabitant  is  0.52  of  a  bale,  and  a 
little  less  (0.49  of  a  bale)  per  acre ;  while  the  average  for  the  entire  State,  per  inhabitant,  is 
only  0.21  of  a  bale.  Again,  of  the  above  84  per  cent.,  70  belongs  to  the  two  tiers  of  coun- 
ties Ijnng  nearest  to  the  Mississippi  river.  Of  these,  only  a  small  portion  is  bottom-land  of 
the  Mississippi  river;  the  greater  part  by  far  being  gently  rolling  uplands  ("  table-lands  "), 
such  as  form  a  large  body  in  Northwestern  Mississippi,  also,  and  extend,  gradually  narrow- 
ing, as  far  south  as  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  cotton  production  of  Tennessee  is  concentrated  upon  a  compar- 
atively small  area  of  highly-productive  land,  the  rest  being  devoted  preferably  to  grain, 
tobacco,  grasses,  and  other  industries,  to  which  the  soils  and  climates  are  more  specially 
adapted;  while  in  the  other  cotton-growing  States,  cotton  is  very  generally  grown,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  regardless  of  other  cultures,  of  which  the  partial  pursuit,  at  least,  would  in  the  end 
be  more  profitable  than  exclusive  cotton-planting. 

Arkansas  produces  its  608,256  bales  on  somewhat  over  a  million  of  acres;  making  the 
average  product  per  acre  slightly  higher  than  that  of  Louisiana,  viz.,  0.58,  and  0.76  of  a  bale 
per  inhabitant.  A  cursory  examination  shows  that  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  cotton 
produced  comes  from  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  State,  which  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  bottom  lands;  while  in  the  extreme  northern  and  northwestern  counties  but  lit- 
tle cotton  is  grown.  The  form  of  the  returns  makes  it  difficult  to  segregate  the  production  of 
the  uplands  and  lowlands  in  this  case ;  but  the  product,  per  acre,  of  Chicot  county  stands 
second  to  the  highest  on  the  list,  and  it  is  safe  to  assume  that,  on  detailed  discussion,  the 
average  production  of  uplands  and  lowlands  will  be  found  to  be,  respectively,  about  the  same 
as  in  Louisiana.  In  both  States,  alike,  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  the  large-scale  production  of  cot- 
ton, may  be  regarded  as  wholly  insignificant  in  its  influence  on  the  general  result. 

In  the  case  of  Louisiana,  as  in  that  of  Tennessee,  a  considerable  portion  (about  one- 
fourth)  of  the  State  is  devoted  mainly  to  other  cultures  than  that  of  cotton  ;  the  sugar-cane 
gaining  precedence  in  the  lowland  country  lying  south  of  the  mouth  of  Red  River,  in  which 
only  about  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  cotton  is  produced,  but  at  the  average  rate  of 
0.80  bale  per  acre.  Nearly  the  same,  or  a  slightly  higher  average  per  acre,  is  obtained  in  the 
alluvial  lands  north  and  west  of  the  mouth  of  Red  River,  and  in  the  Red  River  valley  itself. 
The  small  parish  of  East  Carroll,  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  State,  has  the  highest  aver- 

*The  "central  basin"  includes  the  valleys  of  the  Cumberland,  Duck,  and  Elk  rivers,  with  tribu- 
taries. 


.     COTTON.  389 

age  product  per  acre  of  any  county  in  the  cotton  States  (0.95  of  a  bale),  and  stands  second  in 
total  production  within  the  State.  It  will  be  noted  that  East  Carroll  corners  upon  Washing- 
ton county,  Mississippi,  and  adjoins  Chicot  county,  Arkansas;  both  representing  maxima  of 
production  in  their  respective  States.  We  have  here,  apparently,  the  center  of  maximum 
cotton  production  on  natural  soils  in  the  United  States,  and  probably  in  the  world. 

The  average  product  per  acre  in  the  uplands  of  Louisiana  is  approximately  half  of  that 
of  the  lowlands  (0.41);  and  as  the  average  for  the  State  is  0.59,  it  follows  that  somewhat 
more  than  half  the  acreage  in  cotton  belongs  to  the  uplands,  while  the  lowlands  yield  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  amount.  This  predominance  of  lowland  cotton  explains  the  higher 
average  product  per  acre  in  Louisiana,  as  compared  with  Mississippi,  where  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  cotton  production  comes  from  the  Yazoo  bottom-lands.  Within  the  cotton-grow- 
ing region  proper,  the  average  production  is  approximately  0.95  of  a  bale  per  inhabitant; 
but  as  this  figure  excludes  the  entire  population  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  so  largely  inter- 
ested in  cotton,  it  is  not  fairly  comparable  with  the  proportion  existing  in  other  States.  If 
one-half  of  the  population  of  the  city  be  taken  as  mainly  interested  in  cotton,  the  per  capita 
proportion  would  stand  0.80  bale. 

The  great  State  of  Texas  stands  third  in  the  list  of  total  production,  while  first  in  popu- 
lation, among  the  cotton  States.  The  fact  shown  by  the  figures  of  acreage  and  total  produc- 
tion, viz.,  that  in  the  average  product  per  acre  it  stands  eleventh  in  rank  (0.37),  will  be  a 
surprise  to  most  persons,  and  is  doubtless  in  part  to  be  accounted  for  as  an  accident  of  the 
season,  the  year  1879  having  been  an  unusually  dry  one,  and  therefore  especially  unfavorable 
to  a  country  in  which  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  staple  is  grown  on  upland  soils.  Among 
these,  the  heavy  black  prairie  soils,  so  highly  productive  in  favorable  seasons,  are  notoriously 
the  first  to  suffer  from  drought.  It  is  probable  that  in  ordinary  seasons  the  average  product 
per  acre  in  Texas  would  approach  more  nearly  that  of  Mississippi  or  South  Carolina. 

A  discussion  of  the  returns  shows  that  52  per  cent,  of  the  cotton  product  of  Texas  is 
grown  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  State,  north  of  the  thirty-second  parallel  and  east  of 
the  ninety-eighth  meridian,  and  that  within  this  region  the  production  is  highest  in  the  coun- 
ties adjoining  Red  river,  the  product  averaging  0.54  bale  per  acre.  Southward  of  the  thirty- 
second  parallel  the  average  yield  is  0.34  bale  per  acre.  The  coast  counties  produce  but  little 
cotton;  inland,  between  Red  river  and  San  Antonio,  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  total  product 
is  grown  on  black  prairie  land,  the  average  product  per  acre  on  such  land  being  (in  1879) 
0.34  bale  per  acre.  A  comparison  of  the  returns  of  the  present  census  with  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding one  shows  that  within  the  last  decade  the  region  of  cotton  production  has  extended  75 
miles  to  westward.  On  the  south  but  very  little  cotton  is  grown  south  and  west  of  the  Nueces 
river. 

Compared  to  the  area  of  fertile  lands  susceptible  of  cotton  culture,  the  present  cotton 
acreage  of  Texas  is  almost  insignificant. 

The  cases  of  the  two  Carolinas,  with  respect  to  cotton  production,  are  nearly  alike,  and 
may  as  well  be  considered  together.  In  both  States  the  average  cotton  product  per  acre  is 
high  as  compared  with  that  of  Georgia  and  Alabama,  and,  in  the  case  of  North  Carolina, 
approaches  that  of  Mississippi  itself.  Without  entering  into  details  on  the  subject  of  the 
distribution  of  cotton  production  in  these  States,  it  may  be  broadly  stated  that  the  culture  of 
cotton  is  reported  to  have  greatly  extended  of  late,  even  up  the  slopes  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
itself.  Among  the  causes  leading  to  this  gratifying  result,  reports  received  show  that  the 
use  of  fertilizers,  and,  with  it,  better  methods  of  culture,  are  foremost. 

In  other  words,  these  two  members  of  the  original  union  of  thirteen  States  have  been  first 
to  place  cotton  culture  upon  a  permanent  foundation,  by  adopting  a  system  of  regular  returns 
to  the  soil;  and  the  high  product  per  acre,  as  compared  with  Georgia  and  Alabama  on  the 
one  hand,  and  with  Mississippi  on  the  other,  exhibits  tellingly  the  tide-wave  advancing  westward, 


390  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

the  ebb  of  the  first  native  fertility  in  Alabama  and  Florida,  the  rising  tide  of  restored  produc- 
tiveness in  the  Carolinas,  with  Georgia  on  the  westward  slope  of  the  wave,  on  which  it  is 
rising  and  showing  distinctly  a  higher  product  per  acre  in  its  eastern  than  in  its  western  por- 
tion, where  the  use  of  fertilizers  is  much  less  extended. 

The  concentration  of  cotton  culture  upon  the  most  fertile  lands,  already  so  apparent  in 
Tennessee,  becomes  even  more  so  in  Missouri,  the  most  northerly  region  of  large-scale  cotton 
production. 

It  appears  that  Missouri  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  for  cotton-product  per  acre  culti- 
vated in  that  crop,  and  it  seems  singular  that  this  should  be  the  case  at  the  extreme  northern 
limit  of  cotton  culture.  But  the  anomaly  disappears  when  we  locate  the  area  of  production  ; 
when  it  becomes  apparent  that  it  embraces  almost  exclusively  the  highly-fertilized  lowlands 
lying  at  the  head  of  the  great  St.  Francis'  bottom  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the  State.  Their 
product  per  acre  must,  therefore,  be  compared  with  that  of  others  of  a  similar  character,  that 
of  the  Yazoo  bottom,  for  example.  Here  the  average  product  ranges  between  .80  and  .86  of 
a  bale  per  acre,  to  offset  the  .67  shown  by  the  Missouri  cotton  area. 

Assuming  the  soils  to  be  similar  in  average  fertility  in  either  region,  the  difference  is 
manifestly  due  to  the  comparatively  short  season  for  the  development  of  the  cotton  plant  in 
the  latitude  of  the  Missouri  cotton  region  ;  and  for  the  same  reason  cotton  is  there  grown 
only  on  those  lands  where  high  fertility  insui'es  the  most  rapid  development. 

The  cotton  production  of  Kentucky  pertains,  in  the  main,  to  what  has  been  appropriately 
styled  the  ''penumbral"  region  of  that  industry.  The  bulk  is  produced  in  the  counties 
lying  adjacent  to  Western  Tennessee  and  to  the  Mississippi  river,  the  latter  embracing  por- 
tions of  the  rich  bottom,  with  an  average  product  per  acre  of  from  .48  to  .56  of  a  bale. 
Eastward  the  cotton  is  grown  in  small  patches,  mostly  for  home  consumption.  Such  small 
tracts  being  well  cultivated,  the  product  per  acre  is  comparatively  high,  even  so  as  to  reach 
the  average  of  the  counties  bordering  on  the  Mississippi  river,  doubtless  through  the  use  of 
manure.  Data,  regarding  the  production  of  cotton  in  Virginia,  are  at  this  time  too  scanty  to 
warrant  a  discussion.  It  appears,  however,  that  there  also  cotton  production  has  increased 
materially  during  the  last  decade,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

Selection  of  Seed. — In  the  production  of  cotton,  whatever  the  variety  of  seed  planted, 
it  makes  a  vast  difference  with  the  quality  and  yield  of  the  crop,  whether  the  seed  was  the 
product  of  a  succession  of  carefully-cultivated  products,  or  from  those  of  slovenly  and  indif- 
ferent cultivation. 

This  is  a  well-known  principle  in  vegetable  physiology.  It  is  also  equally  true  that 
favorable  conditions,  such  as  good  soil  and  proper  cultivation,  will  secure  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  the  seed  of  any  plant — principles  which  the  most  intelligent  and  suc- 
cessful cultivators  of  the  soil  have  strictly  regarded.  If  any  are  indifferent  in  this  respect, 
and  have  been  accustomed  to  regard  "  one  seed  as  good  as  another,"  we  feel  sure  they  would 
change  that  opinion  by  trying  the  experiment  of  planting  only  the  very  best  seed  produced 
by  the  most  careful  cultivation  for  a  short  time,  and  noting  the  result. 

We  are  well  aware  that  impositions  have  been  practiced  in  this  respect,  and  exorbitant 
prices  have  been  obtained  for  what  were  claimed  to  be  new  and  valuable  varieties  of  cotton, 
which,  when  planted  and  matured,  proved  to  be  a  product  of  either  very  ordinary  or  inferior 
quality. 

Experience  of  this  kind  would  have  a  tendency  to  produce  skepticism  with  respect  to 
new  varieties  highly  recommended, —the  natural  result  of  fraudulent  practice;  but  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  spurious  and  worthless  are  to  be  often  found  in  almost  every  pro- 
duct of  agricultural  art,  capable  of  being  adulterated — a  fact  to  be  greatly  deplored;  but  this 
does  not  prove  the  non-existence  of  that  which  is  truly  valuable. 

When  not  grown  on  the  same  plantation,  seed  should  be  obtained  only  from  the  most 


COTTON.  391 

reliable  sources,  since  quite  as  much  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  seed,  in  the  result  of  the 
future  crop,  as  the  soil  and  cultivation  afterwards  received. 

Not  only  will  the  unfavorable  conditions  of  soil,  cultivation,  etc.,  cause  a  deterioration  in 
the  quality  of  cotton-seed — the  same  as  with  other  plants — but  there  is  also  an  equal  necessity 
of  an  occasional  change  of  seed  ;  the  constant  use  of  the  same  seed  year  after  year  produced 
from  the  same  soil  having  a  tendency  to  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  crop,  even  with  the  best 
cultivation. 

Careless  and  indifferent  cultivation  i^,  however,  one  of  the  surest  causes  of  deterioration ; 
hence,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  not  only  the  best  variety  of  seed  be  secured  for  the 
crop,  but  that  it  be  such  as  was  produced  on  good  soil,  and  under  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions of  cultivation. 

It  is  a  principle  in  nature  that  "like  produces  hke,"  and  with  the  cotton,  as  well  as  with 
all  crops,  the  best  seed  of  the  variety  most  adapted  to  the  condition  of  culture  in  which  the 
crop  is  to  be  grown  will  produce  the  most  remunerative  results.  By  careful  and  improved 
systematic  culture,  the  cotton  crop  of  the  South  will  doubtless  in  a  few  years  be  double  that 
of  its  present  or  former  average  yield  on  a  given  area.  An  improved  agricultural  system, 
the  proper  amount  and  kind  of  fertilizers,  together  with  the  use  of  modern  agricultural 
implements  which  have  been  and  are  being  introduced,  will  develop  the  agricultural  resources 
of  this  section  of  our  country,  and  the  possibilities  of  the  cotton  crop,  to  almost  an  incredible 
extent.  There  is  no  portion  of  the  civilized  world,  and  no  equal  extent  in  the  cotton-growing 
zone,  so  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  culture  of  cotton  as  some  portions  of  the  Southern  States, 
especially  those  of  the  Gulf  coast;  there  being  found  the  rare  combinations  of  large  areas, 
with  soil  of  requisite  quahty,  the  temperature  required,  together  with  the  degree  of  humidity 
necessary;  all  of  which  are  so  essential  to  its  perfect  development  and  most  successful 
culture. 

Soil,  and  its  Preparation.  —  The  cotton  plant  is  less  exacting  than  most  crops  with 
respect  to  soil.  If  properly  managed,  it  will  thrive  well  on  a  variety  of  soils  and  on  those  of 
a  widely  different  character. 

It  will  also  admit  of  being  re-planted  on  the  same  lands  for  a  greater  number  of  succes- 
sive years  than  almost  any  other  crop,  although  a  judicious  rotation  produces  the  best 
results.  For  upland  cottons,  the  best  soils  are  generally  conceded  to  be  a  rich  loam,  a  clayey 
loam,  and  silicious  soil  with  a  clay  subsoil. 

This  crop,  with  good  culture,  is  also  very  productive  on  sandy  soils  underlaid  by  sand- 
stone or  hmestone  rocks,  and  the  rich  alluvial  deposits  of  bottom  lands.  With  respect  to  the 
wide  range  of  soils  suited  to  its  successful  cultivation,  we  quote  the  following,  translated  from 
an  eminent  French  authority,  Guide  Pratique  de  la  Culture  du  Colon,  par  le  Dr.  Adrien  Sicard, 
Secretaire  General  de  la  Societe  d^ Horticulture,  etc.,  of  Paris. 

"  If  we  exclude  lands  composed  of  compact  clays,  with  a  soil  of  no  depth  and  an  imper- 
meable subsoil,  we  shall  have  eliminated  from  the  vast  variety  of  them,  all  soils  which  will 
not  produce  cotton.  Indeed,  recent  studies  and  investigations  have  proved  that,  with  the 
use  of  an  appropriate  fertilizer  and  proper  cultivation,  where  the  climate  admits  of  the 
maturity  of  the  bolls,  cotton  can  be  more  or  less  profitably  grown  on  all  kinds  and  quahties 
of  land.  Thus,  on  the  rocky  sides  of  the  mountains  of  Hindostan,  in  Africa,  and  on  the  dry 
hills  of  the  West  India  islands,  in  soils  which  are  too  light  and  thin  to  produce  any  other 
crop,  cultivators  grow  and  make  good  crops  of  cotton.  Further,  cotton  is  so  indifferent  to 
the  quality  of  land  producing  it  that  it  grows  almost  equally  as  well  on  the  rich  loams  of 
Egypt,  in  the  pure  clays  of  Syria,  in  the  sands  of  Arabia,  and  on  the  volcanic  fields  of  Sicily; 
while  on  the  sandy  second  beaches  of  Georgia  and  the  Caroliaas  the  best  cotton  in  the  world 
is  produced." 

Soils  deficient  in  the  mineral  element  are  not  suited  to  the  successful  production  of  this 
25 


392  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

crop,  neither  those  in  which  there  is  a  large  amount  of  undecomposed  vegetable  material. 
Cotton  has  a  long  tapering  root,  which  runs  perpendicularly  and  deeply  into  the  soil  in  the 
early  stages  of  its  growth,  and  afterward  sends  out  laterals,  which  furnish  the  small  feeding 
roots  of  the  plant.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  the  crop  is  increased  in  regions  that  are 
subject  to  frost,  by  decreasing  the  length  of  the  root  and  thus  increasing  the  laterals  which 
furnish  the  necessarj'  plant-food,  for  hastening  the  growth  and  maturity  of  the  crop.  A  good 
authority  says  with  reference  to  this  subject :  — 

"  We  have  reason  to  think  that  the  radical  system  of  the  annual  cotton  plant  gains  more 
if  we  diminish  the  length  of  the  tap  root  than  if  we  increase  it,  and  ps  evidence  of  this  we 
offer  the  enormous  crop  produced  on  lands  where  the  soil  is  very  thin,  but  of  excellent 
quality.  Such  are  those  about  Sierra  Leone,  where  cotton  is  grown  on  a  soil  of  a  few  inches 
in  thickness  only,  all  beneath  being  solid,  level  rock.  Here  the  tap  root  exists,  as  elsewhere, 
but  the  moment  it  encounters  the  rock  its  growth  is  arrested,  and  thereafter  the  laterals  push 
out  prodigiously,  and  gather  nourishment  enough  to  produce  great  yields  of  the  staple." 

This  peculiar  structure  of  the  plant  explains  the  reason  for  its  early  maturity  and  enor- 
mous yield,  on  certain  very  thin  soils,  overlying  a  rocky  or  impenetrable  subsoil ;  it  also 
shows  the  necessity  of  underdraining  soils  with  a  stiff  clay  subsoil  that  may  be  penetrated  by 
the  root,  as  a  surplus  of  moisture  about  the  roots  is  very  injurious  to  the  crop.  When  this 
cannot  be  conveniently  done,  open  ditches  may  be  the  best  remedy  to  avoid  the  e^ril.  Wbere 
neither  can  be  accomplished,  ridge  culture  with  furrows  for  draining  between  the  rows, 
though  not  a  very  efficient  mode,  will  prove  to  a  certain  extent  beneficial.  A  proper  system 
of  imderdraining  is  to  be  recommended  as  preferable  to  all  other  means  of  removing  surplus 
water  from  lands,  whatever  the  crop  to  be  cultivated. 

Underdraining  has  not  only  a  tendency  to  carry  off  the  surplus  water  from  the  soil,  but 
permits  it  to  remain  sufficiently  moist  by  the  retention  of  the  heavy  dews,  so  common  in  the 
cotton-growing  section,  and  also  renders  the  subsoil  better  fitted  for  the  long  roots  to  pene- 
trate it,  thus  obviating  the  evil  effects  of  drought;  hence,  the  cotton  crop  is  greatly  benefited 
by  it  in  both  wet  and  dry  seasons,  having  a  tendenc)'  to  promote  a  greater  uniformity  of 
moisture,  so  essential  to  the  perfect  development  of  the  plants. 

In  upland  sections,  which  may  be  badly  washed  by  heavy  rains,  thus  removing  much  of 
the  fertilizing  elements  of  the  manure  that  has  been  applied,  planters  often  resort  to  what  is 
termed  circle-ditching,  or  circle  plowing,  for  the  cotton  crop. 

By  this  method,  the  lowest  point  is  found  for  an  outlet  of  the  water.  From  this  point 
a  ditch  is  made  with  a  bank  of  earth  firmly  laid  on  the  lower  side  to  prevent  washing.  The 
ditch  is  then  made  to  gradually  wind  around  the  hill,  maintaining  a  slightly  uniform  and 
gradual  descent.  This  ditch  is  usually  made  by  plowing  two  or  three  furrows  so  as  to  lap 
over  each  other,  and  then  cleaning  out  the  last  one  with  a  hoe  or  trench-plow.  In  plowing 
such  a  field,  the  furrows  should  follow  the  curves  of  the  ridge  thus  formed,  never  disturbing 
it,  and  the  cotton  should  also  be  planted  in  rows  following  the  same  direction.  By  this  means, 
many  of  the  upland  sections  that  would  otherwise  be  injured  by  the  heavy  rains,  are  made  to 
produce  fine  crops,  and  all  evils  from  washing  prevented. 

A  rotation  with  other  crops  is  essential  to  the  most  successful  results  in  cotton  produc- 
tion. Cotton  for  two  years  is  often  followed  by  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and  wheat  or  oats. 
Cotton  followed  by  oats  in  January,  where  the  climate  wiU  admit  of  it, — followed  by  cow.peas 
immediately  after,  a  part  of  which  may  be  cut  for  hay,  and  the  remainder  plowed  under  for 
green  manure, — followed  the  next  season  with  com,  and  this  crop  again  by  cotton,  is  a  very 
good  rotation  for  most  soils.  Corn,  oats,  potatoes,  and  cow-peas  are  generally  considered  by 
planters  to  be  the  best  crops  for  a  rotation  with  cotton.  The  plowing  should  be  rather  deep, 
and  the  soil  well  pulverized,  since  the  cotton-plant  has  a  long  root  that  penetrates  down  into 
the  earth  quite  a  distance,  sometimes  into  the  subsoil.     Care  should,  however,  be  observed  in 


COTTON.  393 

plowing  not  to  throw  up  the  subsoil  to  the  surface,  and  bury  the  surface  soil  beneath,  as  it  is 
only  in  very  rare  instances  that  the  subsoil  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  benefit  the  surface  or 
agricultural  soil  by  being  mixed  with  it;  the  soil  on  the  surface  that  has  been  exposed  to  the 
atmospheric  influences  and  mixed  with  decomposed  vegetable  material  generally  being  the 
richest,  and  hence  possessing  the  largest  amoimt  of  plant- food. 

The  stalks  of  the  previous  crop  are  usually  disposed  of  by  being  cleared  off  the  field  and 
burned  before  plowing,  but  sometimes  they  are  broken  down  and  plowed  under  for  fer- 
tility to  the  soil,  which  they  will  furnish  to  a  certain  extent  by  their  decay. 

The  best  method  is  to  plow  in  the  fall,  thus  giving  the  soil  all  the  benefits  resulting  from 
the  action  of  the  frost,  while  many  of  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  noxious  insects  will  also  be  lia- 
ble to  be  destroyed  by  this  means.  This  should  be  followed  by  plowing  again  in  the  spring 
and  thoroughly  harrowing  before  planting. 

The  land  for  cotton  is  generally  plowed  in  ridges,  these  ridges  being  made  two  or  three 
weeks  before  the  time  of  planting,  in  order  to  give  the  soil  time  to  settle  well  before  the  seed 
is  deposited.  Just  before  planting,  they  are  thoroughly  harrowed  to  loosen  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  soil,  after  which  the  middle  of  the  ridge  is  opened  for  the  seed  by  the  cotton- 
planter,  drill,  or  other  implement  for  the  purpose.  The  ridges  are  so  arranged  that  the  rows 
of  plants  shall  be  from  three  to  six  feet  apart,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soU,  and  each 
row  stand  upon  a  narrow  elevation  with  a  furrow  between  for  the  water.  The  richer  the 
land,  as  a  general  rule,  the  farther  apart  should  the  rows  be  planted.  On  very  poor  soils,  this 
distance  is  sometimes  not  more  than  two  and  a  half  feet;  on  very  rich  soils  it  sometimes 
exceeds  six  feet. 

"When  stable  manure  or  compost  is  used  for  fertilizing,  it  is  generally  placed  in  a  fur- 
row, and  the  plow  used  to  throw  the  soil  over  it,  thus  leaving  it  covered  in  the  middle  of  the 
ridge,  where  the  roots  of  the  plant  can  soon  reach  it.  Where  commercial  fertilizers  are  used, 
they  may  be  mixed  with  four  or  five  times  their  bulk  of  dry  soil,  and  be  deposited  in  the 
hni  at  the  time  of  planting,  or  placed  in  the  hill  and  slightly  covered  with  soil  before  plant- 
ing. Chemical  fertilizers  should  never  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed,  as  they  are  very 
liable  to  injure  the  germ,  being  very  strong  and  penetrating. 

Various  kinds  of  fertilizers  are  used  for  the  cotton  crop.  It  has  been  the  practice  in 
many  sections  of  the  South  to  produce  this  crop  with  httle  or  no  fertility  added  to  the  land, 
and  hence  exhaustion  of  soU  has  followed,  with  its  attendant  evil  consequences.  The  pro- 
duction of  the  Hnt  alone  would  not  cause  so  very  great  an  amount  of  drainage  of  the  fertiliz- 
ing elements  of  the  land,  but  when  we  add  to  this  the  elements  necessary  for  the 
production  of  the  roots,  stalks,  leaves,  and  seed  of  the  plants,  it  is  not  surprising  that  soils 
thus  treated  should  become  exhausted ;  the  only  surprise  is,  that  they  do  not  fail  in  this 
respect  sooner  than  they  do.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that,  when  the  seed  is 
removed  from  the  soil,  the  exhaustion  is  about  twenty-five  times  as  rapid  as  when  the  lint 
alone  is  taken,  and  fully  equal  to  that  caused  by  the  production  of  corn  or  wheat.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  returning  to  the  cotton-growing  lands  a  substitute  in  the  form  of  fertilizers  of 
some  kind,  for  what  has  been  removed  by  the  crop.  Cotton-seed  composted  with  other  mate- 
rials makes  a  valuable  fertilizer  for  this  purpose.  Common  stable  manure  is  also  a  complete 
fertilizer,  and  is  especially  valuable  to  this  crop.  A  compost  of  cotton-seed  and  stable  manure, 
mixed  with  lime  or  plaster,  is  a  very  effective  fertilizer.  Commercial  fertilizers  are  also  very 
beneficial. 

The  most  important  mineral  element  removed  from  the  soil  by  the  cotton  crop,  and 
which  must  be  supplied  by  the  cultivator,  is  claimed  by  agricultural  chemists  to  be  phos- 
phoric acid.  Potash  and  lime  are  also  removed  to  a  certain  extent,  but  in  smaller  quantities. 
Phosphate  of  Hme  is  also  highly  recommended  for  this  crop. 

Gypsum,  bone-dust,  and  guano,  as  well  as  wood-ashes,  have  also  been  found  very  bene- 


394  THE  AMERICAN  FARRIER. 

ficial.  There  is  probably  nothing  better  than  barn-yard  manure  made  from  grain-fed  ani- 
mals, since  this  contains  all  the  elements  of  fertility,  and  is  to  be  recommended  where  it  can 
be  obtained  in  sufficiently  large  quantities  for  the  purpose. 

The  local  resources  of  the  cotton-growing  belt  for  the  fertilization  of  the  soil  for  this 
crop  have  been  pointed  out  by  a  former  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  as  follows,  and  shown 
to  be  abundant,  accessible,  and  inexpensive: — 

"Every  farmer  should  rely  mainly  upon  his  stock  for  manures;  hogs  should  be  fattened 
upon  field-peas;  cattle  and  horses  should  be  penned  at  night  in  deeply-littered  yards.  Accre- 
tions to  the  manure-pile  may  be  made  from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  including  all  decaying 
vegetable  and  animal  matter,  waste  and  wash  from  the  kitchen,  muck  from  the  swamps,  and 
pine  straw  or  leaves  from  the  forest. 

There  are  many  special  fertilizers  in  this  section  ample  for  a  perpetual  supply  of  all  pos- 
sible drain  upon  the  resources  of  the  soil.  The  coast-line  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  including 
all  the  sounds,  inlets,  bays,  and  estuaries,  has  an  aggregate  extent  of  thousands  of  miles,  and 
every  mile  can  furnish  abundant  stores  of  fish  and  sea-weed  for  manuring  adjacent  fields. 
Oyster-shell  lime  is  also  plenty  and  cheap  in  the  tide-waiter  regions. 

No  mineral  manure  is  more  abundant  than  marl,  which  is  found  in  the  whole  tide-water 
section  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  in  Texas.  It  underlies  wide  belts 
at  various  depths,  often  very  near  the  surface;  it  is  in  many  localities  easily  obtained  in  large 
quantities;  and  its  value,  though  variable,  is  undoubted  for  application  for  soils  needing  lime. 
Gypsum  can  be  obtained  from  native  beds  at  no  great  distance  from  any  locality  in  the 
South.  Lime  is  abundant  in  the  mountain  valleys  from  Vii-ginia  to  Northern  Alabama;  and 
the  '  rotten-limestone  '  formations  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  are  unsurpassed  for  fertility. 

All  these  home  resources  should  be  used  in  bringing  up  the  average  cotton  jrield  per 
acre,  and  obtaining  from  half  of  the  present  acreage  all  of  the  fiber  needed,  leaving  free  a 
sufBcient  area  to  produce  the  bread,  the  fruits,  the  vegetables,  the  beef  and  mutton  necessary 
for  the  home  population,  and  a  surplus  of  the  lighter  products  for  exportation." 

Green  manuring  with  cow.peas,  oats,  or  clover  will  also  be  found  valuable  in  restoring 
the  fertility  of  partially  exhausted  lands,  and  a  good  fertilizer  for  the  cotton  crop,  when  per- 
mitted to  lie  long  enough  after  being  turned  under  to  become  thoroughly  decomposed. 

The  quantity  of  fertihzers  to  be  applied  will  depend  upon  various  conditions,  such  as  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  'its  productive  capacity,  and  whether  the  seed  is  removed  or  not. 
"Where  the  seed  is  returned  to  the  soil,  a  less  quantity  of  other  fertilizers  will  be  necessary. 

The  difBculty  is  generally  in  using  too  small  an  amount  of  fertilizers  rather  than  too 
large,  although,  of  course,  a  sufficient  amount  might  be  used  to  be  deleterious  to  the  crop. 
As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  richer  the  soil,  the  better  the  crop. 

Cultivation. — When  the  soil  has  been  weU  prepared  to  receive  the  seed,  by  ridging 
and  then  harrowing,  the  planting  may  be  done  with  a  drill  or  cotton-planter  that  opens  the 
furrow,  deposits  the  seed,  and  covers  it  at  a  uniform  depth.  This  method  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  hand-planting,  since  it  is  a  saving  of  time  and  labor,  and  the  work  is  done  better 
than  could  be  performed  by  hand,  the  seed  being  dropped  more  evenly  and  covered  at  a  more 
uniform  depth,  while  the  rows  will  be  made  more  regularly,  admitting  of  a  better  use  of  the 
cultivator,  horse-hoe,  or  other  suitable  implements,  in  the  after-culture  of  the  crop. 

When  hand-planting  is  practiced,  the  ridges  are  opened  with  a  light  plow,  or  some  im- 
plement that  makes  a  small  drill  into  which  the  seed  is  dropped,  being  afterwards  covered  by 
harrowing.  Soaking  the  seed  a  day  or  two  in  tepid  water,  and  rolling  it  in  gypsum  or  wood- 
ashes  before  planting,  will  hasten  germination,  and  cause  it  to  come  up  sooner  than  when 
planted  dry. 

The  quantity  of  seed  necessary  will  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  land,  poor  land 
requiring  a  larger  amount  than  rich  soils.     From  two  to  four  bushels  per  acre  are  used.     It 


COTTON. 


396 


is  well  to  have  an  abundance  of  seed  planted,  since  the  enemies  of  the  cotton-plant  are  so 
numerous  and  destructive  that  many  of  the  young  plants  will  be  hable  to  be  destroyed.  If 
all  the  seed  germinates,  there  will,  of  course,  be  a  large  surplus  of  plants,  which  must  be 
removed  by  thinning.  The  drills  should  be  straight,  in  order  to  facilitate  after-culture.  The 
distance  apart  of  the  hills  varies  from  ten  inches  to  three  feet.  The  larger  the  distance  apart, 
the  larger  the  number  of  plants  in  a  hill,  as  a  general  rule.  The  quality  of  the  soil  must 
also  be  taken  into  account,  since  the  richer  the  soil,  the  larger  and  more  thrifty  the  growth 
of  the  plants,  and  consequently  the  more  room  they  will  require. 

Care  must  also  be  used  not  to  cover  the  seed  too  deeply  in  the  soil,  as  the  crop  will  be 
injured  by  this  means.  In  such  cases,  some  of  the  seed  wUl  fail  to  germinate;  others  will 
produce  but  feeble  and  sickly  plants.  It  should  be  well  covered,  however,  from  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  half  being  the  usual  depth,  sandy  soil  requiring  a  greater  depth  than  rich, 
heavy  loams  or  clays.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  down  upon  the  seed  to  hasten  germination, 
and  the  work  thoroughly  done.  The  time  of  planting  will  vary  in  different  localities.  In 
some  sections,  the  planting  is  done  as  early  as  the  middle  of  March,  in  others  it  is  delayed 


DEEiiE    SPRING    CULTIVATOR. WITH    IMPROVED    OOTTON-SCKAPER    BLADES. 

until  the  middle  or  20th  of  May.  While,  with  favoring  conditions,  an  early  planting  insures 
an  early  harvest,  yet  there  is  danger  of  injury  to  the  crop  if  planted  before  the  land  is 
sufficiently  warm.  The  seed  will  not  germinate  if  the  soU  is  too  cold  and  wet;  they  will,  on 
the  contrary,  be  hable  to  rot  in  the  ground,  while  with  a  proper  temperature,  even  with 
rather  late  planting,  they  will  soon  start  and  become  well  established  in  the  soil. 

Poor  soils,  however,  necessitate  an  earlier  planting  than  rich  lands  that  are  naturally 
rich,  or  have  been  made  so  by  being  heavily  manured.  One  of  the  advantages  of  late  plant- 
ing on  rich  soil  consists  in  the  saving  of  labor,  since  if  such  lands  are  planted  early,  large 
quantities  of  grass  and  weeds  will  spring  up  and  feed  upon  the  soil,  extracting  much  of  its 
fertilizing  properties,  consequently  injuring  the  cotton  crop,  and  also  requiring  considerable 
labor  to  exterminate  them.  As  the  plant  grows  slowly  on  poor  soil,  a  late  planting,  on  such 
lands  would  not  be  advisable,  as  it  would  not  have  time  to  fully  mature.  The  time  before 
the  young  shoots  make  their  appearance  varies  according  to  the  time  of  planting,  and  the 
weather.  Late-planted  seed  will  start  sooner  than  the  extremely  early,  in  consequence  of  the 
greater  warmth  of  the  soil,  the  time  varying  from  five  to  fourteen  days  or  more.  With 
favorable  temperature  they  will  usually  come  up  in  from  five  to  seven  days.     If  the  weather 


396  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

is  unusually  dry  at  the  time  of  late  planting,  tlie  seed  will  sometimes  remain  in  the  ground 
three  or  four  weeks  before  starting,  and  when  a  rain  comes  will  soon  make  a  good  stand. 

The  first  cultivation  should  be  given  when  the  plants  are  well  out  of  the  ground,  in 
order  to  check  the  growth  of  grass  and  weeds.  The  soil  should  also  be  kept  light  and 
mellow,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  growth  of  the  plants.  The  implements  formerly  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  at  present  to  a  certain  extent,  are  the  hand-hoe,  sweep,  harrow,  plow, 
etc.  In  many  sections,  better  implements,  such  as  the  horse-hoe  and  different  varieties  of 
cultivators,  are  being  used  quite  extensively. 

The  Deere  Spring  Cultivator  with  cotton-scraper  blades,  manufactured  by  Deere,  Mansur 
&  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  is  said  to  be  a  valuable  implement  in  the  saving  of  labor  and  the 
thoroughness  with  which  it  does  the  work.  Many  of  the  cotton-plows  are  also  very  valuable 
for  this  purpose. 

When  the  plant  has  attained  its  third  or  fourth  leaf,  the  thinning  process  is  performed, 
together  with  the  use  of  the  hoe  or  cultivator.  This  should  be  done  with  care,  the  finest 
plants  to  be  saved  and  the  surplus  ones  removed.  The  distance  apart  at  which  the  plants  are 
thinned  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  soil;  rich  lands  requiring  that  the  distance  be  greater 
than  those  of  less  fertility.  In  soils  of  medium  fertility,  the  distance  is  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  apart,  three  or  four  plants  being  left  in  a  hill  at  the  first  thinning,  which 
number  is  generally  reduced,  in  after  cultivation,  to  one  or  two.  After  the  thinning  process, 
the  fresh  earth  should  be  drawn  around  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  for  support,  and  all 
weeds  and  grass  kept  carefully  excluded  from  the  hills.  The  after-culture  should  always  be 
shallow,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  roots,  especially  in  the  use  of  the  plow.  The  hand-hoe  may 
be  necessary  in  removing  weeds  growing  quite  near  the  plants  or  between  the  hills,  but  much 
of  the  labor  of  after-culture  may  be  performed  by  other  farm  implements  suited  to  the  pur- 
pose, and  involving  less  labor. 

Plowing  is  frequently  beneficial  in  hastening  the  growth  and  maturity  of  the  plants. 
Care  should  be  used,  however,  not  to  bruise  or  cut  them,  as  they  are  very  tender,  and  any 
such  injury  will  affect  their  productiveness.  The  after-cultivation  should  be  sufficiently 
frequent  to  exclude  the  grass  and  weeds,  and  keep  the  surface  light  and  porous.  Good 
culture  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  and  a  frequent  stirring  of 
the  soil  is  necessary  in  order  to  keep  out  the  weeds  and  permit  the  entrance  of  a  sufficient 
amount  of  air  and  moisture. 

The  use  of  the  sulky  plows  and  cultivators,  together  with  other  improved  agricultural 
implements,  wherever  introduced,  have  been  of  immense  advantage  to  the  planter  in  the 
cultivation  of  this  product,  not  only  in  the  saving  of  labor,  but  in  securing  better  cultivation, 
and  consequently  larger  crops  and  profits. 

Harvesting. — Cotton  generally  grows  in  this  country  to  the  height  of  from  two  to 
four  feet,  diilerent  varieties  varying  somewhat  in  this  respect.  The  height  it  attains  is  also 
largely  modified  by  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  richest  soils  producing  the  most  luxuriant 
growths.  Unlike  com  and  other  farm  crops,  cotton,  being  a  perennial,  which  in  some  parts 
of  the  tropics  becomes  a  small  tree,  continues  to  bud  and  blossom  continuously,  thus  producing 
new  flowers  and  fruit  until  the  plant  is  killed  by  frost.  In  this  country  it  is  killed  by  the 
frost  each  winter,  and  its  cultivation  for  a  long  period  has  fixed  a  tendency  in  the  plant  to 
produce  Knt  ajid  seeds,  rather  than  wood.  This  habit  of  continued  blossoming  and  ripening 
of  its  bolls  until  the  black  frost  comes,  necessitates  several  pickings  or  gatherings  of  the  crop 
during  the  season.  The  plant  generally  opens  its  first  blossoms  from  the  middle  of  May  to 
the  first  of  June,  according  to  the  time  of  planting,  the  season,  etc.  The  boUs  turn  brown 
and  open  in  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  the  flowers  appear.  Some  planters  have  their  fields 
picked  regularly  four  or  five  times  during  the  season,  others  but  once  or  twice.  The  most 
energetic  and  systematic  growers  usually  have  the  crop  gathered  as  often  as  a  sufficient 


COTTON. 


397 


amount  is  open  and  ready  to  be  harvested,  the  rule  being  with  many,  to  commence  picking  as 
soon  as  one  laborer  can  pick  a  hundred  pounds  per  day. 

The  ripening  of  the  bolls  is  indicated  by  their  turning  a  dark  brown,  and  expanding, 
which  causes  the  cotton'  to  protrude.  The  picking  is  performed  by  hand.  Heavy  rains  at 
this  season  sometimes  cause  considerable  loss  in  the  crop.  It  may  be  ginned  as  the  picking 
progresses,  or  be  first  dried,  and  afterwards  ginned.  One  of  the  most  successful  planters  at 
the  South  says  that  it  should  first  be  dried  until  the  seed  will  crack  when  pressed  between  the 
teeth,  being  frequently  turned  over  and  stirred  so  as  to  facilitate  the  drying  process;  after 
which  it  shovdd  be  packed  away  to  remain  until  ready  for  the  ginning  process,  or  it  may  be 
ginned  as  soon  as  dried.     The  same  authority  also  says :  — 

"  Having  all  things  ready  for  picking  cotton,  I  commence  as  usual,  early,  as  soon  as  the 
hands  can  gather  even  twenty  pounds  each.  This  is  advisable,  not  only  in  saving  a  portion 
of  that  from  being  destroyed,  if  rains  should  fall,  which  often  do  at  this  season  (about  the 
middle  of  August),  but  for  another  reason;  passing  through  the  cotton  has  a  tendency  to  open 
out  to  sun  and  air  the  limbs  that  have  interlocked  across  the  rows,  and  hastens  the  early 
opening.  On  low  grounds,  especially,  much  loss  is  incurred  in  'some  seasons  from  the  want 
of  the  sun  to  produce  an  expansion  of  the  fiber  within  the  boll,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  open. 

If  the  cotton  seed  is  not  wanted,  pack  the  seed-cotton  away  into  the  house,  to  remain 
until  a  gentle  heat  is  discovered,  or  until  sufficient  for  ginning ;  after  it  has  heated  until  it  has 
a  feeling  of  warmth  to  the  hand,  and  looks  as  if  pressed  together,  open  out  and  scatter  it  to 
cool.  The  cotton  will  gin  faster,  have  a  softer  feel,  is  not  so  brittle,  therefore  not  so  liable  to 
break  by  rapidity  of  gin,  and  has  a  creamy  color.  The  wool  has  imbibed  a  part  of  the  oil 
that  has  exuded  by  warmth  of  seed,  and  is  in  fact  restored  to  the  original  color;  for  the  oil, 
being  vegetal:>lo,  is  dissipated  by  sun  and  air,  and  the  color  by  moisture  (of  rain  and  dews) 
and  light.  I  have  known  of 
a  number  of  sales  made  of 
this  description  of  cotton,  and 
even  th  ose  who  are  most  stren- 
uous against  the  heating,  ad- 
mit it  bore  a  better  price." 

The  cotton  should  never 
be  left  on  the  field  after  being 
picked,  and  thus  e.xposed  to 
the  weather,  as  is  the  practice 
in  some  sections.  Such  a 
course  not  only  involves  loss 
by  an  injury  to  the  quality  of 
the  cotton,  but  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  product  often  rot  the  "molixe"  elliptic  spring  stalk-cutter. 

and  becomes   entirely  worth-  For  cuttini;  Com  and  cotton  stalks  in  the  field. 

less  by  such  exposure.  When  not  ginned  at  once,  it  should  be  housed,  and  thus  protected 
from  the  heavy  dews  and  rains.  After  cotton  is  all  harvested  the  stallcs  are  usually  left 
standing  in  the  field  until  the  time  of  plowing  for  the  succeeding  crop,  when  they  are  either 
pulled  up  and  burned,  or  broken  down  and  plowed  under. 

An  easier  method  of  clearing  the  field  is  to  cut  them  with  a  stalk-cutter,  when  they  can 
quickly  he  disposed  of  by  burning,  or  other  methods,  as  the  judgment  and  circumstances  of 
the  planter  may  dictate.  Various  implements  of  this  kind  are  in  use  for  both  com  and  cotton 
fields,  and  are  a  great  saving  of  labor.  The  above  illustration  represents  an  implement 
manufactured  by  Deere,  Mansur  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  It  may  be  used  Vi^ith  one  or  two 
horses,  as  desired. 


b98 


THE  AMERICAN   FAltSLER 


COTTON. 


S99 


Oinnins;. It  is  very  important  to  the  cotton  planter's  interest  that  this  valuable  prodnct 

be  well  prepared  for  the  market,  as  great  loss  has  often  been  sustained  by  sending  the  cotton 
off  in  an  imperfectly-cleaned  condition,  owing  to  a  defect  in  the  ginning  process,  either  by 
the  incompetency  of  those  who  performed  this  labor,  or  the  use  of  poor  machines  for  the 
purpose.  In  order  to  have  it  well  ginned,  good  implements  must  be  used,  with  competent 
supervision,  and  the  cotton  be  in  proper  condition  for  the  process.  It  should  never  be  ginned 
when  damp,  neither  should  the  process  be  unduly  hurried.  The  gin  must  always  be  kept  in 
good  order,  and  used  only  under  the  direction  of  one  who  thoroughly  understands  the 
business.  When  used  by  a  careless,  indifferent  person,  or  one  ignorant  of  its  mechanical 
construction,  the  work  will  probably  not  only  be  very  poorly  done  by  forcing  the  gin,  and 
feeding  in  large  compact  masses,  but  the  machine  wiLl  also  be  liable  to  be  greatly  injured  by 
such  a  course.  In  some  sections  of  the  South,  we  believe,  it  is  the  practice  of  a  few  planters 
to  combine  in  the  ownership  of  a  gin-house.  By  this  means  the  preparation  of  the  cotton 
product  for  market  is  attended  with  less  expense  per  individual;  the  best  machines  may  be 
brought  into  requisition  at  a  comparatively  small  cost  to  each,  while  the  building  could  be 
centrally  located  with  reference  to  the  situations  of  the  plantations  of  the  several  owners,  so 
that  there  need  be  but  little  inconvenience  in  conveying  the  cotton  to  it  for  the  purpose. 
Such  an  arrangement,  to  be  generally  adopted,  would  doubtless  be  attended  with  great  benefit 
in  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  since  it  enables  many  who  are  not  able  to  build  expensive  gin- 
houses  and  supply  them  with  first-class  machines  to  cultivate  this  crop  with  greater  profit. 


COTTON   HAND    GIN IMPROVED    EAGLE. 

The  original  apparatus  for  freeing  the  cotton  fiber  from  the  seeds  consisted  of  two  rollers 
revolving  in  opposite  directions,  between  which  the  cotton  was  passed.  The  gin  invented  by 
Mr.  Eli  Whitney,  in  1793,  consisted  of  a  hopper,  one  side  of  which  was  constructed  of  parallel 
wires,  between  which  circular  saws  were  made  to  revolve,  the  teeth  of  which  drew  the  fiber 
of  the  cotton  through  the  wires,  leaving  the  seeds  behind.  Great  improvements  in  gins  have 
of  course  been  effected  since  that  time,  and  at  present  the  best  of  these  implements  seem 
almost  perfect  in  their  work.  Many  excellent  machines  of  this  kind  are  in  the  market,  as 
weU  as  some  very  inferior  ones.     The  foregoing  cuts  represent  the  Eagle  gin,  manufactured 


400 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


by  the  Eagle  Cotton  Gin  Co.,  Bridgewater,  Masg.,  and  is  an  implement  the  value  of  which  is 
too  well  known  to  require  comment.  The  power  gins  are  similar  in  construction,  though 
made  much  larger  than  the  hand  gin,  and  can  be  used  with  either  steam  or  horse-power, 
steam  being  generally  preferred.  The  machine  should  always  be  set  firm  and  level,  and  kept 
well  oiled.  Before  using  it,  the  operator  should  see  that  all  the  belts  and  bolts  are  tight,  and 
that  every  part  is  in  proper  working  order,  being  particular  to  notice  that  the  screen  cylinder 
and  compression  roller  turn  freely.  The  machine  should  always  be  started  b^ore  putting  in 
the  cotton;  the  quantity  of  cotton  from  the  feeder  to  the  gin  to  be  regulated  by  arrangements 
for  that  purpose.  It  will  be  some  minutes  after  putting  in  the  cotton  before  any  machine  will 
do  its  best  work. 


EAGLE  COTTON  GIN,  WITH  FEEDER  AND  CONDENSER  ATTACHED. 


After  the  ginning  process,  the  cotton  should  be  pressed  into  bales  ready  for  market 
This  may  be  done  by  either  steam  or  horse-power,  and  requires  comparatively  but  little  time 
and  labor.  The  press  of  Dederick  &  Co.,  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  represented  on  a  previous  page, 
illustrates  this  process.  When  the  bales  are  ready  for  market,  there  still  remains  for  the 
planter  to  decide  whether  to  make  an  immediate  sale,  or  hold  the  product  for  an  advance 
in  the  market-price.  This  question  must  be  settled  according  to  his  knowledge  of  the  state  of 
the  market  at  home  and  abroad,  the  prospect  for  the  future,  and  his  own  judgment,  guided 
by  experience  and  observation  in  the  past,  together  with  his  financial  condition  at  the  time. 
If  confident  that  the  price  will  be  no  lower,  and  that  it  will  advance  sulBcient  to  repay  for 
withholding  it  from  the  market  for  a  time,  it  may  be  well  to  delay  the  sale.  But,  as  a  general 
rule  in  the  disposal  of  crops,  where  a  fair  price  can  be  obtained,  and  there  are  no  positive 
indications  of  an  advance,  it  is  better  to  sell,  than  to  depend  upon  uncertainty,  and  run  the 
risk  of  the  price  being  still  lower.     It  would  be  very  poor  policy  for  any  man  to  borrow 


COTTON.  401 

money  and  pay  the  interest,  rather  than  sell  a  product  for  a  fair  consideration,  unless  he  had 
very  good  reasons  for  supposing  that  he  could  safely  depend  upon  a  sufficiently  large  increase 
in  its  market  price  to  make  such  a  course  profitable. 

The  bales  are  usually  made  to  weigh  from  450  to  500  pounds.  The  lint,  after  the 
ginning  process,  is  less  than  a  third  of  the  gross  weight  of  the  seed -cotton ;  the  amount  of 
seed  in  the  cotton  being  about  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  entire  crop  gathered,  or  the  gross 
weight. 

Uses  of  Cottoil  Seed. — A  few  years  ago  cotton  seed  was  considered  almost  worth- 
less, no  particular  use  being  made  of  the  surplus  quantity  that  remained  after  planting.  At 
present  it  is  regarded  as  a  valuable  fertilizer,  particularly  when  used  in  composts.  Cotton- 
seed meal  is  also  one  of  the  most  useful  kinds  of  food  for  farm  stock,  when  judiciously  fed 
to  them.  It  is  regarded  by  some  as  possessing  twice  the  nutritive  properties  of  corn-meal, 
and,  being  so  rich,  must  be  fed  in  small  quantities. 

About  two  pounds  per  day,  with  other  fodder,  are  generally  considered  sufficient  for  a 
milch-cow,  and  from  two  to  four  ounces  for  a  calf.  It  should  always  be  given  mixed  with 
other  food,  or  in  connection  with  it.  It  should  never  be  fed  to  swine,  except  with  bran  or 
roots.  It  is  stated  by  good  authority  that  when  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  half 
a  peck  of  boiled  potatoes,  it  makes  a  good  food  for  fattening  pigs. 

Horses  do  well  on  it  if  not  given  more  than  two  pounds  per  day  with  meal  or  oats;  but 
if  fed  too  generously  with  it,  it  will  have  an  injurious  efiect  upon  the  system,  inducing 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  kidneys.  Sheep  will  also  thrive  on  it,  when  fed  in  connection 
with  hay  or  roots.  Analysis  proves  that  a  ton  of  cotton-seed  meal  contains  38  pounds  of 
potash,  56  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  78  pounds  of  nitrogen,  which  shows  its  value  as  a 
fertilizer,  and  as  an  element  in  manure  when  fed  to  stock. 

During  19  years  of  continuous  cropping  from  the  same  land,  Mr.  Lawes  of  Rothamsted 
applied  on  adjoining  plots,  annually  — 

1000  lbs.  rape  cake  (with  300  lbs.  mineral  siipL'rphosphate),  with  50  lbs.  nitrogen. 

200  lbs.  ammonia  salts  (with  300  lbs.  superphosphate),  with  41  lbs.  nitrogen. 

275  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  (with  300  lbs.  superphosphate),  with  41  lbs.  nitrogen. 
And  in  each  instance  harvested  annually  about  48 -bushels  of  barley  and  28  cwts.  of  straw, 
containing  together  56  pounds  of  nitrogen. 

The  oil  expressed  from  the  seed  of  cotton  is  also  valuable  for  various  purposes.  The 
seed  is  very  rich  in  oil,  and  will  usually  yield  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  its  own 
weight.  After  expressing  the  oil,  the  cake  is  used  for  food  for  cattle  and  other  farm  stock. 
The  seed  should  never  be  fed  whole  or  raw  to  animals,  as  this  practice  will  frequently  be 
attended  with  fatal  results,  besides  much  waste  will  be  occasioned  by  it.  It  should  either 
be  ground  into  meal,  or  boiled  before  being  fed.  The  former  is  the  better  and  easier  method 
of  disposing  of  it.  In  order  to  utilize  cotton  seed  to  the  fullest  extent  for  food,  since  the 
harsh  hulls  are  injurious  to  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  animals,  and  also  retard  the  de- 
composition of  the  seed  when  used  as  a  fertilizer,  a  huller  of  some  kind  is  found  very  ser- 
viceable in  removing  the  hulls  or  outer  covering  of  the  seeds.  These  machines  may  be  used 
by  hand,  horse,  or  steam  power;  also  to  advantage  in  grinding  and  cracking  corn  or  peas. 
The  illustration  represents  a  hand-machine  of  this  kind  manufactured  by  David  Kahnweiler, 
New  York  city,  and  is  said  to  hull  from  three  to  four  bushels  per  hour;  the  power  hullers 
for  larger  plantations  huUing  a  much  larger  amount,  according  to  the  size. 

Rank  of  American  Cotton,  etc. — As  has  previoiisly  been  stated,  the  United  States 
stands  first  among  the  countries  of  the  world  in  the  amount  and  quality  of  its  cotton  products, 
the  famous  Sea-Island  cotton  taking  first  rank,  since  it  surpasses  all  other  varieties  in  the 
length,  strength,  and  beauty  of  its  fiber,  it  being  very  long  and  exceedingly  soft  and  silky. 
The  fact  of  the  superiority  of  our  cotton  product  was  signally  demonstrated  at  the  Cotton 


402 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


Exposition  at  Atlanta  in  1881,  where  specimens  from  different  sections  of  the  cotton-growing 
belt  of  the  whole  globe  were  exhibited,  the  best  that  Egypt,  Persia,  India,  Russia,  Mexico,  and 
other  cotton-growing  countries  could  produce,  being  brought  in  close  comparison  with  our  own, 
which  comparison  substantiated  the  fact  beyond  question,  that,  whether  taken  in  part  or  as  a 
whole,  the  cotton  produced  in  the  United  States  is  so  superior  to  all  others,  that  it  gives  to 
our  country  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  cotton  markets  of  the  world.  The  superior  excel- 
lence of  the  quality  of  the  product,  together  with  the  extent  of  the  cotton  belt  and  the 
facilities  for  cultivating  cotton  that  the  Southern  States  afford,  give  to  that  section  of  our 
country  opportunities  of  no  small  import,  and  augur  well  for  the  future  development  of  its 

resources,  which  have 
never  yet  been  fully 
tested. 

When  we  remem- 
ber that,  in  the  year 
1830,  the  crop  of  cotton 
produced  in  this  coun- 
try reached  only  1,000,- 
000  bales,  that  the  larg- 
est amount  ever  pro- 
duced prior  to  1860  was 
only  a  little  over  4,500,- 
000  bales,  and  that  the 
crop  of  1881  was  about 
2,000,000  bales  in  ex- 
cess of  the  latter  num- 
ber, we  can  easily  see 
that  the  possibilities  of 
the  cotton  production  of 
the  United  States  have 
not  yet  been  reached, 
and  that  the  future  out- 
look is  indeed  promis- 
ing. The  heavy  increase 
in  the  cotton  crop  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  is 
mainly  attributable  to 
the  increase  of  the  cot- 
ton acreage  by  the  use 
of  suitable  fertilizers; 
thousands  of  acres  of 
land  formerly  supposed 
to  be  beyond  the  possible  limit  of  the  cotton  belt  having  been  made  into  the  best  of  cotton 
lands  by  being  artificially  enriched,  thus  hastening  the  maturity  of  the  crop,  as  well  as  the 
increased  product,  while  partially  exhausted  lands  have  been  restored  by  the  same  means. 

Prof.  Morehead,  President  of  tjie  Mississippi  Valley  Cotton-Planters'  Association,  states  that 
the  entire  cotton  crop  of  the  year  1881  might  have  been  easily  raised  in  fourteen  counties  bor- 
dering along  the  Mississippi  river.  The  capacity  of  the  South  for  cotton  production  seems 
almost  limitless,  and  when  we  consider  the  enormous  demand  for  cotton  goods  from  all  the 
different  parts  of  the  world,  and  that  this  is  the  principal  quarter  of  the  globe  best  adapted 
to  furnish  the  supply  and  meet  the  demand,  there  is  truly  a  great  inducement  to  Southern 


HAND    COTTON-SEED    HULLEB. 


COTTON.  403 

planters  to  avail  themselves  of  every  improvement  and  facility  within  their  power  for  the 
cultivation  of  this  valuable  product. 

Enemies  and  Diseases  of  tlie  Cotton  Plant. —The  enemies  of  the  cotton  plant  are 
numerous  and  often  very  destructive.  The  cut-worm  is  generally  the  first  to  make  an  attack, 
sometimes  eating  off  the  tender  shoots  just  after  making  their  appearance  from  the  soil.  A 
top-dressing  of  wood  ashes,  or  plaster  mixed  with  the  earth  around  the  roots,  wiU  sometimes 
check  the  evil.  It  is  noticeable  that  where  commercial  fertilizers  are  used  in  the  soil,  this 
pest  is  less  common. 

Aphides,  or  Cotton-Lice,  are  sometimes  very  damaging  to  the  crop,  as  they  attack  the 
plant  in  the  early  stages  of  its  growth,  sucking  the  juices  from  the  tender  stalks  and 
leaves,  causing  them  to  turn  yellow  and  drop  off.  These  insects  are  very  small,  but  at  the 
same  time  are  very  prohfic,  and  when  numerous  are  quite  damaging  to  the  crop.  They  are 
generally  most  troublesome  when  the  spring  has  been  wet  and  cold. 

They  have  many  enemies  that  prey  upon  them,  among  which  the  most  important  are  the 
ants  and  birds.  Paris  green  is  often  used  with  good  effect,  both  in  powder  and  dissolved  in 
water,  as  recommended  in  a  previous  part  of  this  work  for  the  potato-beetle.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  its  use,  as  it  is  a  deadly  poison.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  notice  that  all 
insect  pests  are  less  troublesome  in  locahties  where  birds  are  numerous,  and  their  presence 
should  always  be  encouraged. 

The  Caterpillar,  or  Cotton- Worm.  —  This  pest  is  sometimes  called  the  "cotton- 
caterpillar,"  but  is  more  generally  termed  the  "  cotton-worm,"  in  contradistinction  to  the 
•'boll-worm."  It  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  the  cotton  crop  with  which  the 
planter  has  to  contend.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  year  1873,  this  caterpillar,  or  worm,  caused 
by  its  depredations  an  estimated  damage  of  about  twenty  millions  of  dollars,  in  the  course  of 
two  weeks.  According  to  the  best  authority,  it  is  indigenous  to  South  America,  and  is  an 
introduced  insect  in  the  United  States.  The  first  appearance  of  it  in  this  country,  now  on 
record,  was  in  1793.  This  period  was  followed  by  an  extremely  disastrous  invasion  in  1804, 
and  from  that  time  until  the  present,  there  has  never  been  a  season  in  which  the  cotton  worm 
has  not  done  more  or  less  damage  to  the  cotton  product  in  some  portions  of  the  Southern 
States. 

The  worm  is  hatched  from  an  egg  deposited  by  the  female  moth.  The  four  states  or 
stages  of  its  development  are  given  as  follows  by  Prof.  C.  V.  Riley,  and  will  enable  any  one 
unacquainted  with  any  or  all  of  them  to  recognize  the  species  in  any  phase  of  its  growth,  and 
to  distinguish  it  from  other  insects;  besides,  a  correct  knowledge  of  its  habits  will  enable  the 
planter  to  better  defend  his  crop  against  its  depredations. 

"  The  Egg.  —  In  this  stage  of  its  existence,  the  cotton-worm  is  known  to  but  few  people, 
both  its  color  and  size  shielding  it  from  observation.  Every  planter  should,  however,  not 
only  become  familiar  with  its  appearance,  but  know  just  where  to  look  for  it.  With  this 
knowledge,  time  may  be  gained,  the  loss  of  which  in  the  application  of  remedies  may  result 
disastrously. 

The  egg  is  0.6  mm.  wide,  circular,  much  flattened  and  ribbed.  Of  bright  bluish-green 
or  sea-green  when  first  laid,  it  contrasts  sufficiently  with  the  warmer  green  of  the  leaf  to  be 
easily  detected,  even  by  the  naked  eye,  when  practiced.  It  is  laid  singly,  and  fastened  with , 
such  firmness  as  not  to  be  easily  removed  without  injury.  It  is  laid  by  preference  during 
early  summer  on  the  under  side  of  the  larger  and  lower  leaves,  and  seldom  more  than  three 
or  four  are  found  on  one  leaf. 

In  confinement,  and  exceptionally  in  nature,  it  will  be  laid  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaf,  or  on  any  other  exposed  part  of  the  plant.  In  autumn,  more  particularly,  the  upper 
leaves  receive  a  due  share  of  the  eggs,  and  I  have  counted  as  many  as  forty-nine  eggs  >and 


404  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

egg-stells  on  a  single  leaf.  With  development  the  color  becomes  more  dingy,  or  pale  yellow- 
ish, frequently  with  brownish  borders  or  a  green  curve,  due  to  the  coiled  embryo,  which  may 
be  seen  through  the  transparent  shell.  The  young  worm  or  larva  eats  its  way  out  through 
an  irregular  hole  on  one  side,  usually  during  the  morning,  ere  the  dew  is  dissipated,  and 
from  three  to  four  days  after  oviposition.  This  is  the  average  time  elapsing  between  the 
laying  of  the  egg  and  the  hatching  of  the  worm  therefrom  in  ordinary  midsummer  weather, 
but  the  time  varies  with  the  temperature,  and  a  much  longer  period  is  required  in  spring 
and  late  autumn. 

All  eggs  perish  that  are  unhatched  when  overtaken  by  frost,  as  is  not  infrequently  the 
case.  The  vacated  and  glistening  shell  is  more  readily  noticed  upon  the  green  background 
than  the  unhatched  egg. 

Humidity  seems  to  favor  hatching.  Aphides  or  plant-lice  are  quite  often  mistaken  for 
the  eggs  of  this  insect,  while  the  "  Mealy  bug"  [Daclyhpius  adoniduni),  a  species  of  Ahurodes, 
the  eggs  of  the  lady-birds  (Coccinellidie),  those  of  the  lace-wings  [Chrysopa),  and  even  a 
minute  snail,  not  uncommon  on  the  cotton  plant,  are  likewise  so  mistaken. 

The  Worm  or  Larva.  —  This  is  familiar  to  every  planter.  Varying  greatly  in  ground- 
color, it  is  characterized  by  the  particular  position  of  the  black  piliferous  spots  upon  the 
head  and  upon  the  body;  by  the  white  ring  which  surrounds  each  of  the  latter;  by  its  pure 
white  subdorsal  lines  and  by  its  elongate  and  slender  form.  It  is  semi-looper,  the  first  pair 
of  prolegs  being  very  much  reduced  in  size  and  seldom  used,  and  the  second  pair,  though 
longer,  only  about  half  as  long  as  the  succeeding  pair. 

The  worm  molts  five  times  during  growth  and  changes  appearance  but  little  after  the 
first  molt.     Exceptionally  only  four  molts  are  suffered. 

The  newly -hatched  worm  measures  1.6  mm.,  is  of  a  uniform  pale  dingy  yellow,  with 
polished  black,  slightly  elevated  spots,  each  bearing  a  short  pale  hair.  Before  the  skin  is 
shed,  the  color  often  becomes  slightly  greenish,  and  sometimes  inclined  to  orange.  After 
the  first  molt  the  piliferous  spots  are  more  conspicuous,  the  hairs  from  them  longer  and 
black,  and  the  characteristic  markings  appear,  though  less  distinctly  than  after  the  second; 
but  from  this  time  on,  the  prevailing  color  is  exceedingly  variable,  being  either  of  various 
shades  of  pale  or  pea-green,  or  more  or  less  intensely  black  along  the  back. 

The  normal  number  of  larval  molts  is  five.  This  is  the  number  which  I  have  observed 
during  the  autumn  months,  while  in  the  midsummer,  when  the  development  is  more  rapid, 
I  have  on  several  occasions  traced  but  four.  The  term  of  larval  existence  varies  from 
one  to  three  weeks.  There  is  a  very  general  belief  among  planters  that  the  first  worms  of 
the  season  are  pale  and  the  later  ones  dark,  and  while  light  and  dark  worms  may  always  be 
found  together  in  spring,  summer,  or  fall,  it  is  true  that  the  green  ones  predominate  earlier 
in  the  season  and  the  dark  ones  later. 

Immediately  after  molting,  the  body  is  pale  and  without  marking, — a  rule  with  all 
molting  animals.  After  the  earlier  molts,  the  cast-off  skin,  which  remains  more  or  less  fully 
stretched,  is  sometimes  eaten.  Some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  habits  of  the  worm  deserve 
mention  here  because  of  their  practical  bearing. 

Until  after  the  second  molt,  it  always  remains  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  feeding  upon 
the  parenchyma,  and  leaving  untouched  the  coarser  veins,  stomata  and  upper  skin  or 
epidermis.  The  leaves  where  they  are  thus  feeding  present  a  blotched  appearance,  the  semi- 
transparent  epidermis  becoming  pale  yellowish,  and  these  blotches  are,  as  a  rule,  at  once 
distinguishable  from  other  somewhat  similar  ones  made  by  a  few  other  insects. 

After  the  worm  begins  to  eat  entirely  through  the  leaf,  which  is  usually  before  the 
third  molt,  but  sometimes  later,  it  instinctively  ascends  toward  the  top  of  the  plant  and  feeds 
on  the  more  tender  foliage,  "ragging"  it,  to  use  the  expressive  language  of  the  planter. 
*  It  can  let  itself  down  by  a  web  from  the  moment  of  birth,  but  can  also  fling  itself  from 


COTTON.  405 

one  part  of  the  plant  to  another  in  a  manner  quite  characteristic.  The  fling  or  jump  is  made 
by  bending  the  fore  and  raised  part  of  the  body  to  one  side  and  then  suddenly  jerking  it  to 
the  opposite  side,  relaxing  meanwhile  the  three  hind  pairs  of  legs  by  which  it  held  to  the 
plant.  Tliis  is  a  quite  common  mode  of  motion  when  disturbed,  and  the  normal  way  of 
getting  from  one  plant  to  another.  The  maximum  distance  which  a  worm  can  thus  jump 
in  a  horizontal  direction  is  about  two  feet,  and  it  almost  invariably  alights  on  its  legs.  During 
chilly  weather  in  autumn  this  motion  is  feeble  and  can  be  easily  watched.  When  not  feed- 
ing, the  worm  either  rests  stretched  straight  on  some  part  of  the  plant,  or  may  be  seen  sway- 
ing its  fore-body  from  side  to  side,  holding  the  while  by  the  hind  prolegs. 

Though  preferring  the  foliage,  it  will,  when  hard  pushed,  eat  every  exposed  part  of  the 
plant,  even  barking  and  girdling  the  stems.  In  feeding  on  the  bolls,  however,  it  does  not 
bore  like  the  boll-worm  [Heliothis  armigera),  but  eats  the  external  parts  as  well  as  their 
contents.  It  cannot  thrive  on  any  other  plant  than  cotton,  and  is  evidently  confined  in  its 
diet  to  the  different  species  of  the  particular  genus  Gossypium.  At  all  events,  there  is  yet 
no  satisfactory  evidence  to  the  contrary,  all  experiments  made  confirming  the  belief. 

As  one  correspondent  naively  puts  it,  "  the  worms  feed  only  on  cotton  and  one  another," 
the  cannibalistic  propensity  being  freely  indulged,  when  the  occasion  presents.  It  is  a  com- 
mon remark  that  the  presence  of  the  worm  is  easier  detected  by  smell  than  by  sight.  The 
planter  says  that  he  can  ''smell  the  worm."  There  is  a  peculiar  ordor  arising  from  the 
excrement,  but  particularly  from  the  gnawed  and  mutilated  leaves,  that  gives  rise  to  this 
saying;  but  where  the  worms  are  numerous  and  large  enough  to  render  it  obvious,  there  they 
have  already  existed  several  days,  perhaps  weeks,  in  smaller  numbers. 

When  numerous  enough  to  utterly  defoliate  a  field  before  they  have  attained  full  growth, 
the  worms  will  travel  in  all  directions  on  the  ground,  and  they  have  been  exceptionally 
known  to  collect  together  and  travel  in  vast  bodies  in  their  search  for  fresh  food. 

The  Chrysalis. — Having  obtained  full  growth,  the  worm,  in  the  language  of  the  planter, 
"webs  up,"  forming  for  protection  a  more  or  less  perfect  cocoon,  usually  within  the  fold  or 
roU  of  a  leaf,  sparsely  lined  with  silken  meshes.  Here  it  contracts  and  thickens,  the  distinc- 
tive marks  are  nearly  obliterated,  and  the  green  color  acquires  a  verdigris  hue.  Within 
twenty-four  hours  in  midsummer,  the  skin  splits  just  back  of  the  head  and  is  gradually 
worked  to  the  end  of  the  forming  chrysalis,  now  soft  and  green,  but  acquiring  in  the  course 
of  an  hour  or  more  a  brown  color  and  firmer  consistence.  This  chrysalis  state  lasts,  on  an 
average,  about  a  week  in  hot  weather,  but  may  extend  to  thrice  that  time,  with  lower  temper- 
ature. Where  necessity  obliges,  the  worm  will  spin  upon  any  other  plant,  or  in  any  situation 
that  offers  shelter. 

In  confinement,  it  will  make  a  cocoon  on  the  ground,  covering  and  disguising  the  same 
with  particles  of  earth,  or  it  will  even  transform  on  the  ground  without  silk  or  shelter.  Such 
cases  rarely,  if  ever,  occur  in  a  state  of  nature,  but  when  the  worms  are  very  numerous  in  a 
field,  the  chrysalides  frequently  have  their  leafy  protection  eaten  away,  so  that  many  of  them 
either  hang  by  the  few  hooks  at  the  extremity,  or  fall  to  the  ground. 

In  no  case,  however,  does  the  worm  burrow  in  the  ground  as  does  the  boU  worm,  or 
could  the  moth  issue  from  the  chrysalis  were  the  latter  accidentally  buried  even  an  inch 
beneath  the  surface. 

The  Moih,  or  Imago. — The  moth  measures  from  \^  to  1^  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings 
when  these  are  expanded.  Its  general  color,  above,  is  olivaceous,  more  or  less  effectually 
subdued  by  lUaceous  or  purple  hues,  and  often  having  a  clay  yellow  or  faintly  golden  cast. 
The  under  side  is  more  gray  with  nacreous  reflections. 

The  markings  that  more  particularly  characterize  and  distinguish  it  from  other  North 
American  moths  are  certain  undulating  vinous  or  carmine  lines  across  the  front  wings,  a 
dark  oval  spot  near  their  disc  containing  pale  scales  which  usually  form  a  double  pupil  (the 


406  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

basal  or  inner  one  the  smallest  and  whitest),  and  three  white  specks  dividing  the  space  between 
this  dark  spot  and  the  shoulder  in  about  three  equal  parts. 

The  habits  of  this  moth  can  only  be  studied  at  night,  as,  like  almost  all  the  rest  of  its 
family,  it  is  nocturnal.  During  the  day  it  simply  starts  up  when  disturbed,  and  darts  by 
swift  and  low  flight  to  some  other  sheltered  spot  a  few  yards,  or  perhaps  rods,  away.  After 
sunset,  however,  it  may  be  seen  leisurely  hovering  about,  either  bent  on  the  perpetuation  of 
its  kind,  or  feeding  upon  whatever  sweets  it  can  get,  whether  from  the  cotton  or  from  other 
sources.  It  is  very  strong  and  swift  of  wing,  and  capable,  when  the  necessity  arises,  of  fly- 
ing long  distances.  In  alighting  upon  the  plant,  it  generally  turns  its  head  downward,  and 
when  it  rests,  the  wings  are  but  shallowly  roofed,  the  front  ones  closed  along  the  back  and 
fully  hiding  the  hind  ones.  In  this  respect  it  may  always  be  distinguished  from  the  parent 
of  the  boll  worm,  which  rests  with  the  front  wings  partly  open  and  not  entirely  covering 
the  hind  ones. 

The  female  begins  to  lay  her  eggs  in  from  two  to  four  days  after  issuing  from  the  chry- 
salis, the  time  varying  with  the  different  generations  and  according  to  temperature.  In 
experiments  which  I  have  made  with  moths  confined  in  vivaria,  eggs  have  sometimes  been 
laid  thirty-six  hours  after  issuing,  and  the  moths  have  continued  laying  for  twenty-one 
nights,  the  number  laid  each  night  ranging  from  4  to  45. 

Examination  of  the  ovaries  of  females  at  different  seasons  shows  a  much  greater  prolifi- 
cacy than  belongs  to  most  moths,  as  the  nvimber  of  well-developed  ova  may  reach  500> 
and  of  potential  ova  half  as  many  more.  In  confinement,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  from  one 
female  more  than  300  eggs,  but  that  fully  double  tliis  number  are  produced  in  the  field  dur. 
ing  the  height  of  the  season  there  can  be  little  doubt,  while  the  average  number  may  be  esti- 
mated at  about  400. 

The  natural  food  of  the  moth  is  the  sweet  exudation  from  the  glands  upon  the  mid-rib 
of  the  leaf  and  at  the  base  of  each  lobe  of  the  involucre  of  the  cotton  plant.  Nevertheless 
it  is  attracted  to  all  kinds  of  sweets,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  South  it  finds  a  bountiful  sup- 
ply in  the  exudation  from  the  spikes  of  Paspaluni  loeve,  a  tolerably  common  grass,  but  parti- 
cularly in  that  copiously  secreted  by  glands  at  the  apex  of  the  peduncle,  just  above  the  pods 
of  the  cow-pea  {Dolichos).  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  as  Judge  Bailey,  of  Marion,  Ala.,  has 
observed,  it  may  often  be  seen  in  the  evening  feeding  in  numbers,  first  from  the  blossoms  of 
the  Chicasaw  plum,  and  subsequently  from  those  of  the  peach,  Chinese  quince,  mock  orange 
(  Cerasus  Carolinensis),  the  early  apples,  and  blackthorn.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  glands 
above  mentioned  begin  to  exude  and  the  tree  blossoms  are  no  more,  the  moths  do  not  seem 
to  be  attracted  by  other  nectar-storing  flowers,  since  observations  during  the  past  two  years 
by  myself  and  assistants  have  resulted  in  finding  but  one  species  of  verbena  { Verbena 
aubletia  L.)  frequented,  even  where  both  moths  and  all  sorts  of  flowers  were  abundant.  But 
fruits  of  all  kinds,  as  they  ripen,  are  resorted  to,  and  figs,  apples,  peaches,  plums,  apricots, 
grapes,  persimmons,  and  even  melons  are  often  greatly  injured. 

Carefully  examined,  the  tongue  is  seen  to  be  armed  along  its  terminal  half  with  stout 
and  sharp  spines  projecting  forward  from  the  upper  surface  and  increasing  in  density  toward 
the  tip,  which  is  beset  with  them  on  all  sides.  It  is  by  means  of  this  spinous  tip  of  the 
tongue  that  the  moth  works  a  hole  in  these  fruits,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  absorb  the  more 
liquid  portions.     Apple  pomace  is  especially  attractive  to  them. 

The  time  elapsing  from  one  generation  to  another  varies  according  to  temperature,  and 
therefore  according  to  season.  There  is  increasing  activity  and  acceleration  in  development 
from  the  first  appearance  till  July,  and  thenceforth  decreasing  activity,  and  retardation  in 
development  till  frost.  Thus  in  midsummer  the  whole  cycle  of  individual  life,  from  the 
hatching  to  procreation,  may  occupy  less  than  three  weeks;  while  in  spring  and  late  autumn 
it  may  occupy  twice  that  time.  Taking  the  whole  season  through,  however,  the  time  from 
the  eggs  of  one  generation  to  that  of  another  will  average  about  a  month. 


roTTOx.  407 

Wet  weather  favors  the  development  of  the  worms.  These  pests  have  many  natural 
enemies  to  assist  in  reducing  their  numbers,  foremost  among  which  are  the  birds  and  ants. 
Bats  devour  large  numbers  of  the  moths,  while  all  domestic  birds,  chickens,  turkeys,  guinea- 
fowls,  and  geese  will  feed  upon  them.  f 

Reptiles,  such  as  the  tree-frog,  will  eat  them,  while  the  skunk,  opossum,  and  raccoon  are 
said  to  devour  them.  The  former,  however,  will  break  down  the  plants  in  so  doing,  and 
neither  of  these  animals,  or  hogs,  can  be  of  much  assistance  in  their  extermination,  except 
where  the  worms  are  in  such  large  numbers  as  to  travel  the  ground  from  field  to  field. 

Various  insects,  such  as  certain  species  of  spiders,  wasps,  beetles,  bugs,  flies,  crickets, 
etc.,  prey  upon  the  cotton  worm,  while  several  parasites  are  known  to  be  quite  effectual  in 
their  destruction. 

Some  of  the  means  of  obviating  the  evil  may  be  found  in  the  mode  of  cultivation, 
among  which  are  the  planting  of  the  most  thrifty  and  vigorous  varieties,  those  that  will  pro- 
duce the  strongest  plants,  also  mature  soonest,  such  as  seed  from  the  more  northerly  sections. 
Early  planting  is  also  advised,  together  with  frequent  cultivation,  in  order  to  hasten  the 
maturity  of  the  plant  and  secure  a  portion  of  the  crop  beyond  the  reach  of  harm  from  the 
more  destructive  broods  that  make  their  appearance  in  July  and  August.  Frequent  cultiva- 
tion also  has  a  tendency  to  knock  off  and  distribute  the  worms.  It  is  also  thought  that 
some  varieties  of  cotton  are  more  subject  to  attacks  than  others,  the  long  staple  being  found 
to  be  more  injured  than  the  short  staple,  when  planted  side  by  side.  Topping  the  cotton  is 
sometimes  resorted  to  in  hastening  the  maturity,  and  also  to  destroy  the  worms  that  feed 
upou  the  tender  part  of  the  plant,  but  this  practice  occasions  considerable  labor  and  often 
with  very  little  good  resulting  from  it. 

Various  implements  for  brushing  or  knocking  the  worms  from  ofiE  the  plants  to  the 
ground  and  crushing  and  killing  them  have  been  devised,  but  the  most  effectual  mechanical 
means  for  their  e.xtermination  has  been  found  in  the  use  of  Paris  green,  although  arsenic, 
London  purple,  pyrethrimi  powder,  etc.,  have  been  employed  with  greater  or  less  benefit. 
More  or  less  danger  attends  the  use  of  all  poisons,  by  inhalation,  or  getting  them  upon  the 
hands,  while  these  applications  possess  the  further  disadvantage  of  killing  the  enemies  of  the 
worm,  as  well  as  the  worm  itself.  Birds  that  eat  the  worms  thus  poisoned  will  be  poisoned 
by  them;  also  the  various  insects  which  destroy  the  worm. 

But  Paris  green  is  the  best  remedy  thus  far  tested,  although  attended  with  disadvan- 
tages, and  we  hope  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  some  better  method  will  be  devised.  It 
may  be  applied  either  dissolved  in  water  or  in  powder.  "When  used  in  powder  it  is  usually 
mixed  with  flour,  plaster,  or  wood  ashes,  as  this  is  a  more  convenient  and  economical  practice; 
besides,  the  pure  powder  is  liable  to  injure  the  cotton  plant.  For  the  proportions  of  such  a 
mixtiu-e,  quantity  to  be  applied,  methods  of  application,  etc.,  in  order  to  avoid  repetition,  we 
refer  the  reader  to  directions  previously  given  in  the  use  of  Paris  green  in  connection  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Colorado  beetle,  or  potato-bug,  in  the  cultivation  of  the  Irish  potato. 

The  Boll-Worm.  —  This  is  also  a  very  destructive  enemy  of  the  cotton  plant,  which 
works  upon  the  small  bolls  or  buds,  causing  them  to  fall  o0,  and  thus  seriously  diminishing 
their  rate  of  production. 

It  feeds  upon  many  plants  beside  cotton,  and  is  known  by  many  different  names  in  dif- 
ferent countries  and  sections  of  a  country,  according  to  the  plant  upon  which  it  feeds  most. 
For  instance,  throughout  the  cotton-growing  States  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  ball- 
worm  " ;  in  the  Western  States,  and  other  localities  where  it  infests  the  com  crop,  it  is  called 
the  "  corn-worm."  In  many  of  the  Southern  States  it  is  said  to  be  known  in  the  early  part 
of  the  season  as  the  "  corn-bud  worm."  When  found  upon  tomato  plants  it  is  termed  the 
"tomato- worm,"  etc.,  it  being  the  same  species-wherever  found.  It  was  not  known  for  many 
years  that  the  cotton-boll  worm  and  the  corn-worm  were  the  same,  but  the  fact  has  now 
26 


408  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

become  fully  established.  They  eat  into  the  stalks  and  ears  of  com,  the  same  as  into  the 
cotton  bolls;  also  into  the  green  as  well  as  ripe  tomatoes,  causing  them  to  rot.  They  wiU 
also  eat  the  leaves  of  plants  when  they  can  find  nothing  better.  It  will  bore  into  the  pods  of 
the  garden  pea,  devouring  the  entire  contents  of  one  pod  before  leaving  for  another.  The 
heads  of  hemp  are  not  exempt  from  its  depredations,  but  often  suffer  from  its  attacks. 

The  eggs  are  laid  upon  all  parts  of  the  plant,  but,  according  to  authentic  sources,  usually 
in  cotton  upon  the  outside  of  the  outer  calyx,  or  young  boll.  One  authority  says  respecting 
the  place  in  which  the  moth  deposits  her  eggs:  —  "  On  one  cotton  plant  I  found  eleven  eggs, 
which  were  distributed  in  the  following  manner:  one  on  the  outer  calyx  of  the  boll,  two  on 
the  stalks,  and  eight  on  the  leaves." 

The  duration  of  the  egg  before  hatching  varies  with  the  season,  as  it  does  with  the 
cotton-worm.  The  young  larvs  feed  upon  the  part  of  the  plant  upon  which  they  are  hatched, 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  but  eventually  make  their  way  to  the  flower  bud  or  boU,  into 
which  they  eat.  They  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  full  flower.  A  description  of  these  worms 
is  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  follows:  — 

"  As  the  boll-worms  increase  in  size,  a  most  wonderful  diversity  of  color  and  marking 
becomes  apparent.  In  color,  different  individuals  will  vary  from  a  brilliant  green  to  a  deep 
pink  or  a  dark  brown,  exhibiting  almost  every  conceivable  intermediate  stage,  and  from  an 
immaculate,  unstriped  specimen  to  one  with  regular  spots  and  many  stripes.  The  green 
worms  are  more  common  than  those  of  any  other  color;  but  those  of  varying  shades  of  pink 
or  brown  are  so  abundant  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  fix  upon  a  type.  Early  in  the  season 
the  prevailing  color  is  green.  A  common  variety  is  light  green  in  color.  Running  from  the 
first  ring  back  of  the  head  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  on  each  side  is  a  broad  whitish 
Une;  just  above  is  a  broad  dusky  line;  down  the  center  of  the  back  is  another  dusky  line,  or 
stripe,  as  it  should  preferably  be  called;  this  dorsal  stripe  has  a  narrow  white  line  down  its 
center,  and  it  is  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  narrow  white  Kne.  Between  the  dusky  dorsal 
and  lateral  stripes  run  four  or  five  very  faint,  wavy,  longitudinal,  white  lines,  so  faint  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  general  color  of  the  body.  Each  body-ring  has  eight  black  spots,  which, 
upon  being  examined  with  a  lens,  are  seen  to  be  tubercles,  each  with  a  stiff  hair  upon  its  tip. 
These  spots  are  arranged  in  two  transverse  rows  of  four,  the  spots  in  the  front  row  being 
slightly  closer  together  than  those  in  the  back  row;  the  outer  spot  of  the  back  row  is  small 
and  placed  nearer  the  front  row. 

Of  these  features  the  most  constant  seems  to  be  the  whitish  stripe  on  each  side.  Wben 
the  boll-worm  is  brown,  these  stripes  assume  a  yellowish  hue.  Another  pretty  constant 
feature  is  the  relative  position  of  the  tubercles  just  described.  They  are  not  always  of  a 
contrasting  color  to  the  rest  of  the  back,  and  hence  cannot  always  be  spoken  of  as  spots. 
When  they  are  not  discernible  as  spots,  however,  an  examination  with  the  lens  shows  them 
still  present  as  tubercles,  each  surmounted  by  a  hair.  This  point  affords  apparently  a  good 
and  reliable  means  of  distinguishing  the  young  boll-worm  from  the  young  cotton-worm, 
which  otherwise  might  prove  a  matter  of  difficulty  during  the  earlier  stages  and  in  the  early 
part  of  the  year,  before  black  cotton-worms  are  to  be  found.  In  the  cotton-worm  the  two 
middle  spots  of  each  of  the  two  rows  of  four  are  of  the  same  distance  apart,  so  as  to  form  the 
four  comers  of  a  rectangle.  In  the  boll-worm,  however,  the  two  middle  spots  of  the  hind 
row  are  more  widely  separated  than  the  corresponding  spots  of  the  front  row.  This  dis- 
tinction may  be  recognized  at  a  glance  when  the  eye  has  become  accustomed  to  it.  The 
dusky  dorsal  stripe  is  often  wanting,  as  also  are  the  dusky  lateral  stripes,  and,  as  just  stated, 
the  spots  are  often  indiscernible." 

The  general  color  of  the  body  and  upper  wings  of  the  moth  that  lays  the  eggs  varies 
from  a  light  gray,  tinged  with  olive  green,  to  a  rich  yellow  gray  or  tawny  color.  The  most 
prominent  feature  in  the  marking  of  the  boU-worm  moth  is  a  broad  black  band  on  the  back 


COTTON.  46'9 

■wings.  When  at  rest  this  moth  does  not  fold  its  wings  like  the  Aletia  or  cotton-worm  moth, 
but  keeps  them  partly  open  and  slightly  raised.  It  is  difiBcult  to  determine  the  number  of 
broods  of  this  worm,  in  a  single  season;  but,  from  careful  observations  recently  made,  there 
are  supposed  to  be  at  least  five.  They,  however,  retire  from  the  field  sooner  than  the  cotton- 
worm,  that  usually  sends  out  another  brood  after  the  boll  worm  progenitors  have  left  for 
winter  quarters.  The  same  remedies  with  respect  to  the  destruction  of  the  cotton-worm  are 
applicable  to  the  boll-worm,  their  natural  enemies  of  birds  and  insects  being  the  same,  while 
the  use  of  Paris  green  is  also  available  to  a  certain  extent.  As  the  worms  enter  the  bolls, 
however,  they  are  more  difficult  to  reach  by  applications  of  this  kind;  yet  those  hatched  upon 
the  stalks  and  leaves  that  have  not  migrated  to  that  portion  of  the  plant  may  be  destroyed 
by  this  means.  Planting  rows  of  corn  occasionally  through  the  field,  late  in  the  season,  is 
highly  recommended  by  some,  as  the  moth  that  lays  the  eggs  prefers  corn,  and  will  be  liable 
to  choose  it  instead  of  cotton. 

Fires  built  in  the  early  evening  at  the  edge  of  the  cotton-field  will  attract  many  of  the 
nx)ths,  and  large  numbers  are  frequently  destroyed  in  this  way.  Too  much  cannot  be  said, 
however,  in  favor  of  the  protection  of  birds  of  all  kinds  that  ^ed  upon  insects,  for  they  are 
the  best  friends  and  aids  of  the  farmer  in  destroying  injurious  insects  of  all  kinds. 

There  are  other  insects,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  that  attack  the  cotton-plant,  but 
their  injuries  are  slight  in  comparison  with  the  former,  and  the  same  remedies  for  their 
extermination  are  equally  applicable. 

Diseases  of  the  Cotton-Plant. — These  are  not  numerous,  though  often  resulting 
in  considerable  injury  to  the  crop.  There  is  a  species  of  rust  that  sometimes  proves  very 
disastrous  in  certain  seasons,  which  is  quite  similar  in  its  cause  and  effects  to  that  which 
proves  so  destructive  to  the  wheat  crop  at  the  North.  This  disease  is  occasioned  by  para- 
sitical plants  which  attach  themselves  to  the  stalk,  from  which  they  absorb  the  sap  and  thus 
weaken  its  vitality  and  productive  power. 

"Weak  plants  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by  this  disease  than  those  that  are  strong 
and  thrifty,  and  it  is  also  more  liable  to  occur  on  coarse,  sandy,  or  Ol-drained  soils  than 
others.  Potash  is  considered  a-  good  remedy;  consequently  the  use  of  those  fertilizers  that 
contain  the  element  of  potash  is  highly  beneficial.  A  proper  system  of  drainage  is  also 
highly  essential  on  wet  lands.  Liberal  manuring,  carefxil  and  frequent  culture,  together  with 
the  planting  of  the  most  vigorous  and  hardy  varieties,  combined  with  what  has  been  pre- 
viously suggested,  will  prove  an  eflScient  remedy  in  most  cases. 

BUght  and  other  kindred  diseases  are  supposed  to  be  traced  to  the  same  general  cause, 
which  is  a  lack  of  some  essential  element  of  plant-food  in  the  soU.  By  supplying  a  Hberal 
amount  of  plant-food  through  fertilizers  of  some  kind,  removing  the  surplus  water  by 
a  proper  system  of  drainage,  and  giving  the  growing  plants  frequent  cultivation,  these  evils 
may  be  largely,  if  not  wholly,  avoided. 

Rotting  of  the  boUs  is  generally  attributed  to  long-continued  wet  weather.  When  the 
plants  are  crowded  so  as  to  form  a  very  dense  foUage,  excluding  the  air  and  sunlight,  the 
bolls  will  also  rot  and  much  of  the  crop  will  be  lost  by  this  means.  Planting  farther  apart 
would  remedy  the  evil  when  the  latter  is  the  cause.  Breaking  off  some  of  the  limbs,  causing 
a  better  circulation  of  air  and  admitting  the  sunhght,  will  generally  also  prove  effectual. 
Sometimes  a  mule  is  driven  between  the  rows  for  this  purpose.  Shedding  is  attributed  to 
very  dry  weather  being  followed  by  wet;  hence,  in  seasons  rather  wet,  this  evil  does  not 
appear,  but  they  are  the  periods  when  the  aphides,  boll,  and  cotton-worm  are  the  most 
destructive. 


410 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


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SUGAR.  411 

I 

SUGAR. 

THE  sugar  product  of  the  country  is  one  of  immense  and  growing  importance,  as  well  as 
the  various  industries  connected  with  its  production.  With  the  increase  of  this  staple 
and  also  of  population,  there  has  been  for  several  years  an  increased  proportionate 
consumption  of  sugar  per  individual.  In  addition  to  the  consumption  of  the  home  product,  the 
fact  of  there  being  over  a  hundred  and  seventy-five  millions  of  dollars  annually  paid  for 
imported  sugar  and  molasses  by  the  people  of  this  country,  proves  that  the  cultivation  of  the 
sugar  cane  is  not  as  extensive  here  as  it  might  and  should  be.  The  one  State  of  Louisiana, 
with  its  resources  well  developed,  might  easily  be  made  to  furnish  this  supply,  and  the  amount 
of  money  thus  expended  on  the  importations  be  retained  at  home  to  benefit  our  own  nation. 
The  largest  importations  of  sugar  into  this  country  have  for  several  years  been  made  from  the 
island  of  Cuba,  which  produces  about  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  of  sugar  per  year, 
a  greater  part  of  which  is  taken  by  the  United  States,  where  it  is  refined  and  then  put  upon 
the  market.  The  importations  from  other  countries,  although  in  the  aggregate  amounting  to 
considerable,  are  each  small  in  comparison  with  those  from  Cuba.  The  introduction  of 
sugar-cane  into  this  country  is  said  to  have  been  in  the  year  1751  by  some  French  Jesuits, 
who  brought  it  from  San  Domingo,  and  planted  it  on  the  present  site  of  New  Orleans. 
The  accounts  of  the  progress  of  the  manufacture  of  sugar  under  Spanish  rule  are  somewhat 
conflicting.  It  was  first  manufactured  in  this  country  about  the  year  1764,  but  it  was  not 
until  between  1794  and  1800,  at  a  period  when  the  revolution  in  San  Domingo  sent  many 
planters  to  Louisiana,  that  the  cultivation  of  this  product  became  of  marked  importance. 
Sugar-cane  belongs  to  the  family  of  Graminece  or  grasses,  and  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
Southeastern  Asia.  Its  growth  is  from  eight  to  twenty  feet  in  height,  according  to  variety 
and  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  etc.,  having  a  solid  stem  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
thickness,  which  is  jointed  from  every  three  to  sis  inches.  The  leaves  are  from  three  to 
four  feet  long,  and  about  two  inches  in  breadth,  and  fall  off  with  the  ripening  of  the  plant. 
Louisiana  is  the  great  sugar-producing  state,  although  Florida,  and  all  the  other  Gulf  coast 
states,  yield  it  in  considerable  quantities.  The  coast  counties  of  Texas  are  especially  adapted 
to  this  product,  where  its  cultivation  is  being  rapidly  extended.  Sugar  may  be  made  from  a 
variety  of  substances,  but  the  principal  sources  of  supply  are  the  sugar-cane,  the  sorgo-plant, 
the  beet-root,  and  the  maple  tree ;  although  efforts  have  recently  been  made  to  utilize  maize 
for  this  purpose,  the  enterprise  has  not,  thus  far,  proved  sufficiently  profitable  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

Yarieties  of  Sugar-Cane. — There  are  many  varieties  of  sugar-cane,  some  of  which 
differ  so  widely  from  others, — such  as  the  Chinese  for  instance, — as  to  be  thought  by  many  to 
be  distinct  species.  The  Otaheite  or  Tahiti  cane  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  is  taller,  more 
hardy,  larger  jointed,  quicker  in  growth,  and  more  productive  in  sugar  than  the  Creole 
variety,  while  its  juice,  being  more  easily  crystallized  than  the  latter,  together  with  its  large 
yield  and  quick  maturity,  render  it  very  popular.  The  Ribbon  cane,  thought  by  many  to  be 
the  best  kind  cultivated,  and  the  Bourbon  belong  to  this  variety.  The  Creole,  also  known  as 
Madeira  or  common  sugar-cane,  grows  to  the  greatest  height,  and  has  thin  stems  closely 
jointed.  It  will  grow  on  moist  soil  at  the  altitude  of  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Another 
variety,  known  as  the  Batavia  or  purple  violet,  is  covered  with  purple  stripes,  grows  from 
eight  to  ten  feet  high,  and  is  characterized  by  a  resinous  or  waxy  substance  about  the  joints. 
The  Chinese  cane.  Sorgo  or  Sorghum,  also  known  as  Northern  cane,  is  a  very  hardy  variety, 
and  can  be  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  cultivation  of  which  will  be  treated 
separately,  and  following  that  of  the  southern  sugar-cane  or  tropical  product.  There  are 
various  other  varieties  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent,  but  the  above-mentioned  are  the  prin- 
cipal or  leading  ones  known  generally  in  this  branch  of  agriculture. 


412  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  Batavia,  or  purple-violet  cane,  is  a  native  of  Java,  and  is  often  used  in  some  locali- 
ties as  a  border  for  other  canes,  to  defend  them  from  cattle.  New  varieties  of  the  cane  may 
be  produced  in  the  same  manner  as  those  from  other  agricultural  products,  and,  altliough 
the  kinds  most  cultivated  are  many  of  them  very  fine,  there  is  no  doubt  that  great  improve- 
ments will  be  made,  from  time  to  time,  in  this  direction,  by  the  careful  experiments  of  those 
skilled  in  this  department  of  agriculture. 

The  Ribbon  cane  (Saccharum  officmarum)  is  a  genuine  tropical  plant,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties.  It  is  regarded  with  great  favor,  and  is  the  most  extensively  cultivated  in 
this  country.  It  will  not  thrive  in  a  cool  climate,  and  is  easily  injured  by  the  frost.  It  is  a 
perennial  plant,  but  the  stalks  will  die  down  each  year  from  the  effects  of  the  frost,  if  not  cut 
before  it  makes  its  appearance. 

In  Northern  Louisiana  the  plant  will  not  flower,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  it 
will  not  mature  its  seed.  Even  in  the  "West  Indies  the  seed  ripens  but  indifferently  well. 
Consequently,  the  production  of  the  tropical  sugar-cane  in  the  United  States  is  restricted 
to  a  comparatively  narrow  belt  of  country,  mostly  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
northern  limit  of  its  profitable  production  in  this  country  is  estimated  by  those  who  have 
given  the  subject  considerable  attention,  to  be  the  thirty-second  degree  of  latitude.  Like 
corn  and  sorghum,  sugar-cane  belongs  to  the  family  of  Graminee,  or  grasses. 

Analysis  of  Sugar-Cane. — The  analysis  of  the  Otaheite  cane,  by  Payen,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing result:  "Water,  71.04  percent.;  cane  sugar,  18  per  cent.;  cellulose,  lignine,  pectine, 
and  pectic  acid,  9.56  percent.;  cerosine  wax,  fats,  resins,  etc,  0.37  per  cent.;  soluble  salts, 
0.16  per  cent.;  insoluble  salts,  0.12  per  cent.;  silica,  0.2  per  cent.  Other  analyses  give  glu- 
cose from  two  to  three  per  cent.  The  smallest  quantity  of  glucose  is  usually  found  in  the 
lower  and  more  perfectly-ripened  portion  of  the  stalk,  wliile  the  larger  proportion  is  foimd  in 
the  upper  and  green  end,  which  is  protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  by  the  leaves. 

The  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  the  cane  is  as  follows:  Silica,  46.46  per  cent.;  phosphoric 
acid,  8.23  per  cent. ;  sulphuric  acid,  4.65  per  cent.;  lime,  8.91  per  cent.;  magnesia,  4.5  per 
cent.;  potassa,  10.63  per  cent.;  chloride  of  potassium,  7.41  per  cent.;  chloride  of  sodium, 
9.21  per  cent. 

Cultivation. — An  exceedingly  warm  climate,  and  a  soU  of  deep,  rich,  moist  loam,  are 
the  best  conditions  suited  to  the  production  of  sugar-cane.  A  surplus  of  water  is  very  detri- 
mental to  the  crop,  therefore  the  land  should  be  well  drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially. 
The  system  of  culture,  as  previously  followed  in  this  country,  has  not  been  of  that  character 
which  would  produce  the  best  results;  hence,  great  losses  have  been  sustained  by  the  planter, 
both  on  account  of  the  agricultural  methods  practiced  in  its  production,  and  the  mechanical 
appliances  employed  in  extracting  the  saccharine  matter  from  the  cane. 

The  successive  planting  of  the  same  cane,  together  with  a  lack  of  proper  cultivation  and 
sufficient  manure,  have  resulted  in  greatly  deteriorating  the  quality  and  yield  of  the  sugar 
product.  The  establishing  of  an  improved  system  of  cultivation, — of  which  there  are  at 
present  strong  indications, — and  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  seed,  through  importations 
from  other  latitudes,  will  result  in  larger  profits  and  a  surer  test  of  the  possibilities  of  this 
crop  than  have  ever  yet  been  attained. 

A  proper  system  of  drainage  is  too  often  overlooked  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane. 
There  are  many  low,  marshy  tracts,  at  present  entirely  unoccupied  for  any  agricultural  pur- 
poses, that  by  a  proper  system  of  drainage  would  make  rich  and  highly-productive  sugar- 
lands;  while  there  are  sugar-plantations  in  cultivation  which,  with  improved  drainage,  could 
be  made  to  produce  nearly  twice  the  present  amount. 

The  soil  for  cane  should  be  deeply  plowed,  and  well  pulverized.  It  should  also  be  kept 
well  fertilized  to  prevent  exhaustion,  by  supplying  those  elements  of  plant-food  that  are  essen- 


SUGAR.  413 

tial  to  the  growth  of  the  crop.  Chemical  fertilizers — such  as  lime,  gypsum,  and  the  super- 
phosphates— are  used  with  good  effect,  but  animal  manures,  or  those  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  nitrogen,  when  too  liberally  applied,  are  thought  to  produce  plants,  the  juices  of 
which  are  less  rich  in  sugar,  and  contain  more  impurities  than  the  former.  When  stable 
manure  is  used,  it  should  be  well  fermented,  either  before  its  apphcation,  or  by  being  plowed 
in  a  suflSciently  long  time  before  planting  the  cuttings,  in  order  to  admit  of  its  becoming  per- 
fectly decomposed  in  the  soil.  All  fertilizers  used  should  be  well  worked  into  the  soil  with 
the  harrow  or  cultivator. 

The  propagation  of  the  cane  is  effected  by  cuttings ;  the  cuttings  for  the  purpose  being 
produced  by  planting  the  seed.  The  seed  is  of  necessity  imported,  since  it  does  not  become 
perfectly  ripe  in  the  sugar-producing  belt  of  this  country.  It  is  obtained  principally  from 
Otaheite.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  propagation,  either  by  cuttings  or  seed, 
should  be  from  the  very  best  cane.  Such  cane  should  be  not  only  the  best  varieties  that  can 
be  obtained,  but  the  strongest  and  most  healthy  plants  of  such  varieties.  Any  neglect  or 
carelessness  in  this  respect  will  affect  very  materially  the  quality  and  yield  of  the  crop,  and 
may  thus  cause  a  serious  loss  to  the  planter. 

The  cuttings  for  plantmg  are  taken  from  the  main  stalks,  and  are  generally  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  inches  in  length.  They  are  planted  in  trenches  or  drills,  and  so  placed  that  the 
eyes,  which  are  on  the  opposite  sides  of  alternate  joints,  should  be  on  the  sides.  These  stalks 
are  placed  quite  near  each  other  in  the  row,  so  as  to  furnish  plants  when  grown  that  will  be 
from  six  to  eight  inches  apart.  Sometimes  a  double  row  of  stalks  are  planted,  but,  unless  the 
trenches  be  sufficiently  far  apart,  the  plants  will  be  liable  to  be  crowded.  The  stalks  are  cov- 
ered to  the  depth  of  from  two  to  three  inches  of  soil.  Agricultural  implements  for  covering 
and  pressing  the  soil  upon  the  cuttings  are  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labor. 

The  planting  may  be  either  in  the  spring  or  fall.  Different  varieties  should  not  be 
planted  together  or  near  each  other,  as  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  mix  in  this  species  of 
plants,  which  is  an  injury  to  the  product,  pure  varieties  being  the  most  desirable.  The  shoots 
which  the  cuttings  send  up  will  be  large  enough  to  cut  in  from  ten  to  fourteen  months  after 
planting.  After  cutting,  a  new  growth  of  shoots  will  spring  up  from  the  roots  called  "rat- 
toons,"  which  produce  the  next  crop,  and  so  on;  this  process  being  repeated  to  the  extent 
that  a  single  planting  will  supply  cane  for  several  years.  In  Louisiana,  on  account  of  con- 
stant deterioration,  it  is  necessary  to  re-plant  from  cuttings  every  third  or  fourth  year,  one- 
fourth  of  the  land  devoted  to  sugar-culture  being  employed  for  the  propagation  of  the  cuttings 
from  which  the  cane  on  the  other  three-fourths  is  grown. 

In  the  West  Indies,  one  planting  will  last  from  five  to  ten  years,  while  in  some  sections 
it  has  been  known  to  supply  cane  for  nearly  twenty  years  before  the  old  roots  died  out.  Such 
cases  are,  however,  rare.  The  cane  will  flower  in  from  twelve  to  twenty  months  after  plant- 
ing. The  cuttings  should  always  be  planted  in  rows  at  a  sufficient  distance  apart  to  admit  of 
space  for  growth  and  cultivation.  The  cultivator  should  be  used  frequently  in  order  to  keep 
out  the  weeds  and  grass,  and  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  cane  by  keeping  the  surface 
mellow.  The  last  cultivation  given  before  harvesting  is  generally  in  the  early  part  of  June. 
At  this  time,  the  soil  is  brought  up  around  the  roots  and  stalks  of  the  plants,  to  the  depth  of 
from  three  to  four  inches.     It  is  then  left  to  ripen. 

The  sugar-cane  beetle  is  the  most  destructive  enemy  of  this  product  known.  The  borer 
is  also  quite  destructive  in  some  sections.  Various  methods  have  been  employed  to  extermi- 
nate these  pests,  but  none  have  proved  very  effectual. 

Harvesting. — The  cane  commences  to  ripen  at  the  bottom  of  the  stalk,  the  ripening 
process  extending  upwards  at  the  rate  of  about  one  inch  per  day.  When  sufficiently  ripe  for 
harvesting,  which  will  be  indicated  by  its  appearance,  the  tops  of  the  plants  are  first  cut  down 
as  far  as  the  leaves  are  dry.  The  leaves  are  then  all  pulled  off  from  the  stalk  while  standing 
in  the  field,  the  stalks  cut  close  to  the  ground,  and  taken  at  once  to  the  sugar-mill. 


414 


THE   AMERICAN   FARMER. 


The  cutting  of  the  cane  should  be  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible,  since  the  lowest 
joints  of  the  stalks  are  richest  in  saccharine  or  sugar-producing  matter;  besides,  the  sprouts 
or  rattoons  will  grow  more  vigorously  when  the  old  stalks  are  cut  close  than  when  left  stand- 
ing above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  best  results  are  obtained  from  cane  when  it  is 
worked  up  within  twenty-four  hours  after  being  cut  in  the  field.  It  has  sometimes  been  the 
practice,  when  not  convenient  to  do  this,  to  leave  the  tops  on  the  stalks,  and  cut  and  pile  them 
in  the  field  in  long  rows,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet,  the  tops  of  the  cane  from  one 
hill  being  thrown  over  the  ends  of  another,  and  so  on,  putting  the  stalks  from  three  or  four 
rows  together.  It  has  frequently  been  kept  three  or  four  weeks  in  this  way  before  taking  it 
to  the  mill,  and  without  any  apparent  injury  from  frost,  unless  it  be  unusually  severe.  This 
practice,  however,  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  it  has  been  found  that  the  product  is  in  this 
way  injured.  In  such  cases,  the  tops  should  be  cut  off  just  before  expressing  the  juice.  It 
is  better  to  have  the  cane  taken  to  the  mill  as  soon  as  cut,  if  practicable. 

Implements  for  cutting  the  crop  have  been  invented  which  greatly  facilitate  the  method 
of  hand-labor.  It  should  always  be  harvested  before  the  frost  makes  its  appearance.  The 
tops  and  leaves  may  be  used  for  feeding  stock,  utilized  in  the  compost-heap,  or  left  on  the 
ground  for  manure.  The  tops  should  never  be  planted,  as  this  will  result  in  deterioration  of 
the  crop.  Only  the  best  part  of  the  stalks  of  thrifty  plants  should  ever  be  used  for  cuttings. 
Manufactliriug  Sugar. — The  inefficiency  of  machinery  for  expressing  the  juice  of 

the  sugar-cane  has  been  the 
source  of  great  loss  to  the 
planter,  and  a  serious  detriment 
to  the  profitable  production  of 
this  crop.  The  object  of  the 
mill  is  to  extract  the  juice  from 
the  cane.  This  is  done  by  crush- 
ing it,  which  requires  a  machine 
of  great  power,  and  afterwards 
expressing  the  juice  by  heavy 
pressure.  It  has  been  estimtead 
by  those  who  have  investigated 
the  subject,  that  about  forty  per 
cent,  of  the  sugar  which  has 
been  cultivated  during  the  past 
few  years  in  this  country  has 
been  wasted  on  account  of  a  lack 
of  sufficiently  strong  mills  for 
extracting  the  juice  of  the  cane. 
Mills  that  will  perform  the  best 
service  must  of  necessity  be 
made  heavy  and  strong,  a  power- 
ful pressure  being  required, 
and  are  coiisequently  quite 
expensive.  However,  the  quantity  of  sugar  saved  by  the  use  of  a  good  miU  will  soon  be 
sufficient  to  repay  the  extra  expense  of  procuring  it.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  a  few  planters  to 
purchase,  in  company,  a  complete  set  of  the  best  machinery  for  the  manufacturing  of  their 
sugar.  By  this  means, — a  practice  highly  recommended  by  some  of  the  most  able  agricul- 
tural writers  of  the  South, — the  use  of  the  best  implement  can  be  secured  to  each  member 
of  the  company  at  a  comparatively  slight  expense.  The  sugar  product  is  a  remunerative  one 
when  properly  managed,  and  the  necessary  implements  for  its  cultivation  and  manufacture 
are  employed.     There  are  many  valuable  mills  in  the  market,  for  both  steam  and  horsepower. 


\ICTOR    t^NL  MILL 


^^JJI'TIW-lll  ^ 


#^.^fiWfffl4''B 


SUGAR. 


417 


The  illustrations  of  sugar-manufacturing  implements  which  we  insert  were  made  from 
photographs  of  those  made  by  tlie  Blymyer  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  are 
good  representations  of  this  class  of  machines. 

Extracting  the  Juice. — The  preparation  for  the  mUl  consists  in  cutting  off  the  tops 
of  the  stalks,  and  removing  the  leaves.  It  is  always  best  to  have  the  juice  of  the  caiie 
expressed  from  the  stalks  as  soon  as  possible  after  harvesting  it,  as  it  has  been  found  that  a 
change  commences  at  the  base  of  the  stalk  very  soon  after  cutting,  and  gradually  progressej 
upward.  The  juice  freshly-expressed  from  the  cane  should  not  remain  in  contact  with  the 
air  for  more  than  an  hour;  even  twenty  minutes  will  sometimes  be  sufficient  to  produce  a 
change.  In  crushing  the  cane,  care  should  be  used  not  to  have  the  mills  work  at  too  high  a 
rate  of  speed.  A  high  authority  on  this  subject  says,  that  very  good  results  may  be  obtained 
by  the  use  of  rollers  which  develop  a  surface  of  four  or  five  yards  in  length  per  minute,  so 
that  a  roller  of  two  feet  in  diameter  should  only  make  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  revohi- 
tions  per  minute,  in  order  to  extract  generally  the  largest  amount  of  juice  from  a  given 
weight  of  cane,  an  increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  mill  being  obtained  by  increasing  the 
length  of  the  rollers,  rather  than  the  velocity.     It  is  estimated  that  the  fresh  cane  contains 


COOK  S    SUGAR    EVAPORATOR. — FURNACE    AND    PAN. 

from  eighty-two  to  eighty-five  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  saccharine  juice.  Most  of  the  ordinary 
mills  extract  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  stalk,  hence  there  is  the  loss  of 
about  forty-one  per  cent,  of  the  juice  where  only  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  is  extracted. 
It  will  sometimes  repay  the  labor  of  expressing  the  crushed  cane,  by  the  increased  yield  of 
the  juice  thus  obtained. 

Defecation  or  Clarification  of  the  Juice. — Owing  to  albumen  and  other  nitro- 
genous substances  contained  in  the  juice  of  the  cane,  the  process  of  fermentation  soon  com- 
mences if  it  is  left  exposed  to  the  air  after  being  expressed  from  the  stalks.  The  mill  should 
be  placed  upon  an  elevation  in  such  a  manner  that  the  juice,  as  it  is  received  from  it  by  the 
pipe  that  conducts  it  into  the  defecating  tank,  may  pass  from  thence  into  the  evaporator.  A 
strainer  of  wire  gauze,  or  coarse  cloth,  is  placed  at  the  outlet  of  the  receiving-tank,  to  separate 
the  juice  from  any  fragments  of  cane,  etc.,  that  it  may  contain.  As  it  leaves  the  mill,  it  is 
of  a  yellowish-green  color,  opaque,  and  frothy. 

The  more  quickly  this  juice  of  the  cane  can  be  converted  into  sugar,  after  being 
expressed  from  the  stalks,  the  better  the  result.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  it  comes  from  the 
mill,  it  must  be  freed  from  all  impurities.     The  quality  of  the  sugar  will  depend  largely  upon 


418  THE  AMEIUCAN  FARMER. 

the  skill  with  which  this  is  accomplished.  On  account  of  the  acids  and  other  matter 
contained  in  it,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  cane-juice  will  commence  to  deteriorate  as  soon 
as  exposed  to  the  air.  The  result  of  this  deterioration  is  to  destroy  crystallization,  and  convert 
true  cane-sugar  into  grape-sugar,  or  glucose.  It  should,  therefore,  not  be  retained  in  the 
reservoir,  but  be  carried  at  once  from  the  mill  to  the  boiling-apparatus.  The  tendency  of  the 
juice  to  fermentation  by  contact  with  the  air  may  be  arrested  by  sulphur  fumigation.  Syrup 
and  sugar  thus  treated  are  lighter  in  color  and  usually  superior  in  quality.  This  is  not, 
however,  a  necessary  practice  in  the  process  of  sugar-making. 

The  first  important  treatment  of  the  juice  as  it  leaves  the  mill,  is  defecation,  or  the  sepa- 
ration of  it  from  all  the  impurities  which  it  may  contain.  The  stramer  only  removes  the 
coarse  foreign  substances,  but  the  acids  and  other  impurities,  which  it  holds  in  solution,  can 
be  freed  from  it  only  by  chemical  action  and  heat.  The  most  common  method  of  accom- 
plishing this  is  by  the  use  of  lime.  It  must,  however,  be  used  with  care  and  skill.  It  must 
be  pure  and  fresh,  and  never  used  in  its  caustic  state,  but  carefully  slaked  and  washed  in 
boiling  water  to  remove  the  potash  it  may  contain,  lime  itself  being  but  slightly  soluble  in 
hot  water.  When  properly  prepared,  it  will  be  of  the  consistency  of  thin  cream,  or  milk  of 
lime.  The  exact  quantity  to  be  used  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  acid  in  the  juice,  and 
can  only  be  determined  by  a  person  experienced  in  the  business,  or  tests  with  litmus  paper. 
From  one  to  four  pounds  of  lime  are  generally  used  to  five  hundred  gallons  of  the  juice, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  latter.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  use  of  lime  is  to 
separate  those  substances  in  the  liquid  that  are  held  in  solution  in  it,  which  prevent  crystalli- 
zation, but  imless  judiciously  employed,  the  aim  will  be  defeated,  and  the  crystallization  will 
be  impaired  or  prevented.  Mistakes  of  this  kind  made  in  the  early  stages  of  the  process 
cannot  be  successfully  remedied  by  subsequent  trcatnent. 

Next  to  lime,  heat  is  an  essential  agent  in  the  pi-ocess  of  defecation,  and  this  should  also 
be  employed  judiciously,  both  being  used  in  connection,  the  juice  of  the  cane  running 
directly  from  the  mill  into  the  defecator.  On  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  juice 
changes  on  exposure  to  air,  it;  is  important  that  this  process  should  progress  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  As  soon  as  the  juice  runs  into  the  tank,  the  heat  should  be  applied.  When  the 
entire  quantity  of  liquid  to  be  defecated  has  risen  to  the  temperature  of  about  180°,  or  a 
degree  of  heat  just  endurable  by  the  hand  when  immersed  in  it,  the  preparation  of  lime  may 
be  added,  and  stirred  in  thoroughly  to  become  well  mixed.  The  heat  should  then  be  brought 
up  to  the  boiling-point,  but  not  permitted  to  boil.  When  this  point  is  reached,  the  heat 
should  be  shut  off  at  once,  and  with  a  large  skimmer  or  other  appliances  for  the  purpose,  the 
thick,  dark -colored  scum  that  has  formed  should  be  quickly  removed.  The  liquid  may  then 
be  drawn  off  into  another  tank,  and  the  sediment  at  the  bottom  strained  to  remove  the 
impurities.  Various  methods  are  employed  in  clarifying  the  juice;  sometimes  a  portion  only 
of  the  quantity  of  lime  is  added  to  the  liquid  at  first,  and  the  contents  heated  and  skimmed, 
after  which  the  process  is  repeated  before  evaporating.  After  the  removal  of  the  scum,  the 
liquid  will  be  clear,  and  of  a  lighter  color  than  before. 

Evaporation. — This  is  conducted  in  various  ways.  The  three  principal  methods  of 
concentrating  or  evaporating  the  juice  of  the  cane  are,  first;  by  a  direct  application  of  fire 
only,  as  in  the  use  of  kettles,  common  pans,  and  some  kinds  of  evaporators.  The  second  is 
by  the  use  of  both  fire  and  steam,  where  fire  evaporating-pans  and  steam  defecating  and 
finishing-pans  are  employed.  The  third  is  by  the  use  of  steam  alone,  as  in  the  ordinary  steam 
trains,  or  the  steam  trains  with  vacuum-pans.  While  the  steam  train  is  considered  complete 
in  itself,  vacuum-pans  are  to  be  preferred,  especially  on  the  larger  plantations. 

The  oldest  method  of  evaporating  the  juice  of  cane  consists  of  a  series  of  open  kettles, 
four  or  five  in  number,  varying  in  size  and  arranged  in  a  row  in  an  arch  over  a  fire.  This 
was  called  a  "kettle  train."     The  kettles  were  made  of  iron  or  copper,  and  varied  in  size,  in 


SUGAR. 


419 


order  that,  as  the  juice  became  reduced  in  quantity,  it  would  still  be  sufficient  to  fill  the 
kettles,  and  prevent  any  portion  of  the  metal  from  becoming  overheated.  By  this  means  the 
defecation  is  very  imperfect,  owing  to  the  scum  being  constantly  mingled  with  the  juice,  and 
prevented  from  separating 
by  the  constant  boiling, 
while  the  dipping  from 
the  first  kettle  to  the 
second,  then  from  the 
second  to  the  third,  and 
so  on  to  the  last,  hinders 
the  crystallization  of  the 
syrup,  also  darkens  both 
syrup  and  sugar  by  the 
prolonged  boiling  and  im- 
perfect separation  of  it 
from  the  impurities  it  con- 
tained. It  also  required 
considerable  fuel  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of 
labor  performed.  A  great 
improvement  on  the  "ket- 
tle train  "  is  the  use  of  flat- 
bottom  pans  arranged 
with  compartments,  and 
an  apparatus  for  skim- 
ming automatically,  also  a 
strike-pan. 

The  use  of  steam  for 
evaporating  is  preferable 
to  fire,  as  it  admits  of  a 
more  uniform  heat,  or  a 
heat  that  can  be  better 
controlled,  and  is  at  the 
same  time  more  expediti- 
ous. There  is,  also,  no 
danger  from  burning,  the 
heatmg  surface  being  im- 
mersed in  the  liquid, 
through  pipes,  while  it 
economizes  fuel  and  labor. 
One  of  the  most  reliable 
authorities  on  sugar-mak- 
ing states  as  follows,  re- 
specting the  use  of  steam 
in  this  connection :  — 

i  "The  most  perfect 
method  of  sugar-making 
is  found  in  the  connected  steam  train.  This  consists  of  a  series  of  vessels  of  d  liferent  sizes, 
arranged  in  order,  and  all  supplied  within  with  steam-heating  pipes,  connected  by  branches 
with  a  main  pipe  from  the  boiler. 


420  THE  AMERICAN  FAR>rER. 

This  places  the  successive  operations  of  defecating,  concentrating,  and  finishing  by 
steam  under  the  immediate  and  convenient  control  of  the  sugar-maker.  The  heat  is  readily 
increased  or  diminished  or  withdra\m  from  either  vessel  at  pleasure. 

As  sugar-making  liy  a  connected  steam  train  is  a  continuous  as  well  as  rapid  process,  it 
is  important  that  proper  arrangement  and  proportion  of  all  the  parts  be  provided,  including, 
also,  the  even  and  reliable  working  of  the  mill,  so  that  the  continuity  of  the  operations  may 
be  harmoniously  and  effectively  preserved  to  the  end. 

Whilst  beyond  question  steam  is  the  best  agent  used  in  boiling  canejuice,  and  the  con- 
nected steam  train  the  most  perfect  and  simple  apparatus,  the  effectiveness  of  the  latter  may 
be  seriously  impaired  or  totally  destroyed  by  ignorant  management,  or  improper  proportions 
of  vessels  and  pipes.     In  these,  experience  and  skill  are  absolutely  necessary. 

If  the  planter  has  an  engine  and  boiler  of  sufficient  capacity  to  run  his  mill,  and  plenty 
of  steam  to  spare,  he  can  use  steam  profitably  for  working  up  even  a  small  crop,  either  with 
steam  pans  entire,  or  with  steam  pans  for  defecating  and  finishing,  and  a  fire  evaporator  for 
concentrating." 

The  chief  objection  to  the  open  pans  in  the  evaporating  process  is  in  the  high  tempera- 
ture required  to  boil  sugar  solutions  in  the  open  air,  which  converts  much  of  it  into  glucose. 
Vacuum  pans,  therefore,  are  greatly  to  be  preferred. 

Crystallization.  —  After  a  perfect  cleansing  or  defecation  of  the  juice,  and  its  rapid 
evaporation  to  the  sugar  point,  the  next  step  in  the  process  is  to  secure  crystallization.  When 
this  condition  is  reached  is  a  somewhat  nice  point  to  determine,  for  one  not  experienced  in 
the  business.  The  common  test  is,  that  when  the  liquid  has  reached  that  degree  of  concentra- 
tion that  a  drop  of  it,  placed  between  the  thumb  and  fore-finger  and  pressed,  may  be  drawn 
into  a  thread  which  has  a  granular  appearance,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  evaporation  is 
complete,  and  it  is  ready  to  be  transferred  to  the  cooler.  This  should  be  large  and  shallow. 
As  the  sugar  gradually  cools  and  crystallizes,  it  should  be  occasionally  stirred  to  make  the 
granulation  as  uniform  as  possible.  A  small  quantity  of  granulated  sugar,  mixed  into  the 
syrup  as  it  cools,  will  hasten  the  crystallization;  hence,  by  putting  a  little  into  the  first  that 
is  drawn  off  into  the  coolers,  and  permitting  some  of  the  sugar  to  remain  attached  to  the 
bottom  and  sides,  as  they  are  emptied  each  time,  to  be  again  refilled,  will  materially  aid  in 
this  process. 

After  the  sugar  has  crystallized  in  the  coolers,  it  must  be  separated  from  the  molasses, 
or  syrup,  that  does  not  granulate.  This  is  done  by  various  methods  of  draining.  Large 
tanks,  tubs,  or  boxes,  perforated  at  the  bottom,  and  provided  with  movable  plugs,  or  false 
bottoins  of  slats  covered  with  coarse  sacking,  for  straining  out  the  hquid  portion,  are  some- 
times used;  but  the  best  method  is  the  centrifugal  machine,  which  rapidly  expels  the 
molasses  from  the  siigar  by  force,  leaving  the  latter  quite  dry.  This  is  a  great  improvement 
in  sugar  making  and  refining. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  centrifugal  macliines.  They  are  constructed  with  a  cylinder, 
the  walls  of  which  are  formed  of  finely  perforated  metal.  This  is  supported,  and  with 
proper  appliances,  is  made  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity,  from  a  thousand  to  eighteen 
hundred  times  a  minute.  The  sugar  is  placed  inside  the  cylinder,  and  the  machine  set  in 
motion,  which  causes  the  sugar  to  form  a  lining  of  uniform  thickness  on  the  interior,  wliile 
the  molasses  is  driven  through  the  perforated  metal  and  caught  in  the  drum  that  surrounds 
it.  The  machine  is  then  stopped,  and  the  sugar  scraped  out.  By  this  means  the  separation 
of  the  sugar  and  molasses  may  be  easily  accomplished  in  a  few  minutes,  while  it  might 
require  days  by  the  former  draining  process.  The  yield  of  sugar  varies  from  half  a  ton 
to  two  and  a  half  or  three  tons  per  acre,  according  to  the  variety  of  the  cane,  methods  of 
culture,  soil,  season,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  machinery  employed  in  its  manufacture.     The 


SUGAR. 


421 


loss  estimated  through  the  imperfect  manner  of  extracting  the  juice  and  the  inversion  of  the 
sugar  into  glucose  is  enormous. 

In  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  it  is  highly  important  that  the  mill,  tanks,  and  everything 
used  in  connection  with  it  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  The  bagasse  or  crushed  cane, 
after  the  juice  has  been  expressed,  furnishes  a  nutritious  fodder  for  stock.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper. 

Sorgo  and  Imphee  Sugar-Cane.  —  Sorgo  or  Sorghum  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Chinese  sugarcane,  also  Northern  cane;  the  former  name  having  reference  to  its  origin,  the 
latter  to  its  adaptation  to  the  Northern  States,  in  contradistinction  from  the  tropical  or 
Southern  cane.  It  is  a  native  of  China,  where  it  has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial. 
Its  first  appearance  in  Europe  was  in  1851,  when  it  was  introduced  into  France.  In  1854 
some  of  the  seed  was  sent  to  the  United  States,  which  was  disseminated,  and  the  culture  of 
sorghum  soon  became  general. 


OOMSEEANA. 


EARLY    AMBER. 


Imphee,  or  African  cane,  was  introduced  into  France  from  the  southeastern  coast  of 
Africa  in  1851.  Thus  the  sorghum  and  imphee  reached  France  about  the  same  time  from 
different  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  from  thence  were  introduced  into  this  country. 

Though  resembling  sorgo,  the  African  cane  is  not  generally  considered  quite  as  hardy 
and  therefore  not  as  well  adapted  to  cultivation  in  the  higher  latitudes  as  the  former.  It  is, 
however,  valuable  in  those  sections  suited  to  its  culture,  while  it  has  been  employed  in  the 
production  of  a  large  number  of  hybrids  between  that  and  the  Chinese  cane,  some  of  which 
are  quite  popular,  and  seem  to  unite  the  leading  characteristics  of  both  species. 

The  seed  heads  of  the  imphees  are  generally  more  compact  than  the  sorgo.  The  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  imphees  known  in  this  country  are  the  Liberian,  Neeazana,  and  Oomseeana. 
Of  these,  the  Liberian  has  thus  far  been  most  successfully  cultivated.  The  natives  from 
whence  it  was  introduced, — the  Zulu-Kaffirs, — are  said  to  regard  the  Neeazana  with  most 
favor,  as  being  the  sweetest  of  all  their  varieties.  The  Liberian  is  a  heavy  producer,  and 
quite  free  from  disease,  it  being  almost  unknown  to  smut,  mildew,  or  blight  of  any  kind.    The 


422  THE  AMERICAN  FARJIER. 

Neeazana  yields  a  good  quality  of  syrup  of  light  color,  but  is  said  to  have  deteriorated  ia  the 
extreme  South.  The  Oomseeana  is  a  fine  variety,  and  in  some  sections  is  given  the  pref- 
erence. It  produces  more  sugar  in  proportion  than  syrup,  while  the  varieties  pre\'iously 
mentioned  produce  a  larger  proportion  of  syrup  than  sugar.  The  sorgo  matures  about  two 
weeks  earlier  than  the  imphees,  but  the  latter  require  cutting  when  in  a  greener  state  than 
the  former,  so  that  the  harvesting  season  is  about  the  same  for  each. 

The  color  of  the  Oomseeana  seed  when  fully  matured  is  a  dark  brown ;  that  of  the  Libe- 
rian  a  deep  red,  whUe  the  Neeazana  is  of  a  hght  cream  or  wood  color.  The  seed  of  the 
Chinese  cane  or  sorgo,  when  fully  ripe,  is  of  a  dark  purple,  or  black  color;  that  of  the  Early 
Amber  is  also  dark. 

The  Chinese  cane  grows  to  the  height  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  or  more.  The 
stalks  are  more  slender  than  those  of  corn,  and  not  so  thick  as  those  of  the  imphee.  The 
time  required  for  the  perfect  development  of  the  plant  varies  with  the  climate,  soil,  and  sea- 
son, but  averages  generally,  with  favoring  conditions,  about  five  months.  Tlie  Early  Amber 
presents,  in  general  appearance,  some  of  the  characteristics  of  both  the  sorghum  and  imphee. 
This  variety  receives  its  name  from  the  early  ripening  of  its  seeds  and  the  bright  amber  color 
of  the  syrup  made  from  it.  This  is  one  of  the  most  popular  kinds  cultivated.  It  grows 
to  the  height  of  the  Chinese  variety,  but  is  thought  to  be  richer  in  sugar  production  than  the 
latter. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  sorghum  which  are  cultivated  to  a  certain  extent,  aU  more 
or  less  valuable.  The  chemical  division  of  the  Agricultural  Department  has  recently  made 
numerous  analyses  of  sorghum,  embracing  nearly  forty  varieties,  with  a  view  of  determining 
the  period  at  which  the  juice  of  each  particular  variety  contained  the  most  crystallizable 
sugar  that  could  profitably  be  separated.  For  this  purpose,  the  analyses  were  begun  at  an 
early  stage  of  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  were  repeated  from  time  to  time  till  later  in  the 
autumn,  which  afforded  the  best  possible  opportunity  of  ascertaining  the  comparative  value 
of  each  variety,  the  practicabiUty  of  sugar  production  from  sorghum,  aside  from  the  actual 
separation  of  the  crystallized  sugar  itself  in  manufacturing  it,  and  also  the  time  when  the 
plant  yields  the  greatest  amount  of  cane-sugar. 

These  analyses  extended  over  a  period  of  time  from  July  to  November,  showing  the 
amount,  not  only  of  sugar  contained  in  each  variety,  but  of  glucose  at  the  same  time.  It  was 
found  that  after  the  middle  of  August,  the  Early  Amber,  when  properly  managed,  will  make 
as  much  crystallizable  sugar  as  any  of  the  tropical  cane.  The  fiill  amount  of  sucrose  was 
reached  early  in  August,  and  continued  without  much  variation  untU  the  middle  of  October. 
The  glucose  in  this  variety  was  found  to  be  greatest  early  in  July,  diminishing  rapidly  until 
the  first  of  August,  and  slightly  after  this  period,  the  amount  of  glucose  diminishing  as  that 
of  sucrose  increased.  The  White  Liberian  variety  reached  its  full  amount  of  sugar-produc- 
tion by  the  middle  of  August,  and  continued  until  November.  Among  the  later  varieties, 
some  produced  only  about  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  their  full  amount  of  sucrose  by  the  middle 
of  August,  their  full  development  not  being  reached  until  the  middle  of  October. 

From  the  above  facts,  it  is  apparent  that  in  the  Northern  section  adapted  to  the  culture 
of  sorghum,  the  advantages  gained  in  growing  the  Early  Amber  are  in  its  early  maturity, 
and  the  long  period  during  which  the  manufacture  of  the  sugar  and  syrup  may  be  continued. 
These  analyses  proved  that  the  amount  of  sugar  afforded  by  the  different  varieties  did  not 
vary  largely,  being  from  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  juice.  The  sxiperior  value  of  the 
different  kinds  consists,  therefore,  mainly  in  the  amount  or  weight  of  cane  that  can  be  pro- 
duced on  an  acre,  and  their  adaptation,  with  respect  to  the  period  of  ripening,  to  the  latitude 
in  which  they  are  to  be  grown.  Some  of  the  late  varieties  may  be  admirably  suited  to  the 
South,  but  the  earlier  ones  are  to  be  recommended  for  Northern  cultivation. 

With  respect,  then,  to  the  value  of  the  different  canes,  other  conditions  being  equal. 


SUGAR.  423 

that  variety  is  best  for  any  locality  which  matures  earliest  and  remains  longest  in  a  working 
condition.  An  improved  Early  Amber,  known  as  the  Minnesota  Early  Amber,  is  much  cul- 
tivated in  the  Western  States.  The  improvement  of  this  variety  was  secured  by  selecting 
seed  from  the  finest  crops  of  Northern  growth,  and  sending  it  to  a  Southern  latitude  to  be 
grown,  on  the  principle  that  when  cultivated  in  a  high  latitude  for  several  consecutive  years, 
canes  will  naturally  degenerate.  The  result  was  an  improved  variety  with  respect  to  the 
weight  of  cane  per  acre,  and  the  amount  of  saccharine  matter  produced. 

As  an  agricultural  product,  sorghum  has  become  within  the  past  few  years  one  of  con- 
tinually  mcreased  importance  in  this  country,  especially  in  the  Western  States,  owing  to  the 
improved  facilities  for  manufacturing  sugar  which  are  at  present  attainable,  a  lack  of  which 
caused  so  many  farmers  to  abandon  its  culture  shortly  after  its  introduction  into  the 
United  States. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  sorgo  grown  in  this  country  has  formerly  been  manufactured 
into  syrup,  but  at  present  sugar  is  being  made  to  a  considerable  extent.  When  the  most 
approved  methods  of  crystallization  are  bettw  understood,  and  the  use  of  better  mechanical 
appliances  in  the  various  processes  of  sugar-making  are  more  generally  employed,  we  see  no 
reason  why  the  cultivation  of  sorghum  in  this  country  may  not  prove  very  profitable  to  the 
farmers,  and  highly  beneficial  to  the  nation  generally,  since  sugar  is  an  article  of  food  in 
great  demand;  and  LE  the  home  product  could  be  largely  increased,  the  necessity  of  sending 
miUions  of  dollars  annually  abroad  for  the  imported  article  would  be  obviated,  and  the  enor- 
mous sums  thus  expended  be  retained  at  home.  Besides,  if  farmers  produced  this  crop  only 
in  sufficient  quantities  for  home  consumption,  it  would  prove  an  economical  and  profitable 
enterprise  in  a  small  way,  and  they  would  also  be  sure  of  being  provided  with  a  pure,  unadul- 
terated article,  which  they  cannot  be  assured  of  in  purchasing  the  vast  quantities  of  glucose 
sugar  and  other  vile  compounds  with  which  the  markets  are  crowded. 

As  with  the  tropical  sugar-cane,  the  leaves  and  tops  of  the  stalks  of  sorghum,  as  well  as 
the  bagasse,  or  refuse  cane  from  the  mill,  furnish  excellent  fodder,  while  the  seed  is  valuable 
as  food  for  domestic  animals,  its  nutritive  value  being  but  little  less  than  that  of  corn. 

Soil  and  its  Preparation. — Sorgo  may  be  cultivated  on  any  soil  suited  to  the  suc- 
cessful production  of  wheat  or  corn.  The  best  for  the  purpose,  however,  is  a  light  sandy 
loam.  It  has  been  found  that  the  quality  of  the  juice  of  the  plant  is  largely  affected  by  the 
soil  upon  which  the  crop  is  grown ;  for  instance,  while  black,  heavy  soil  will  produce  a  vigor- 
ous growth  of  the  cane,  the  juice  of  such  plants  will  not  be  as  rich  in  saccharine  matter  as 
those  grown  upon  a  hght  sandy  loam.  Sandy  uplands  fertilized  with  well-composted  farm- 
manure,  chemical  fertilizers,  lime,  plaster,  or  wood-ashes,  will  give  exceedingly  good  results. 
Wet  lands  are  not  adapted  to  this  crop,  and  should  first  be  thoroughly  drained  before 
attempting  its  culture.  Clay  soil  will  produce  a  product  of  good  quality,  but  the  yield  will 
not  be  large.  New  lands,  if  of  the  proper  quality,  will  produce  well,  but  fresh  manure  will 
give  unsatisfactory  results;  hence,  when  yard-manure  is  used,  it  should  always  be  first  well 
fermented.    A  compost  from  the  pig-sty  is  exceedingly  valuable  in  the  cultivation  of  sorghum. 

The  soil  should  be  made  rich  in  order  to  produce  a  rapid  growth,  that  the  crop  may 
mature  before  there  is  any  danger  from  frost.  Vegetable  or  yard-manure  plowed  in,  in  the 
fall,  will  greatly  improve  clay  lands  for  this  crop. 

The  tillage  for  sorgo  should  be  deep,  and  the  soil  well  pulverized.  When  the  land  is 
plowed  and  thrown  into  ridges  in  the  fall,  it  will  be  in  a  better  condition  for  working  early 
in  the  spring.  As  a  general  rule,  the  land  for  sorghum  should  be  prepared  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  com.  In  some  sections,  where  the  land  is  inclined  to  be  too  wet,  ridge-culture 
is  practiced;  but  in  such  cases  draining  will  give  better  results. 

Planting. — It  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  seed  for  planting  should  be  of  the 
best  quality.     That  produced  by  the  most  thrifty  plants  of  the  most  desirable  variety  should 


424  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

be  obtained.  Seed  that  has  been  grown  in  a  somewhat  warmer  climate  than  that  in  which  it  is 
to  be  planted  is  best  for  the  Northern  States.  It  should  also  be  from  a  pure  variety  and 
unmixed  with  other  plants.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  sugar-canes  and  similar  plants,  such 
as  corn,  millet,  broom-corn,  etc.,  will  readily  mix  when  planted  with  or  near  each  other, 
greatly  to  the  deterioration  of  the  product;  hence  the  importance  of  obtaining  good  seed.  It 
is  the  only  safe  way  to  procure  it  from  some  well-known  and  reliable  source. 

Soaking  the  seed  in  tepid  water  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  before  planting  will 
cause  it  to  germinate  sooner.  It  may  also  be  tested  by  putting  a  little  of  the  seed  in  some 
earth  and  keeping  it  in  a  warm  place,  or  by  putting  it  between  two  layers  of  thin  muslin 
saturated  with  water,  and  placing  it  in  damp  soil  for  a  few  days,  watering  slightly  occasion- 
ally. If  it  germinates  readily  by  either  of  these  methods,  it  is  quite  probable  that  it  will  do 
so  when  planted  in  the  field.  The  planting  should  be  done  as  early  as  the  ground  is  suffic- 
iently warm,  and  there  is  no  danger  from  frost.  The  planting  is  generally  in  hills,  drill-culture 
not  usually  being  considered  so  satisfactory  in  results  as  hills,  since  the  latter  admits  of  culti- 
vation in  both  directions.  The  rows  should  be  about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  hills  two  feet 
apart  in  the  rows.  It  is  well  to  put  plenty  of  seed  in  each  hill  to  make  allowance  for  such 
as  may  not  germinate,  and  afterwards  thin  out  the  plants,  leaving  from  six  to  eight  of  the 
most  vigorous  ones  to  grow.  From  twenty  to  twenty-five  seeds  to  the  hill  would  be  sufBcient. 
Care  should  be  used  not  to  cover  the  seed  too  deep,  as  it  would  be  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground, 
if  the  weather  should  be  cool  and  wet.  For  early  planting,  a  half  inch  of  covering  will  be 
sufBcient.  When  the  planting  is  late  in  the  season,  and  the  ground  warm  and  dry,  it  will  be 
well  to  cover  to  the  depth  of  an  inch. 

Cultivation. — When  sorghum-plants  first  make  their  appearance  from  the  ground 
they  much  resemble  broom-corn,  or  a  species  of  very  coarse  grass.  The  growth  in  the  first 
stages  is  very  slow,  the  plants  being  feeble,  but  in  a  little  time,  with  a  suitable  soil,  it  will  be 
quite  rapid.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up,  the  cultivator  should  be  used  in  destroj-iug  the 
weeds.  It  is  very  essential  for  the  welfare  of  the  crop  that  the  soil  be  kept  clean  of  grass 
and  weeds  during  the  early  period  of  its  growth,  for  as  its  progress  in  growth  is  then  slow, 
it  will  soon  be  choked  with  the  fast-growing  weeds,  if  neglected.  This  is  the  period  when 
the  crop  is  said  to  be  "made,"  and  the  culture  it  then  receives  has  more  influence  in  deter- 
mining the  jdeld  than  that  subsequently  giv'cn.  When  the  stalks  are  five  or  six  inches  high, 
the  plants  should  be  thinned  out  in  the  hUls,  leaving  from  six  to  eight  of  the  best.  Careful 
culture  is  essential  untO  the  plants  are  about  three  feet  high,  after  which  it  will  in  a  great 
measure  take  care  of  itself.  If  the  cultivator  is  used  afterwards,  it  should  be  run  very  near 
the  surface,  as  deep  tillage  would  be  liable  to  injure  the  roots,  and  thus  injure  the  stalks.  The 
culture  throughout  is  similar  to  that  of  corn,  except  it  does  not  extend  as  late  in  the  season. 

Harvesting. — The  time  for  harvesting  sorghum  is  when  it  has  reached  that  degree  of 
maturity  that  the  seed  cannot  be  crushed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  At  this  period  the 
saccharine  matter  is  in  the  greatest  quantity  in  the  stalks,  and  the  glucose  in  the  least.  If 
cut  before  this  period,  there  will  be  much  waste,  and  the  juice  will  be  of  inferior  quality. 
The  cane  should  never  be  touched  by  the  frost.  The  time  for  cutting  imphees,  or  African 
cane,  is  earlier  than  that  of  sorghum,  and  may  be  when  the  seed  is  in  the  milk  state.  Some 
planters  claim  that  it  may  be  worked  up  at  any  time  from  the  period  of  the  falling  of  the 
flowers  until  the  seed  is  ripe. 

It  is  better  to  have  the  cane  ground  at  once  as  soon  as  harvested.  When  this  is  done, 
it  may  be  topped  in  the  field,  cutting  off  one  or  two  joints,  and  the  leaves  stripped  off.  after 
which  it  may  be  cut  and  taken  to  the  mill.  When  not  worked  up  at  once,  the  tops  and 
leaves  should  remain  on  until  ready  for  grinding,  and  the  stalks  stacked  in  the  field  like  corn. 
By  leaving  the  tops  and  leaves  on  the  stalks  in  such  cases,  cane  can  be  kept  three  or  four 
weeks  without  much  injury.     It  should  not,  when  stacked,  be  exposed  to  rain  or  frost.     The 


SUGAR.  425 

tops  should  be  laid  in  small  piles  to  dry.  The  seed  should  be  shelled  and  used  as  food  for 
stock.  It  may  be  threshed  Hke  wheat,  or  treated  the  same  as  broom-corn  seed.  Sheep  wiU. 
eat  it  on  the  heads  without  shelhng,  but  for  other  stock  it  is  best  when  shelled  and  ground. 
The  sorgo-plant  ratoons  or  tillers  the  same  as  the  tropical  cane,  and  at  the  South  will  thus 
produce  two  crops  in  a  year,  but  at  the  North  only  one  crop  will  have  time  during  the  season 
to  mature. 

Manufacturing  Syrup  and  Sugar  from  Sorghum. — In  preparing  the  cane  for 
the  miU,  the  stalks  are  tied  into  bundles  about  eight  inches  in  diameter.  When  not  intended 
for  immediate  use,  the  bundles  should  be  piled  across  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
admit  a  free  circulation  of  air,  being  placed  where  they  will  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  It  is 
best,  however,  as  previously  stated,  to  grind  it  at  once,  if  practicable,  as  soon  as  harvested. 
Where  the  leaves  are  left  on  the  stalks  in  grinding,  there  will  be  a  greater  waste  of  juice, 
since  they  will  absorb  it  more  than  would  be  at  first  supposed.  In  grinding,  the  mill  should 
be  fed  by  the  butt  end  of  the  cane  entering  first.  The  largest  portion  of  the  sorgo  product 
in  this  country  is  converted  into  syrup,  but  sugar  is  made  to  a  certain  extent,  more  being 
made  at  present  than  formerly. 

The  different  processes  of  manufacturing  syrup  from  sorgo,  consisting  of  the  expressing 
of  the  juice,  the  defecation  or  cleansing  it  from  impurities,  and  the  concentration,  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  those  already  given  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  tropical  sugar- 
cane; the  processes  for  syrup  being  complete  before  the  period  of  crystallization  is  reached. 
Sugar  may  also  be  manufactured  from  sorgo,  the  same  as  from  the  tropical  cane.  The 
principal  difSculty  attending  this  process  has  been  in  the  crystalHzation.  In  order  to  better 
secure  granulation  or  crystallization,  the  chemical  division  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
after  numerous  experiments,  recommended  the  following  special  treatment: — 

"  Sorghum  syrups  should  be  reduced  to  a  density  that,  after  a  lapse  of  from  twenty-four 
to  forty-eight  houjs,  when  kept  in  a  warm  room,  it  will  become  an  almost  solid  mass  of  sugar. 
It  requires  then  a  special  mode  of  treatment,  the  crystals  being  fine  and  held  together  by  only 
a  small  quantity  of  molasses.  When  in  this  condition,  the  mass  is  to  be  thrown  into  a  large 
tub  or  mixing-vessel,  and  a  small  quantity  (about  one-tenth  of  its  volume)  of  a  fair,  thin 
S}Tup,  prepared  from  sorghum-juice  of  a  density  of  about  30°  Baumt^;  when  cold,  it  is  to  be 
poured  upon  it  and  thoroughly  incorporated  in  it  by  means  of  a  wooden  stirrer. 

An  iron  mixing-mill  constructed  somewhat  like  the  feed-hopper  of  a  centrifugal  sugar- 
drainer,  with  a  revolving  shaft  in  its  center,  set  with  long  projecting  teeth,  may  be  employed 
in  regular  work.  This  will  bring  it  to  the  semi-fluid  state,  if  the  room  in  which  the  opera- 
tion has  been  performed  has  been  kept  heated.  The  syrup  dilutes  the  uncrystallized  sugar 
sufficiently  to  render  it  mobile,  and  does  not  dissolve  the  cane-sugar.  The  mass  may  then  be 
drained  in  a  centrifugal,  the  inner  drum  of  which  is  very  clearly  but  minutely  perforated, 
and  running  at  the  highest  rate  of  speed. 

Another  method  which  may  be  followed  is  similar  to  that  employed  in  some  sugar 
factories  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  pulp  of  the  beet  and  also  to  separate  the  saccharine 
matter  left  in  the  scum. 

A  number  of  linen  and  coarse  muslin  sacks  are  provided,  of  any  convenient  size,  but 
their  length  should  be  about  two  and  one-half  times  their  width,  say  twenty  by  fifty  inches; 
each  sack  is  to  be  about  one-third  filled  with  this  sugary  mixture,  folded  once  on  itself  in  the 
middle,  and  flattened  by  placing  it  upon  a  table  upon  a  sheet-iron  plate  with  rounded  comers, 
a  little  larger  on  eveiy  side  than  the  partially-flattened  half  of  the  sack  and  its  contents,  the 
loose  half  being  folded  under.  The  open  end  of  the  sack  may  be  folded  twice,  if  necessary. 
The  plate  and  sack  are  then  to  be  placed  within  a  frame  on  the  bed  of  a  powerful  screw- 
press,  and  a  series  of  such  sacks  and  interleaved  plates  laid  neatly  one  upon  another,  being 
turned  in  opposite  directions,  and  subjected  to  pressure,  gradually  apphed  at  first,  to  avoid 
27 


426  THE  AMERICAN  FAMIER. 

rupture  of  the  sacks,  and  afterwards  with  sufficient  power  to  remove  all  the  syrup  and  leave 
the  sugar  nearly  dry.  This  fine  dry  sugar  is  then  to  be  transferred  without  further  drying  to 
a  heating-vessel,  and  about  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of  pure  water  raised  with  it.  Here  it  is 
to  be  heated  very  gradually,  with  frequent  stirring,  to  diffuse  the  heat  through  the  mass,  and 
when  it  has  partially  re-melted,  and  it  is  in  the  liquefied  state,  it  is  to  be  poured  finally  into 
the  crystalHzing-boxes  in  a  room  heated  to  about  90°  F.,  where  it  will  form  a  solid  mass  of 
crystals  as  soon  as  it  becomes  cool.  The  result  is  a  very  coarse-grained,  beautiful  sugar  of  a 
high  grade.  If  properly  prepared,  it  wiU  be  almost  white,  and  the  immediate  yield  is  almost 
double  that  which  may  be  secured  in  any  other  way  without  re-boiling. 

The  sugar  prepared  from  sorghum  in  this  way  has  the  additional  advantage  of  not  being 
contaminated  with  the  secondary  products  usually  formed  by  re-boUing.  The  final  crystalliza- 
tion is  attended  with  no  risk,  is  easily  and  cheaply  done,  and  in  quality,  with  due  care,  should 
rank  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  vacuum  sugar.  The  very  small  quantity  of  syrup  left  in  con- 
tact with  the  crystals  will  drain  off  from  the  crystallizers,  and,  being  almost  free  from  glucose, 
will  crystallize  gradually  if  exposed  in  broad  traj's  at  the  temperature  of  the  room.  If  the 
production  of  sugar  of  a  softer  and  more  open  grain  is  desired,  it  can  readily  be  accom- 
plished by  a  mode  of  treatment  almost  identical  with  the  "stirring  off ''  process  adopted  by 
maple-sugar  producers,  but  with  better  results.  As  soon  as  the  half -liquefied  sugary  mass, 
produced  as  already  mentioned,  has  been  poured  in  the  crystalliziug-boses,  it  should  be 
stirred  with  a  broad  oar-shaped  wooden  instrument,  without  interruption,  until  it  is  cool  and 
the  sugar  has  become  dry." 

For  the  successful  manufacture  of  syrup  or  sugar,  the  best  appliances,  in  the  form  of 
good  mills  and  evaporators,  are  highly  essential.  'Where  sorgo  is  commonly  grown,  it  would 
be  well  for  a  few  farmers,  living  in  the  same  vicinity,  to  own  machinery  for  this  purpose  in 
company,  thus  seciu-ing  the  use  of  first-class  implements  at  a  comparatively  small  expense. 
Or  a  single  party,  having  sufBcfent  capital,  and  other  favoring  conditions,  might  manufacture 
the  product  for  the  farmers  of  the  neighborhood,  for  a  specified  remuneration. 

Sugar-Beet. — Various  efforts  have  been  made  in  this  country  within  the  last  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  to  establish  the  beet-sugar  industry,  which  enterprise  has  not  thus  far  proved 
as  successful  as  was  anticipated.  The  general  reason  for  the  want  of  success  in  this  direction 
is  in  the  cost  of  the  production.  Sugar  of  the  best  quality  has  been  made  in  these  experi- 
ments, but  the  high  price  of  labor  has  failed  to  render  its  manufacture  profitable.  The  lack 
of  proper  appKances  and  skillful  knowledge  of  the  business  have  also  been  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  its  success.  That  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  will  eventually  prove  a  successful 
enterprise  in  this  country  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  when  a  better  knowledge  of  the  art, 
combined  with  improved  machinery,  and  other  methods  employed,  shall  so  reduce  the  expense 
as  to  render  it  a  source  of  profit  to  both  the  grower  and  manufacturer  of  the  product. 

In  Europe,  large  quantities  of  sugar  are  made  from  the  beet-root.  More  than  forty  per 
cent,  of  the  estimated  sugar  product  of  the  world  is  derived  from  this  source.  The  beet  can 
be  grown  both  North  and  South,  but  in  the  latter  section  it  is  not  as  well  adapted  for  culture 
as  the  tropical  cane,  since  it  will  deteriorate  in  saccharine  matter  in  a  warm  climate.  About 
the  forty-fifth  degree  of  latitude  seems  to  be  the  southern  limit  of  its  successful  culture  for 
sugar  production.  It  is,  however,  a  very  hardy  plant,  and  can  be  successfully  grown,  even 
in  the  extreme  North. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  beet  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  Only  the  white- 
fleshed  kinds  are  employed  for  this  purpose;  those  that  are  firm,  brittle,  perfectly  solid,  and 
emit  a  cracking  sound  when  cut,  are  generally  the  best  in  quality.  The  beet  for  sugar  man- 
ufacture should  also  be  smooth,  rather  long,  with  tapering  roots,  or  pear-shaped,  and  fine- 
grained; not  growing  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  variety  known  as  the  White  SUesian  seems  to  be  most  in  favor  with  manufacturers 


SUGAR.  427 

generally,  and  the  best  adapted  to  sugar  production.  The  French,  Siberian,  Imperial,  and 
many  other  varieties  are  used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  for  this  purpose;  but  the  SUesian, 
although  not  as  rich  in  saccharine  matter  as  some  others,  being  a  vigorous  grower,  will  pro- 
duce more  sugar  to  the  acre,  and  is  therefore  more  extensively  cultivated  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, than  any  other  kind. 

Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Storing,  etc. — The  most  approved  methods  of  cultivat- 
ing, harvesting,  and  storing  beets  have  been  previously  given  in  the  department  treating  of 
Eoots  and  Esculent  Tubers,  and  as  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  used  for  sugar  production  is 
very  much  the  same  as  that  for  other  varieties  of  beets,  a  repetition  will  be  unnecessary  in 
this  connection.  The  soU  should  not  contain  a  large  proportion  of  mineral  salts,  neither  be 
too  wet,  or  of  a  clayey  nature.  An  excess  in  nitrogen,  as  well  as  the  general  effect  of  soil 
and  manure  on  this  crop,  will  be  seen  by  the  following,  which  is  an  abstract  of  experiments 
made  at  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences,  with  a  view  of  examining  the  influences  of  soil  and 
manures  on  the  size  and  saccharine  quality  of  sugar-beet: 

Holes  were  bored  in  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  a  large  number  of  tubs,  and  in  each  was 
placed  a  layer  of  gravel,  to  allow  water  of  irrigation  to  drain  off.  The  tubs  then  received 
various  kinds  of  artificial  soUs — pure  sand,  limestone,  and  clay,  exempt  from  potash.  Beet- 
seed  was  sown  in  May,  procured  from  the  Aisne,  where  it  produces  roots  containing  11  to  1 3 
per  cent,  of  sugar.  The  manures  employed,  either  separately  or  mixed,  were  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  nitrate  of  potash,  nitrate  of  soda,  chlorides  of  potash  and  soda,  superphosphate  of 
lime,  guano,  rasped  horn,  and  stable-manure.  Irrigation  was  generally  with  the  ordinary 
water  of  Paris,  but  sometimes  with  distilled  water,  in  order  to  avoid  the  salts  of  the  common 
water,  and  sometimes  with  water  containing  chemical  manures.  The  leading  points  in  the 
results  were  as  follows:  Roots  are  capable  of  attaining  a  weight  of  1.4  pounds  to  1.6  pounds 
in  artificial  soils  whoUy  devoid  of  humus,  provided  they  are  regularly  watered  and  supplied 
with  chemical  manures;  while,  in  the  absence  of  such  manure,  if  the  artificial  soil  be  merely 
watered  with  distilled  water,  the  roots  wiU  hardly  attain  an  ounce  in  weight.  Nitrogen,  in 
the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  of  potash,  or  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  etc.,  favors  increase  of 
size  of  root,  but  is  liable  to  injure  the  saccharine  quality  of  the  crop.  Beets  gro-n-ing  in  a 
well-manvired  soU,  and  having  combined  nitrogen  within  reach,  tend  to  form  albuminous  sub- 
stance at  the  expense  of  the  sugar.  Beet- roots  containing  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  sugar  are 
often  found  to  contain  twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  those  which  have  a  saccharine  richness  of 
15  to  16  per  cent.  On  the  same  principle,  in  certain  soils,  beet-roots  will  exhibit  but  little 
sugar,  not  because  the  soU  has  become  impoverished,  but  because,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  too 
rich  in  nitrogen.  Beet-roots  grown  in  artificial  soils,  and  watered  with  chemical  manures, 
are  found  to  reach  as  high  as  18  per  cent. 

In  order  to  obtain  mature  roots,  which  is  a  matter  of  great  importance, — since  the  full 
amount  of  saccharine  matter  is  only  obtained  when  perfectly  matured,— the  best  cultivators 
of  the  sugar-beet  plant  early,  and  avoid  stimulating  manures,  which  would  have  a  tendency 
to  produce  roots  of  undue  size  and  late  maturity. 

Deep  plowing  is  essential  for  this  crop,  in  order  to  give  the  large  roots  room  to  develop 
entirely  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Shallow  plowing  will  cause  them  to  grow  partly 
above  ground,  which  injures  the  quaHty  for  sugar  production.  The  portion  grown  in  this 
manner  not  only  contains  no  sugar,  but  furnishes  acids  which  wiU  lessen  the  quantity  of  sugar 
contained  in  the  other  portion  of  the  root.  The  harvesting  should  always  be  done  before 
the  appearance  of  the  frost. 

The  leaves  should  also  be  cut  close  to  the  crown,  when  grown  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  while  if  any  portion  of  the  beet  grows  above  ground,  that  should  also  be  cut  ofl:  with 
the  leaves.  This  being  done,  the  roots  may  be  taken  at  once  to  the  factory.  Bruises  and 
wounds  by  careless  handling  should  be  avoided,  as  this  induces  fermentation,  and  deteriorates 


428  THE  A3LERICAN  FARMER. 

the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  sugar.  When  roots  are  to  be  kept  awhile  before  being 
worked  up,  it  will  also  cause  them  to  decay.  Beets  for  this  purpose  may  also  be  preserved 
in  pits,  or  stored  in  various  ways,  the  same  as  other  root  crops,  but  it  is  generally  better  for 
the  farmer  to  dispose  of  them  at  once  to  the  manufacturer,  thus  avoiding  the  labor  and  loss 
that  may  attend  the  storage.  They  are  sometimes  frozen  and  kept  in  that  condition  until 
wanted  for  use,  but  this  practice  is  not  to  be  recommended,  since  there  is  a  liabihty  of  loss 
occasioned  by  their  tha-n-ing  out  by  a  change  of  weather  before  being  used;  besides,  the 
freezing  process  has  a  tendency  to  deteriorate  the  sugar  product. 

The  Mauufactxii'e  of  Sugar  from  Beets  is  a  complicated  process,  a  detailed 
description  of  which  would  require  more  space  than  the  limits  of  this  work — devoted  as  it  is 
to  such  a  variety  of  subjects — will  admit;  we  shall,  therefore,  in  this  connection,  be  able  to 
give,  as  it  were,  only  an  outline  of  the  process,  while  we  would  refer  those  of  our  readers  who 
desire  more  specific  directions  and  information  with  regard  to  it  to  some  treatise  of  standard 
authority,  devoted  exclusively  to  this  subject. 

The  first  operation  in  sugar-making  from  beets  is  to  cleanse  the  roots  thoroughly  from 
all  particles  of  soil  that  may  adhere  to  them.  This  is  effected  by  various  means,  the  most 
common  being  a  revolving  drum  of  open  iron  or  wood-work  submerged  in  water.  The  next 
step  in  the  process  is  to  extract  the  juice. 

This  may  be  done  also  by  various  methods.  Sometimes  the  cleansed  roots  are  reduced 
to  a  pulp  by  a  rotary  rasping-machine,  which  revolves  vrith  great  velocity,  after  which  the 
pulp  is  then  put  in  bags  or  sacks,  and  subjected  to  a  powerful  pressure,  thus  expressing  the 
juice,  or  it  may  be  macerated  in  water,  thus  extracting  the  saccharine  matter. 

Another  method  is  in  exhausting  the  pulp  by  means  of  a  centrifugal  machine,  the  largest 
portion  of  the  juice  being  thrown  out  by  its  rapid  revolutions,  after  which  water  is  applied 
and  the  remainder  of  the  juice  washed  out  in  the  same  manner. 

Diffusion  is  another  process,  and  one  which  has  been  extensively  practiced  in  many  of 
the  beet-sugar  manufactories  of  Europe.  The  beets  are  by  this  method  cut  into  thin,  narrow 
strips  by  a  cutting-machine  which  revolves  with  great  rapidity.  Water  is  then  used,  in  con- 
nection with  a  diffusion  battery,  in  extracting  the  juice. 

In  some  batteries  for  tliis  purpose,  the  cylinders  are  so  connected  by  tubes  that  the 
liquids  can  be  passed  from  any  one  of  them  to  another,  the  same  Hquid  being  iised  repeatedly 
for  different  quantities  of  the  beet,  thus  increasing  its  richness,  and  economizing  in  the  evap- 
oration. In  others,  the  ribbons,  or  thin  sHces  of  the  beet-root,  are  made  to  pass  through  a 
current  of  water  which  is  moving  in  an  opposite  dii'ection,  and  which  will  have  a  tendency  to 
wash  out  a  large  portion  of  the  sugar  element  of  the  juice.  Various  apphances  have  been 
employed  on  this  principle,  differing  in  their  methods  of  construction  and  operation. 

The  advantage  of  diffusion  over  other  methods  consists  mainly  in  obtaining  a  purer 
quality  of  juice  than  by  other  processes,  since  the  cells  of  the  beet  or  cane  are  not  fractured, 
and  the  albuminoids  and  other  substances,  injurious  to  the  sugar  product,  are  not  extracted. 

The  next  process  after  extracting  the  juice,  is  to  clarify  or  cleanse  it  of  aU  impurities 
contained  within  it,  and  which  would  injure  the  quality  of  the  product,  and  prevent  crj'stal- 
lization.  This  is  accomplished  by  heat  and  the  use  of  lime,  a  process  similar  to  that  of  defec- 
ating the  jiiice  of  cane;  after  which  the  excess  of  lime  and  other  substances  contained  in  it 
are  precipitated,  and  the  caustic  alkalies  carbonated  by  the  use  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Various 
other  means,  some  of  them  of  a  complicated  nature,  may  also  be  employed  to  accomplish  this 
purpose.  Filtration  is  the  next  step  in  the  process  of  sugar  manufacturing.  This  is  accom- 
phshed  by  the  use  of  bone-black,  which  is  the  charcoal  of  the  bones  of  animals. 

The  hot  juice  of  the  beets  is  made  to  pass  through  a  long  column  of  pulverized  bone- 
black,  which  removes  the  coloring  matter  contained  in  it;  also,  purifies  it  from  other  sub- 
stances contained  in  it  which  are  injurious  to  the  sugar.     It  is  next  evaporated  to  a  thin 


SUGAR.  429 

syrup  in  vacuum  pans,  and  subjected  to  a  second  process  of  filtering  through  bone-black, 
when  it  is  again  evapoi'ated  to  the  crystallization  point  and  cooled.  The  sugar  is  nest  sepa- 
rated from  the  liquid  by  different  processes.  The  centrifugal  machine — the  same  as  that 
used  for  cane  sugar — is  the  best  for  this  purpose.  This  liquid  is  again  boiled,  and  a  second- 
class  quality  of  sugar  is  obtaiued  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on,  a  fourth,  and  even  fifth, 
grade  of  sugar  being  produced  in  successive  order. 

The  molasses  that  remains  is  so  charged  with  salts  and  other  impurities  that  it  cannot  be 
used  for  food.  It  is  distilled  for  making  alcohol,  that  which  remains  being  converted  into 
crude  potash.  The  pulp  furnishes  a  rich  and  sweet  food  for  stock.  It  is  good  for  milch 
cows,  cattle  and  pigs,  and  is  a  valuable  auxihary  for  fattening  animals. 

Maple  Sugar. — Large  quantities  of  sugar  are  made  in  this  country  from  the  sap  of 
the  maple  tree.  It  is  naturally  of  a  light-brown  color,  and  has  a  peculiar  moistiu-e  and  deli- 
cious aromatic  flavor  that  is  not  possessed  by  the  sugar  produced  from  any  other  source. 
When  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  refining  process,  it  loses  much  of  this  flavor,  and  resem- 
bles more  that  of  the  cane  product;  in  fact,  when  refined,  there  is  scarcely  any  difference 
between  the  sugar  of  the  maple,  tropical  cane,  sorgo,  or  beet. 

The  maple-sugar  industry  is  one  that  is  constantly  improving,  not  so  much  in  the  quan. 
tity,  as  the  quality  of  the  product.  It  will  probably  never  compete  with  cane  sugar  for  the 
general  purposes  to  which  the  sugar  product  is  applied,  but  for  special  use  it  is  the  most  deli- 
cious  of  all  the  manufactured  sweets. 

The  syrup,  when  properly  made,  is,  m  the  opinion  of  many,  much  to  be  preferred  to  the 
finest  quality  of  honey,  while  it  is  more  healthful  as  an  article  of  food,  and  does  not  cloy  the 
taste  as  honey  does.  There  is,  however,  as  much  difference  in  the  different  grades  of  maple 
sugar,  as  found  in  the  market,  as  in  those  of  butter,  owing  to  the  different  management  it 
receives  from  the  makers,  care  and  judicious  handUng  being  essential  to  the  production  of  a 
first-class  article.  Two  varieties  of  the  maple  tree  are  principally  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  sugar, — the  rock  or  sugar  maple,  and  the  black  maple. 

The  sugar  maple  grows  abundantly  in  the  Northern  States,  especially  in  Northern  New 
England,  and  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Canada. 

It  is  a  beautiful  tree,  and,  aside  from  its  value  in  sugar  production,  should  be  planted 
more  frequently  in  some  localities  than  it  is.  As  an  ornamental  shade  tree,  we  know  of  none 
to  be  preferred.  Its  dark-green  foHage  is  changed  into  gorgeous  tints  in  autumn,  presenting 
a  striking  contrast  with  that  of  other  forest  trees,  while  the  stateliness  and  uniformity  of  its 
growth  are  not  among  the  least  of  its  attractions. 

It  is  also  very  hardy  and  will  grow  in  a  diversity  of  soUs  and  climates.  In  the  more 
southerly  latitudes  it  will  not,  however,  yield  as  much  sugar  as  at  the  North,  a  sufficient 
degree  of  frost  being  required  for  this  purpose. 

As  the  business  of  sugar-making  comes  at  a  season  when  there  is  little  other  farm  work 
that  could  be  done,  farmers  having  maple  trees  on  their  lands  wUl  find  it  an  advantage  to 
appropriate  them  to  this  use,  as  the  sugar  thus  obtained  will  amply  repay  the  labor  of  manu- 
facturing it,  and  the  proportionately  small  quantity  of  sap  extracted  does  no  harm  to  the 
trees,  not  even  those  about  the  house  for  shade  and  ornamental  purposes. 

Obtaining  Sap. — The  season  for  making  maple  sugar  and  syrup  is  early  in  the  spring, 
or  as  soon  as  the  frost  begins  to  leave  the  ground,  the  bright  sunny  days  and  frosty  nights 
causing  a  free  and  rapid  circulation  of  the  sap.  This  may  be  from  the  latter  part  of  Febru- 
ary to  the  early  part  of  April,  according  to  the  latitude  and  season.  The  tapping  of  the  trees 
should  be  done  promptly  as  early  as  the  season  will  admit,  since  the  first  sap  is  the  richest  in 
saccharine  matter,  and  the  most  free  from  other  substances  that  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the 
sugar.    It  should  never  be  done,  however,  before  the  sap  runs  freely,  and  when  so  cold  that  it 


430  THE  A3IERICAN  FAR5IER. 

will  freeze  in  the  buckets  before  being  gathered.  Freezing  injures  the  quality  of  the  syrup 
or  sugar;  besides,  the  trees,  buckets,  spouts,  etc.,  are  also  liable  to  be  injured. 

The  largest  trees  are  the  best  for  sugar  production,  those  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  years 
old  giving  the  best  yield.  Trees  a  foot  in  diameter  may  be  made  to  yield  something,  but 
they  should  never  have  their  sap  extracted  before  attaining  that  size. 

The  usual  method  of  tapping  trees  is  to  bore  holes  a  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  tree,  fifteen  or  eighteen  iaches  from  the  ground  and  about 
five  or  sis  inches  apart.  These  holes  should  never  be  more  than  three  at  a  time,  and  fre- 
quently but  two  in  number,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree.  Care  should  be  used  not  to 
bore  too  far  into  the  alburnum,  or  white  bark,  and  never  through  it,  the  entire  depth  of  the 
hole  not  often  much  exceeding  an  inch.  The  boring  should  incline  downward  slightly,  in 
order  to  permit  the  sap  to  pass  off  readily.  "Wooden  spouts  are  sometimes  inserted  in  these 
holes  to  conduct  the  sap  into  buckets  placed  to  receive  it.  These  may  be  placed  upon  the 
ground  or  hung  upon  the  spouts.  These  spouts  are  usually  made  of  elder  or  sumach,  and 
are  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length.  Another  method  is  to  drive  gaJvanized-iron  or  tin  spouts 
into  the  bark  below  the  hole  to  collect  and  conduct  the  sap  to  the  buckets. 

"What  is  called  "boxing"  the  trees  is  practiced  in  some  localities,  which  consists  of  cut- 
ting a  narrow  channel  three  or  four  inches  in  length,  slanting  upward,  and  about  an  inch 
deep,  and  inserting  an  iron  spout  into  the  bark  below  to  collect  the  sap.  This  method  is, 
however,  not  to  be  recommended,  as  it  injures  the  tree.  "Whatever  the  method  of  extracting 
the  sap,  care  should  be  used  not  to  make  the  incision  too  deep,  or  the  opening  large.  Taking 
out  large  pieces  of  the  bark  and  wood  with  an  axe  is,  as  has  been  justly  termed,  a  barbarous 
and  slovenly  practice,  and  will  soon  result  in  killing  the  trees.  Mr.  "W.  J.  Chamberlain 
recommends  the  galvanized-iron  spout  for  obtaining  sap.  His  suggestions  on  maple-sugar- 
making  are  highly  valuable,  which  we  quote,  as  follows: 

"By  repeated  and  continued  trial  of  the  galvanized-iron  spout,  side  by  side  -with  various 
wooden  and  tin  spouts,  I  am  fully  convinced  that  it  sours  the  sap  least  of  any,  and  gives  the 
largest  yield.  The  first  merit  is  more  important  than  the  other,  for  sour  sap  will  never 
make  good  syrup.  The  buckets  shoiild  always  be  tin,  soldered  inside  and  out  at  every  seam. 
They  will  not  rust  inside  in  many  years,  and  should  never  be  painted  there,  as  that  makes 
them  more  rough  and  more  liable  to  sour.  Painting  the  outside,  however,  will  help  preserve 
the  bucket.  For  our  Ohio  cUmate  (and  I  am  inchned  to  think  it  true  as  a  rule  everywhere), 
the  buckets  should  invariably  be  covered  tight.  A  hole  just  below  the  wire  rim  slips  over 
the  notch  of  the  spout,  and  a  board  a  foot  square  is  laid  on  top,  and  excludes  rain,  snow,  dirt, 
and  insects,  and  prevents  the  sap  freezing  except  in  extreme  cold,  or  souring  by  the  sun's 
heat,  except  in  very  warm  weather.  I  know  of  no  one  thing  more  essential  to  the  production 
of  the  best  grade  of  syrup  than  covers.  They  should  be  planed  and  painted,  and  it  is  a 
great  help  in  gathering  to  have  one  side  painted,  say,  red  and  the  other  white.  All  are 
placed  red  side  up,  for  instance,  in  tapping,  and  then  all  are  reversed  at  each  gathering.  If 
a  tree  is  missed,  the  color  of  the  cover  shows  it  at  a  long  distance.  So  none  need  be  missed, 
and  two  trips  need  never  be  taken  to  the  same  tree  in  doubt  whether  its  sap  has  been  gath- 
ered. 

The  gathering  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  tapping  is  done.  The  former  should  be  fin- 
ished by  noon  if  possible.  Otherwise  one  force  of  hands  should  continue  this,  and  another 
force  should  begin  soon  enough  to  overtake  before  dark  the  force  that  is  tapping.  Sap 
should  never  stand  over  night  in  the  buckets,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  but  should  be  gathered  as 
late  as  possible  before  dark,  and  boiled  as  soon  and  as  rapidly  as  possible.  It  begins  to 
deteriorate  almost  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  tree,  especially  if  it  is  very  warm,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  it  freezes  and  thaws. 

The  following  gathering-cask  seems  best  adapted  of  anything  for  the  work  to  be  done.     It 


SUGAR. 


431 


is  simply  a  cask  five  feet  long  and  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  fastened  firmly  to  a  "boat 
sled,"  large  end  behind,  the  front  end  a  little  the  highest,  so  that  when  the  sled  stands  level 
the  sap  will  all  flow  from  a  faucet  in  the  rear,  through  a  tin  conductor  with  funnel-shaped 
"head,"  down  the  slope  into  the  store-trough  below. 

The  sap  need  never  be  Ufted  but  once,  or  dipped  or  rolled  up  skids  in  barrels  at  all.  It 
is  poured  down  into  the  gathering-pail  from  the  bucket,  which  hangs  at  the  tree  and  is  not 
removed  from  the  spout  in  emptying.  It  must  be  lifted  a  little  and  poured  into  the  tunnel 
of  the  gathering  cask,  and  that  is  all.  After  that,  by  taking  advantage  of  a  slope,  it  will 
run  into  store-trough  and  thence  into  boiler  without  further  labor. 

Location  of  Sugar-House. — The  sugar  maple  seldom  grows  spontaneously,  except 
on  ground  that  is  somewhat  rolling,  and  in  almost  every  sugar-camp,  can  be  found  side-hill 
advantages  in  a  sufBciently  central  location.  If  the  slope  is  not  as  steep  as  that  represented 
in  the  cut,  a  longer  conducting  tube  must  of  course  be  used,  so  that  the  gathering  cask  can 
stand  far  enough  o£E  up  the  slope  to  bring  it  to  the  required  level.  In  hilly  New  England, 
there  is  usually  no  trouble  on  this  point,  but  even  there  I  have  seen  sugar-houses  on  level 
ground  near  a  fine  slope,  of  which  they  took  no  advantage.  And  in  Ohio,  until  within  a  few 
years  ago,  such  was  the  common  custom.     The  store-trough  stood  on  a  level  with  the  "arch," 


/ 


MAPLE-SDOAR-MAKINO VIEW   OF   SUGAK-HOUSE. 


the  barrels  were  laboriously  rolled  up  two  skids  and  emptied  into  the  trough,  and  then  the 
sap  was  lifted,  pailful  after  pailful,  and  poured  into  the  kettles  or  pans.  Men  are  strangely 
slow  in  learning  to  take  advantage  of  gravitation  and  the  other  forces  of  nature,  even  when 
she  seems  daUy  to  thrust  them  before  our  very  eyes." 

The  accompanying  illustration  represents  the  method  of  collecting  the  sap  and  conducting 
it  to  the  sugar-house,  as  previously  described. 

Respecting  the  circumstances  which  affect  the  flow  of  sap  from  the  sugar  maple, — care- 
ful experiment  and  observation,  by  daily  weighing  the  sap  from  several  trees,  and  a  compari- 
son with  the  meteorological  observations  of  the  same  period,  have  furnished  sufKcient  proof 
to  establish  the  fact  that  while  the  general  flow  corresponds  with  the  season,  yet  the  daily  and 
hourly  flow  will  vary  with  the  weather;  that  the  most  favorable  weather  is  that  which  is 
either  steadily  or  severely  cold,  or  uniformly  warm  and  foggy;  while  the  best  weather  for 
procuring  sap  are  those  days  that  are  warm  and  bright  at  noon,  but  are  preceded  by  freezing 
nights.  The  variations  of  temperature  most  likely  to  affect  the  flow  of  maple  sap  are  sup- 
posed to  occur  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  since  the  heat  of  the  sun  during  the 
day  cannot  then  moderate  the  cool  temperature  of  the  night.  The  explanation  of  the  effect 
of  these  alternations  seems  to  be  that  the  outer  tissues  of  the  tree  are  partially  emptied  of  the 
sap  contained  within  them  by  the  contracting  influence  of  the  cold,  it  being  forced  by  this 


432  THE   AilERICAN  FARMER. 

means  into  the  heart  of  the  trunk  and  large  roots.  During  this  time  absorption  continues 
to  go  on  under  ground  the  same  as  before,  and  thus,  when  the  outer  layers  of  the  wood  are 
separated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  sap  rushes  back  into  the  cells  and  tissues,  and  flows  in 
abundance.  The  observations  of  Biot  in  France  on  the  poplars,  and  Nevins,  in  Ireland,  on 
the  emi,  would  seem  to  prove  the  above  theory  correct. 

Maple-Sugar-Making. — In  making  sugar  one  of  the  first  essentials  is,  in  keeping  the 
sap  and  everj-thing  used  in  connection  with  it  perfectly  clean.  Exposure  to  the  air  wiU  readily 
deteriorate  the  quahty  of  the  sap,  hence  it  must  be  evaporated  as  soon  as  possible  after  leav- 
ing the  tree.  This  is  necessary  to  secure  the  best  quality  of  sugar  and  syrup,  even  when 
everything  is  kept  perfectly  clean;  but  where  there  is  neghgence  and  carelessness  in  keeping 
the  vessels  and  tanks  clean,  the  sap  will  of  course  sour  much  sooner,  and  an  inferior  grade  of 
the  product  be  the  result. 

Jlr.  Chamberlain,  the  above  authority  quoted,  recommends  scalding  all  the  buckets  used  in 
collecting  sap  once  a  week,  while  the  casks  for  storing,  evaporators,  etc.,  require  it  much 
oftener.     He  says:  — 

"  Perfect  cleanUness  and  sweetness  of  vessels  and  sap,  is  another  essential.  The  Ver- 
mont climate  is  better,  but  in  Ohio,  as  a  rule,  I  find  I  must  scald  all  buckets  about  once  a 
week,  and  store-troughs,  evaporators,  etc.,  much  oftener.  It  costs  a  good  deal,  but  pays  in 
the  product.  "With  a  cask  of  hot  water  and  a  team,  two  men  wUl  scald  well  1200  buckets 
at  the  trees  in  a  day,  and  there  is  almost  always  a  rest  between  '  runs '  as  long  as  that  each 
week.  Our  climate,  too,  requires  that  the  sap  be  stored  out  doors.  The  trough  runs  into 
the  house  just  far  enough  to  feed  the  sap  into  the  heaters,  but  not  to  sour  that  in  the  store- 
trough  by  the  heat  of  the  fire.  The  store-trough,  or  troughs,  should  have  close-fitting  covers, 
to  protect  from  rain,  sun,  and  freezing  by  night.  In  Vermont  the  cold  is  so  great  at  night 
that  it  is  common  to  store  the  sap  in  the  sugar-house." 

"Where  the  maple  sugar  is  made  in  large  quantities,  the  evaporators  used  in  making 
sorghum  and  other  cane-sugar  may  be  used  to  best  advantage.  These  are  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  a  rapid  evaporation,  secured  by  a  shallow  depth  of  sap  mo\-ing  slowly  over  hot 
and  cool  spaces  alternating  with  each  other,  the  cool  spaces  being  secured  by  the  projection 
of  the  pan  beyond  the  fire  on  each  side.  The  best  work  with  these  evaporatore  will  be 
secured  by  keeping  the  sap  as  shallow  in  the  pans  as  wdll  be  safe  to  prevent  burning.  The 
pans  of  course  must  be  shallow,  with  a  large  heating  surface.  This  will  require  constant 
watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  person  having  charge.  Where  small  quantities  of  sugar  are 
made,  kettles  are  used  for  boihng,  but  the  evaporators  require  less  labor,  and  are  much  more 
easily  managed. 

The  sap  should  be  kept  boiling  over  a  steady  fire,  and  replenished  with  a  fresh  supply  as 
it  is  evaporated.  As  soon  as  it  reaches  the  boihng  point,  scum  and  other  impurities  will  rise 
to  the  surface,  and  must  be  removed  at  once;  all  that  arises  during  the  boiling  process  must 
also  be  carefully  removed.  If  a  large  quantity  of  the  fresh  sap  is  added  at  ii-regular  inter- 
vals, the  boUiag  is  checked  for  a  time,  and  irregularity  is  the  result.  "Where  evaporators 
having  every  arrangement  for  recei\ing  a  constant  and  steady  supply  of  sap  are  not  used, 
some  arrangement  should  be  made  to  have  a  reservoir  of  sap  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
can  supply  the  boihng-pan  or  kettle  with  a  small,  steady  flow  of  sap  from  a  faucet.  A  little 
observation  and  experiment  will  enable  the  operator  to  regulate  the  supply  in  accordance 
with  the  degree  of  evaporation.  After  boiling  from  eight  to  twelve  hours,  keeping  the 
quantity  in  the  evaporator  or  kettle  about  the  same,  by  a  regular  supply  of  fresh  sap,  the 
contents  will  be  reduced  to  about  the  consistency  of  honey  or  thin  svrup.  It  should  then  be 
strained  while  hot  into  a  clean  tube  or  other  vessel,  in  order  to  remove  as  much  of  the  sedi- 
ment as  possible.  A  piece  of  clean  white  flannel  is  better  for  this  purpose  than  cotton  or 
linen.     It  should  then  stand  long  enough   to  become  well  settled.     When  the  sediment 


suga'r.  433 

remaining  is  well  settled,  the  syrup  should  be  boiled  again  —  after  first  separating  it  from 
the  sediment  at  the  bottom  —  until  it  is  suflBciently  evaporated  for  granulating.  During  this 
process  great  care  is  necessary  to  secure  a  steady  and  constant  boiling,  and  at  the  same  time 
prevent  the  boihng-over.  The  sugar  is  sometimes  clarified  by  the  use  of  milk  or  the  whites 
of  eggs,  or  both  combined,  it  being  mixed  with  the  syrup  after  it  has  been  strained,  and  when 
it  is  just  hot  enough  to  endure  the  hand  for  a  moment,  or  before  it  is  scalding  hot,  before 
boiling.  As  soon  as  it  reaches  the  boiling  point,  a  scum  rises  to  the  surface,  which  must  be 
immediately  skimmed  off,  and  never  allowed  to  boil  into  the  syrup  and  thus  mix  with  it. 
For  this  purpose,  to  a  hundred  pounds  of  sugar,  five  or  six  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth  and  added 
to  a  quart  of  new  milk,  and  the  whole  mixed  with  the  syrup,  is  the  usual  proportion.  Some 
sugar-makers  object  to  the  use  of  clarifiers,  as  useless.  If  everything  is  kept  perfectly 
clean  in  the  whole  process  of  sugar-making,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  clarify  it  in  any  way. 
Everything  having  a  tendency  to  stain  or  discolor  the  syrup  should  be  avoided.  Busty  iron 
should  on  no  account  ever  be  permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  it.  Even  an  iron  spoon, 
used  in  stirring  off  the  sugar,  will  often  give  it  a  dark  color. 

To  determine  when  the  syrup  has  become  reduced  to  the  granulating  point,  it  may  be 
tested  by  putting  a  small  quantity  on  snow.  If  it  cools  to  a  waxy  consistency,  it  is  not 
sufficiently  boiled  to  produce  sugar  hard  enough  for  cakes,  but  it  may  do  for  tubs.  For 
making  hard  sugar,  the  syrup  must  be  evaporated  until,  when  tested  in  this  manner,  it  will 
be  brittle  when  cold.  Another  test  is  to  stir  a  small  quantity  of  the  syrup  in  a  dish,  and  if 
it  granulates  with  a  moderate  amount  of  stirring,  it  will  make  soft  sugar,  suitable  for  putting 
in  tubs;  but  if,  v/jfiev]  applpng  a  drop  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  pressing,  a  granu- 
lated thread  is  formed,  it  will  be  hard  and  may  be  put  into  cakes.  Rapid  stirring  a  few 
moments  before  turning  into  the  molds  will  make  the  sugar  finer  grained. 

If  the  molds  are  first  dampened  with  water  before  putting  in  the  sugar,  the  cakes  can 
be  taken  out  more  easily.  Sugar  may  be  made  in  a  small  way,  where  only  a  few  trees  are 
had  for  the  purpose,  by  boiling  the  sap  over  the  kitchen  range  in  vessels  of  tin,  or  porcelain- 
lined  iron  kettles;  but  a  sugar-house  is  a  necessity  where  sap  is  obtained  in  considerable 
quantities. 

Maple  sugar  retains  its  peculiar  flavor  best  when  kept  from  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
flavor  of  the  syrup  is  best  retained  by  canning  or  putting  in  jugs  while  hot,  and  sealing,  the 
same  as  canning  fruit.  The  cans  or  jugs  should  always  be  put  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  never 
in  a  damp  part  of  the  cellar,  or  on  the  damp  cellar-bottom,  as  this  will  cause  it  to  mold. 
Before  canning  the  syrup,  the  vessels  in  which  it  is  placed  should  be  made  perfectly  clean 
and  sweet.  If  kept  in  too  warm  a  temperature,  or  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time,  maple 
syrup  will  readily  ferment,  unless  boiled  down  very  thick.  The  sap  will  continue  to  run  as 
long  as  the  nights  are  frosty,  the  sugar  season  lasting  only  a  few  weeks;  but  that  obtained 
towards  the  last  will  not  be  of  as  good  quality  as  that  which  is  first  produced. 

Yield  of  Maple  Trees.  —  The  amount  of  sugar  which  can  be  produced  from  maple 
trees  varies,  some  sap  being  richer  in  saccharine  matter  than  others,  while  the  amount  of  sap 
produced  from  trees  of  apparently  the  same  size  will  vary  somewhat.  The  amount  of  sap 
produced  from  the  same  trees  also  varies  according  to  the  season.  The  average  amount  of 
sugar  contained  in  the  sap  is  estimated  to  be  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  per  cent.,  although 
some  trees  will  produce  more  and  others  less  than  this  estimate.  A  recent  report  from 
several  large  sugar  orchards  in  Vermont  gives  the  average  amount  of  sugar  per  tree  at  two 
and  nine-thirteenths  pounds,  the  best  average  being  three  and  two-thirds  pounds;  the  lowest, 
one  and  three-fifths  pounds.  Eleven  hundred  and  fifty  trees  in  Canterbury,  Vermont,  yielded 
in  one  season  618  barrels  of  sap,  or  19,776  gallons,  from  which  4,000  pounds  of  sugar  were 
obtained.  This  is  about  one  pound  of  sugar  to  five  gallons  of  sap,  or  three  and  a  half  ounces 
of  sugar  per  gallon,  which  is  equivalent  to  three  and  a  half  pounds  per  tree.     There  are 


434  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER, 

instances  of  extraordinary  yield  that  might  be  cited;  for  example,  it  is  stated  upon  good 
authority,  that  a  tree  in  Leverett,  Massachusetts,  produced  in  one  season  the  almost  incredible 
amount  of  1,400  pounds  of  sap,  which  probably  contained  fully  forty  pounds  of  sugar.  A 
sugar  orchard  in  Eaton  county,  Michigan,  is  said  to  have  yielded  950  poimds  of  sugar,  or  on 
the  average  of  nine  and  a  half  pounds  per  tree.  Another  orchard  in  Vermont  is  said  to 
have  yielded  "at  the  rate  of  six  pounds  per  tree  in  one  season.  But  these  are  the  rare  excep- 
tions; as  a  general  rule,  the  average  yield  will  be  found  to  be  about  two  and  a  half  or  three 
pounds  per  tree,  diu'ing  the  season. 


TOBACCO. 

TOBACCO  has  become  one  of  the  leading  products  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, while  it  is  cultivated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  nearly  all  sections.  And 
not  only  this,  but  there  is  a  continued  increase  in  its  production,  as  shown  by  the 
Census  Report  of  1S80,  which  was  eighty  per  cent,  in  excess  of  that  of  1870.  The  above- 
mentioned  report  contains  the  following  summary  respecting  this  praduct  in  the  different 
States: — 

"Fifteen  States  produce,  now  as  in  1870,  more  than  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  the  tobacco 
of  the  United  States,  though  it  is  reported  in  twenty-two  other  States  and  six  Territories. 
Of  these  fifteen,  only  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Massachusetts  produced  ess  than  in  1870. 
Kentucky  occupies  the  first  position,  producing  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the  total  product  of  the 
country.  Virginia  holds  the  second  place;  Pennsylvania  has  advanced  from  the  twelfth  to 
the  third;  Wisconsin  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  tenth;  and  North  Carolina,  Conpecticut,  and 
New  York  have  each  gained  one  point  in  the  rank  of  tobacco  States.  Those  that  have 
retrograded  in  relative  production  are  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  West  Virginia,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Tennessee." 

We  do  not  propose,  in  this  connection,  to  treat  much  of  the  evil  effects  of  the  use  of 
tobacco  upon  the  mind  or  physical  system,  or  the  principle  involved  in  its  culture,  but  rather 
to  give  the  best  methods  in  its  cultivation,  as  practiced  by  the  most  successful  agriculturists 
at  the  present  time. 

Tobacco  is  a  native  of  America,  and  was  introduced  to  the  civilized  world  soon  after  the 
discovery  of  this  continent.  Columbus  found  it  cultivated  by  the  Indians  in  1492,  they 
using  it  as  a  means  of  producing  intoxication  by  smoking  it  in  clay  pipes.  Its  culture 
was  undertaken  by  the  settlers  of  Virginia  from  the  very  settlement  of  the  colony,  where  it 
soon  became  not  only  an  important  staple,  but  the  principal  currency  of  the  colony.  It  is 
recorded  that  in  the  year  1615  the  gardens,  fields,  and  even  streets  of  Jamestown  were 
planted  with  tobacco.  During  the  first  century  of  communication  between  the  New  World 
and  the  Old,  there  seems  to  have  been  but  little  demand  for  this  product  by  the  latter,  but 
after  this  period  we  find  it  entering  quite  extensively  into  the  trade  of  the  colonies  with  the 
mother  country,  which  proves  that  its  consumption  was  becoming  more  general. 

History  states  that  James  I  of  England  wrote  a  ''Counterblast  to  Tobacco,"  which  was 
intended  to  do  away  with  this  evil  altogether,  and  that  Pope  Urban  VIII  issued  an  edict, 
excommunicating  those  who  should  use  tobacco  in  churches,  while  Amurath  IV  of  Turkey, 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Muscovy,  and  the  Emperor  of  Persia,  all  prohibited  the  use  of  tobacco 
in  their  several  dominions  during  the  seventeenth  century.  Although  thus  violently  opposed 
and  denounced  as  useless  and  injurious,  its  use  continued  to  make  rapid  progress,  until  at  the 
present  time  it  is  known  to  almost  the  whole  world. 


TOBACCO.  .  435 

The  price  it  commanded  was  a  great  inducement  to  tlie  early  settlers  in  favor  of  its 
cultivation,  the  market  value  in  161 7  being  from  thirty-seven  to  seventy-five  cents  per  pound, 
according  to  quality.  The  amount  of  tobacco  produced  by  the  colonists  in  1622  was  60,000 
pounds,  which  was  more  than  doubled  during  the  next  twenty  years.  The  total  product  in 
the  United  States  in  1880  was  nearly  500,000,000  pounds,  being  the  yield  of  638,841  acres. 

The  evil  effects  of  its  use  are  attributed  mainly  to  nicotine,  a  deadly  poison  which  it 
contains,  and  which,  when  taken  in  sufficient  quantities,  will  produce  convulsions,  followed  by 
paralysis  and  death,  as  has  been  proved  by  numerous  experiments  on  animals,  it  being  one  of 
the  most  powerful  nerve-poisons  known.  The  word  "nicotine,"  as  applied  to  this  plant,  is 
said  by  Torrey  to  have  been  derived  from  John  Nicot,  embassador  from  France  to  Portugal 
in  1560,  who  introduced  this  weed  into  Europe.  The  word  "tobacco"  is  supposed  to  have 
been  derived  from  a  place  in  Yucatan  called  by  that  name.  The  quantity  of  nicotine  con- 
tained in  tobacco  varies  greatly  with  different  varieties  and  modes  of  culture,  according  to 
the  best  authority,  as  has  been  found  by  careful  analysis  of  the  plant;  that  produced  on 
heavily-manured  lands,  as  a  general  rule,  containing  a  larger  per  cent,  than  that  cultivated 
with  a  less  quantity.  The  highest  per  cent,  of  nicotine  found  in  about  forty  different  speci- 
mens of  the  cured  product,  representing  different  varieties,  different  types  of  the  same 
variety,  with  different  methods  of  cultivation  and  curing,  was  5.81;  lowest,  0.63;  only  two 
specimens  of  the  whole  number  being  found  below  one  per  cent.,  and  more  than  one-third 
above  four  per  cent.  By  the  analyses  of  Posselt  and  Eiemann,  10,000  parts  of  fresh  leaves 
contained  six  of  nicotine,  one  of  nicotianine,  287  of  bitter  extractive,  174  of  gum,  26.7  of 
green  resin,  26  of  albumen,  104.8  of  a  substance  analogous  to  gluten,  51  of  malic  acid,  12  of 
malate  of  ammonia,  20.6  of  potash  salts,  40.6  of  lime  salts,  8.8  of  silica,  496.9  of  lignine, 
and  88.28  parts  of  water.  The  odorous  or  volatile  principle  of  tobacco  is  supposed  to  be  due 
to  the  nicotainine  it  contains.  The  ash  element  is  exceedingly  large,  as  will  be  seen  by 
burning  the  leaves.  One  hundred  parts  of  the  ash  of  tobacco,  according  to  the  analyses  of 
Fresenius  and  "Will,  contains  30.67  of  potash,  33.36  of  lime  (together  with  a  little  magnesia), 
5.95  common  salt,  6.03  phosphates,  18.39  silica,  and  5.60  g3^sum.  The  superior  kinds  con- 
tain the  largest  amount  of  potash,  that  of  inferior  quality  the  largest  amount  of  lime. 

Much  labor  is  involved  in  the  culture  of  tobacco,  and  it  is  also  liable  to  many  injimes, 
either  from  insect  enemies,  severe  storms,  or  early  frosts.  A  fine  field  of  tobacco  is  often 
utterly  ruined  when  nearly  ready  to  cut,  by  a  hail-storm  of  only  a  few  moments'  duration, 
while  a  strong  wind  will  frequently  do  great  damage  by  breaking  off  the  leaves  and  blowing 
over  the  plants.  An  untimely  frost,  just  at  the  period  of  harvesting,  has  been  known  to  not 
only  nip  the  leaves  of  the  entire  crop,  but  with  them  the  "  bud  of  hope  "  in  many  a  farmer's 
heart,  respecting  a  field  which  perhaps  during  the  entire  season  had  been  his  pride,  and  upon 
which  he  had  bestowed  much  careful  labor.  It  is  a  very  exhausting  crop,  and  requires  fre- 
quent and  large  applications  of  manure  in  order  to  cultivate  it  without  impoverishing  the  soil. 
Some  of  the  most  fertile  lands  of  the  country  have  been  in  this  manner  injured  by  its  growth ; 
some  of  the  exhausted  lands  of  Virginia,  and  many  of  the  New  England  tobacco  farms,  for 
instance,  being  examples. 

Farmers  are  too  apt  to  rob  other  farm  crops  of  the  manure  which  should  be  appropriated 
to  them,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  their  tobacco-fields,  while,  if  sufficient  manure  is  pur- 
chased to  supply  all  the  crops,  considerable  expense  would  be  involved  which  might  not  be 
warranted  by  the  profits  of  the  farm.  Sometimes  the  market  is  overstocked  with  tobacco, 
and  the  farmer  cannot  find  a  ready  sale  at  a  fair  price,  and  is  obliged  to  keep  it  over 
another  year  or  two  before  disposing  of  it — the  capital  invested  in  it  thus  lying  idle  and 
bringing  no  return.  In  many  sections,  however,  notwithstanding  the  risk  of  its  culture,  it 
has  thus  far,  in  the  main,  averaged  one  of  the  best-paying  crops  produced,  when  regarded 
simply  from  a  business  point  of  view,  and  the  exhaustion  of  soil  either  prevented  by  liberal 
manuring,  or  not  being  taken  into  the  account. 


436  THE  zVMERICAN  FARllER 

Varieties. — There  are  numerous  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  tobacco,  the  latter  of 
which  have  been  produced  principally  by  the  differences  in  soU,  climate,  and  cultivation.  The 
varieties  most  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are  the  Connecticut  seed-leaf,  Havana,  and 
Vu'ginia.  The  Connecticut  seed-leaf  is  considered  best  adapted  to  the  Northern  section,  that 
with  its  varieties  being  grown  most  extensively  there,  although  the  Havana  and  other 
varieties  are  cultivated  to  a  certain  extent.  It  is  also  well  suited  to  the  Middle  States.  It  is 
usually  known  in  the  different  Northern  States  imder  some  local  name,  which  has  given  rise 
to  so  many  types  of  the  seed-leaf  varieties.  The  kinds  most  generally  preferred  in  the 
Southern  States  are  the  Havana  and  Virginia,  although  a  number  of  other  varieties  are  also 
grown.  The  White  Burley  is  a  variety  that  is  quite  popular  in  the  Ohio  river  counties,  and 
some  other  sections. 

In  all  the  various  types  of  the  seed-leaf  varieties,  the  form  of  the  leaf  has  much  to  do 
respecting  its  value  as  a  cigar-wrapper,  these  varieties  and  the  Havana  being  used  mainly  for 
this  purpose.  The  leaf  that  is  designed  for  fine-cut,  chewing  tobacco,  or  fillers,  may  be  either 
broad  or  narrow,  long  or  short,  the  form  of  the  leaf  making  no  difference  with  regard  to  its 
use.  Formerly  the  broadest  leaves  were  preferred  by  most  buyers  for  cigar-wrappers,  but 
recently  the  long  narrow  leaf  is  preferred  by  many,  the  preference  being  about  equally 
divided  between  the  two.  The  latter  is  thought  to  cut  more  wrappers  to  the  leaf  and  case, 
and  yields  more  leaves  per  plant  than  the  broad,  while  the  former  usually  gives  a  somewhat 
heavier  product  per  acre.  The  texture  of  the  two  varieties  is  about  the  same.  The  broad, 
spreading  leaves  are  very  brittle,  and  are  apt  to  break  easily  in  working  among  them.  Whether 
the  broad  or  narrow  leaf  be  cultivated,  there  \Till  be  quite  a  distinction  between  the  same 
variety  grown  in  different  localities;  the  natm-e  of  the  soil,  method  of  culture,  etc.,  making  a 
great  difference  in  the  quality  and  texture  of  the  leaf.  Some  years  ago  a  number  of  farmers 
in  the  Connecticut  valley  obtained  seed  from  Ohio,  known  as  the  ''Ohio  broad-leaf,"  and 
tested  it  in  various  localities  in  that  section.  The  result  was  a  broad-leaved  type  much 
superior  in  texture  and  quality  than  the  original  plant,  and  wliich  was  known  in  many  sections 
as  the  Connecticut  broad-leaf.  The  variety  known  as  the  White  Burley  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated in  the  following  manner: — 

A  farmer  by  the  name  of  Marshall  Slack,  living  in  Higginsport,  Ohio,  was  engaged  in 
the  culture  of  what  is  known  as  the  Red  Burley  tobacco,  and  noticed  one  day  in  his  seed-bed 
three  or  four  plants  differing  from  the  others.  The  leaves  were  much  lighter  colored,  in 
fact  almost  white.  Thinking  that  they  looked  sickly,  and  that  some  insect  was  working  at 
the  roots,  thus  producing  the  peculiar  appearance,  he  pulled  one  of  the  plants  up  and  exam- 
ined it  carefully.  Finding  nothing  the  matter,  but  rather  that  it  seemed  perfectly  healthy, 
he  permitted  the  others  to  grow,  and  in  due  time  set  them  out,  giving  them  the  same  culture 
as  the  rest  of  the  crop.  TheSe  plants  throughout  all  the  stages  of  their  growth  and  cultivation 
maintained  their  peculiar  color  of  stalk  and  leaf,  and  through  curiosity  one  of  the  plants  was 
allowed  to  ripen  its  seed.  This  seed  was  planted  the  following  year,  and  all  the  plants  came 
up  white.  Its  cultivation  extended  r.ntil  it  became  quite  popular,  and  thus  a  different  type 
was  originated.     It  is  a  vigorous  grov.er,  and  seems  admirably  adapted  to  limestone  sections. 

By  such  accidental  means,  hybridizing,  better  culture,  together  with  a  perfect  adaptation 
of  soil,  new  varieties  may  be  produced  and  the  old  kinds  improved,  forming  new  types,  the 
same  as  with  all  other  plants.  There  is  no  crop  that  has  a  wider  diversity  of  quality  than 
tobacco,  and  none  that  will  respond  more  quickly  to  extra  skill,  labor,  and  management  in  its 
cultivation. 

Soil. — Tobacco  is  an  exhausting  crop,  and  requires  a  rich,  warm  soil.  In  fact,  we  know 
of  no  plant  that  is  so  largely  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  soil  as  tobacco.  A  deep, 
mellow  soil  will  always  secure  the  best  results;  one  that  is  naturally  rich  or  made  so  by  the 
application  of  the  proper  kind  of  fertilizers.     A  light,  loamy  sand  is  one  of  the  very  best 


TOBACCO.  437 

adapted  to  it;  alluvial  lands  that  are  well  drained  and  fertile  are  also  good.  It  will  not  thrive  on 
soils  containing  a  surplus  of  water,  however  rich  or  whatever  their  character,  and  such  lands 
should  never  be  devoted  to  this  crop  until  they  have  been  thoroughly  under-drained.  Soils 
containing  a  large  amount  of  potash  and  lime,  either  naturally  or  by  application,  are  the  best 
suited  to  it.  It  will  not  thrive  upon  such  lands  as  are  denominated  by  farmers  generally  as 
"sour,"  unless  the  quality  be  first  remedied  by  the  application  of  salt  or  lime,  and  previous 
cultivation.  On  such  lands  it  will  generally  attain  about  one-fourth  of  its  growth,  and  then 
seem  to  remain  stationary  for  a  time,  the  leaves  assuming  meanwhile  a  yellowish  tinge.  The 
crop  in  such  cases  will  prove  almost  worthless — what  there  is  of  it — the  stalks  being  hard  and 
the  quality  of  the  leaf  very  poor. 

On  certain  clays  that  are  heavy  and  strong,  it  will  be  difficult  at  first  to  get  the  plants  to 
live  when  transplanted  from  the  seed-bed;  but  after  getting  well  started,  or  in  common 
farmer-phrase  getting  a  "stand,"  such  soils  will  often  produce  the  very  best  crops,  the  growth 
being  strong,  heavy,  and  of  fine  quality.    A  Virginia  farmer  of  many  years'  experience  says: 

"  On  very  stiff,  strong,  red-clay  land,  the  trouble  is  to  get  the  plants  to  live.  After  being 
well  set  and  started,  however,  such  soils  will  make  the  strongest  and  heaviest  sort,  rich  and 
weighty ;  but  I  have  planted  and  re-planted  such  soils  seven  or  eight  times,  and  then  only 
obtained  a  poor  stand  of  irregular  growth,  and  a  large  proportion  of  green  tobacco  was  the 
result.  Let  your  soil  be  of  a  loamy  nature,  with  clay  foundation,  rich,  and  in  'good  heart,'  if 
old  land.  A  good  natural  body  is  absolutely  necessary  for  heavy,  dark  tobacco.  Neither 
chemical  manures,  or  even  any  other  kind,  will  make  the  genuine,  first-class  article,  unless  the 
land  already  possesses  'body.'  Guano  alone  will  give  it  size  and  push  its  growth;  but  when 
tliat  is  Sfiid,  all  is  said. 

If  the  land  is  fresh,  just  cleared,  or  is  being  cleared  for  tobacco,  white  oak,  hickory, 
beech,  and  walnut  growth  are  sure  indications  of  soil  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  tobacco, 
in  regions  adapted  to  its  cultivation." 

It  is  not  well  to  cultivate  tobacco  on  sod  land,  but  it  should  rather  follow  a  crop  that  has 
been  heavily  manured,  and  kept  free  from  weeds.  The  Connecticut  River  valley  product,  so 
noted  for  its  fine  quaKty,  especially  of  cigar  tobaccos,  is  grown  on  a  rich,  deep,  clayey  loam, 
with  a  sufficient  amount  of  sand  to  make  it  permanently  arable.  This  is  overlying,  for  the 
most  part,  the  new  red  sandstone.  And  we  might  add,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  section  of 
the  Middle  States  which  yields  regularly,  year  after  year,  such  abundant  crops  of  various 
kinds  of  farm  products  as  this  locality. 

Preparation  of  Plant-Beds.  —  An  abundance  of  strong,  healthy  plants  is  one  of  the 
essentials  for  a  good  crop  of  tobacco,  and  in  order  that  such  plants  may  be  obtained,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  seed-bed  be  properly  prepared,  and  suitable  attention  given  it  until  the 
young  plants  have  attained  a  sufficient  growth  for  transplanting.  In  the  cultivation  of 
tobacco,  he  who  fails  to  secure  an  early  and  abundant  supply  of  strong,  healthy  plants  will 
find  it  very  difficult  to  repair  the  loss  at  a  later  period,  if  it  be  not  utterly  impossible.  On 
the  contrary,  the  farmer  who,  at  the  proper  time  for  setting  out  the  plants,  finds  himself  sup- 
plied with  an  abundance  of  them,  of  suitable  size  and  vigor,  may  consider  one  important  step 
taken  towards  a  successful  crop.  Many  are  accustomed  to  take  their  risk,  and  depend  upon 
their  neighbors  in  this  respect,  but  this  is  very  poor  policy,  unless  the  order  for  the  supply 
be  previously  arranged,  since  no  one  would  be  willing  to  limit  the  amount  required  for  his 
own  crop,  and  would  take  for  such  use  the  largest  and  strongest  plants,  leaving  the  smaller 
and  weaker  ones  of  the  bed,  while  the  best  opportunities  for  setting  are  also  often  lost  by 
the  delay  in  obtaining  them.  The  soil  of  the  bed  for  sowing  must  be  very  rich,  and  pul- 
verized extremely  fine;  the  finer,  the  better. 

It  is  a  good  practice,  and  one  followed  by  some  of  the  most  successful  cultivators  of 
tobacco,  to  burn  a  pile  of  brush  and  leaves  on  the  bed  before  sowing.     This  will  have  a 


438  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

tendency  to  kill  the  seed  of  weeds  in  the  soil,  wliOe  the  ashes  will  prove  beneficial  as  a  fertil- 
izer, potash  being  one  of  the  best  known  for  this  crop.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  soil 
should  not  become  charred  by  the  burning. 

The  locality  of  the  bed  should  be  in  some  warm,  sheltered  spot,  protected  from  cold 
winds,  with  a  southeasterly  exposure,  in  order  to  secure  the  warmth  of  the  sun.  ITie  land 
should  be  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  It  is  well  to  partially  prepare  the  bed  in  the  fall, 
reducing  the  surface  to  a  fine  tilth,  and  applying  lime,  ashes,  and  well-fermented  barn-yard 
manure  very  finely  pulverized.  In  the  spring,  the  bed  should  be  forked  over  or  hoed,  and 
raked  off,  in  order  to  remove  any  of  the  coarser  lumps.  Where  a  hot-bed  is  used,  the  soil 
wiU,  of  course,  be  warmer,  causing  the  seed  to  germinate  quicker.  In  some  sections  of  the 
South,  the  ground  selected  for  the  seed-bed  is  in  the  woods,  where  the  soil  is  rich  with 
decomposed  leaves  and  other  vegetable  matter.     A  planter  Ln  Virginia  says:  — 

"  The  ground  selected  should  be  in  the  woods  (original  growth),  and  in  the  thickest  part 
of  them,  with  a  gentle  slope  (sufficient  to  drain  well)  to  the  south  or  east;  soil  of  a  dark  allu- 
vial nature,  such  as  would  be  used  in  filling  flower-pots;  not  wet  or  sour,  but  with  sufficient 
moisture  to  endure  the  midday  sun.  Cut  away  all  growth  of  every  kind  that  will  draw  or 
shade  the  land,  and  nearly  all  that  is  near  enough  to  shade  the  plants;  a  little  shade  is  bene- 
ficial. It  is  best  to  have  gathered  the  wood  to  be  used  in  burning  some  time  before,  in 
order  to  have  it  seasoned ;  it  biirns  much  better  when  it  has  been  stacked  up  and  dried  a 
little,  and  you  can  get  along  much  faster,  and  will  not  have  any  trouble  in  keeping  up  the 
fire  when  it  is  moved.  From  a  half  hour,  to  one  hour,  is  sufficient  for  the  fire  to  remain  in 
one  place,  when  it  should  be  moved,  which  is  done  by  the  use  of  a  common  wood-hook  or 
sapling  which  has  a  prong,  and  the  prong  cut  off  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  trunk.  The 
long  row  of  wood  should  be  laid  on  'skids'  before  the  fire  is  started.  Under  no  circum- 
stances must  the  earth  be  parched,  or  charred. 

The  object  in  burning  is  simply  to  kill  the  vitality  of  small  seeds  of  grass,  weeds,  etc., 
and  to  secure  a  nice  preparation,  with  the  benefit,  too,  of  the  ashes  as  a  manure.  When  the 
fire  is  moved,  the  coals  should  be  pushed  along  with  the  fire;  leave  nothing  on  the  bed  but 
ashes ;  then  hoe  the  ground  over  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  but  be  very  careful  not  to  turn  up 
the  soil.  Continue  to  chop  the  ground  over  untU  the  soil  is  pulverized  as  fine  as  you  would 
prepare  a  hot-bed  for  cabbages,  or  tomatoes.  Rake  it  over  nicely  and  sow,  as  a  fertihzer, 
Peruvian  guano,  and  rake  it  in  with  a  fine  hand-rake.  I  like  it  much  better  than  any  of  the 
home-made  manures,  which  are  filled  with  all  kinds  of  seeds  that  come  up  earlier  than  the 
tobacco,  and  guano  is  not  so  forcing  as  stable  manure,  which  is  so  generally  used,  and  causes 
the  seed  to  sprout,  and  be  killed  by  the  cold  frosts  of  February  or  March.  One  is  certainly 
saved  a  good  deal  of  hand-weeding  by  the  use  of  guano.  Half  a  bushel  is  sufficient  for  four 
hundred  yards." 

The  seed-bed  should  be  weU  drained.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  having  the  bed 
raised  above  the  surrounding  level,  or  by  making  ditches  along  each  side,  for,  while  moisture 
is  necessary,  an  excess  is  as  injurious  as  a  lack  of  water. 

Poultry  manure,  and  that  from  the  pig-sty  and  barn-yard  are  good  for  this  purpose, 
either  used  alone,  or  in  connection  with  commercial  fertilizers,  but  their  use  involves  more  or 
less  trouble  with  weeds,  especially  the  latter  two.  We  have  found  but  little  trouble  with 
weeds  when  commercial  fertilizers  were  used  exclusively  for  fertilizing,  and  the  beds  had 
been  previously  prepared  by  burning  brush  and  leaves  over  them,  as  above  recommended. 

Sowing  aud  Weeding. — The  time  of  sowing  tobacco  differs  in  different  localities. 
As  the  seed  does  not  germinate  quickly,  and  the  plants  at  first  are  also  of  slow  growth, 
tobacco  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  soil  will  admit  of  being  thoroughly  worked,  and 
warm  enough  for  the  seed  to  germinate.  It  is  customary  with  many  farmers,  especially  at 
the  North,  to  sprout  the  seed  before  sowing  in  the  bed,  as  the  plants  will  thus  be  started 


TOBACCO.  439 

earlier,  and  considerable  labor  in  weeding  will  be  obviated.  In  the  Northern  States  this  is  gen- 
erally done  about  the  last  of  March,  or  the  first  of  April.  At  the  South  it  is  done  from  the 
first  of  January  to  the  fifteenth  of  March,  according  to  locality,  the  warmer  climate  admitting, 
of  course,  of  the  earliest  sowing. 

The  best  material  for  sprouting  is  well-rotted  wood.  Apple-tree  wood  is  the  best  for 
the  purpose,  although  anything  that  will  keep  the  seed  damp  will  answer  the  purpose.  The 
S3ed  is  mixed  through  the  rotten  pulverized  wood,  and  put  in  a  pan  or  box  and  set  in  a 
warm  place  near  the  stove  until  sprouted.  It  should  be  occasionally  stirred,  to  insure  sprout- 
ino-  evenly.  After  it  has  become  well  sprouted,  it  is  scattered  over  the  bed,  usually  being 
left  on  the  surface.  Sometimes  boards  put  on  the  bed  for  a  few  days  after  sowing  will  hasten 
germination  by  keeping  the  soil  damp,  and  pressing  it  upon  the  seed. 

When  seed  is  not  sprouted  before  sowing,  it  is  generally  mixed  with  fine  earth,  sand,  or 
wood-ashes,  as  it  is  so  very  small  that  it  wiU  not  otherwise  be  as  liable  to  be  sown  evenly,  and 
the  plants  come  up  imiformly.  Great  care  should  be  used  to  scatter  it  as  evenly  as  possible. 
Scattering  it  both  ways  secures  the  best  distribution.  Where  the  seed  is  good,  but  little  is 
required.  One  tablespoonful,  that  will  germinate  readily,  will  be  suiBcient  for  setting  five 
or  six  acres  of  land,  providing  the  plants  should  thrive  well. 

However,  as  considerable  of  the  seed  may  not  come  up,  and  as  many  of  the  young  plants 
are  liable  to  be  destroyed,  it  will  be  well  to  allow  a  larger  proportion  of  seed,  as  it  is  always 
well  to  sow  enough  to  make  allowance  for  such  contingencies,  and  have  a  liberal  supply  of 
good-sized,  healthy  plants  at  the  time  of  setting. 

The  rule  with  some  farmers  is,  to  sow  in  the  proportion  of  a  tablespoonful  of  seed  to 
sixteen  feet  square  of  surface.  If  the  spoon  is  heaped  a  little,  this  will  give  about  four 
hundred  seeds  to  the  square  inch,  and  if  one  mature,  healthy  plant  is  produced  from  every 
three  seeds,  a  bed  sixteen  feet  square  will  supply  thirty  thousand  plants,  which  is  sufficient  to 
plant  about  seven  acres  at  the  ordinary  distance. 

Some  scatter  the  seed  over  the  bed,  and  rake  it  in  very  lightly,  but  there  is  danger  of 
covering  it  too  deep  in  the  soil  by  this  process  unless  great  care  is  used.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  scatter  it  on  the  surface  of  the  bed  and  roll  it  very  hghtly  with  a  hand-roller,  thus  pressing 
it  into  the  soil;  but  the  soil  must  not  be  made  too  compact  by  this  process. 

During  the  first  two  or  three  weeks  after  sowing,  the  seed-bed  should  receive  daily  atten- 
tion. The  soil  must  be  kept  constantly  moist  (not  ivet)  on  the  surface,  or  the  newly-germi- 
nated seed  Ijdng  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  will  be  destroyed.  Even  an  hour  of 
hot  sun,  when  the  seed-bed  is  dry,  will  sometimes  kill  the  young  and  tender  sprouts  or 
plants,  and,  if  left  to  careless  or  indifferent  care,  there  would  be  danger  of  loss  in  this 
respect,  or  from  the  other  extreme  of  keeping  the  soil  too  wet.  When  glass  is  used,  there  is 
still  greater  danger  of  sun-burning.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  cover  the  bed  with  fine  brush  to 
protect  it  from  frost  and  the  hot  sun.  Sometimes  straw  or  chaff,  free  from  grain,  is  used  for 
a  covering,  but  there  is  always  more  or  less  danger  of  injuring  the  plants  by  removing  it  in 
such  cases.  At  the  South,  pine  tags  are  much  used  for  this  purpose,  which  are  not  removed, 
since  they  aid  in  maintaining  a  suflScient  amount  of  moisture.  The  tags  are  generally  used 
in  connection  with  a  covering  of  light  brush,  the  latter  being  removed  when  the  leaves  are 
about  an  inch  long. 

After  the  plants  are  up,  a  good  top-dressing  may  be  made  of  well-fermented,  pulverized 
horse  manure,  or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  stable  manure  and  wood-ashes,  plaster  and 
vegetable  mold,  to  which  four  pounds  of  soot  and  sulphur  are  added  to  four  bushels  of  the 
mixture.  This  mixture  will  be  a  sufficient  quantity  for  any  ordinary  bed,  and,  if  applied  in 
judicious  quantity  every  ten  days,  it  will  not  only  secure  a  rapid  growth  of  plants,  but 
prevent  the  attacks  of  insects.  When  late  sowing  is  practiced,  the  plants  will  require  stimu- 
lating to  be  sufficiently  grown  at  the  time  of  transplanting.     A  narrow  bed  is  more  conven- 


440  THE  A5IERICAN  FARMER. 

ient  to  manage  than  a  wide  one,  and  several  small  beds  are  more  easily  cultivated  than  one 
large  one.  Dr.  Thomas  Pollard,  recent  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  in  Virginia,  recommends 
the  following  method  in  the  care  of  seed-beds:  — 

"  The  sowing  of  the  beds  should  rather  be  too  thick  than  too  thin,  at  least  a  tablespoon- 
ful  for  every  fifty  square  yards,  sowing  both  ways  to  insure  regularity,  and  then  later  sow  a 
teaspoonful  over  the  same  surface.  After  the  plants  get  four  leaves,  they  should  be  forced 
by  application  once  or  twice  a  week  (some  say  even  three  times  a  week)  of  some  good  fertil- 
izer, or  better,  dry  pulverized  stable  manure  from  horses  fed  on  fodder  and  grain,  to  avoid 
grass  seed,  to  which  may  be  added  some  gypsum.  The  '  fly,'  or  flea  bug,  must  be  looked  for 
and  combated  by  liberal  appHcations  of  manures,  to  force  the  plants  out  of  its  way,  and  by 
plaster,  in  which  rags  saturated  with  kerosene  oil  have  lain  for  some  houre,  and  by  every  . 
means  which  have  been  found  to  be  available.  Plenty  of  plants  is  the  foundation  for  a  good 
crop.  Better  have  a  hundred  thousand  too  many,  than  ten  thousand  too  few.  And  it  is 
important  to  have  them  early.  A  forward  crop  is  generally  best,  even  if  the  late  heavy  dews 
are  not  secured  to  the  plant." 

To  obviate  the  danger  of  cooling  the  soil  of  the  seed-bed,  tepid  water  should  be  used  for 
sprinkHng  the  surface.  Light  and  frequent  waterings  are  preferable  to  a  more  thorough 
wetting,  as  would  be  the  case  when  applied  but  once  or  twice  a  day.  The  aim  is  to  keep  the 
soil  warm  and  moist,  but  not  to  saturate  it  with  water.  Liquid  manure  is  very  good  for 
stimulating  the  growth  of  plants  after  they  have  become  well  started.  This  can  be  made  by 
placing  a  sack  of  hen  manure  or  guano  in  the  barrel  containing  the  water  for  sprinkling  the 
bed.  Sprouting  the  seeds  before  sowing  will  hasten  the  plants  from  a  week  to  ten  days; 
but  where  they  are  not  first  sprouted,  the  plants  wUl  not  generally  appear  xmtU  about  three 
weeks  after  eowing. 

The  seed-bed  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  the  weeding  beginning  as  soon  as  the 
weeds  are  large  enough  to  pull.  This  is  a  laborious  process,  especially  where  the  seed-bed 
has  not  previously  received  the  attention  requisite  for  destroying  the  seed  of  weeds  in  the 
soil.  The  weeding  should  not  be  slighted,  but  attended  to  thoroughly,  as  often  as  necessary. 
The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers,  and  burning  over  the  bed  previously,  will  save  much  of  the 
labor  of  weeding.  "When  glass  is  used  for  beds,  a  portion  of  the  sash  should  be  raised  each 
day  when  the  sun  shines  hot,  in  order  to  give  ventilation  and  prevent  the  plants  from  being 
burned.  The  glass  should  also  be  entirely  removed  a  few  days  before  the  plants  are  large 
enough  to  set,  in  order  to  toughen  them  sufficiently  before  transplanting  them  in  the  field. 
On  very  cool  nights,  when  there  is  danger  from  frost,  or  the  plants  being  chiUed,  the  bed 
should  be  protected  by  a  covering  of  some  kind,  such  as  boards,  old  blankets,  or  pieces  of 
carpeting. 

The  usual  rule  is  to  sow  two  hundred  square  yards  for  every  ten  thousand  plants 
wanted.  It  must  always  be  remembered,  also,  that  unless  the  soil  has  been  made  previously 
very  rich,  the  plants  will  not  have  sufficient  to  feed  upon,  consequently  will  not  grow,  but 
will  assume  a  yellow,  sickly  appearance.  A  board  frame  surrounding  the  bed,  fitting  it 
closely,  answers  a  very  good  purpose  for  keeping  oS  intruders,  where  glass  is  not  used.  It 
also  is  very  convenient  for  supporting  and  holding  a  cloth  covering,  that  may  be  necessary  to 
protect  against  the  frost  or  insects.  This  covering  may  be  cheap,  thin,  imbleached  cotton, 
and  costs  much  less  than  glass,  and  many  consider  it  equally  good.  This  is  very  efficacious 
in  keeping  out  the  tobacco  fly.  Some  other  plant-seed,  such  as  radish,  could  be  sown  outside 
for  the  fly  to  work  upon,  in  connection  with  the  covering,  thus  securing  a  double  protection. 

A  recent  writer  gives  his  method  of  covering  the  beds  with  cloth,  as  follows:  — 

"Wlien  your  bed  is  rolled,  put  up,  edgewise,  eight  to  ten-inch  plank  all  around  the  edges 
of  the  bed,  and  on  the  end  planks  put  gable  ends  cut  from  planks  a  foot  wide,  then  a  ridge- 


TOBACCO.  441 

pole  like  that  for  any  roof.  This  gives  a  frame  for  a  covering  of  muslin  of  the  thinnest  and 
cheapest  kind,  and  in  convenient  shape  to  remove  and  replace,  as  you  choose,  for  watering, 
manuring,  etc.  But  if  you  have  liquid  manure,  you  may  water  and  manure  at  once  by 
sprinkling  the  cover  well  with  a  common  sprinkling-pot  with  the  nozzle-holes  enlarged. 
After  the  plants  are  well  started,  if  there  are  no  flies,  or  if  the  plants  are  big  enough  to  defy 
them,  in  good  weather  the  cover  ought  to  be  removed  at  3  to  4  o'clock  p.  m.,  and  replaced  at 
10  A.  M.  for  several  days,  to  gradually  harden  the  plants  to  the  exposure,  and  then  removed 
altogether,  to  harden  them  for  transplanting.  Plants  may  be  brought  to  maturity  in  this 
way  much  sooner  than  the  usual  time  in  open  beds." 

In  ordinary  open  beds,  with  proper  care,  the  plants  will  be  ready  for  transplanting  in 
from  six  to  eight  weeks  after  sowing. 

Preparation  of  Soil,  Fertilizers,  etc.— Lands  for  tobacco  should  be  plowed  in 
the  fall,  that  the  frost  may  aid  in  pulverizing  the  soil,  also  in  the  destruction  of  the  worms, 
insect  eggs,  and  larvae  that  it  may  contain. 

It  should  also  have  two  plowings,  or  their  equivalents,  in  the  spring.  The  first  plowing 
should  be  early  in  the  spring,  which  should  be  to  a  shallow  depth.  When  the  manure  to  be 
applied  is  not  well  pulverized,  it  will  be  well  to  spread  it  over  the  land  before  the  plowing. 
When  it  is  well  decomposed  and  pulverized,  it  can  be  applied  just  before  the  second  plowing, 
which  is  about  the  time  the  plants  are  to  be  set.  It  is  best  to  spread  fertilizers  broadcast  for 
tobacco.  After  the  second  spring  plowing,  a  thorough  haiTowing  will  greatly  aid  in  reducing 
the  pulverization  of  the  soil.  The  roller  may  also  be  very  useful  in  aiding  the  pulverization 
by  crushing  the  lumps.  Very  much  depends  upon  reducing  the  soil  to  a  fine  condition,  and 
the  labor  bestowed  here  will  be  amply  repaid  in  the  results  of  the  crop,  the  aim  being  to 
render  the  surface  as  fine  as  possible. 

Any  well-decomposed  manure  will  do  for  tobacco,  but  of  course  the  better  the  quality  of 
the  manure,  the  better  will  be  the  crop.  Manure  finely  pulverized '  is  much  the  best,  since  it 
can  be  more  readily  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  than  that  of  a  coarser  texture. 
Commercial  fertilizers  can  be  used  in  connection  with  farm  manure  with  good  effect.  Many 
of  the  special  fertilizers  can  also  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  In  the  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  however,  much  depends  upon  the  season,  a  moderate  amount  of  rain  giving  often 
remarkably  good  results,  while  during  a  dry  season  their  effect  seems  almost  entirely  lost. 
There  is  probably  nothing  better  for  tobacco  than  farm  manure  of  the  best  quality,  where  it 
can  be  obtained  in  suSicient  quantities.  Where  a  sufBcient  supply  cannot  be  obtained,  it  may 
be  used  in  part,  and  commercial  fertilizers  be  applied  in  connection  to  make  up  the  deficiency. 

We  have  never  seen  better  crops  grown  than  those  produced  by  a  liberal  application  of 
barn-yard  manure,  well  rotted  and  finely  pulverized.  For  heavy  clay  soils  there  seems  to  be 
no  substitute  for  it,  since  it  not  only  supplies  the  requisite  fertility,  but  renders  the  otherwise 
compact  soil  loose  and  pliable. 

A  good  clover  crop  plowed  under  green,  and  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  decomposed 
before  setting  the  plants,  together  with  a  liberal  application  of  manure,  is  thought  by  some 
to  be  the  best  preparation  for  tobacco  that  a  soil  can  have.  Next  in  value  to  clover,  for 
green  manure,  a  heavy  growth  of  common  peas  might  be  chosen. 

Poultry  manure,  pulverized  and  mixed  with  plaster,  is  excellent  for  tobacco.  A  farmer 
in  Central  New  York,  who  has  cultivated  tobacco  for  many  years,  and  has  tried  many 
experiments  with  different  kinds  of  fertilizers,  recommends  this  as  superior  to  anything  with 
which  he  is  acquainted.  Fertilizers  containing  the  elements  of  lime  and  potash  will  always 
be  found  of  value  to  this  crop,  since  they  enter  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  plant. 
Wood-ashes  are  always  adapted  to  tobacco,  since  they  supply  a  large  proportion  of  potash. 
Manure  containing  an  abundance  of  ammonia,  in  connection  with  hme,  will  always  be  found 
highly  beneficial  also. 
28 


442 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


When  level  culture  is  practiced,  the  land  should  be  marked  both  ways  with  a  small  plow 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  The  rows  sliould  be  at  least  three  feet  apart,  and  the  marks  for  the 
hills  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet.  Much  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
variety  to  be  grown.  A  rich  soil  will  require  a  greater  distance  than  one  moderately  fertile, 
while  a  variety  of  large,  spreading  growth  will  also  require  more  room  than  one  of  smaller 
growth.  Many  farmers  make  the  rows  the  distance  of  three  and  a  half  feet  by  two  and  a 
half,  while  on  very  rich  soil  the  practice  in  some  sections  is  to  extend  the  distance  to  even 
four  feet  by  three  and  a  half.  There  should  only  be  sufficient  distance  for  the  plants  to 
spread  well  and  secure  a  vigorous  growth,  any  waste  of  space  being  a  waste  of  manure  used 
to  enrich  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  labor  in  preparing  it;  besides,  if  the  plants  are  too  far  apart, 
they  are  more  liable  to  be  blown  over  or  broken  by  the  wind.  On  the  other  hand,  if  crowded, 
the  growth  will  be  more  slender  and  the  plants  will  not  mature  as  perfectly,  or  produce  as 
heavy  a  crop.  Where  the  furrows  made  by  the  plow  cross  each  other,  small  hills  should  be 
made  with  a  hoe,  and  the  top  patted  down,  indicating  the  place  where  the  plants  are  to  be 

set.    Where  ridge-cul- 
ture is  practiced,  the 
ridges  may  be  thrown 
up  by  lapping  the  fur- 
rows of  the  plow,  or, 
what  is  much  better, 
a  tobacco-ridger  may 
be  used    for    making 
the  ridges  and  mark- 
[  ing  the  place  for  the 
]  plants.     The  wings  of 
I  the  machine  gather  the 
!  earth  into  a  ridge,  to- 
1  gether  with  the  fertil- 
izers that  are  spread 

GOSLEES    TOBACCO-RIDGER    AlvD    PUTAT0-CO\  ERER.  brOadcaSt  The 

smoothing-plate  that  the  machine  rides  on  smooths  the  ridges,  and  the  wheels  with  the  points 
partly  make  the  holes  for  the  plants,  and  space  them  off.  The  accompanying  illustration 
represents  a  tobacco-ridger  manufactured  by  Belcher  &  Taylor,  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  and 
may  be  also  \ised  in  the  cotton  and  potato  fields  with  good  effect.  A  corn-marker  is  some- 
tunes  used  for  marking  off  the  ground.  In  these  marks  a  cultivator  having  reversible  shares  is 
run,  with  the  shares  turned  inward  and  the  front  one  removed,  which  forms  the  ridge.  A 
light  roller  follows,  having  cleats  nailed  across  at  equal  and  sufficient  distances  apart  to  mark 
the  distances  for  setting  the  plants.  This  preparation  for  setting  tobacco  should  be  made  just 
before  the  plants  are  ready  for  transplanting. 

Transplanting. —  The  tobacco  crop  requires  between  four  and  five  months'  growth, 
from  the  time  the  seed  is  sown  until  the  time  of  cutting,  and  nearly  half  of  this  time  is 
confined  to  the  seed-bed;  hence  the  necessity  of  much  care  to  secure  the  best  possible 
condition  of  the  plants  at  the  time  of  transplanting. 

The  best  size  for  setting  is  when  the  leaves  are  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in 
length,  or,  as  one  planter  expresses  it,  "  about  the  size  of  a  dessert-spoon."  The  time  for 
setting,  in  the  latitude  of  New  York,  is  in  the  month  of  June,  although  some  set  them  about 
the  24th  of  May.  This  is,  however,  quite  early.  From  the  1st  to  the  20th  of  June  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  best  time,  when  the  season  will  admit.  In  a  warmer  latitude  the 
transplanting  will  be  comparatively  earlier,  according  to  the  climate.  If  set  too  early,  the 
plants  will  be  liable  to  become  chilled,  and  will  not  thrive  as  well;  while  if  delayed  too  late, 


TOBACCO.  443 

the  crop  will  not  have  sufficient  time  to  mature.  The  medium  time  is  best,  which  is  that 
already  given.  If  transplanted  at  the  proper  time,  rapid  growth  and  quick  maturity  — other 
conditions  being  favorable  —  will  be  the  natui-al  result,  which  saves  labor  and  expense  in 
cultivation,  while  such  crops  will  be  larger  and  of  better  quality  than  those  of  slower  growth. 

The  usual  time  for  transplanting  is  just  after  a  rain,  when  the  soil  is  moist;  otherwise 
the  plants  require  watering,  which  involves  considerable  extra  labor.  If  at  such  a  time, 
however,  the  sun  comes  out  hot  immediately  after,  a  large  percentage  of  the  plants  will  be 
liable  to  wither  beyond  recovery.  A  cloudy  day  and  damp  soil  are  to  be  preferred,  but  it  is 
better  to  set  the  plants  at  the  proper  time  rather  than  delay  too  late  for  desired  conditions. 
If  plants  are  set  when  the  soil  is  saturated  with  water,  followed  by  a  hot  sun,  the  earth  will 
harden  and  bake  around  the  roots  and  prevent  their  growth;  hence  a  damp  soil  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  one  containing  a  surplus  of  water.  Never  set  plants  when  the  soil  is  of  the 
consistency  of  mud.  Great  care  should  be  observed  in  removing  the  plants  from  the  seed- 
bed, that  the  roots  may  not  be  broken.  To  avoid  this,  the  bed  should  be  saturated  with 
water.     It  is  well  to  loosen  the  earth  with  a  trowel  and  pick  up  the  plants  separately. 

No  careless  person  should  be  aIlo\yed  to  perform  this  work,  for  much  injury  to  the  crop 
might  result  from  mutilating  the  plants  in  any  way.  The  practice  of  crowding  a  large  number 
of  plants  into  a  basket  to  be  taken  to  the  field  is  a  very  poor  one,  resulting  in  the  bruising  and 
breaking  of  the  roots  and  leaves.  The  young  plants  should  be  kept  straight  after  being  taken 
from  the  seed-bed,  with  their  roots  together,  and  placed  in  shallow  boxes  or  pans  to  be  taken 
to  the  field,  and  not  a  sufficient  number  placed  together  to  admit  of  crushing,  keeping  what 
little  soil  adheres  to  their  roots  from  being  loosened.  They  should  also  be  protected  from 
the  hot  sun  on  the  way  to  the  field.  Many  plants  will  sometimes  become  wilted  before 
setting,  through  carelessness  in  this  respect.  One  person  should  drop  the  plants  ahead  in  the 
row,  one  plant  to  each  hill,  and  the  setter  follow.  In  setting,  the  plant  should  be  taken  in 
the  right  hand,  and  a  hole  made  in  the  center  of  the  hill  with  the  left  forefinger  for  the  roots, 
which  should  be  deep  enough  to  take  them  in  without  bending  to  the  same  level  they  occupied 
in  the  seed-bed.  The  earth  should  then  be  pressed  firmly  around  the  roots  with  both  hands. 
The  pressure  should  be  sufficient  to  close  the  hole  in  the  soil  at  the  bottom,  as  well  as  at  the 
top.  Care  should  be  used  not  to  set  the  plant  too  deep,  or  press  the  bud  of  unopened  leaves 
in  making  the  soil  compact.  The  roots  should,  however,  be  well  covered,  and  have  a  suf- 
ficient depth  of  soil.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  set  an  extra  plant  every  rod  or  two,  which 
may  be  used  to  fill  vacancies  that  will  be  found  in  the  after  cultivation.  Such  plants  may  be 
taken  up  with  a  small  quantity  of  soil  attached  to  the  roots,  and  reset  without  injury. 

As  the  cut-worm  will  destroy  some  of  the  young  plants,  and  others  will  wither,  the 
ground  should  be  carefully  examined  and  reset  every  few  days,  until  a  good  stand  is  secured. 
It  is  important  that  the  setting  of  the  plants  be  well  done.  "When  a  hot  sun  succeeds  the 
transplanting,  shading  the  plants  with  a  handful  of  grass,  a  large  leaf,  or  a  piece  of  paper,  for 
a  day  or  two,  will  generally  prevent  them  wilting  as  badly  as  they  otherwise  might. 

If  the  ground  is  quite  dry  at  the  time  of  setting,  water  must  be  turned  upon  the  hills 
before  putting  in  the  plants.  In  such  cases,  it  is  well  to  press  the  soil  around  the  plant  in  a 
shghtly  concave  or  basin-shaped  form,  in  order  to  hold  the  water  that  it  may  be  necessary  to 
afterwards  apply.  Such  plants  should  be  watered  rather  liberally  just  at  night,  and  may 
require  this  repeated  for  three  or  four  days.  Such  extra  care  requires  considerable  labor, 
but  it  pays  well  in  the  end.  Negligence  at  this  period  can  never  be  wholly  made  up  in  the 
after  culture.  The  best  time  for  transplanting,  when  the  weather  is  warm,  is  on  a  cloudy 
day,  or  just  at  night,  accompanied  with  watering. 

Cultivation.  —  A  few  days  after  setting,  or  when  the  plants  have  secured  a  good 
stand,  the  first  cultivation  should  be  given.  This  generally  consists  of  a  very  light  stirring 
of  the  soil  with  a  hand-hoe,  simply  breaking  the  crust  that  has  formed,  and  killing  the  weeds. 


444  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

It  is  very  important  tliat  the  soil  at  all  stages  be  kept  free  from  weeds.  Tobacco  is  a 
sensitive  plant,  and  will  not  grow  well  in  connection  with  anything  else.  Weeds  or  grass 
near  the  roots,  though  of  small  size,  will  affect  the  weight  and  growth  to  an  almost  incredible 
degree.  Neither  will  it  attain  perfection  if  crow'ded  or  shaded  in  any  way.  It  must  have 
the  soil  all  to  itself,  and  a  hot  sun.  As  quick  growth  is  essential  in  order  to  produce  a  good 
quality  of  leaf,  the  aim  of  the  cultivator  should  be  to  push  the  growth  of  the  young  plants  as 
much  as  possible,  after  they  have  been  started  in  the  field.  Next  to  extremely  fertile  soil, 
nothing  will  secure  this  result  so  effectually  as  frequent  cultivation,  not  only  to  keep  the  field 
free  from  weeds,  but  to  stir  the  surface  and  prevent  the  soil  from  becoming  hard  and  com- 
pact, and  thus  lessen  the  danger  of  injury  by  drouth.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  best 
preventive  of  injury  from  drouth  is  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  mellow  around  the 
growing  plants.  The  cultivator  or  horse-hoe  should  be  used  frequently,  to  keep  the  soil  clean 
and  mellow,  hand-hoeing  being  required  three  or  four  times  during  the  season,  in  order  to 
loosen  the  soil  near  the  plants  and  bring  the  earth  up  around  the  roots.  The  extra  plants 
not  required  to  reset  should  be  taken  out  when  there  is  no  further  demand  for  them.  When 
the  leaves  are  large,  they  become  easily  broken,  and  all  such  culture  must  then  be  abandoned; 
but,  until  this  period  arrives,  the  cultivation  should  be  thorough  and  frequent. 

Enemies  of  the  Tobacco  Plant. — Although  there  are  several  enemies  of  the 
tobacco  plant,  more  or  less  injurious,  the  principal  ones  are  the  cut -worm,  and  the  large  green 
worm  called  the  "tobacco- worm."  The  first  commits  its  depredations  on  the  young  plants 
soon  after  they  are  set  out,  by  eating  off  the  stalks.  Their  presence  can  easily  be  determined 
by  going  among  the  plants  early  in  the  morning,  and  noting  whether  there  are  any  small 
heaps  of  fresh  earth,  or  small,  round  holes  near  the  hills.  If  these  are  found,  they  are  a  sure 
indication  of  the  enemy. 

Where  plants  are  found  wdth  a  portion  or  all  of  their  leaves  gone,  this  is  another  sure 
indication  of  the  cut-worm's  presence.  Ashes  in  the  hill  will  sometimes  destroy  these  pests, 
but  they  are  difficult  to  eradicate.  It  will  pay  to  search  for  them  in  the  hill  and  kill  them, 
where  they  are  very  troublesome.  All  hills  that  have  had  the  plants  destroyed  in  this  man- 
ner  should  be  supplied  by  re-setting,  but  the  worm  should  first  be  dug  out  and  kiUed,  or  each 
plant  that  occupies  the  spot  will  be  destroyed  in  turn. 

The  tobacco-worm  is  hatched  from  an  egg  deposited  by  a  moth.  The  egg  is  laid  gener- 
ally upon  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and,  when  first  hatched, — which  is  in  about  six  days, — 
the  worm  is  so  small  that  it  would  scarcely  be  noticed  by  one  unfamiliar  with  its  habits.  It 
grows  very  rapidly,  and  proves  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  enemies. 

It  begins  to  eat  the  leaf  on  the  under  side;  hence,  is  not  at  first  easily  detected.  A 
small  hole  through  the  leaf  is  the  first  indication  of  its  depredations.  They  increase  in  size 
so  rapidly,  and  are  so  destructive,  that  if  left  unmolested  for  a  few  days  the  entire  leaf  would 
be  destro}'ed.  When  full  grown,  the  worm  will  eat  nearly  an  entire  leaf  of  large  size  in  a 
single  day.  Their  size  and  length  at  this  period  is  nearly  that  of  the  forefinger  of  a  medium- 
sized  man. 

There  are  two  sets  or  broods  of  these  worms  during  the  season — the  first  appearing 
when  the  plants  are  about  half  grown,  and  the  others  when  the  tobacco  is  almost  ripe.  It  is 
particularly  important  that  the  first  brood  be  destroyed,  for  if  they  are  not  they  become 
transformed  into  the  moth,  which  lays  the  eggs  for  the  second  brood,  each  moth  lajang  about 
two  hundred  eggs. 

Tlie  "yellow-jacket"  is  said  to  be  a  valuable  aid  in  destroying  these  worms.  The  "ich- 
neumon-fly "  is  a  parasite  of  this  worm,  and  destroys  many.  Dr.  Thomas  Pollard  of  Virginia, 
says  that,  in  worming,  care  must  be  used  not  to  destroy  the  worms  covered  with  a  white  film 
or  net-like  substance,  as  it  is  the  cocoon  of  this  parasite,  and  that  in  sections  where  this  fly  is 
met,  tobacco-worms  may  be  found  filled  with  the  larvse  of  the  fly,  looking  Uke  little  bits  of 


TOBACCO.  445 

cotton,  half  of  their  bodies  being  inserted  in  the  worm  and  the  other  half  projecting,  hav- 
ino-  eaten  their  way  out  thus  far.  The  worm  in  such  cases  will  be  found  in  a  half  torpid 
state,  undergoing  a  slow  but  certain  death. 

The  flea-beetle  has  made  its  appearance  from  time  to  time  in  some  sections,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  this  crop,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent,  and  in  certain  sections. 

Worming. — Unless  the  worms  that  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  tobacco  are  destroyed,  the 
crop  will  be  liable  to  be,  or,  at  least,  rendered  so  worthless  as  not  to  pay  for  the  labor 
bestowed  in  its  cultivation.  The  surest  remedy  is  hand-picking,  and  this  must  be  sufficiently 
frequent  to  prevent  injury  to  the  leaves.  The  field  should  be  gone  over  every  few  days,  if 
possible,  during  the  period  of  worming,  as  many  will  escape  notice,  and  the  eggs  will  con- 
tinue to  hatch.  By  a  careful  examination  of  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  the  eggs  may  often 
be  seen  and  destroyed  before  the  worms  are  hatched.  They  are  about  the  size  of  a  mvistard 
seed,  of  a  light  greenish  cast,  and  semi-transparent. 

Flocks  of  turkeys  are  said  to  be  valuable  in  destro)ring  the  worms.  Bonfires  built  near 
the  field  at  the  edge  of  evening,  at  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  moth  that  lays  the  eggs, 
will  be  the  means  of  destroying  large  numbers,  since  they  will  be  attracted  to  the  fire  by  its 
light. 

Major  Rayland,  of  Virginia,  says:  "Dissolve  an  ounce  of  the  cobalt  of  the  shops  in  a 
pint  and  a  half  of  water  and  mix  it  with  molasses  or  other  syrup,  bottle  it  and  drop  it 
through  a  quill  into  the  heart  of  the  blossom  of  the  jimson-weed.  It  should  be  done  about 
sundown,  and  the  poisoned  flowers  pulled  oS  next  day,  otherwise  the  plants  will  be  destroyed. 
It  has  been  authentically  stated  that  this  weed,  so  treated,  planted  around  the  edge  of  the 
tobacco-lot,  and  here  and  there  through  the  patch,  will  prevent,  to  a  great  extent,  the  rav- 
ages of  the  worm." 

Topping. — This  consists  in  breaking  off  the  tops  of  the  stalks  of  tobacco,  and  is  done 
in  order  to  increase  the  size  and  value  of  the  lower  leaves ;  also,  to  prevent  the  plant  from 
seeding,  and  to  hasten  its  maturity.  The  best  time  for  doing  this  is  generally  considered  to 
be  just  before  the  flower-buds  open,  or,  rather,  just  as  soon  as  the  blossom-bud  at  the  top  of 
the  stalk  is  formed.  When  there  has  been  a  partial  failure  of  the  first  setting  of  plants, 
rendering  the  growth  uneven,  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  field  twice  for  this 
purpose,  topping  at  first  only  the  earliest  plants,  and  the  remainder  a  few  days  later.  It  is, 
however,  desirable  to  top  all  the  plants  at  the  same  time,  if  possible,  in  order  to  secure  uni- 
formity in  the  maturity  of  the  crop. 

The  condition  of  the  plant  will  indicate  how  great  a  length  of  the  stalk  is  to  be  removed 
in  this  process.  The  general  rule  is,  to  take  ofE  all  the  leaves  that  are  less  than  six  inches  in 
length,  or  just  above  the  last  well-developed  leaf.  When  quite  late  in  the  season,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  go  a  little  lower  than  this,  and  take  o£E  a  few  of  the  larger  leaves  in  order  to 
have  the  crop  mature  before  the  appearance  of  frosts. 

In  some  of  the  Southern  States,  priming  is  practiced,  which  consists  of  removing  the 
first  or  lower  leaves  of  the  stalk.  The  arguments  in  favor  of  priming,  as  given,  are — that 
the  lower  leaves  harbor  worms,  making  the  worming  process  more  laborious,  requiring  so 
much  of  the  stooping  posture,  while  the  saving  of  those  leaves  is  often  a  suflBcient  temptation  to 
the  producer  to  prepare  them  for  sale,  where  they  add  to  the  worthless  product  which  is  cum- 
bering the  market.  Other  advantages  of  priming  that  are  presented  are — that  the  removal  of 
the  lowest  leaves  permits  additional  nourishment  to  be  suppKed  to  the  other  leaves,  and 
admits  of  a  better  circulation  of  air,  with  additional  light  and  heat,  which  are  so  essential  to 
plant  life.  The  old  adage  with  many  of  the  Southern  planters  is,  "  Prime  high  and  top  low," 
while  some  do  not  prime  at  all.  It  is  not  practiced  to  any  extent  at  the  North.  Of  course, 
all  plants  intended  for  producing  seed  for  a  future  crop  should  never  be  topped,  but  be 
permitted  to  blossom,  and  ripen  their  seed. 


446  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Suckering. — A  few  days  after  topping,  the  suckers,  or  young  shoots,  will  start  from 
the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves.  These  should  be  broken  off  close  to  the  stalk  as  soon  as  they 
are  at  least  three  or  four  inches  long.  If  a  short  end  is  left  in  breaking,  it  will  be  liable  to 
tear  the  leaves  in  subsequent  handling;  besides,  the  water  from  rain  or  dew  will  produce 
decay  of  the  portion  left,  causing  the  leaf  to  look  sickly  and  sometimes  fall.  If  the  suckers 
are  permitted  to  grow,  they  will  greatly  injure  the  crop,  as  they  will  take  just  so  much 
growth  and  nutriment  from  the  leaves,  which  constitute  the  product. 

In  about  ten  or  twelve  days  after  suckering,  the  crop  will  generally  be  ready  to  cut. 
Just  before  cutting,  however,  the  suckers  should  all  be  broken  from  the  stalk  again,  as  they 
will  grow  fast.  The  worms  should  also  all  be  removed,  none  being  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  plants  when  harvested.  "Working  among  the  growing  plants  when  they  are  wet  from 
rain  or  dew  will  sometimes  cause  rust  upon  the  leaves,  and  should  be  avoided.  Some  varie- 
ties of  tobacco  will  send  out  suckers  faster  than  others. 

Cutting. — Tobacco  should  be  cut  when  fully  mature.  If  left  to  stand  beyond  this 
period  and  over-ripen,  the  leaf  will  not,  when  cured,  be  as  soft  and  silky,  and  hence  not  as 
well  adapted  for  wrappers.  Longer  standing  will,  however,  give  a  somewhat  heavier  pro- 
duct, but  the  weight  will  be  gained  at  the  expense  of  the  quality. 

The  time  for  cutting  is  determined  by  the  appearance  of  the  leaf,  which  changes  its 
color  to  a  somewhat  yellowish  cast,  and  becomes  slightly  spotted  or  marbled,  especially  when 
looked  at  towards  the  light.  Sometimes  this  appearance  seems  a  faint  mottUng  of  the  leaves 
with  spots  of  a  lighter  green.  As  a  general  rule,  it  will  be  ready  to  cut  m  about  ten  or 
twelve  days  after  topping,  according  to  the  weather.  When  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry,  the 
ripening  will  proceed  more  rapidly  than  when  cool  or  wet.  Another  indication  of  ripeness 
is  in  the  feeUng  of  the  leaves,  which  will  seem  thicker  than  they  did  a  few  days  before,  and 
will  crack  when  folded  and  lightly  pressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  The  leaves  will 
also  become  rustling  and  stiff.  It  is  somewhat  difBcult  for  an  inexperienced  person  to  deter- 
mine when  tobacco  is  fuUy  ripe,  the  experienced  eye  being  the  only  sure  guide;  but  the  above 
rules  can  be  relied  upon  as  the  most  definite  that  can  be  given.  Over-ripening  deteriorates 
the  quality  of  the  crop;  therefore  it  is  best  to  commence  harvesting  as  soon  as  the  signs  of 
ripeness  appear,  as  the  last  of  the  crop  that  is  cut  will  be  liable  to  become  too  ripe  when  left 
later,  if  a  large  crop  is  to  be  gathered,  since  it  ripens  very  fast.  The  juices  in  the  stems  of 
that  first  cut  will  perfect  the  ripening  process. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  crop  be  gathered  before  cold  weather,  as  the  least  appear- 
ance of  frost  will  ruin  every  leaf  that  it  touches;  hence,  while  it  is  well  to  have  the  crop  suf- 
ficiently ripe  before  cutting,  it  had  better  be  harvested  before  it  is  quite  ripe,  rather  than  run 
the  risk  of  losing  the  entire  crop  by  frost. 

Various  implements  are  used  for  cutting  tobacco.  A  tobacco-hatchet  is  one  of  the  best 
we  have  ever  used  for  this  purpose.  A  cornstalk-cutter  is  also  very  good,  while  a  butcher- 
knife  may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Some  prefer  a  small  hand-saw.  In  cutting,  the  plant 
should  be  bent  over  with  the  left  hand,  and  the  stalk  cut  close  to  the  ground  with  a  blow 
from  the  hatchet,  or  a  drawing  cut  with  a  knife. 

Very  heavy  tobacco  is  left  for  a  time  to  wilt  before  being  carried  from  the  field,  as  the 
leaves  will  be  less  liable  to  become  bruised  or  torn  by  subsequent  handling,  but  light  varie- 
ties may  be  carried  directly  from  the  field  with  less  liability  of  being  injured. 

Tobacco  should  not  be  cut  when  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  or  in  the  middle  of  a  very  hot 
day.  Care  must  be  taken  not '  to  let  it  remain  in  the  field  long  enough  after  cutting  to 
become  sunburnt.  Eain  should  also  be  guarded  against.  If  any  is  left  cut  in  the  field  during 
the  night,  it  should  be  laid  in  heaps  of  a  dozen  or  more  plants  in  a  place.  If  tobacco  is  thus 
left  in  piles  more  than  twelve  or  fourteen  hours,  there  is  danger  from  heating. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  sufiBciently  wilted  after  being  cut,  so  that  the  leaves  will  not  be 


TOBACCO.  447 

easily  broken  by  the  handling,  they  should  be  taken  to  a  tobacco  house  or  bam  and  hung  up 
to  cure.  The  best  method  is  to  put  it  on  laths  or  poles  in  the  field  ready  for  hanging,  as 
this  requires  less  handling.  It  is  customary  with  some  tobacco  growers  to  load  the  plants, 
after  they  have  become  sufficiently  wilted,  into  a  cart  and  put  them  on  laths  afterwards  in  the 
shed  or  barn,  but  the  best  method  is  to  do  this  part  of  the  labor  in  the  field,  if  practicable. 

Curing. — The  usual  method  of  curing  tobacco  is  to  hang  the  plants  on  lath,  on  which 
they  are  put  by  means  of  a  large  steel  needle  made  with  a  socket  at  one  end.  in  order 
to  fit  the  end  of  the  lath.  The  needle,  after  being  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  lath,  is  pushed 
through  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk,  and  thus  the  lath  is  forced  through.  From  six  to  ten 
plants  can  be  put  upon  a  common  lath  in  this  manner,  according  to  the  size.  The  laths  on 
which  the  plants  have  been  strung  are  put  into  a  cart  or  wagon  arranged  for  the  purpose. 
Some  are  particular  to  have  each  end  of  the  lath  supported,  that  the  plants  may  hang 
down  without  being  broken  or  crushed.  This  requires  more  labor,  as  a  less  quantity  can  be 
carried  at  a  time,  but  the  plants  are  less  liable  to  injury  by  this  means. 

The  laths  are  placed  upon  slats  or  crossbeams  arranged  for  the  purpose  in  the  tobacco- 
house  or  barn,  where  the  plants  are  suspended  for  drying.  "Where  large  quantities  of  tobacco 
are  produced,  a  tobacco-house  is  indispensable.  Such  a  building  has  beams  and  joints  in  sev- 
eral tiers,  arranged  to  support  the  laths  or  poles  on  which  the  plants  are  hung.  About  one- 
half  of  the  boards  of  such  a  building  are  hung  on  hinges,  so  that  they  can  be  opened  like  a 
door,  in  order  to  better  admit  the  air  and  Ught.  Where  the  air  and  light  are  thus  admitted, 
the  laths  can  be  placed  nearer  together  than  where  the  circulation  of  air  is  less  free.  About 
ten  or  twelve  inches  apart  is  the  usual  distance  of  placing  the  laths  from  which  the  plants  are 
suspended.  In  a  common  barn  or  close  shed,  considerable  more  room  will  be  required.  Very 
large  plants  will  also  require  more  room  than  smaller  ones. 

Aiter  hanging  the  plants  for  curing,  the  doors  should  be  kept  open  in  pleasant  weather  to 
admit  the  air  and  light,  which  are  so  essential  to  perfect  the  process.  During  damp  or  rainy 
weather  the  building  should  be  kept  closed  to  exclude  the  dampness,  and  after  the  curing 
process  is  completed  the  building  should  be  kept  closed  constantly. 

"When  tobacco  dries  rapidly,  the  tendency  will  be  to  produce  a  light  color.  "When  it 
dries  slowly,  the  tendency  will  be  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  great  difficulty  in  curing 
tobacco  is  to  so  govern  the  ventilation  as  to  secure  slow  drying,  and  obviate  what  is  termed 
"pole-burning,"  or  pole-sweating-  This  latter  difficulty  is  most  liable  to  occur  in  hot,  muggy 
weather,  when  there  is  little  air  stirring,  and  during  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  curing 
process. 

In  very  dry,  windy  weather  the  plants  might  dry  too  rapidly  if  the  means  of  ventilating 
were  all  employed,  and  it  may  sometimes  be  found  desirable  in  such  weather  to  keep  the 
doors  closed  entirely  for  whole  days  together.  The  judgment  of  the  person  having  charge  of 
the  crop  at  this  stage  will  be  called  into  requisition,  the  treatment  given  depending  upon  the 
condition  of  the  tobacco  at  the  time.  Pole-burning  may  be  largely  avoided  by  hanging  the 
plants  further  apart. 

It  is  the  nature  of  the  plant,  irrespective  of  weather,  to  begin  to  sweat  a  little  a  few  days 
after  hanging,  the  moisture  standing  in  drops  on  the  stems  and  leaves.  "When  this  moisture 
dries  off  well,  there  is  Httle  danger  from  pole-burning.  At  this  period  there  should  be  a  free 
circulation  of  drying  air  through  the  plants.  Pole-burning  is  most  liable  to  occur  during  the 
first  three  weeks  after  the  tobacco  is  cut.  If  the  air  is  then  damp  and  heavy  with  moisture, 
the  plants  will  not  dry  off  well,  but  will  ferment  or  "bum."  The  best  method  is  to  exclude 
the  dampness  in  wet  weather,  and  admit  the  dry  air  in  clear  weather,  taking  care  not  to 
crowd  the  plants  in  hanging.  The  leaves  should  also  be  well  shaken  out  so  as  not  to  cling  to 
the  stem.  Fully  ripe  tobacco  is  less  liable  to  pole-burn  than  that  which  is  cut  greener,  but 
such  tobacco  is  considered  less  desirable  for  wrappers.     In  all  the  process  of  curing,  great  care 


448  THE   A^IERICAN  FARMER. 

should  be  observed  not  to  bruise  or  tear  the  leaves,  or  break  them  off  the  stalk.  Where  poles 
are  used  for  hanging  tobacco,  the  plants  are  generally  tied  to  them  with  twine,  which  is 
wound  around  the  plant  stalks  securely,  and  then  around  the  pole  in  successive  order;  the 
use  of  laths  is  considered  the  better  method,  as  it  is  attended  with  less  labor. 

There  are  various  other  methods  of  curing  practiced  in  some  sections,  such  as  "  sun- 
curing,"  "open-fire-curing,"  "flue  curing,"  etc.,  but  we  consider  the  process  already  described 
to  be  very  much  superior  to  any  other. 

Stripping  and  Assorting  Tobacco. — Tobacco  should  never  be  taken  down  until 
properly  cured.  This  period  is  when  the  leaf  stem  will  yield  no  juice  by  wringing,  although 
still  pliable  and  damp.  There  may  be  an  occasional  green  or  "fat"  leaf,  which  will  never 
cure,  but  these  should  be  very  rare  exceptions. 

The  time  for  stripping  is  in  the  late  fall  or  winter,  during  warm,  wet  weather,  which 
will  render  the  leaves  pliable,  and  easily  handled  without  being  torn  or  broken.  In  order  to 
keep  the  plants  moist,  they  are  taken  from  the  laths  and  laid  in  small  piles  upon  the  floor. 
The  leaves  are  then  stripped  from  the  stalk  one  at  a  time,  taking  care  not  to  tear  them,  and 
keeping  each  one  straight.  The  leaves  are  assorted  according  to  quality,  a  crop  often  making 
six  or  eight  different  grades,  the  grade  differing  in  numbers  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
locality,  or  demand  of  the  market.  The  leaves  of  the  same  quality  and  size  are  kept  separate 
from  others.  All  torn  or  worm-eaten  leaves,  and  those  otherwise  injured,  should  be  kept  by 
themselves.  The  manner  of  assorting  tobacco  differs  in  different  localities.  The  following 
method  is  given  by  a  tobacco-grower  of  large  experience  in  central  New  York: 

"  Taking  tobacco  from  the  poles,  stripping  the  leaves  from  the  stalks,  assorting  them  in- 
to the  respective  grades,  and  packing  the  'hands'  or  'hanks'  into  boxes,  constitute  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  tobacco-grower  during  winter.  The  plants  should  not  be  taken  from 
the  poles  until  the  leaves  have  become  soft  and  pliable  so  that  they  may  be  readily  pressed 
together  in  the  hand  without  breaking  them,  when  brought  into  this  condition  by  warm,  damp 
weather.  After  being  taken  from  the  poles,  the  stalks  should  be  stripped  of  their  leaves  and 
the  latter  tied  in  bundles  weighing  from  six  to  ten  pounds,  and  then  carefully  packed  in 
'ranks,'  with  the  butts  of  the  leaves  extending  outward  and  their  tips  lapping  together  in 
the  center.  In  order  to  preserve  the  moisture  in  the  leaves,  the  ranks  must  be  kept  covered 
upon  the  top  and  ends,  but  the  butts  of  the  leaves  or  the  sides  of  the  ranks  should  remain 
open,  and  exposed  to  the  air  so  as  to  give  the  greenness  at  the  butts  an  opportunity  to  become 
thoroughly  cured. 

Next  comes  the  work  of  '  assorting.'  For  this  a  tight,  warm  room  is  required,  such  as 
may  be  made  comfortable  by  an  ordinary  stove  in  the  most  inclement  weather.  This  assort- 
ing room  should  be  roomy,  well  Ughted,  and  provided  with  tables  suitable  for  the  work. 
A  skylight  is  preferable  to  side  windows,  as  from  the  former  the  light  coming  from  above 
shines  directly  upon  the  leaves  of  the  tobacco,  and  not  in  the  eyes  of  the  assorter,  thus 
enabUng  him  to  better  judge  of  the  qualities  of  tobacco.  Every  year  the  dealers  and  manu- 
facturers of  seed-leaf  tobacco  demand  of  growers  more  care  in  the  manipulation  of  their 
crops.  Formerly  it  was  customary  to  assort  the  leaves  into  two  grades;  now  we  are  fre- 
quently requested  to  assort  into  six  or  more  qualities,  which  requires  no  small  amount  of 
labor  and  care  to  perform  the  work  correctly. 

But  it  is  unquestionably  for  the  grower's  interest  to  put  his  crop  in  the  best  possible 
shape,  and  to  handle  it  in  the  most  systematic  and  painstaking  manner.  For  this  reason  I 
advise  making  at  least  five  grades  or  qualities  of  leaf;  namely,  first  or  A  A  wrappers,  second 
or  A  wrappers,  scrub  or  rough  wrappers,  binders  and  fillers.  Some  buyers  demand  that  the 
leaves  of  wrappers  shall  be  assorted  as  regards  length  as  well  as  quality.  Then  first  or 
A  A  wrappers  are  divided  into  two  lengths,  making  long  A  A  and  short  A  A,  etc. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  describe  the  exact  methods  of  assorting  tobacco  in  a  short  arti- 


TOBACCO.  449 

cle  like  this.  I  can  simply  state  that  the  best  leaves,  as  regards  general  quality,  are  placed  in 
the  first  grade  of  wrappers,  those  not  quite  so  good  in  the  second  grade,  and  those  still  poorer 
in  the  third  grade  or  rough  wrapper  class,  and  so  on  down  until  the  '  trash '  or  poorer  part 
of  the  crop  is  reached,  which  grade  is  called  fillers.  To  perform  the  work  of  assorting  cor- 
rectly requires  some  experience.  No  article  can  be  written  upon  the  subject  which  will 
enable  a  person  who  never  performed  the  work  to  do  it  properly.  The  leaves,  when  assorted 
into  respective  grades,  are  tied  in  small  hands  or  'hanks,'  containing  from  twelve  to  eigh- 
teen leaves  each,  according  to  the  quality.  We  usually  place  twelve  or  fourteen  leaves  in  a 
hand  of  wrappers,  about  sixteen  in  those  of  binders,  and  twenty  in  fillers.  The  tying  should 
be  done  neatly,  so  that  the  hand,  when  finished,  will  present  a  neat  and  workmanlike  appear- 
ance. Small,  pliable  leaves  should  be  used  for  this  purpose,  which  should  be  selected  by 
the  assorters.  We  usually  employ  small  boys  for  tying  the  hand.  A  small  boy  can  tie 
for  two  to  assort. 

Great  care  needs  to  be  exercised  while  handling  the  tobacco,  to  keep  it  from  drying  out. 
The  ranks  should  be  kept  covered  at  all  times,  and  the  room  wherein  the  assorting  is  done 
should  be  kept  in  a  damp  condition  by  placing  a  vessel  of  water  upon  the  heating-stove,  the 
steam  from  which  will  impregnate  the  air  and  keep  it  moist.  Ordinarily,  tobacco,  when 
assorted,  should  be  re-ranked  to  give  the  butts  of  the  leaves  opportunity  to  become  thoroughly 
cured  before  the  tobacco  is  cased.  Guide-boards  should  be  placed  at  the  proper  distance 
apart  to  admit  of  ranking  between,  the  butts  of  the  hands  being  placed  against  the  boards. 
When  the  rank  is  completed  the  guide-boards  should  be  removed,  and  the  top  and  ends  of 
the  rank  carefully  protected  with  boards  or  a  Hke  material  to  prevent  drying  of  the  tobacco. 
In  this  shape  tobacco  should  remain  until  ready  for  casing." 

In  assorting,  all  the  green  or  "fat"  leaves  should  be  thrown  out,  as  they  are  worthless 
for  anything  except  as  a  fertilizer.  The  casing  or  packing  is  done  either  by  the  buyer  or 
producer,  but  generally  by  the  latter. 

Packing. — Tobacco  is  generally  packed  in  boxes,  the  usual  size  being  from  three 
and  a  half  to  four  feet  long,  two  and  a  half  wide,  and  two  and  a  half  deep.  It  should  be 
packed  quite  closely,  the  man  who  does  it  being  in  the  box  and  pressing  it  down  with  his 
knees.  When  the  box  is  even  full,  the  contents  can  be  crowded  still  more  compactly  by 
means  of  a  lever,  and  follower  that  will  just  fit  the  inside  of  the  box,  after  which  more 
tobacco  can  be  put  in.  Close  packing  prevents  undue  drying,  thus  maintaining  the  desirable 
degree  of  moisture  for  handling.  When  packed  as  full  as  the  box  will  admit,  the  top  should 
be  nailed  on  firmly.  About  three  hundred  pounds  can  be  packed  in  a  box  of  the  above 
description.  In  some  parts  of  the  South  and  West,  hogsheads  are  used  for  packing  tobacco, 
which  will  hold,  when  closely  pressed,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  hundred  pounds.  Major  Ray- 
land,  of  Virginia,  recommends  the  half-hogshead  for  the  purpose  of  packing,  the  grades  to 
be  kept  apart,  or  when  necessary  to  pack  two  or  more  grades  together,  a  layer  of  paper  may 
be  placed  between.  The  smaller  boxes  are  much  more  convenient  for  handling  in  transferring 
from  one  place  to  another.  Boxes  for  this  purpose  can  be  much  more  cheaply  obtained  from 
the  manufacturer  than  can  be  made  by  the  farmer. 

Cultivating  Tobacco  Seed. — When  seed  is  to  be  raised,  the  best  and  most  thrifty 
plants  should  be  selected.  These  should  be  carefully  cultivated,  and  left  to  grow  naturally 
without  topping.  From  four  to  six  good  plants  will  produce,  on  the  average,  a  full  half  pint 
of  seed.  The  worms  should  be  kept  from  these  plants,  and  the  suckers  removed  as  they  make 
their  appearance,  the  soil  frequently  stirred,  and  all  weeds  carefully  excluded.  At  the  time 
of  cutting  the  crop,  from  one-third  to  a  half  of  the  leaves  should  be  taken  off.  This  will 
have  a  tendency  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  seeds. 

When  the  pods  have  turned  dark  brown,  the  heads  should  be  cut  off  and  hung  in  a  dry 


450  THE  A^IERICAN  FARMER. 

place  to  become  cured.  TVTien  thorougbly  di-y,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  look  the  heads  over  care- 
fully, and  with  a  pair  of  scissors  clip  off  all  the  smaller  or  imperfect  pods,  lea\-ing  only  the 
largest  and  best-looking  ones,  which  are  found  at  the  crowns  and  ends  of  the  best  shoots. 
Those  cut  off  should  be  thrown  away,  being  unfit  for  seed.  The  others  may  be  shelled  and 
cleaned  with  a  fine  sieve,  and  put  away  in  a  tin  box  in  a  dry  place  until  needed  for  sowing 
the  next  season.  Before  shelling,  the  heads  should  be  handled  with  care,  as  they  sift  out 
easily,  and  the  contents  of  the  best  pods  might  thus  be  lost. 


COFFEE. 


COFFEE  is  a  tropical  product,  a  native  of  Western  Africa  and  Abyssinia,  and  has 
become  naturalized  in  many  other  countries.  In  its  natural  or  wild  state,  the  coffee- 
tree  attains  a  height  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet,  and  bears  but  few  branches.  In 
cultivation,  the  tree  is  topped  to  from  six  to  ten  feet  from  the  ground,  the  branches  beginning 
quite  near  the  root,  which,  after  being  topped,  gives  it  the  general  form  of  a  pyramid.  The 
leaves  are  oblong-ovate,  from  four  to  five  inches  in  length,  are  opposite  on  the  branch,  ever- 
green, of  a  rich  dark-green  hue,  thick  and  glossy. 

The  flowers  are  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  They  are  small,  white,  and  very 
fragrant.  "When  ripe,  the  pod  or  seed-vessel  is  of  a  dark-red  color,  and  contains  two  cells, 
in  each  of  which  is  a  seed,  called  the  coffee-bean,  or  berry. 

Coffee  is  an  important  plant  in  the  agriculture  of  those  inter-tropical  countries  suited  to 
its  cultivation,  as  its  use  is  almost  universal,  and  the  demand  for  the  product  great,  while  the 
section  of  the  globe  to  which  its  successful  culture  is  restricted  is  limited,  when  compared 
with  that  of  many  other  products.  It  is  stated  by  reliable  authority,  that  the  annual  con- 
sumption of  coffee  in  the  United  States  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  country,  being  six 
times  the  amount  of  that  consumed  by  some  of  the  European  countries.  Germany  and 
France  rank  second,  or  next  to  the  United  States  in  this  respect. 

Brazil,  at  present,  is  the  largest  coffee-producing  country  in  the  world.  The  product  is, 
however,  inferior  to  the  Java  and  Mocha,  but  is  often  sold  in  the  market  under  the  name  of 
these  varieties,  which  are  thus  counterfeited.  The  regions  in  which  the  latter  are  cultivated 
are  so  very  Limited  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  supply  but  a  comparatively  small 
fractional  part  of  the  quantity  that  is  sold  under  those  names,  Brazil  and  other  South  Amer- 
ican countries  producing  quite  a  large  proportion  of  this  product.  The  leaves  of  the  coffee- 
tree  are  said  to  be  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Sumatra,  instead  of  the  berry,  and  are  prepared 
for  use  by  drying.  Chicory  root,  dandelion  root,  carrots,  Indian  com,  rye,  peas,  etc.,  are 
often  used  as  substitutes  for  coffee  after  being  roasted. 

Tarieties. — The  varieties  of  coffee  are  quite  numerous.  The  Mocha,  which  comes  from 
Arabia,  is  considered  by  many  to  be  superior  to  all  others.  There  is  so  much  of  the  counterfeit  in 
market  under  that  name  at  present  that  it  is  difiBcult  to  "find  the  real  article.  It  is  known  by 
the  beans  or  seeds  being  of  a  small  size,  and  of  a  greenish-gray  color.  Java,  or  East  India 
coffee,  has  beans  of  a  large  size  and  yellow  hue.  Jamaica  has  beans  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  Java,  and  greenish  in  color.  Boiu'bon  coffee  has  yellow  beans  of  a  light  shade.  Surinam 
coffee  has  the  largest  beans.  The  Rio,  Ceylon,  Maracaibo,  etc.,  are  varieties  slightly  differing, 
and  though  good,  are  not  generally  considered  equal  to  the  Mocha  or  Java.  The  product 
known  as  the  Male  Berry  differs  from  others  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  bean,  it  being  quite 
roimd  and  small,  instead  of  flat  like  most  other  coffees.  These  round  beans  wnll  be  found  in 
the  product  of  any  kind  of  coffee  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  to  every  twenty  or  twenty- 


COFFEE.  451 

five,  and  are  said  to  be  the  product  of  the  new  shoots  or  wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth. 
They  are  found  singly  in  the  pod,  the  old  wood  producing  flat  berries  with  two  in  each  pod. 
The  Male  Berries  are  selected  from  the  flat  beans  and  sold  in  market  as  a  separate  product. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  and  sub-varieties  besides  those  already  mentioned,  produced 
by  a  difference  in  climate,  soil,  and  cultivation. 

Cultivation. — The  climate  suited  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  coffee  is  tropical. 
It  should  be  so  warm  as  to  be  secure  against  frosts  in  winter.  Hence,  in  this  country  it  can 
be  profitably  grown  only  in  the  extreme  South.  That  it  can  be  grown  in  Manatee  county,  in 
Florida,  has  been  fully  proven  by  experiment  extending  over  a  period  of  several  years,  and 
we  believe  there  are  other  localities  of  about  the  same  latitude  in  which  it  will  thrive  equally 
well,  and  that  planters  in  such  sections  will  do  well  to  try  the  experiment.  At  Togartyville, 
Florida,  coffee-seed  from  Cardova,  Mexico,  was  planted,  which,  after  four  years'  cultivation, 
resulted  in  trees  that  were  full  of  berries  of  different  sizes,  and  in  all  stages  of  growth,  some 
of  which  were  ripe,  others  half-grown,  together  with  the  blossoms  and  buds.  At  this  age, 
one  of  the  trees  was  six  feet  high,  contained  eighty  branches,  and  measured  sixteen  feet 
around  the  tips  of  the  branches,  and  three  inches  around  the  trunk.  The  berries  hung  in 
clusters  of  five  and  six,  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  apart.  Trees  will  also  bear  when 
three  years  old,  under  good  cultivation,  and  continue  to  be  productive  for  twenty  years.  In 
regions  subject  to  occasional  slight  frosts  it  is  well  to  protect  the  trees  in  winter  with  pine 
branches.  Setting  the  coffee-plants  among  banana-trees  is  sometimes  practiced,  as  a  protection 
against  cold  winds.  There  is  at  present  a  small  coffee-plantation  at  the  previously-mentioned 
town  in  Florida,  located  near  the  mouth  of  the  Manatee  river,  which  is  in  a  thriving  condition, 
and  lias  been  pronounced  by  experts  in  coffee-culture  in  Mexico  and  India,  a  decided  success. 

Coffee,  like  tobacco,  owes  much  of  its  difference  in  quality  to  the  climate  and  soil  upon 
which  it  is  grown.  It  requires  a  very  rich  soil  and  warm  climate.  It  thrives  best  in  a  soil 
that  is  rather  moist,  but  not  wet.  In  very  dry  sections  artificial  irrigation  is  pracyced  before 
the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  the  supply  being  cut  off  at  the  ripening  period  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  product.  Coffee  plantations  are  generally  laid  out  in  quadrangles,  the  trees 
being  from  eight  to  ten  feet  apart  each  way  in  rows.  The  ground  should  be  kept  free  from 
grass  and  weeds,  and  the  trees  pruned  or  topped  so  that  they  will  not  exceed  the  height  of 
from  six  to  ten  feet.  The  trees  will  continue  to  bloom  for  eight  months  in  the  year,  which 
results  in  the  fruit  ripening  very  irregularly.  In  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  there  are  three 
annual  gatherings  of  the  crop. 

Gathering. — The  fruit  is  picked  by  hand  from  the  branches  of  the  plant,  and  spread 
on  the  floor  or  large  mats  in  the  sun  to  dry.  It  is  frequently  raked  over  or  turned,  in  order 
to  dry  evenly.  When  thoroughly  dried,  the  outer  pulp  of  the  fruit,  together  with  the  case 
that  encloses  the  seeds,  are  removed  by  being  crushed  between  heavy  rollers,  which  causes 
the  seed  to  shell  out.  This  seed,  or  the  coffee-bean,  is  then  separated  from  the  refuse  by 
winnowing.     It  is  then  ready  to  be  packed  for  market. 

The  care  with  which  it  is  cultivated  and  prepared  for  market,  makes  a  great  difference 
in  the  price  of  the  product. 


452 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


TEA. 

MANY  and  repeated  experiments  in  this  country  have  fully  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  tea  can  be  successfully  produced  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States. 
These  experiments  have  extended  over  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  years — those 
of  the  past  few  years  resulting  so  satisfactorily  as  to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  time  is  not 
far  distant  when  American  soil,  and  American  industry,  will  supply  the  demand  of  our  peo- 
ple for  this  product. 

It  may  be  some  time  before  tea  wiU  be  cultivated  here  on  a  very  large  scale,  but  we  are 

confident  that  it  can  be  pro- 
duced by  the  farmer  and 
gardener,  on  a  small  scale, 
at  a  much  less  cost  than  the 
imported  article  involves, 
while  there  will  be  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  having  a 
pure,  unadulterated  article  for 
use.  Many  of  the  imported 
teas  are,  when  placed  upon 
the  family  table,  a  decoction 
of  various  poisonous  materi- 
als used  in  their  manufacture, 
special  dyes  and  chemical 
substances  being  applied  to 
change  their  appearance,  and 
give  them  the  desired  color. 
In  Liberty  Co.,  Georgia, 
there  is,  according  to  the 
best  authority,  a  tea-planta- 
tion owned  by  Mr.  John 
Jackson,  which  embraces 
nearly  forty  acres,  and  is 
occupied  by  a  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  tea-plants. 
Tea  has  been  cultivated  in 
various  portions  of  the  South 
in  a  small  way,  for  many 
years.  The  tea-plant  has 
been  found  growing  wild  in 
the  mountainous  regions  of 
Assam  and  Yunnan,  and  this 
has  led  to  the  opinion  that  it 
is  a  native  of  this  section. 

In  its  wild  state,  it  grows 
in  the  form  of  a  tree,  some- 
times attaining  the  height  of 
thirty  feet  or  more,  and  its 
SCENES  IN  A  BLACK-TEA  DISTRICT  IN  BOHEA.  tnmk  measuring  ten  inches 

in  diameter.     In  this  country,  however,  it  grows  as  a  shrub.     It  bears  at  the  age  of  two  or 
three  years,  and  continues  to  be  productive  about  twelve  years. 


X. 


LEAF  OF  TEA. 


TEA  LEAVES. 


454 


TEA.  455 

The  average  product  of  a  single  plant  is  about  six  ounces,  which  is  gathered  at  three 
diiierent  times  during  the  season.  Sometimes  there  is  a  fourth  gleaning,  but  the  quaUty  is 
inferior  to  that  previously  obtained.  The  flowers  open  early  in  the  spring,  are  rather  small, 
pure  wliite,  and  slightly  odorous.  They  appear  at  the  axils  of  the  branches,  on  short  stalks, 
usually  solitary,  but  sometimes  two  or  three  together.  The  flowers  are  described  as  having 
five  or  six  sepals  supporting  the  blossoms,  which  fall  ofi  after  the  flower  has  expanded,  and 
leave  from  six  to  nine  petals  surrounding  a  large  number  of  yellow  stamens  that  are  joined 
together  at  their  bases,  forming  a  kind  of  floral  coronal.  The  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a  hard, 
smooth  capsule,  somewhat  triangular  in  form,  which  is  divided  in  the  interior  into  from  two 
to  five  cells,  each  containing  a  finn,  white,  and  sHghtly  oily  seed,  of  a  peculiarly  bitter  flavor. 
These  seeds  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  a  good-sized  hazel-nut.  The  seed  ripens, 
according  to  the  climate,  from  October  to  January.  The  stem  is  bushy,  with  many  branches. 
The  foliage  is  dense,  and  the  wood  of  a  light  color,  hard,  and  close  grained.  It  is  an  ever- 
green, and  quite  an  ornamental  plant.  The  leaves  are  rather  large  when  full-grown,  and  of  a 
somewhat  elKptic  form, — as  will  be  seen  by  the  illustration, — glossy  and  smooth,  serrated 
except  at  the  base,  and  of  a  dark  green  color. 

Tarieties. — The  difference  in  the  various  brands  of  tea,  as  they  appear  in  the  market, 
is  due  more  to  the  artificial  manipulation  of  the  product,  and  the  condition  of  the  leaves 
when  gathered,  than  the  difference  in  variety. 

Many  of  the  names  appKed  to  teas  are  descriptive  of  the  locality  or  country  that  produce 
them,  such  as  the  Java  tea,  Japan  tea,  etc.,  while  according  to  the  condition  of  the  leaf  when 
gathered,  we  have  the  Bohea  tea  from  leaves  fully  grown,  and  gathered  after  the  regular  har- 
vest, which  is  of  the  coarsest  quality;  the  gunpowder  tea,  made  from  the  small,  curled  leaves 
that  are  young  and  tender,  while  the  black  and  green  teas  are  produced  from  the  same  plant, 
their  difference  in  color  being  due  to  the  different  process  in  curing  and  manufacturing. 

Cultivation. — Tea  is  quite  a  hardy  plant,  and  capable  of  adapting  itself  to  a  great 
variety  of  soils  and  climates.  In  Japan  it  is  cultivated  successfully  as  far  north  as  forty-three 
degrees,  where,  during  the  winter,  the  ground  is  sometimes  frozen  six  inches  deep  for  weeks. 
The  plant  will  also  bear  an  ordinai-y  drought  well  in  summer.  In  Java,  the  conditions  are 
the  reverse,  the  temperature  being  very  warm,  while  in  China  it  thrives  equally  well  under  a 
tropical  sun,  and  in  higher  latitudes  where  snow  and  ice  often  cover  the  leaves.  Tea  is  culti- 
vated most  extensively  in  China  and  Japan,  and,  next  to  these  countries,  in  East  Bengal  in 
the  provinces  of  Assam  and  Cochar. 

The  tea-plant  will  thrive  well  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  those  that  contain  much  water 
are  injurious;  consequently  the  land  selected  for  tea  culture  should  be  well  drained,  either 
naturally  or  artificially,  and  not  hable  to  overflow.  Almost  any  kind  of  soil,  not  too  wet,  and 
of  medium  fertility,  will  answer  the  purpose,  that  which  is  very  rich  not  being  absolutely 
essential  to  its  successful  culture.  Any  soil  must,  however,  be  kept  well  cultivated,  and  free 
from  weeds.  A  rich,  sandy  loam  in  the  vicinity  of  small  streams  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  best. 

The  plants  are  grown  from  seed  which  somewhat  resemble  hazel-nuts,  as  previously 
described.  The  good  seed  can  be  separated  from  those  that  are  worthless  by  soaking  them 
in  warm  water  about  twelve  hours.  Those  which  sink  to  the  bottom  should  be  planted,  and 
those  that  rise  to  the  surface  should  be  discarded.  They  require  some  time  to  germinate, 
and  start  soonest  if  put  in  a  cool,  moist  place,  well  shaded.  They  are  sometimes  sown  where 
the  plant  is  Intended  to  grow,  three  or  four  being  dropped  near  together,  and  covered  to  the 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches;  but  the  more  common  practice  is  to  plant  the  seed,  one  in  a 
place,  in  a  nursery,  and  transplant  afterward. 

They  can  be  transplanted  without  injury  when  from  six  months  to  a  year  old,  if  care  is 


456  THE  AMERICAN  FARJEER. 

taken  not  to  break  the  long  roots,  and  a  small  portion  of  earth  is  permitted  to  adhere  to  them 
in  taking  them  up.  The  land  should  be  well  tilled,  and  thoroughly  pulverized  before  sowing 
the  seed  or  transplanting. 

The  roots  of  the  young  plants  are  quite  sensitive  to  the  hot  sim,  consequently  they 
require  considerable  shading  during  the  first  year.  This  may  be  done  by  boughs  of  pine,  or 
other  foliage  furnishing  a  good  shade.  Mr.  Jackson,  previously  referred  to,  states  that  plants 
under  shade  give  the  highest  yield,  but  those  that  have  been  mulched  are  not  far  behind  in 
this  respect.  The  mulched  plants  probably  produce  the  most  shoots,  but  the  sun  hardens 
them  quicker  than  those  grown  in  the  shade.  The  best  time  for  transplanting  is  in  April  or 
May,  the  plants  being  set  at  a  distance  of  about  four  feet  each  way. 

When  they  are  about  two  years  old,  they  are  cut  down  to  about  eighteen  inches.  This 
pruning  is  usually  done  in  January.  The  plants  soon  throw  out  new  shoots,  which  are  per- 
mitted to  grow  until  they  attain  considerable  size  before  the  picking  commences.  When  two 
or  three  feet  high,  the  shrubs  produce  flowers  and  seeds. 

Picking. — Plants  thrive  best  if  the  picking  is  delayed  until  they  are  nearly  three  years 
old,  when  they  will  be  from  four  to  five  feet  high.  In  the  following  December,  after  pruning, — 
which  is  when  the  plant  is  three  years  old, — a  second  pruning  is  given,  which  is  more  carefully 
performed  than  the  first,  since  it  gives  form  to  the  bush  that  is  to  furnish  the  future  crops. 

In  picking,  care  is  necessary  in  order  that  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  leaf  be  taken,  the 
other  third  being  left  to  protect  the  new-forming  buds  from  injury.  The  tea  that  is  made 
from  the  young  and  tender  leaves  first  gathered  is  of  the  best  quality. 

The  usual  number  of  tea-pickings  during  the  year  is  three,  but  sometimes  a  fourth  is 
given;  this,  however,  wiU  be  of  inferior  quaUty.  The  jrield  varies  with  the  size  of  the  plants. 
From  sis  to  eight  good  plants,  with  proper  care,  would  be  suflGcient,  with  the  average  yield, 
to  supply  an  ordinary  family  with  tea  for  a  year. 

The  method  and  time  of  picking  varies  in  different  countries.  In  Japan  it  generally 
commences  in  April  after  the  heavy  rains,  and  continues  through  !May  and  June,  the  first 
three  leaves  of  every  stalk  or  stem  being  picked,  while  in  India  the  first  sis  leaves  are 
taken. 

Curing.  —  The  most  difficult  process  in  the  management  of  the  tea  product  is  the  curing, 
involving  much  time  and  labor,  combined  with  skillful  practice.  The  methods  adopted  in 
old  tea-growing  countries,  have  not  yet  been  closely  followed  in  the  United  States,  but  when 
their  art  is  more  perfectly  understood,  and  the  best  machinery  for  the  purpose  has  been 
devised  and  employed,  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  product  of  this  country  will  fully  equal,  if 
not  surpass,  that  of  the  best,  pure,  imported  teas. 

Some  who  have  cultivated  tea  to  a  considerable  estent  for  home  consumption,  simply 
heat  the  leaves  slightly  in  an  oven,  and  spread  them  in  a  dry  place  to  perfect  the  cui-ing 
process.  Others  practice  a  much  more  elaborate  method,  which  consist-s  of  carefully  assort- 
ing the  leaves,  spreading  them  on  a  table  as  soon  as  gathered,  where  they  remain  about  twelve 
or  fourteen  hours,  or  untU  they  are  sufficiently  wilted.  They  are  then  rubbed  with  the  hands 
until  they  are  soft  and  pUable,  and  left  in  small  heaps  for  two  or  three  hours,  when  they  are 
put  into  a  Dutch-oven,  and,  with  a  moderate  fu-e,  carefully  roasted.  During  the  roasting 
process,  which  lasts  four  or  five  minutes,  the  leaves  are  constantly  stirred  to  prevent  their 
being  burned,  or  unevenly  cured.  They  are  then  taken  out  and  rubbed  and  rolled  on  a 
table  as  before.  Then  they  are  spread  in  the  sun  for  a  short  time  to  dry,  being  frequently 
stirred,  after  which  they  are  again  roasted  and  rolled.  This  process  is  followed  by  putting 
them  about  an  inch  thick  in  a  wire  sieve,  and  holdmg  them  over  the  hot  coals,  being  con- 
stantly stirred,  when  they  are  taken  out  and  again  subjected  to  the  nibbing  and  rolling. 
This  is  repeated  until  the  leaves  are  of  a  dark  color.     They  are  then  put  in  a  basket  and 


YOUNG  TEA  PLANT  AND  ROOT. 


TEA.  459 

hung  over  the  coals  and  stirred  until  the  leaves  are  quite  dry  and  black,  when  they  are  ready 
to  be  packed  in  tight  boxes  or  jars. 

The  thorough  manipulation  thus  given  is  said  to  greatly  improve  the  quality,  and  pro- 
duces a  fine  fl.avor  that  could  not  otherwise  be  obtained.  This  method  of  during  produces 
the  black  tea.  The  process  described,  combined  with  squeezing  the  leaves  when  they  are 
moist  and  hot,  gives  them  the  peculiar  twist  that  characterizes  them  when  dry. 

When  the  leaves  become  sufficiently  crisp  to  be  easily  broken  by  the  thumb  and  finger, 
the  tea  is  considered  ready  for  packing.  It  is  generally  packed  while  warm,  care  being  ijfed 
that  the  box  be  perfectly  dry. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  green  and  black  teas  were  produced  by  different  varieties 
of  the  plant,  but  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  color  is  due  to  the  different  manner 
in  which  the  leaf  is  cured. 

Green  tea,  instead  of  being  first  exposed  to  the  air  for  several  hours,  is  put  over  the  fire 
almost  as  soon  as  picked,  and  heated  a  few  moments,  after  which  it  is  cured  the  same  as 
black  tea.  This  process  imparts  a  greenish  hue  to  the  leaves.  The  black  color  being  the 
result  of  longer  exposure  to  the  air  and  heat,  green  tea  can  be  changed  into  black,  but  the 
black  tea  cannot  be  turned  into  green,  without  adulterating  it  by  coloring. 

The  method  of  curing  tea  differs,  somewhat,  in  different  countries,  and  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  same  country.  The  following  is  translated  from  a  Japanese  work,  showing  the 
method  practiced  in  that  country :  — 

"  The  leaves  are  carried  in  from  the  field,  and  by  means  of  sieves  the  two  small  bracts 
attached  to  every  stem  and  broken  or  fragmental  leaves,  must  be  separated  from  the  good  and 
whole  leaves.  The  old  leaves,  sticks,  etc.,  should  also  be  carefully  separated  from  the  good 
leaves.  It  is  always  the  best  way  to  prepare  the  leaves  on  the  same  day  they  are  picked ;  for 
if  kept  through  the  night,  their  quality  is  somewhat  impaired;  if  two  nights  be  allowed,  they 
will  lose  much  of  their  flavor;  therefore,  the  quantity  to  be  picked  must  be  calculated  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  hands  and  heaters  (or  hoiro,  a  utensil  made  of  thick  paper,  with  frames, 
for  the  purpose  of  heating  the  leaves).  The  fire-place  must  be  built  large  enough  for  a  boiler 
about  two  feet  in  diameter;  fill  this  boiler  with  eight-tenths  of  water,  and  boil  it  until  it  reaches 
two  hundred  and  twelve  degrees.  When  the  steam  rises,  a  square  piece  of  cedar  board  with  a 
large  hole  in  the  center  is  fixed  on  the  boiler.  On  this  board,  and  around  the  outer  edge  of 
the  circle,  is  placed  a  circular  mat,  made  of  rice  straw,  to  prevent  the  steam  from  escaping, 
and  on  this  mat  is  placed  the  steamer. 

Then  about  half  a  pound  of  the  green  leaves  are  put  in  the  steamer  and  covered.  After 
thirty  seconds  the  cover  is  taken  off  and  the  leaves  are  stirred  up  by  means  of  small  wooden 
sticks,  made  of  Pauhwnia  imperialis.  The  same  process  is  repeated  thii-ty  seconds  after- 
ward. The  leaves  soon  become  adhesive,  and  have  a  tendency  somewhat  to  cling  to  the 
sticks,  and  this  is  a  sign  that  the  steaming  is  done.  This  is  the  time  to  take  them  aside  and 
put  them  in  a  cooler  place,  and  this  is  done  by  turning  the  box  upside  down,  as  the  steamer, 
which  is  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  will  come  out  at  the  upper  part.  Then  spread  the  leaves, 
cooling  them  with  fans,  and  after  they  become  cool  enough,  put  them  into  baskets,  and  get 
them  ready  to  be  sent  to  the  heating  department. 

In  heating,  a  place  must  be  arranged  three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long,  and  about  three  feet 
high,  plastered  inside  and  out  with  mud.  Burn  in  the  furnace  about  twenty  pounds  of 
oak-wood  charcoal.  When  the  fire  becomes  hot,  put  in  two  or  three  bundles  of  straw  in 
order  to  make  the  heat  softer;  then  put  iron  bars  across  the  furnace  and  the  copper- wire  nets 
over  the  bars,  and  spread  the  heater  (of  thick  paper)  which  is  made  to  fit  the  place.  Four 
pounds  of  the  steamed  leaves  may  then  be  scattered  on  the  paper;  rub  them  very  softly  with 
both  hands;  winnow  or  throw  them  very  lightly,  and  stir  them.  This  ought  to  be  skillfully 
performed,  so  that  the  proper  color  and  flavor  may  be  secured.     Then  they  must  be  taken 


460  THE  A3IERICAN  FARJIER. 

aside  at  the  moment  when  they  are  almost  dry.  When  the  day's  work  is  over,  take  the  fire 
out  from  the  furnace,  and  prepare  as  was  done  before;  then  scatter  the  leaves  which  were 
heated  during  the  day,  drying  them  in  this  way  during  the  night.  At  this  time  about 
twenty-four  pounds  may  be  spread  over,  but  it  requires  great  experience  to  heat  them  in  this 
way.  The  softer  heat  is  preferred  to  the  greater  heat.  The  quantity  of  the  best  tea  which 
may  be  prepared  by  one  laborer  per  day  is  about  thirty  povmds  on  an  average;  and  the 
quantity  of  the  inferior  quality,  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty-seven  pounds.  About  one  pound 
and  three-fourths  of  tea  is  generally  made  out  of  eight  pounds  and  five  ounces  of  the  green 
leaves. 

For  the  finishing  process  a  sieve  should  be  used,  in  which  the  dried  tea  is  to  be  softly 
rubbed  by  the  palms  of  the  hands,  separating  the  tea  from  the  stems.  The  next  process  is  to 
separate  the  tea  from  dust,  sticks,  stems,  etc.,  by  winnowing;  and  if  this  is  difficult  to  do, 
put  them  on  a  stand  and  sort  them  into  two  or  three  classes,  and  then  use  a  finer  sieve. 
After  this  has  been  done  five  or  six  times,  separate  the  larger  leaves  from  the  others,  and  so 
on  with  the  finer  leaves." 

Adulteration  of  Tea. — Pure  Japan  tea,  in  its  natural  state,  has  a  long  twisted  leaf, 
and  is  of  a  brownish  green  color.  Much  of  the  imported  teas  are  adulterated  in  order  to 
increase  their  weight,  and  improve  their  color,  gloss,  etc.,  inferior  grades  of  tea  often  being 
made  to  have  the  appearance  of  those  of  the  best  quality.  These  adulterations  consist  of 
leaves  of  other  plants  being  mixed  with  the  tea;  the  mixing  of  exhausted  tea-leaves;  silica, 
metallic  iron,  prussian  blue,  indigo,  turmeric,  kaolin,  etc.,  many  of  the  adulterations  used 
being  very  poisonous.  It  is  a  significant  fact,  that  the  "  Celestials  "  themselves  wiU  never  use 
these  colored  teas,  but  prepare  them  for  the  palates  and  stomachs  of  their  American  and 
European  neighbors;  those  for  their  own  use  being  always  of  the  purest  and  finest  quality. 


PEANUTS. 


THE  peanut,  known  also  in  different  sections  as  the  ground-nut,  ground-pea,  goober, 
pinda,  etc.,  is  a  leguminous  plant,  and  a  native  of  Africa.  In  this  country  its  cul- 
ture  is,  therefore,  best  adapted  to  the  Southern  States,  although  it  may  be  successfully 
cultivated  much  farther  north  than  was  formerly  supposed.  It  has  been  grown  as  far  north 
as  Massachusetts,  in  a  small  way,  but  we  doubt  whether  for  market  purposes  it  would  prove  a 
profitable  crop  in  a  much  higher  latitude  than  that  of  Virginia. 

In  the  United  States,  the  peanut  is  most  extensively  cultivated  in  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  North  Carohna,  although  it  is  grown  to  a  certain  extent  in  many  other  sections.  This 
product,  in  the  State  of  Virginia  alone,  in  one  year  recently  amounted  to  about  one  million 
and  three  hundred  thousand  bushels. 

The  blossoms  and  vine  of  this  plant  resemble  somewhat  the  common  pea— the  latter 
growing  quite  rapidly  and  thickly  overspreading  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are 
planted.  After  flowering,  the  pods  form  and  penetrate  into  the  ground  to  a  sufBcient  depth 
to  be  well  covered,  where  they  remain  and  ripen. 

In  Africa  and  South  America,  the  peanut  has  long  been  cultivated  as  an  article  of  food. 
In  this  country  it  has  become  a  product  of  considerable  market  value,  and  is  also  largely 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  oil,  of  which  the  kernel  yields  over  twenty  per  cent.  They 
were  formerly  cultivated  largely  at  the  South  for  the  purpose  of  fattening  swine,  but  at 
present  are  used  in  this  manner  only  to  a  limited  extent.  The  oil  expressed  from  the 
kernel  is  valuable  for  many  purposes,  but  mainly  for  mixing  with  olive  oil.  When  not 
earthed  up,  it  is  said  that  the  vines  wiU  yield  a  fodder  scarcely  inferior  to  the  best  clover. 


PEANUTS.  461 

Cultivation.  —  This  crop  is  easily  cultivated  in  a  climate  favorable  to  its  growth,  while, 
when  well-maniired,  the  yield  is  generally  large  in  proportion  to  that  of  many  other  products. 
The  peanut  is  a  plant  not  very  exacting  with  respect  to  soil,  if  it  be  sufficiently  dry,  although 
a  rich  soil  is  to  be  preferred.  It  thrives  best  in  a  sandy  loam,  which  should  be  kept  well 
stirred,  in  order  to  be  in  a  condition  to  pennit  the  pods  to  enter  it.  A  light-colored  soil  la 
desirable  where  the  crop  is  designed  for  market,  as  the  color  of  the  soil  afiects  very  materially 
the  color  of  the  pods,  and  consequently  the  market  price,  although  there  may  be  no  real 
difference  in  the  quality  of  the  nut  produced  by  such  soils  and  those  of  a  darker  color. 

The  stain  of  red  clays  and  other  dark  soils  cannot  be  removed  from  the  pods  even  by 
washing,  while  nuts  with  clean,  light  pods  will  bring  considerably  more  per  bushel  than  those 
of  a  darker  hue.  Lime  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  for  this  crop,  but  it  should  be  used  in 
oomieotion  with  compost  or  stable-manure.  The  soil  should  be  plowed  to  the  depth  of  about 
four  or  five  inohes,  and  thoroughly  harrowed,  in  order  to  render  it  as  mellow  as  possible.  A 
practical  cultivator  of  this  crop  in  Virginia  gives  the  following  method :  — 

"  In  choosing  a  site  for  planting,  reference  should  be  had  to  the  crop  of  the  previous 
year.  Peamits  require  a  clean  soil.  They  will  follow  any  hoed  crop  to  advantage,  with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  sweet  potatoes.  Corn  land  is  generally  preferred.  In  tide-water 
Virginia,  much  of  the  land  was  heavily  marled  in  former  years,  and  when  this  is  the  case, 
an  important,  and  perhaps  the  chief,  requisite  to  success  has  been  already  provided. 

The  peanut  will  not  fruit  well  except  in  a  calcareous  soil.  The  vines  may  grow  with  the 
greatest  luxuriance,  covering  the  whole  ground,  but,  in  the  absence  of  lime  or  marl,  the  pods 
do  not  fill;  they  turn  out  to  be  nothing  more  than  what  is  popularly  called  pops.  If,  then, 
the  land  has  not  been  previously  marled  or  hmed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  apply,  say,  a  hundred 
and  fifty  bushels  of  marl,  or  fifty  bushels  of  lime,  to  the  acre.  It  is  applied  in  either  of 
several  ways,  according  to  the  convenience  of  the  planter,  and  with  about  equally  good  efiect. 
If  there  is  any  choice,  spreading  broadcast  is  perhaps  the  best,  to  be  done  before  the  land  is 
plowed,  in  which  case  the  quantity  should  be  about  fifty  bushels  per  acre.  A  favorite  mode, 
where  a  large  surface  is  to  be  planted,  is  to  strew  the  lime  in  the  furrow  over  which  the  bed 
is  to  be  raised  for  planting.  In  this  case,  a  less  quantity  will  answer  by  reason  of  its  being 
more  concentrated — say  twenty  bushels.  Other  planters,  again,  who  are  hurried  in  their 
work,  spread  the  lime  over  the  beds  after  the  crop  is  planted,  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty 
bushels  per  acre.  Either  mode  is  attended  with  good  success,  but  wherever  it  is  practicable 
to  have  a  choice  of  land  that  has  been  sufficiently  marled  or  limed  in  former  years,  and  pre-' 
served  by  judicious  culture,  the  best  results  are  found  to  foUow.  In  such  cases  the  yield  not 
unfrequently  reaches  a  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  product  ranges  from  the  quantity 
stated  down  to  twenty -five  or  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre,  according  to  the  skill,  or  want  of 
skill,  in  the  planter,  a  fair  average  of  the  whole  being  estimated  at  fifty  bushels. 

Few  persons  make  peanuts  part  of  a  system  of  rotation,  but  the  preeminent  success  of  a 
gentleman  who  has  followed  the  plan  is  worthy  of  special  reference.  The  lot  intended  for 
peanuts  the  following  year  is  seeded  to  stock  peas,  and  the  vines  plowed  in  some  time  in  Sep- 
tember. The  vines  contain  a  great  deal  of  vegetable  matter  that  becomes  thoroughly  decom- 
posed by  the  time  of  planting  the  crop.  When  the  season  for  planting  is  at  hand,  the  ground 
is  re-plowed  and  laid  off,  and  ten  bushels  of  lime  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  a  hundred  and 
seventy-five  pounds  of  superphosphate  strewn  in  the  furrows  to  be  ridged  over.  The  year 
following  peanuts,  the  land  is  planted  in  sweet-potatoes,  with  a  liberal  dressing  of  stable- 
manure.  The  third  year  it  is  laid  down  in  stock  peas  again,  to  be  followed  by  peanuts,  as 
before,  always  repeating  the  lime  and  superphosphate. 

Having  selected  the  ground,  it  is  plowed  in  March  or  April  to  a  depth  not  exceeding 
four  or  five  inches.  The  advantages  of  shallow  culture  will  be  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
the  peduncles  continue  to  penetrate  the  earth  until  a  firm  bed  is  reached  on  which  to  deposit 
29 


462  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

the  nut;  and  the  still  further  fact  of  increased  facility  afforded  in  harvesting,  as  will  appear 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  that  branch  of  the  subject.  From  the  10th  to  the  20th  of  May  is 
the  time  for  planting.  If  the  land  is  thin  and  needs  manuring,  open  the  furrows  three  feet 
apart  and  strew  in  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  twenty- five  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano,  or 
from  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds  of  superphosphate  of  lime.  The  former  is 
generally  used  because  of  the  greater  certainty  of  getting  a  pure  article,  but  nothing  can  be 
better  than  the  latter  when  well  prepared. 

The  furrow  is  then  to  be  ridged  over,  and  the  whole  surface  thrown  into  three-feet  beds, 
which  should  be  reduced  to  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  general  level  of  the  field.  Then 
mark  off  the  rows,  and  at  distances  of  eighteen  inches  plant  two  seeds,  covering  them  from 
an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  haK  deep — not  more. 

A  matter  of  primary  importance  is  to  provide  seeds  of  a  good  quality  for  planting,  and, 
in  order  to  be  assured  of  their  excellence,  the  planter  should  either  raise  them  himself,  or 
buy  them  of  a  person  on  whose  fidelity  he  can  rely.  If,  after  the  vines  are  dry  and  are  lying 
in  the  field,  they  should  be  exposed  to  frosty  weather,  the  germinating  principle  would  be 
destroyed  or  impaired.  As  a  merchantable  article,  however,  their  value  is  not  affected. 
Neither  should  the  nuts  become  the  least  heated  or  mouldy,  nor  should  they  be  picked  off  the 
vines  while  wet,  or  before  they  are  thoroughly  cured.  It  is  ob\'ious,  therefore,  that  the  most 
careful  attention  is  requisite  in  this  matter.  Previous  to  planting,  the  pods  should  be  care- 
fully shelled,  and  every  faulty  bean  thrown  out;  not  even  the  membrane  enclosing  the  seed 
should  be  ruptured.     It  takes  about  two  bushels  of  peanuts  in  the  pod  to  plant  an  acre. 

In  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  according  to  the  weather,  the  young  plants  begin  to  come  up. 
As  it  is  very  important  to  get  a  good  start,  the  missing  hills  should  be  re-planted  at  the 
earliest  moment.  It  is  the  custom  of  some  planters  to  put  an  extra  quantity  of  seed  in  every 
fourth  or  fifth  row,  to  furnish  plants  for  transplanting,  if  needed ;  if  not  needed,  they  can  bo 
thinned  out.  As  soon  as  the  grass  makes  its  appearance,  give  a  Ught  plowing,  throwing  the 
earth  from  the  vines,  and  following  with  the  hoe,  thoroughly  removing  all  the  grass  and 
weeds  from  the  row.  Plow  again  as  soon  as  the  grass  reappears,  this  time  using  a  double 
shovel  or  cultivator,  and  the  hoe  as  before  directed. 

If  the  season  should  prove  to  be  very  wet,  a  third  working  may  be  necessary,  making 
use  of  the  cultivator  and  hoe  again.  Next  comes  the  time  for  laying  by,  the  vines  having 
by  this  time  extended  nearly  half  way  across  the  space  between  the  rows.  This  is  done  by  run- 
ning a  mould-board  once  in  the  middle  between  the  rows  and  drawing  the  earth  up  to  the 
rows  with  a  hoe,  care  being  taken  not  to  cover  the  vines  and  to  disturb  their  position  as  little 
as  possible,  as  the  fruit  will  now  be  forming.  It  wiU  be  necessary,  also,  to  guard  against 
making  the  bed  too  high.  When  there  is  grass  in  the  row,  it  must  be  pulled  up  by  hand. 
Soon  after  this  the  vines  will  cover  the  whole  ground  and  repress  every  other  growth,  unless 
it  may  be  a  chance  weed  that  escaped  notice  at  the  former  working. 

In  some  sections  it  is  customary,  as  soon  as  the  vines  show  blossoms,  to  cover  them  with 
about  an  inch  of  soil  taken  from  between  the  rows,  this  covering  to  extend  over  the  entire 
plant,  except  the  tips  of  the  runners,  which  are  left  peeping  out  of  the  ground.  It  is,  how- 
ever, more  common  to  leave  them  uncovered,  according  to  the  method  previously  recom- 
mended. 

Harvesting  Peanuts. — The  time  for  harvesting  the  orop  is  from  the  15th  to  the 
30th  of  October,  immediately  after  the  first  frost.  When  the  crop  is  forward,  or  when  it  is 
an  object  to  get  a  portion  of  it  early  in  market,  the  operation  may  be  commenced  in  the  latter 
part  of  September,  but  the  longer  the  vines  continue  to  grow,  the  greater  will  be  the  number 
of  sound  pods.  Select  a  time  when  the  weather  is  settled  and  favorable,  and  with  three- 
pronged  hoes  loosen  the  vines  along  the  rows.  Hands  follow  the  digger,  pull  up  the  vines, 
shake  the  dirt  from  them,  and  leave  them  in  the  same  place.  In  dry  weather  they  will  be 
sufficiently  cured  in  two  days  to  be  shocked. 


PEANUTS.  .  463 

Showery  weather,  though  it  may  somewhat  delay  the  curing,  does  no  injury.  One  of 
the  advantages  of  shallow  culture  becomes  apparent  in  harvesting.  When  the  fruit  is  depos- 
ited only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface,  the  vine  is  detached  from  its  position  with  little  or 
no  loss;  when  the  depth  is  greater,  the  stems  are  liable  to  be  broken  off.  In  shocking,  pro- 
vide stakes  seven  feet  long,  made  sharp  at  both  ends;  then  lay  two  fence-rails  on  the  ground 
as  a  foundation,  but  with  supports  underneath  to  afford  free  access  to  the  air.  The  stakes 
are  stuck  in  the  ground  at  convenient  intervals  between  the  rails,  the  stacks  built  up  around 
them  and  finished  off  by  a  cap  of  straw  to  shed  the  rain.  The  diameter  of  the  stack  is  made 
to  conform  to  the  spread  of  a  single  vine.  After  remaining  about  two  weeks  in  the  stack, 
the  picking  should  be  begun,  taking  off  none  but  the  matured  pods.  These  are  to  be  carried 
to  the  barn,  and  prepared  for  market  by  finishing  the  drying  process  and  then  fanning  and 
cleaning.     The  most  tedious  part  of  the  work  is  the  picking. 

An  expert  discfiminates  at  a  glance  between  the  mature  and  immature  pods,  but  cannot 
pick  more  than  two  and  a  half  or  three  bushels  per  day.  A  machine  to  perform  the  operation 
would  be  a  most  valuable  invention.  Unless  the  management  in  the  barn  is  carefully  con- 
ducted, there  is  great  danger  where  there  is  much  of  a  bulk  that  the  peas  will  become  heated 
and  mouldy.  The  condition  m  which  the  early  deliveries  are  often  received  at  market  renders 
this  caution  quite  necessary.  In  fact,  there  is  as  much  slovenliness  in  the  handling  of  this 
crop  as  there  is  in  regard  to  any  other,  perhaps  more,  for  the  reason  that  so  many  inexperi- 
enced persons  engage  in  the  culture  every  year.  Until  the  pods  are  thoroughly  seasoned,  the 
bulk  should  be  frequently  stirred  and  turned  over.  A  certain  classification  in  respect  to 
quality  is  as  applicable  to  peanuts  as  any  other  agricultural  product.  The  descriptive  terms 
in  general  use  are  "fancy,"  "prime,"  "ordinary,"  "inferior";  but  these  are  not  so  definite  as 
to  admit  of  no  intermediate  grades.  Assuming  prime  to  be  the  standard,  and  that  the  prime 
are  two  dollars  and  seventy-five  cents  per  bushel,  then  the  inferior  would  be  worth  a  dollar  or  a 
dollar  and  a  half,  the  ordinary  two  dollars  or  two  dollars  and  a  half,  and  the  fancy  thi-ee  dollars. 

There  are  two  very  distinct  varieties  of  peanuts,  known  respectively  by  the  names  of 
Virginia  and  the  Carolina  or  African.  The  diversity  between  them,  however,  does  not 
amount  to  a  specific  difference,  the  chief  characteristic  being  that  the  one  has  a  large  pod  and 
bean,  and  the  other  a  small  one.  The  Virginia  is  cultivated  almost  exclusively  for  eating, 
while  the  Carolina  is  principally  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oil,  which  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  olive  oil,  and  is  accordingly  sold  as  such. 

After  the  crop  has  been  harvested,  the  swine  should  be  turned  on  to  the  ground  and 
allowed  to  eat  what  remain  in  the  soil.  Some  planters  prefer  flat  culture,  but  the  ridge 
method  is  generally  regarded  as  the  best. 

Preparing  for  Market. — Assorting  and  preparing  this  crop  for  market  is  often  done 
in  establishments  for  this  purpose,  as  follows:  The  peanuts  are  placed  in  a  large  cylinder,  fi-om 
which  they  enter  another  with  revolving  brushes,  where  each  nut  receives  fifteen  feet  of  a 
brushing  before  it  becomes  free.  Then  they  are  dropped  on  an  endless  belt  passing  along  at 
the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour.  On  each  side  of  this  belt  are  stationed  girls  whose  duty  is  to 
pick  out,  with  a  quick  motion  of  the  hand,  all  the  inferior-looking  nuts,  allowing  only  the  best 
to  pass  the  crucible,  those  that  do  pass  dropping  into  bags  placed  for  their  reception.  As 
fast  as  the  bags  are  filled,  they  are  sewed  up  and  branded  as  first  quality.  Those  that  are 
selected  out  from  these  are  again  assorted  and  the  best  of  them  branded  as  second  quality. 
These  are  generally  as  good  in  quality  as  the  first,  but  do  not  compare  with  them  in  shape 
and  color. 

Those  that  remain  are  again  assorted,  and  constitute  the  third  grade,  and  so  on.  The 
last  that  remain  from  the  various  cullings  are  shelled  by  a  machine  for  the  purpose,  and  win- 
nowed, after  which  they  are  bagged  and  supplied  to  confectioners  for  the  purpose  of  making 
taffy,  or  peanut  candy.  Even  the  shells  are  utilized,  as  they  furnish  excellent  bedding  for 
horses. 


404  •  THE  AJIERICAN  FAR^rER. 

INDIGO. 

THE  indigo  plant  was  formerly  cultivated  in  the  Southern   States  to  a  considerable 
extent.     The  decline  in  its  cultivation  in  this  country  was  probably  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cotton-gin,  and  the  consequent  greater  profits  arising  from  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cotton. 

It  is  easily  cultivated,  and  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  of  agriculture  in  Hindoostan. 
Whether  it  will  ever  again  be  grown  to  any  extent  in  the  United  States  is  a  question  yet  to 
be  determined.  The  market  demand  for  the  product,  and  the  price  it  commands,  are  such 
as  to  waiTant  the  opinion  that,  with  sufficient  capital  and  judicious  management,  its  cultiva- 
tion might  be  made  a  profitable  industry  in  those  sections  to  which  it  is  adapted,  and 
especially  in  many  of  the  Gulf  States. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  indigo  plant  growing  wild  in  the  United  States.  The  East 
and  West  Indies,  India  and  Central  America  supply,  at  present,  most  of  the  indigo  of 
commerce. 

There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation,  differing  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
product  they  supply.     The  coloring  matter  is  furnished  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant. 

Cultivation,  etc. — Indigo  requires  a  rich,  but  dry  soil,  and  a  warm  climate.  After 
being  once  fairly  started,  the  plants  will  sprout  annually  from  the  roots  for  four  or  five  years; 
consequently  its  cultivation  is  much  less  difficult  than  that  of  many  other  crops. 

The  soils  generally  regarded  as  the  best  for  this  product,  are  rich,  sandy  loams,  although 
it  will  grow  on  those  of  moderate  fertihty,  if  not  too  wet,  a  surplus  of  moisture  being  very 
objectionable.  Hence,  it  thrives  best  in  a  cUmate  naturally  dry,  and  in  sections  where  there 
is  not  a  large  amount  of  rain  during  the  season. 

The  soil  should  be  made  friable  by  the  thorough  use  of  the  plow  and  harrow.  The  fer- 
tilizers used  are  supposed  to  exert  a  considerable  influence  on  the  amount  and  quantity  of  the 
coloring  element  of  the  plant.  Lime,  ashes,  poudrette,  and  barn-yard  manure  are  all  valua- 
ble, but  the  latter  should  always  be  well  fermented  or  composted  before  being  applied,  or 
used  abundantly  in  connection  with  a  previous  crop  of  some  other  kind.  Barn-yard  manure 
and  lime  combined  make  a  good  fertilizer.  "Weeds  and  grass  are  very  injurious  to  the  crop, 
and  should  be  exterminated  as  fast  as  they  make  their  appearance. 

The  seed  should  not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is  quite  warm.  In  the  latitude  of  Central 
Georgia,  from  the  first  to  the  tenth  of  April  would  be  sufficiently  early.  The  seed  will  ger- 
minate best  when  the  soil  is  moist;  therefore  it  is  a  good  time  to  sow  it  just  after  a  rain.  If 
sown  when  the  soil  is  very  dry,  it  heats,  and  the  germ  is  destroyed. 

The  seed  is  generally  mixed  with  ashes  or  sand,  and  sown  in  shallow  drills  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  inches  apart.  About  four  quarts  of  seed  is  the  average  allowance  for  an  acre. 
It  should  be  kept  free  from  grass  and  weeds,  in  all  stages  of  its  growth ;  this  is  especially 
important  when  it  first  comes  up.  The  weeding  may  be  done  with  cultivator,  horse-hoe,  or 
weeders  suited  to  the  purpose,  a  little  hand -weeding  sometimes  being  necessary  in  the  rows. 

When  the  plants  are  an  inch  or  two  high,  the  soil  should  be  loosened  about  the  roots. 
The  first  cutting  should  be  when  the  plant  first  puts  out  the  flower  buds.  If  permitted  to 
blossom,  the  leaves  are  more  hard  and  dry,  and  the  indigo  produced  wiU  be  of  inferior  qual- 
ity. The  cuttings  should  always  be  in  wet  weather,  for,  if  harvested  in  diy  weather,  the 
plants  will  not  send  up  another  growth.  Wlien  necessary  to  cut  it  in  dry  weather,  it  should 
be  done  late  in  the  afternoon,  that  the  roots  may  have  the  benefit  of  shade  and  dew  before 
being  exposed  to  the  sim.  It  is  a  plant  that  is  very  sensitive  to  the  hot  sun  immediately 
after  bemg  cut.  The  first  crop  is  ready  for  cutting  in  two  or  three  months,  and,  with  favora- 
ble weather,  a  subsequent  cutting  may  occur  in  six  or  seven  weeks. 


INDIGO.  465 

It  is  stated  that  in  Georgia,  two  cuttings  have  baen  known  to  yield  an  average  of  sixty 
pounds  of  indigo  per  acre.  In  some  countries  the  seed  is  sown  only  once  iu  seven  or  eight 
years,  and  two  crops  usually  obtained  per  year. 

Preparing  Indigo  for  Market. — The  process  of  extracting  the  coloring  matter  from 
tlie  plant  differs  somewhat  in  different  countries,  although  similar.  In  Bengal,  the  plant  is 
used  both  in  a  green  and  dry  state,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  green  leaves  are  preferred. 
Three  vats  are  so  arranged  at  different  levels  that  the  contents  of  the  first  can  be  drawn  into 
the  second,  and  that  of  the  second  again  transferred  to  the  third. 

The  plants  are  placed  in  the  upper  vat  in  sufficient  quantity  to  well  cover  the  bottom,  and 
sufficient  water  added  to  cover  them  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  where  they  are 
left  to  ferment.  The  fermenting  process  usually  commences  soon  after,  and  is  completed  in 
about  eighteen  or  twenty  hours.  During  this  time,  the  plants  swell  and  give  out  a  coloring 
matter  that  changes  the  water  at  first  to  a  yellow,  then  dark  green,  with  a  blue  scum.  After 
all  the  coloring  matter — sometimes  called  the  "grain  " — is  thus  extracted,  the  liquid  is  drawn 
oS  into  the  second  vat,  where  it  is  beaten  or  churned  for  about  an  hour  and  a  half.  This  is 
done  to  expose  it  to  the  action  of  the  air,  or,  rather,  to  introduce  oxygen,  which  changes  the 
color  from  a  green  to  a  dark  blue.  During  this  process,  a  large  number  of  air  bubbles  or  gas 
escape  from  the  liquid. 

In  India,  from  eight  to  ten  men  are  sometimes  employed  to  perform  the  beating  with 
oars  or  paddles.  Dashers  and  paddle-wheels  are  a  better  substitute  for  hand  labor.  After 
being  sufficiently  beaten,  the  indigo  separates  from  the  water  and  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank.  A  little  lime-water  added  will  sometimes  hasten  the  process,  but  it  is  apt  to  injure 
the  quaUty  of  the  indigo.  When  the  grains  are  settled,  the  water  is  drawn  off,  and  the  con- 
tents remaining,  strained  and  boiled.  The  surplus  moisture  is  evaporated  by  drying,  and  when 
of  the  proper  consistency  for  cutting,  it  is  cut  into  little  cubes,  and  dried,  preparatory  to 
packing  for  market. 

Small  quantities  of  indigo  are  often  manufactured  for  domestic  purposes  by  putting  the 
plants,  when  fresh  cut,  in  a  barrel  or  other  large  receptacle  for  water,  and  then  fill  up  with 
soft  water,  sufficient  to  have  all  the  plants  well  covered  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches. 
It  might  be  well  to  put  weights  on  to  keep  the  plants  well  covered,  and  prevent  their  rising 
to  the  surface. 

When  the  water  assumes  a  dark  green,  and  a  bluish  scum  rises  on  the  surface,  the  plants 
may  be  taken  out  and  squeezed  or  wrung  with  the  hands,  in  order  to  extract  all  the  coloring 
matter  that  may  remain  in  them.  The  water  must  then  be  churned  for  some  time.  A  basket 
with  a  suitable  handle  for  raising  it  up  and  down  is  very  good  for  this  purpose.  To  test  the 
liquid,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  it  has  been  churned  enough,  take  out  a  spoonful  and  add 
to  it  a  few  drops  of  very  strong  lye.  If  it  then  curdles,  or  the  grains  separate,  it  is  churned 
sufficiently.  At  this  stage,  the  process  is  hastened  by  adding  a  little  strong  lye  or  lime-water 
to  the  contents  of  the  barrel,  but  care  must  be  used  not  to  put  in  too  much,  as  it  will  injure 
the  indigo.  It  may  then  be  left  to  settle.  In  churning,  the  foam  that  rises  must  not  be 
wasted,  as  it  contains  some  of  the  best  elements  of  the  coloring  matter.  A  little  oil  sprinkled 
over  the  surface  of  the  water  will  make  the  foam  subside. 

When  the  indigo  is  well  settled  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  the  water  may  be  drawn  off 
by  boring  holes  in  the  side,  as  far  from  the  bottom  as  the  quantity  of  the  coloring  matter  will 
admit.  What  remains  should  then  be  strained,  to  take  out  the  impurities,  and  again  per- 
mitted to  settle,  draining  off  the  clear  water  as  before.  It  can  then  be  put  in  a  shallow  pan 
or  dish,  and  the  water  evaporated  in  the  sun. 


466  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


FLAX. 


FLAX  has  been  known  and  cultivated  from  time  immemorial,  being  one  of  the  oldest 
agricultural  plants  of  which  history  furnishes  us  any  record.  It  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ing crops  in  this  country,  until  cotton  supplanted  it  by  the  introduction  of  the  cot- 
ton-gin, which  made  the  cultivation  of  that  product  so  much  more  profitable,  and 
attended  with  less  labor.  But  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  the  culture  of  flax  should  decline 
in  this  country  as  rapidly  as  it  has  during  the  last  twenty  years,  while  other  nations  find  it  so 
profitable.  About  a  century  ago,  flax  and  wool  were  the  principal  materials  from  which  the 
common  fabrics  of  the  American  people  were  made,  and  large  quantities  of  flax  were  spun 
and  woven  by  American  women  for  the  bedding  and  clothing  of  their  families.  Much  labor 
was  involved  under  the  old  system,  both  in  its  cultivation  and  manufacture,  but  under  the 
new  system,  with  improved  machinery,  its  culture  is  comparatively  easy. 

An  increased  interest  in  the  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  this  product  in  the  United 
States,  would  not  only  largely  extend  our  mechanical  industries,  but  result  in  retaining  at 
home  vast  sums  of  money  that  are  now  annually  sent  to  foreign  countries  for  the  linen  which 
can,  at  present,  be  obtained  nowhere  else. 

In  addition  to  the  great  importance  of  its  fiber,  the  seed  of  flax  is  of  much  value  for  the 
oil  it  supplies,  and  the  food  it  furnishes  to  farm  stock — especially  cattle.  What  is  termed 
"  oil-cake,"  consists  of  the  seeds  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed,  and  is  an  excellent  article  of 
food  for  young  calves  and  lambs,  as  well  as  other  farm  stock. 

The  plant  is  an  annual  of  quick  growth,  and  attains  the  height  of  from  one  to  three  feet. 
The  leaves  grow  alternate  upon  the  stems  and  branches,  which  are  straight  and  slender.  The 
flowers  are  blue,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  contain  five  petals.  The  petals  drop  within 
a  few  hours  after  the  flowers  open,  and  the  seed-vessels  grow  rapidly,  being  nearly  round  in 
form.  The  fiber  is  long  and  silky.  In  this  country,  flax  is  at  present  grown  principally  for 
the  seed,  but  little  attention  being  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  fiber. 

The  varieties  of  flax  are  not  sufBciently  marked  to  require  special  notice. 

Cultivation  for  Fiber. — Flax  will  grow  in  almost  every  variety  of  climate  from  the 
torrid  to  the  frigid  zone.  Its  successful  culture  requires  a  good  soil,  well  tilled.  A  dry, 
deep,  loamy  soil  is  one  of  the  best  for  this  product,  although  any  other  of  sufficient  fertility 
that  is  not  too  wet  will  answer  the  purpose.  Lands  intended  for  the  culture  of  flax  and  con- 
taining a  surplus  of  moisture  should  therefore  be  first  thoroughly  underdrained.  The  under- 
draining  should  be  done  a  year  or  two  before  the  flax  crop  is  grown,  in  order  to  render  it 
sufficiently  dry.  It  is  a  somewhat  exhausting  crop,  and  should  not  be  grown  on  the  same 
soil  oftener  than  once  in  five  or  six  years.  A  good  wheat  soil  is  generally  considered  a  good 
one  for  flax.  The  land  should  also  be  well  enriched  for  previous  crops  before  this  is  repeated. 
Fresh  manure  is  very  objectionable  as  a  fertilizer,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  weed  and  grass 
seeds  it  contains.  "WTien  stable  manure  is  used,  it  should  be  either  applied  liberally  to  the 
crop  that  precedes  it,  or  should  first  be  well  composted.  Salt,  guano,  ashes,  and  plaster  are 
also  valuable.  Lime  is  thought  to  be  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the  fibre.  Salt  and  ashes 
are  generally  applied  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed.  When  the  plants  have  nearly  attained 
their  growth,  a  sprinkling  of  plaster  is  often  highly  beneficial,  not  only  as  a  fertilizer,  but 
it  also  destroys  worms  and  insects  that  feed  upon  the  tender  plants. 

The  best  rotation  for  the  fiber  is  thought  to  be  after  wheat,  where  the  soil  is  quite  fertile; 
but  where  the  soil  is  of  moderate  fertility,  potatoes  are  considered  a  good  crop  to  precede 
flax.  A  corn  crop  that  has  been  heavily  manured  also  leaves  the  soil  in  a  good  condition  for 
it.  Clean  culture  should  always  precede  it,  in  order  to  obviate  the  danger  of  trouble  with 
weeds. 


FLAX.  467 

The  plowing  preparatory  to  receiving  the  seed  should  be  rather  deep,  as  the  roots  are 
long,  often  penetrating  the  soil  to  a  distance  equaling  one-half  the  length  of  the  stalk.  A 
thorough  harrowing  should  follow,  to  reduce  the  soil  to  a  fine  tilth.  The  ground,  after  har- 
rowing, should  be  left  finely  pulverized  and  level.  This  tillage  should  be  early  in  the  season, 
and  the  ground  left  a  week  or  two  before  sowing,  in  order  to  give  the  weed  seeds  that  are  in 
the  soil  time  to  germinate.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  the  land  should  be  again  thoroughly 
harrowed,  in  order  to  destroy  the  weeds  and  fit  it  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  for  the  crop. 

One  of  the  great  essentials  in  the  culture  of  flax  is  to  keep  the  soil  free  from  weeds  and 
grass,  a  clean  soil  being  more  necessary  for  this  crop  than  most  others.  The  general  rule  for 
flax-growing  is,  a  rich,  dry  soil,  finely  and  deeply  pulverized,  and  free  from  weeds,  and  a 
rotation  that  shall  not  repeat  its  growth  on  the  same  land  oftener  than  once  in  five  or  six 
years. 

Some  roll  the  ground  to  consolidate  and  level  the  soil,  and  then  lightly  harrow  again 
before  sowing  the  seed.  This  renders  the  surface  of  the  land  more  level.  The  seed  that  is 
plump,  shining,  and  heavy  should  be  selected  for  sowing. 

It  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  from  aU  seeds  of  weeds,  as  this  will  save  much  trouble 
in  the  after-culture.  This  may  be  done  with  a  sieve  or  a  seed-cleaning  machine.  Seed  that 
has  not  been  produced  on  the  soil  is  better,  as  a  general  rule.  The  quantity  of  seed  to  be 
sown  depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  cultivated. 

When  fiber  is  the  object  of  the  crop,  a  thick  sowing  is  required.  With  thick  sowing, 
the  stalks  wUl  be  long  and  slender,  with  only  one  or  two  seed  capsules  at  the  top;  hence  the 
fiber  will  be  long  and  of  a  fine  quality,  and  there  will  be  but  a  comparatively  small  quantity 
of  seed ;  consequently  it  is  better  to  sow  too  thick  than  too  thin.  With  thin  sowing  the 
plants  have  large  branches  of  coarse  growth,  which  produce  many  seed  bolls  that  will  be  well 
filled  with  seed,  but  the  fiber  will  be  of  a  coarse,  inferior  quality.  Therefore  when  fiber  is 
the  object  to  be  attained  in  the  crop,  and  the  soil  is  rich,  from  one  and,  a  half  to  two  bushels 
or  more  per  acre  may  be  sown.  Some  farmers  use  three  bushels  per  acre.  Where  the  soil 
is  very  rich,  and  the  seed  of  the  best  quality,  a  less  quantity  will  be  required  than  where  the 
soil  is  of  moderate  fertility,  or  rather  light,  and  the  seed  of  second  or  third  rate  quality. 
There  is  a  great  difierence  in  seed.  Where  inferior  seed  is  used,  there  will  be  many  that  will 
not  germinate  at  all,  consequently  a  larger  quantity  will  be  required,  to  make  allowance  for 
those  that  fail  in  this  respect. 

The  seed  is  sown  broadcast.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  sow  the  seed  by  hand  ;  but 
this  practice  generally  resulted  in  uneven  sowing  ;  the  seed  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  slips 
through  the  fingers  easily,  hence  the  quantity  is  not  so  well  regulated  ;  besides,  this  is  a  slow 
process  where  large  crops  are  to  be  grown. 

A  broadcast  seed-sower  is  the  best  for  this  purpose,  after  which  it  should  be  highly  har- 
rowed or  brushed  in,  and  rolled,  in  order  to  press  the  soil  upon  the  seed,  causing  it  to  germin- 
ate more  quickly.  The  time  for  sowing  the  seed  is  when  the  soil  is  warm.  The  usual  time 
in  the  Middle  States  is  from  the  15th  of  April  to  the  1st  of  May.  In  harrowing  in  the  seed, 
it  is  well  rt)  go  over  the  field  twice,  once  up  and  down,  and  then  across  at  right  angles,  as 
this  mixes  it  more  evenly  in  the  soil,  obviates  the  little  drills  made  by  the  teeth  of  the  harrow, 
and  prevents  uneven  growth  and  ripening.  If  properly  harrowed  and  rolled,  the  seed  will  be 
covered  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch.  Seed  should  always  be  sown  when  the  soil  is  rather 
warm,  and  not  too  wet.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  roll  when  the  land  is  so  wet  that  the 
earth  wiU  adhere  to  the  roller.  If  the  soil  has  been  properly  prepared  and  made  clean  of 
weed  seeds,  there  will  be  Little  trouble  with  weeds  after  sowing  the  crop. 

When  weeds  make  their  appearance,  however,  they  must  be  carefully  pulled  by  hand  so 
as  not  to  injure  the  young  plants.  The  first  weeding  should  be  when  the  plants  are  three  or 
four  inches  high.     Boys  are  often  employed  to  perform  this  work,  and  either  go  barefoot  or 


468  THE  A5IERICAN  FARMER. 

wear  shoes  with  thin  soles  and  without  nails,  in  order  to  prevent  the  plants  from  being 
crushed  and  broken,  as  they  are  quite  tender  at  this  period.  It  is  well  for  the  weeders  to 
face  the  wind  during  the  process,  so  that  the  plants  that  become  bent  in  the  operation  may 
be  blown  upright  again.  When  plants  are  bent  only  one  way  they  usually  recover  their 
position  again  ;  but  if  cnished  or  twisted  by  the  carelessness  of  the  weeders.  they  scarcely 
ever  rise.  Once  weeding  is  sufficient,  and  it  should  always  be  done  when  the  soil  is  moist. 
When  the  weeding  has  been  delayed  untd  the  plants  are  seven  or  eight  inches  high,  it  is 
better  to  let  this  process  be  omitted,  as  the  injury  to  the  plants  wiU  be  greater  than  that  to 
the  weeds.  It  is  important  that  the  weeds  be  taken  out  at  the  right  time,  that  the  crop  may 
get  the  advantage  of  them  in  the  occupancy  of  the  land.  Some  farmers  are  particular  not 
to  have  a  team  upon  the  land  after  sowing,  hence  perform  the  after-labor  of  harrowing  or 
brushing  in  the  seed  by  hand.  This  crop  has  few  insect  enemies,  and  with  careful  culture, 
and  a  favorable  season,  wiU  almost  invariably  bring  good  results. 

Ciiltiyation  for  Seed. — When  the  object  of  the  crop  is  mainly  the  production  of 
flax  seed,  although  the  preparation  of  the  soil  should  be  the  same  as  when  grown  for  the 
fiber,  the  quantity  of  seed  sown  should  be  much  less  than  that  for  the  fiber  product,  for  rea- 
sons which  have  previously  been  given, — namely,  that  thick  sowing  produces  plants  with  tall, 
straight  stalks,  fine  fiber,  and  but  a  small  quantity  of  seed,  while  thin  sowing  results  in  plants 
of  coarser  growth,  with  spreading  branches  and  a  larger  product  of  seed  boUs.  The  boUs 
will  also  be  better  filled,  and  the  seed  more  plump  and  of  a  larger  size. 

The  principal  difference  in  the  cultivation  for  the  two  objects  for  which  flax  is  grown  is, 
therefore,  in  the  quantity  of  seed  sown,  and  the  time  of  harvesting  ;  the  methods  of  treat- 
ment aside  from  these,  being  essentially  the  same. 

WTien  the  crop  is  grown  for  the  seed  principally,  from  half  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  of  seed 
per  acre  will  be  sufficient ;  the  quantity  depending  somewhat  upon  the  nature  and  condition 
of  the  soU,  and  the  quality  of  the  seed.  Only  the  best  quahty  of  seed  should  be  sown,  for 
that  of  a  poor  quality  wiU  invariably  give  unsatisfactory  results,  however  good  the  soil  or 
cultivation  given. 

Harvesting. — The  time  when  flax  is  ready  to  be  harvested  is  one  of  the  important 
considerations  in  connection  with  its  cultivation.  If  harvested  too  soon,  the  fiber  will  be  very 
fine  ;  but  there  wUl  be  great  waste  in  the  after-preparation  for  the  market.  If  the  harvesting 
be  delayed  too  late,  there  wiU  be  a  larger  quantity  of  fiber,  but  it  will  be  of  a  coarse  quahty. 
The  proper  time  to  gather  the  crop  for  fiber  is  when  the  seed  is  beginning  to  turn  shghtly 
brown,  and  the  lower  half  of  the  stalks  are  turned  yellow.  If  harvested  when  flowering, 
the  fiber  will  be  exceedingly  fine,  but  the  waste  wfll  be  so  great  as  to  render  it  tmprofitable. 

When  grown  for  seed,  it  should  not  be  harvested  until  the  seeds  are  quite  brown  and 
ripe.     If  cut  before  they  are  sufficiently  ripened,  the  unripe  seed  wiU  not  afterward  mature. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  good  weight,  and  seed  of  the  best  quality,  the  crop  should  not  be 
gathered  until  the  seeds  are  full  and  plump,  as  well  as  brown.  The  former  method  of  haiwest- 
ing  flax  was  to  pull  it  by  hand,  which  was  a  very  laborious  process,  besides  requiring  a  great 
deal  of  time.  At  present,  reapers  and  binders  are  employed  for  this  purpose  where  it  is  culti- 
vated on  a  large  scale.  Machines  for  pulling  have  also  been  used  to  a  limited  extent,  but  the 
reapers  are  preferred  for  general  use.  The  common  grain  cradle  and  scythe  are  also  used,  while 
some  stOI  conform  to  the  old-time  practice  of  pidhng  by  hand.  When  the  fiber  is  the  impoitant 
part  of  the  crop,  and  reapers  and  binders  are  employed,  it  should  be  cut  as  close  to  the  ground 
as  possible,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  knives  of  the  reaper  in  good  condition.  It  will 
then  cut  as  easily  as  wheat.  If  bound  by  the  reaper,  it  should  be  put  in  small  stacks  to  dry. 
"^iVTien  properly  dried,  it  may  be  put  in  a  large  stack,  or  stored  under  cover,  which  latter  is 
best.     It  IS  very  important  that  it  be  thoroughly  cured  before  storing.     When  cradled  or 


FLAX.  469 

pulled  by  hand,  it  may  be  either  dried  in  the  sun  before  binding,  or  bound  at  once.  If  cut 
with  a  scj^he,  the  swath  should  be  thrown  towards  the  standing  flax  :  in  this  way  the  stalks 
are  all  left  leaning  against  the  flax,  and  may  be  gathered  and  laid  in  gavels  to  dry  or  be 
bound  into  sheaves. 

When  the  ground  has  been  thoroughly  drained,  and  is  uniformly  level,  and  the  sowing 
even,  the  stalks  will  generally  all  be  of  about  the  same  length.  Where  pulHng  is  practiced 
in  harvesting,  considerable  care  is  taken  to  shake  o£E  the  soil  that  adheres  to  the  roots,  and  to 
keep  them  even  at  the  root  end. 

When  the  seed  is  the  mam  object,  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  the  stalks  lower  than  to 
secure  the  seed-bolls,  the  stalks  that  are  left  being  plowed  under  to  enrich  the  soil.  It  should 
be  bound  at  once  and  put  in  small  stacks  to  dry.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  seed- 
bolls  well  cured  before  stacking  or  storing.  If  stacked  in  the  field,  the  stack  should  be  made 
solid,  with  the  heads  in  and  the  stalks'  ends  out,  keeping  the  center  filled  and  a  little  crowded. 
The  stack  should  be  covered  with  hay  or  straw  and  allowed  to  remain  until  it  has  gone 
through  the  usual  sweating  process,  which  will  generally  be  in  about  two  weeks.  Sometimes 
the  sweating  process  is  omitted,  and  the  bundles  are  loosely  stored  until  the  seed  is  threshed. 

Preparing  the  Fiber.  —  There  are  various  methods  of  preparing  the  fiber  of  flax  for 
use.  The  object  to  be  attained  is  the  separation  of  the  bark  containing  the  fiber  from  the 
woody  stem.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  rotting  process,  which  dissolves  or  destroys  the 
gluey  or  mucilaginous  substance  which  holds  the  fibers  together  and  to  the  stalk,  and  renders 
them  easily  separated. 

The  usual  practice,  after  the  heads  have  been  removed,  is  to  submerge  the  bundles  of 
stalks  in  soft  water,  being  weighted  with  stones  or  other  heavy  material  to  keep  them  weU 
covered.  The  length  of  time  required  to  complete  this  process  varies,  according  to  the 
temperature,  from  four  to  fourteen  days  or  more.  Water  containing  iron,  or  other  mineral 
matter,  would  be  liable  to  stain  the  fiber,  as  well  as  hinder  the  process  of  rotting. 

It  is  important  to  know  just  when  the  process  is  completed,  for  if  left  remaining  too  long 
in  the  water,  the  fiber  will  become  weakened,  and  will  break  and  tangle  in  the  after-manage- 
ment. If  not  sufficiently  rotted,  it  will  break  up  with  the  stalk.  When  it  has  been  continued 
just  long  enough,  the  woody  part  of  the  stalk  may  be  easily  separated  from  the  fibrous 
portion,  and  the  fibers  themselves  from  each  other. 

Sometimes  this  process  is  accomplished  by  dew-rotting,  which  consists  of  spreading  the 
stalks  upon  the  grass  and  exposing  them  to  the  dew,  turning  them  occasionally  to  render 
the  process  uniform;  but  the  method  previously  described  is  greatly  to  be  preferred.  Fol- 
lowing this,  is  the  process  of  "breaking,"  which  consists  of  freeing  the  fiber  from  the  woody 
portion  of  the  stalk;  this  is  followel  by  scutching  or  swingling,  which  is  that  of  getting  out 
the  small  particles  of  bark  and  stalk  adhering;  and  this  again  by  hatcheling  or  combing, 
which  strengthens  the  fibers,  separates  the  fine  from  the  coarse,  and  frees  them  from  all 
tangled  or  broken  pieces. 

These  various  methods  of  preparing  flax  for  use  were  once  all  performed  on  the  farm, 
but  at  present  a  large  portion  of  the  product  is  sold  after  the  bolls  or  heads  have  been 
removed,  and  these  various  processes  are  performed  by  the  manufacturers  of  linen  goods. 

Preparation  of  Seed  for  Market.  —  In  preparing  flax-seed  for  market,  the  bolls 
are  first  thoroughly  dried  and  threshed,  after  which  the  seed  is  cleaned  by  a  winnowing  or 
seed-cleaning  machine.  The  threshing  is  generally  performed  with  a  machine  where  large 
crops  are  produced,  as  hand-threshing,  or  any  other  means  of  opening  the  bolls  would  be  a 
very  slow  and  laborious  process. 

Where  small  quantities  are  grown,  the  seed  is  sometimes  shelled  by  drawing  the  heads 
of  flax  through  a  comb  for  the  purpose,  containing  sharp  iron  teeth;  also,  by  breaking  them 


470  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

over  a  large  stone  or  block,  or  by  the  iise  of  the  flail.  The  latter  is  the  best  method  of  hand- 
shelling,  but  a  good  threshing-machine  is  necessary  -where  large  crops  are  cultivated.  The 
process  of  removing  the  heads  with  the  comb,  as  previously  described,  is  called  rippling. 
After  being  threshed  from  the  heads,  the  seed  should  be  winnowed  or  otherwise  cleaned,  to 
separate  it  from  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  other  foreign  material.  Flax  is  at  present  cultivated 
in  this  country  principally  for  the  seed. 


HEMP. 


THE  cultivation  of  hemp  for  its  fiber  was  formerly  practiced  to  a  certain  extent  in  some 
of  the  Western  States,  where  it  proved  a  profitable  crop;  but  as  the  labor  of  har- 
vesting it  is  much  greater  than  that  of  most  products,  and  it  is  also  very  exhausting 
to  the  soil,  especially  when  the  seed  is  ripened,  it  has  never  been  a  favorite  crop  with  farmers. 
It  can  be  more  profitably  cultivated  in  other  countries,  where  labor  is  cheaper  than  it  is  in  our 
own.  The  fiber  of  hemp  is  similar  to  that  of  flax,  although  it  is  much  stronger  and  coarser. 
Like  flax,  hemp  is  cultivated  both  for  its  fiber  and  seed,  the  latter  of  which  is  used  for  feed- 
ing stock,  and  also  for  the  oil  which  it  furnishes.  It  is  generaUy  considered  more  wholesome 
and  nutritious  when  cooked,  before  being  fed  to  animals.  The  ripening  of  the  seed  causes 
more  exhaustion  to  the  soil  than  the  production  of  the  fiber. 

Hemp  belongs  to  the  nettle  family,  having  the  fruit-bearing  and  sterile  flowers  upon 
different  plants.  The  stalk  is  rough  and  angular,  and,  like  flax,  branches  considerably  when 
growing  alone,  or  with  thin  sowing,  j'et  is  quite  straight  when  crowded.  Hemp  will  grow 
almost  as  rapidly  as  Indian  corn,  and  will  attain  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  a  rich 
soil,  but  the  average  height  is  from  six  to  seven  feet.  It  generally  blossoms  in  June,  if  sown 
sufficiently  early,  and  ripens  its  seed  in  August. 

The  demand  for  hemp  in  this  country  exceeds,  at  present,  the  supply  of  the  home 
product,  and  we  doubt  if  it  ever  becomes  a  leading  staple  in  the  United  States.  The  culture 
of  hemp,  like  that  of  flax,  while  drawing  largely  from  the  soO,  imparts  nothing  to  it;  hence, 
large  quantities  of  plant- food  are  extracted,  which  require  that  a  rotation  of  other  crops  shall 
intervene  before  its  cultivation  shall  be  repeated  on  the  same  soil. 

Cultivation.  —  A  deep,  mellow  soil  of  more  than  moderate  fertility  is  required  for 
hemp.  Well-prepared  sward  land  of  a  clayey  nature  is  excellent  for  the  production  of  a 
good  quality  of  fiber.  When  such  soil  is  used,  the  ground  should  be  plowed  in  the  autumn 
and  again  in  the  spring,  before  sowing  the  seed.  The  soil  for  hemp  should  be  moist,  but  not 
wet.     It  is  necessary  that  the  land  be  carefully  prepared,  and  the  soil  well  pulverized. 

The  seed  should  not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is  warm  and  rather  dry;  still,  it  is  well  to 
get  it  started  as  early  as  practicable.  The  sowing  is  sometimes  delayed  untU  the  middle  of 
June,  but  this  is  rather  late  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  crop.  From  the  middle  of 
April  to  the  middle  of  May  is  better.  It  is  necessary  that  the  seed  be  fresh,  that  which  is 
old  not  usually  germinating  satisfactorily.  In  England,  from  two  to  three  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre  is  frequently  used;  but  in  that  country  it  does  not  generally  attain  the  height  that  it 
does  in  our  own.  In  this  country  it  is  the  practice  to  sow  from  five  to  six  pecks  per  acre, 
scattered  broadcast  over  the  field,  and  harrowed  in.  When  drilhng  is  practical,  a  less  quan- 
tity will  be  required,  from  three  pecks  to  a  bushel  being  sufficient. 

The  ground  should  always  be  rolled  after  sowing  the  seed,  to  hasten  its  germination. 
It  is  covered  to  about  the  same  depth  as  flax.  When  the  soil  is  moist  at  the  time  of  sowing, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  cover  as  deeply  as  when  it  is  quite  dry.     In  the  latter  case,  it  will 


HEMP.  471 

be  well  to  soak  the  seed  about  twenty-four  bours  in  tepid  water  before  sowing,  to  hasten 
germination.  After  the  seed  is  in  the  ground,  the  crop  requires  but  little  or  no  attention 
until  harvested.  Being  a  strong,  thrifty  plant,  of  rapid  growth,  it  wiU  generally  soon 
smother  the  weeds  and  take  care  of  itself,  unless  the  land  is  very  weedy,  and  the  seed  does 
not  start  well. 

Cut-worms  are  often  troublesome,  but  if  the  blackbirds  and  crows  are  encouraged  on  the 
hemp-field,  they  will  do  valuable  service  for  the  farmer  in  exterminating  them.  When  hemp 
is  cultivated  for  seed,  it  requires  a  richer  soil  than  when  grown  for  the  fiber  alone.  It  is 
frequently  cultivated  on  good  corn  ground,  well  manured.  In  England  the  culture  for  seed 
and  fiber  is  the  same,  but  in  this  country,  when  seed  is  the  object,  the  culture  is  simOar  to 
that  of  corn,  the  hills  being  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart,  according  to  the  fertility 
of  the  land.  In  planting,  a  dozen  or  more  seeds  are  deposited  in  each  hill.  When  the  crop 
is  first  hoed,  the  plants  are  thinned  out  to  five  or  sis  in  a  hill.  During  the  subsequent  culti- 
vation given,  this  number  should  be  reduced  to  three  or  four  to  the  hill.  The  cultivation 
ehould  be  sufficient  to  keep  down  the  weeds. 

Hemp  belongs  to  that  peculiar  class  of  vegetable  growths  having  the  fruit- bearing,  or 
what  is  termed  female  blossoms,  on  one  plant,  and  the  sterile,  or  male  plants,  on  another. 
The  difference  between  the  two  is  determined  when  they  are  sufficiently  developed  to  make 
preparation  to  blossom.  The  latter,  which  are  known  by  their  getting  ready  for  blossoming, 
are  then  generally  nearly  all  cut  out,  a  few  only  being  left  to  furnish  pollen  for  the  fertiliza- 
tion for  the  seed  crop.  The  rule  is  to  leave  one  of  the  best  male  plants  for  this  purpose  in 
every  other  hill,  of  every  other  row.  When  these  male  plants  have  blossomed,  and  shed 
their  pollen  (the  yellow  dust  that  falls  from  them  when  shaken),  they  are  then  cut  out  to 
leave  more  room  for  the  other  plants  to  grow. 

Harvesting.  —  The  time  of  harvesting  hemp  that  is  grown  for  the  fiber  principally,  is 
when  the  blossoms  begin  to  turn  yellow  and  drop.  This  will  be  in  about  three  or  three  and 
a  half  months  after  sowing,  according  to  the  soU,  season,  and  other  conditions.  If  it  should 
stand  a  week  or  more  later  than  this  period,  no  serious  detriment  wiU  result  to  the  crop,  the 
only  objection  being  that  the  process  of  rotting  will  not  be  as  uniform,  and  the  breaking  will 
be  a  little  more  difiicult,  the  stalks  being  more  woody  and  hard. 

Formerly,  this  crop  was  pulled  by  hand,  but  cutting  is  now  almost  universally  practiced. 
The  harvesting  of  this  crop  is  the  most  difficult  part  in  its  management  and  the  chief  objec- 
tion to  its  culture,  being  a  slow,  laborious  task.  When  the  hemp  does  not  grow  more  than 
seven  feet  high,  it  may  be  cut  with  a  heavy  scythe,  or  a  strong  cradle,  such  as  that  used  for 
grain,  except  it  must  be  much  stronger,  as  the  stalks  are  hard  and  tough. 

By  this  method  of  harvesting,  it  is  estimated  that  one  man  may  cut  an  acre  per  day.  A 
good  machine,  sufficiently  strong  for  cutting,  woiild  greatly  lessen  the  labor  and  encourage 
its  more  general  cultivation.  When  it  attains  the  height  of  more  than  seven  feet,  a  stronger 
implement  is  required,  which  is  generally  a  kind  of  hook,  similar  to  a  bush-scythe,  or  sickle. 
Only  about  half  an  acre  per  day  is  considered  a  good  day's  work  for  one  man  with  one  of 
these  implements.     After  two  or  three  days'  drying,  it  is  bound  and  stacked. 

The  seed-hemp  is  cut  before  the  heads  are  sufficiently  dry  for  the  seed  to  shell  out  of  itself 
and  be  wasted.  It  is  stacked  in  the  field  until  dry,  and  then  threshed  out,  after  which  it  is 
carefully  winnowed,  and  spread  in  thin  layers  in  a  warm,  airy  jjlace  to  dry.  Unless 
thoroughly  dried  before  being  stored,  it  will  heat  badly,  and  the  quality  thus  become  greatly 
injured. 

After-Management.  — When  the  weather  becomes  sufficiently  cool  in  the  autumn,  the 
hemp  is  either  spread  out  on  the  ground  to  be  rotted  by  the  dew,  or  it  may  be  put  in  vats  or 
pools  of  water  for  this  purpose.     When  dew-rotting  is  practiced,  it  must  be  occasionally 


472  THE  AMERICAN  FAR:HER 

tamed.  When  put  in  ■water,  it  slioiild  be  kept  constantly  submerged  with  weights  of  some 
kind.  It  will  require  from  ten  to  twenty  days  to  perfect  the  process,  according  to  the  tem- 
perature. 

TVlien  the  fiber  separates  readily  from  the  stalk,  the  process  of  rotting  is  completed.  It 
is  then  dried  and  stacked,  after  which  it  is  broken  and  freed  from  the  boon  and  waste 
material,  and  packed  in  bales  ready  for  market 


JUTE. 

THAT  jute  can  be  profitably  cultivated  in  this  country,  has  been  abundantly  proved  by 
the  nimierous  experiments  that  have  been  made  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  which 
have  given  most  satisfactory  results  when  the  climate  and  soil  selected  for  the  pur- 
pose were  those  to  which  it  is  natui-ally  adapted. 

The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  wiU  prove  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the 
agricultural  products  of  the  extreme  Southern  States.  The  great  demand  for  jute  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  the  price  it  commands,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  grown,  are  strong 
inducements  in  favor  of  its  cultivation  in  those  sections  to  which  it  is  adapted.  If  its 
cultivation  could  become  sufficiently  extensive  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  American  market 
for  this  product,  millions  of  dollars  would  be  annually  retained  at  home,  that  are  now  sent 
abroad.     At  present,  India  is  the  main  source  of  supply,  and  has  been  for  a  long  time. 

A  recent  estimate  of  the  annual  value  of  the  jute  importation,  was  nearly  ten  miUions  of 
dollars,  while  the  demand  is  constantly  increasing.  Jute  is  an  annual  plant  of  the  genus 
Corchorus  capsularis.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  the  stalks  being  from 
a  half  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  very  straight,  and  branch  only  at  the  top.  The 
leaves  are  about  six  inches  long,  two  inches  wide,  and  sharply  serrated.  The  bark,  like 
that  of  the  flax  and  hemp,  is  fibrous,  the  fiber  being  more  soft  and  silky  than  that  of  either 
of  these  products,  also  more  fine  in  quahty  and  of  greater  length.  It  is  sometimes  woven 
with  sUk  and  cotton  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  dress  goods.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheap  carpets  and  almost  every  form  of  coarse  textile  fabrics,  such  as 
gunny,  a  kind  of  cloth  used  in  baling  cotton,  bagging,  cofiee-sacks,  rice  bags,  etc.  It  Wfs 
formerly  used  in  making  ropes,  but  has  been  found  too  easily  affected  by  water  to  be  desirable 
for  this  purpose,  hemp  being  preferred. 

The  ends  of  the  stems  of  the  jute-plant  are  used  in  making  paper  of  a  coarse  quality,  as 
weU  as  the  old  sacks  and  bags  made  from  the  coarser  jute  fiber.  The  stems  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  coarse  baskets,  etc.,  almost  every  part  of  the  plant  being  appropriated  to  some 
useful  pui-pose,  but,  of  course,  the  fiber  is  the  object  sought  in  its  cultivation.  It  is  said 
that  cotton  fields  siurounded  by  jute-plants  are  exempt  from  the  ravages  of  the  cotton- worm. 

Cultivation.  —  Jute  requires  a  warm  chmate,  and  a  fertile  soil.  A  moist,  alluvial 
soil, — not  too  wet, — or  a  sandy  clay  seems  best  adapted  to  it.  Many  of  the  Southern  States, 
especially  the  Gulf  States,  are  admirably  suited  to  its  cultivation.  CaUfomia  has  also  pro- 
duced jute  successfully  for  several  years.  The  land  should  be  well  prepared  for  the  seed  by 
being  thoroughly  plowed  and  harrowed,  and  the  soil,  if  not  suflBciently  rich,  should  be  made 
so  by  the  application  of  manure  or  other  fertUizere.  The  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast,  or  in 
drills.  When  the  former  method  is  practiced,  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds  per  acre  are 
required ;  the  latter  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds.  When  sown  broadcast,  the  seed  should 
be  harrowed  in.  In  either  case,  the  field  should  be  rolled  after  the  seed  is  deposited.  The 
plant  is  of  strong  and  vigorous  growth,  and  will  require  but  little  cultivation. 


PEAS.  473 

Plants  for  the  production  of  seed  should  be  grown  in  a  separate  field,  and  only  the  best 
seed  sown.  These  should  be  sown  in  drills,  and  receive  careful  cultivation.  Drilling,  for 
the  production  of  fiber,  is  preferred  to  broadcast  sowing,  as  it  admits  of  after-cultivation. 
On  rich  soil,  and  with  other  favoring  conditions,  the  amount  of  yield  in  fiber  is  enormous. 

The  seeds  will  generally  be  ripened  in  four  or  five  weeks  after  the  blossoms  have 
become  fully  developed.  Whether  for  the  production  of  the  fiber  or  seed,  it  may  be  sown 
in  March  or  April,  and  the  blossoms  will  make  their  appearance  in  July  or  August. 

Hai'Testing.  —  The  best  time  for  harvesting  jute  is  when  it  begins  to  blossom,  as  the 
fiber  is  then  of  a  better  quality  than  when  the  plant  is  older.  It  is  cut  with  a  mower  or 
reaper.     The  albumen  in  the  plant  is  said  to  render  it  easier  to  cut  than  dry  wheat. 

The  fiber  is  separated  from  the  stalk  by  submerging  in  water  until  it  separates  readily. 
It  is  then  prepared  for  use  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  in  which  flax  is  prepared,  except  the 
•  stalks  are  not  aftei-ward  dried  and  broken.  The  seed  should  be  harvested  when  well 
ripened,  and  be  thoroughly  dried  before  being  stored. 


PEAS. 

THE  cultivation  of  peas,  as  a  field  crop,  is  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent  in  some 
sections  of  the  United  States,  but  more  especially  in  Canada  and  England,  where 
they  are  regarded  as  an  important  product,  and  are  much  used  as  food  for  domestic 
animals.  Next  to  the  bean,  the  pea  is  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  pulse 
family. 

Sheep  and  swine  are  fond  of  them;  also  poultry.  Their  nutritive  value  is  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  corn,  and  as  food  for  swine,  seven  bushels  of  peas  are  said  to  be  equal 
to  ten  bushels  of  corn.  A  meal  of  ground  peas  is  considered  better  for  swine  than  feeding 
them  whole.  This  should  be  mixed  with  milk  or  water,  and  used  in  connection  with  other 
food.  A  mixture  of  peas  and  corn-meal  is  thought  by  some  farmers  to  be  better  than  the 
pea-meal  alone. 

When  cut  and  cured  as  hay,  the  vines  make  a  good  fodder  for  cattle  and  sheep,  or  they 
make  an  excellent  crop  for  soiling  during  the  summer,  and  may  be  cut  from  the  time  they 
are  half-grown,  until  they  are  fully  ripe.  The  pea-weavil  is  very  destructive  to  this  crop  in 
many  portions  of  the  Southern  States,  but  is  not  troublesome  in  Canada  and  the  Northern 
States,  except  in  a  few  localities. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  suited  to  both  garden  and  field  culture.  The  earliest 
kinds  are  generally  not  of  as  heavy  growth  in  vines,  or  as  productive  in  peas,  as  those  that 
mature  a  little  later.  The  varieties  most  cultivated  as  field-crops  at  the  north,  are  the  Marrow- 
fat and  the  small  yellow-pea,  which  is  largely  grown  in  Canada.  The  fonner  is  a  rather  late 
variety  of  large  growth,  and  requires  a  rich  soil.  The  latter  can  be  successfully  grown  on 
light  land. 

The  cow-pea  is  much  cultivated  at  the  South,  where  it  is  greatly  valued  for  fodder  and 
the  ripe  seeds,  which  furnish  food  for  stock;  also  as  a  fertilizer  when  turned  under  green, 
being  considered  next  in  value  to  red  clover  for  this  purpose.  It  will  grow  on  soil  too  poor 
to  produce  clover,  and  hence  may  be  used  to  advantage  where  clover  cannot.  This  plant, 
however,  much  more  closely  resembles  the  bean  than  the  common  pea. 

The  cultivation  of  the  "  Pindar  "  or  ground-pea,  has  been  given  under  the  heading  of 
Peanuts,  and  -does  not  require  repetition  in  this  connection. 


474  THE   AJfERICAN  FARMER. 

Cultivation  and  Harvesting.  —  Peas  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  but  will  produce 
the  largest  crops  on  lands  tliat  are  rich.  No  stable  manure  should  ever  be  used  for  this  crop 
except  it  has  been  previously  fermented  or  rotted,  either  by  being  composted  or  plowed 
imder  for  a  previous  crop.  "When  well-rotted,  it  is  one  of  the  very  best  fertilizers  for  peas, 
but  when  used  before  the  fermenting  process  has  taken  place,  it  has  a  tendency  to  increase 
the  growth  of  the  vines,  and  diminish  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  product. 

The  ground  should  be  well  pulverized  by  plowing  and  harrowing  before  sowing  the 
seed.  The  peas  are  sown  both  broadcast  and  in  drills.  When  the  former  method  is  prac- 
ticed, from  two  to  three  bushels  are  required  per  acre;  for  drill-planting,  from  five  to  six 
pecks  per  acre  are  generally  used.  They  should  be  covered  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four 
inches;  consequently  a  light  plow  or  cultivator  is  better  for  this  purpose  than  a  harrow.  In 
either  case,  the  ground  should  be  afterwards  rolled  to  press  the  soil  upon  the  seed  and  make 
the  surface  even.  An  even  surface  renders  the  process»of  harvesting  much  easier  than  where 
the  ground  is  left  in  ridges. 

Peas  are  not  easily  injured  by  the  frost,  consequently  may  be  sown  early  in  the  spring 
and  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry.  "When  sown  later,  or  in  dry  weather,  they  should  be 
covered  deeper  than  when  it  is  done  early  in  the  season.  Some  farmers  cover  to  the  depth 
of  five  inches.  A  deep  covering  enables  the  crop  to  better  withstand  a  drouth.  Early  sowing 
admits  of  harvesting  the  crop  in  time  to  plow  the  land  for  wheat.  Soaking  the  seed  for 
twenty-four  hours  in  tepid  water  before  sowing,  hastens  germination. 

It  was  formerly  the  practice  with  farmers  to  sow  peas  with  oats;  but  this  is  not  to 
be  recommended,  as  the  two  crops  do  not  ripen  at  the  same  time,  and  the  oat  stalks  are  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  support  the  vines.  They  are  sometimes  sown  in  corn-fields,  by  being 
drilled  in  between  the  rows  of  corn.  They  are  by  this  method  liable  to  be  unduly  shaded  by 
the  heavier  growth  of  corn. 

"When  a  succession  of  crops  for  soiling  are  wanted  through  the  season,  peas  may  be  sown 
in  April  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry,  and  at  intervals  every  three  or  four  weeks.  At  the 
North,  the  earliest  varieties  are  sown  in  April  or  May,  and  the  later  in  June,  the  latter  being 
the  more  general  practice,  unless  more  than  one  crop  is  desired.  "When  sown  in  drills,  the 
soil  may  be  worked  with  the  horse-hoe  or  cultivator  soon  after  they  are  out  of  the  ground. 

"When  cultivated  for  green  fodder,  they  can  be  cut  at  any  time  after  being  half -grown 
until  the  pods  are  ripe.  "When  peas  are  the  object  of  cultivation,  they  should  not  be 
harvested  until  nearly  ripe.  They  may  then  be  cut  with  a  scythe,  dried  in  the  field,  and 
afterwards  threshed.  The  haulm  or  straw  furnishes  excellent  fodder  for  sheep  and  cattle. 
"When  fully  ripe  so  that  their  roots  may  be  easily  pulled,  they  are  sometimes  harvested  with 
a  horse-rake,  and  left  in  heaps  to  dry.  The  cow-pea  may  be  harvested  in  the  same  manner; 
but  when  the  growth  is  very  heavy,  an  iron-tooth  harrow  is  sometimes  used.  Swine  and 
cattle  are  frequently  turned  into  the  field  to  eat  the  crop,  but  this  practice  is  not  to  be 
recommended  unless  it  is  designed  to  turn  it  under  as  a  fertilizer,  as  quite  as  much  would  be 
wasted  as  eaten,  by  being  trampled  into  the  ground. 


BEANS.  475 

BEANS. 

BEANS,  as  a  field  crop,  are  cultivated  considerably  in  this  country,  but  not  to  the 
extent  that  they  are  in  Europe.  They  are  an  important  product,  and  should  be 
more  generally  grown  by  farmers  than  they  are  at  present.  As  an  article  of  food 
for  man  and  farm  stock,  they  are  very  nutritious.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of  them,  and  will 
also  eat  the  straw  or  the  dried  vines  and  pods.  It  should  never  be  fed  to  them,  however, 
when  mouldy  or  musty.  Beans  are  also  one  of  the  best  known  substitutes  for  a  meat  diet. 
They  are  easily  cultivated,  are  not  comparatively  an  exhaustive  crop,  and  may  be  grown  on 
very  poor  land.  On  soils  of  less  than  medium  fertility,  and  with  but  little  cultivation,  large 
crops  may  be  produced,  and  they  are  a  product  which  will  always  bring  a  fair  price  in  the 
market.  As  has  previously  been  stated,  beans  will  grow  and  produce  crops  on  very  poor 
soil,  but  wiU  prove  more  remunerative  when  grown  on  one  of  moderate  fertility,  and  to 
which  they  are  best  adapted. 

The  two  general  varieties  of  beans  are  the  dwarf  or  bush  bean,  requiring  no  support  for 
their  vines,  and  the  pole-bean  or  climbing  varieties,  requiring  support.  Between  these  are 
intermediate  varieties.  The  pole-bean  is  never  cultivated  as  a  field  crop.  The  varieties  of 
the  field-bean  are  not  large,  and  there  is  probably  not  much  difference  in  their  profit,  except 
it  be  from  local  circumstances,  where  certain  varieties  may  be  more  in  demand  in  the  market 
than  others.  As  a  general  rule,  the  large  seeded  varieties  are  less  reliable  and  require  a 
longer  season  to  mature  than  the  small.  As  the  cultivation  of  the  garden  varieties  will  be 
given  in  another  department,  they  will  not  be  mentioned  here. 

The  kinds  most  generally  grown  as  a  field  crop  are  the  small  white,  the  kidney,  and  the 
marrow.  The  first-mentioned  is  an  early  variety,  very  small,  and  yields  well.  The  second 
is  of  medium  size  and  somewhat  better  quaUty,  but  not  as  early  or  productive.  The  marrow 
is  a  large,  round  bean  of  quite  good  quality,  rather  late  in  maturing,  and  of  fair  yield.  The 
small  white  bean  is  most  generally  cultivated  as  a  field  crop.  There  are  other  varieties  of 
local  popularity.  In  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  an  early  kind,  known  as  the  "yellow-eyed  bean," 
is  extensively  cultivated.  It  is  of  medium  size  and  white,  except  a  slight  yellow  ring  about 
the  eye.  The  plant  branches  out  quite  high,  is  a  strong  and  vigorous  grower,  and  the  pods 
are  kept  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  soil  than  most  of  the  other  bush  varieties.  They  are, 
therefore,  less  Hable  to  be  injured  by  the  wet.  The  English  field-bean,  called  also  the  "horse- 
bean,"  is  rarely  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  as  the  climate  here  is  too  dry  and  warm,  but 
is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Canada. 

Cxiltivation. — A  light,  warm,  dry  soil,  or  that  of  a  sandy  nature  is  best  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  beans.  On  soils  that  are  heavy  or  highly  manured  the  tendency  is  to  produce 
a  heavy  growth  of  vines  and  foliage,  rather  than  the  seed,  whereas  a  comparatively  light  soil 
of  the  proper  quality  will  promote  greater  productiveness  and  earlier  maturity.  Stable- 
manure  is  objectionable  as  a  fertilizer  for  this  reason.  Superphosphate  of  lime  is  highly 
recommended  for  this  crop. 

The  land  should  be  plowed  some  weeks  in  advance  of  planting,  in  order  to  give  the  seed 
of  weeds  an  opportunity  to  make  their  appearance,  when  they  can  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of 
the  harrow  or  cultivator,  and  be  afterwards  kept  in  subjection  with  much  less  labor.  The 
soil  should  be  finely  pulverized  before  the  seed  is  deposited.  Wet  lands  are  objectionable 
for  this  crop,  but  if  necessary  to  use  soil  containing  a  surplus  of  moisture  for  this  purpose, 
the  surface  should  be  ridged  in  order  to  secure  better  drainage.  The  best  results  are  to  be 
obtained  on  a  warm,  dry  soil. 

The  proper  time  for  planting  depends  upon  the  season.  While  peas  will  bear  consider- 
ble  frost,  beans,  being  of  inter-tropical  origin,   are  very  tender  and  are  easily  killed  by  the 


476  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

slightest  frost ;  therefore  it  is  never  safe  to  plant  them  until  all  danger  in  his  respect  is  past. 
As  they  grow  very  rapidly,  the  planting  may  be  delayed  beyond  the  point  of  danger,  and 
they  will  then  have  sufficient  time  to  mature  before  the  frost  makes  its  appearance  in  the  fall. 
About  the  first  week  in  June,  at  the  North,  is  the  common  time  of  planting,  unless  the  season 
is  unusually  early.  If  planted  when  the  soil  is  cold  and  wet,  the  seed  will  be  liable  to  rot ;  it 
should  therefore  be  done  when  the  ground  is  warm.  If  the  ground  be  very  dry  at  the  time 
of  planting,  germination  wiU  be  greatly  hastened  by  soaking  the  seed  in  tepid  water  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  beforehand.  They  may  be  planted  either  in  hills  or  drills.  The 
distance  apart  in  the  hills  and  driUs  should  be  regulated  by  the  variety  cultivated,  since  some 
kinds  require  more  room  for  growth  than  others,  the  plants  being  larger  and  the  branches 
wider-spreading.  For  plants  of  moderate  growth,  the  distance  between  the  rows  should  not 
be  less  than  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet,  and  that  of  the  hills  not  less  than  from  one  to  two 
feet.  Drills  should  be  the  same  distance  apart  as  the  rows,  and  care  taken  not  to  sow  the 
seed  too  thickly.  From  six  to  eight  plants  to  a  hill  is  sufficient.  The  covering  should  be  to 
the  depth  of  two  inches,  and  the  soil  pressed  down  upon  the  seed.  On  soil  free  from  weeds, 
they  have  been  known  to  produce  largely,  when  sown  broadcast,  but  this  method  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  as  it  will  not  admit  of  after-cultivation.  The  crop  should  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  with  the  horse-hoe  or  cultivator. 

Early  ripening  is  desirable  when  other  crops  are  to  succeed  field-beans  during  the  same 
season.  When  there  is  a  tendency  to  produce  a  luxuriant  growth  of  vines  to  the  detriment 
of  the  seed-product,  it  is  well  to  cut  off  the  ends  of  the  vines  once  or  twice  during  the 
season.  This  has  the  effect  of  hastening  the  maturity  of  the  crop  and  increasing  the  product. 
Like  all  other  crops,  the  use  of  good  seed  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Late-grown  seed 
usually  gives  the  best  results,  and  it  should  be  from  a  crop  which  grew  more  to  seed  than 
vines.  Beans  are  sometimes  planted  in  connection  with  corn,  but  it  is  a  practice  that  cannot 
be  generally  recommended. 

Cultivation  of  Horse-Beans.— The  culture  for  the  variety  of  field-bean  known  as 
the  English  field  or  "  horse-bean,"  differs  somewhat  from  the  common  field-bean.  The 
method  practiced  in  Canada,  is  given  by  a  farmer  in  that  province  as  follows: — 

"  The  horse-bean  thrives  well  in  this  section,  the  yield  on  my  farm  generally  being  from 
forty  to  fifty  bushels  per  acre.  It  requires  good,  heavy  land,  prepared  the  same  as  for 
potatoes,  either  well  manured  in  the  fall  and  plowed  in,  or  else  the  manure  is  put  into  the 
drills  in  the  spring.  We  spread  the  manure  well  in  the  bottom  of  the  drills  and  then  sow 
the  beans  on  the  tgp  of  the  manure,  two  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  cover  six  or 
eight  inches  deep  with  the  plow.  I  make  the  drills  twenty-eight  inches  apart  so  that  there  is 
room  to  work  them  and  keep  them  clean  like  potatoes.  A  few  days  before  they  come  up  I 
take  the  saddle-harrow  and  harrow  down  the  top  of  the  drills,  and  when  they  are  about  ten 
inches  high  a  furrow  is  thrown  away  from  the  drills.  With  a  drill-harrow,  I  then  level  the 
piece  down,  and  then  hoe  and  weed  them.  They  are  then  moulded  up  like  potatoes.  They 
will  usually  grow  from  four  to  five  feet  high  and  quite  thick  and  bushy.  They  completely 
kill  Canada  thistles.  I  think  the  reason  is  that  the  beans  are  so  thick  that  they  smother  the 
thistles." 

Harvesting. — Beans  should  always  be  harvested  before  the  appearance  of  frost.  It  is 
better  to  gather  the  crop  before  fully  ripe  than  to  permit  it  to  be  injured  in  this  manner. 
When  there  is  no  danger  from  frost,  and  the  land  is  not  wanted  for  other  purposes,  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  harvest  them  until  the  pods  are  turned  yellow.  In  some  sections  the 
plants  are  pulled  by  hand,  the  dirt  shaken  from  the  roots,  and  the  vines  thrown  into  small 
heaps  or  spread  on  the  ground  to  dry.  In  other  localities,  a  small  iron  rake  is  used  for  the 
purpose,  or  if  the  vines  are  partially  green  at  the  time  of  harvesting,  they  are  sometimes 


BEANS.  477 

mown.     Tlie  harvesting  should  be  done  in  dry  weather,  as  exposure  to  wet  will  cause  many  of 
the  pods  to  mould  and  rot. 

If  the  vines  are  nearly  dry  at  the  time  of  gathering,  two  or  three  days'  exposure  to  the 
warm  sun  will  dry  them  sufScientiy  for  storing  in  the  barn.  When  drymg,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  tui-n  them  over  occasionally,  that  the  curing  process  may  be  uniform.  As  beans  heat  and 
mould  very  readily,  it  is  important  that  they  be  thoroughly  dried  before  storing.  When  the 
vines  are  rather  green,  they  are  sometimes  stacked  in  the  field,  around  stakes,  with  the  roots 
in  the  center,  and  secured  at  the  top  with  a  cord  or  a  wisp  of  straw.  In  two  or  three  weeks 
of  good  weather,  they  will  be  sufficiently  dry  to  take  to  the  bam,  after  being  spread  out 
with  a  few  hours'  exposure  to  the  sun. 

If  not  threshed  at  once,  it  is  well  to  spread  the  vines  on  the  floor  or  scaffolds  as  thinly 
as  the  storage  room  will  admit,  to  avoid  all  danger  of  moulding.  They  should  be  threshed 
out  from  the  pods,  and  winnowed  by  a  fanning-mill,  after  which  they  should  be  spread  thinly 
in  a  cool,  dry  place  until  thoroughly  dry.  It  is  well  to  cull  out  imperfect  specimens,  as  a 
few  discolored  beans  will  injure  the  appearance  of  the  whole  quantity,  however  good  it  may 
be,  and  will  be  liable  to  reduce  the  selling-price. 

Castor  Beans. — The  castor  bean  is  a  tropical  plant,  hence,  cannot  be  successfully  cul- 
tivated at  the  North.  It  is  frequently  seen  growing  there,  however,  as  an  ornamental  plant, 
its  stately  appearance  and  large,  broad  leaves  of  a  purplish  hue  rendering  it  very  attractive. 
It  is  a  perennial  in  warm  climates,  and  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  thirty  feet,  and  will 
live  for  several  years.  In  regions  subject  to  a  frost  it  becomes  an  annual,  and  grows  to  the 
height  of  from  three  to  ten  feet.  It  is  a  native  of  Southern  Asia  and  Northern  Africa,  and 
has  been  natui-alized  in  Southern  Europe  and  other  warm  climates.  In  the  West  Indies  it 
grows  with  great  luxuriance.  It  has  been  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  field  crop  as  far 
north  as  40°;  but  the  climate  of  the  Southern  States  is  best  adapted  to  it. 

In  Texas  and  Southern  Florida  it  strongly  shows  its  perennial  tendency.  A  castor- 
plant  is  said  to  have  been  grown  in  a  garden  in  Galveston,  the  stem  of  which  attained  seven 
inches  in  diameter.  This  plant  continued  to  yield  seven  or  eight  years.  A  hundred  bushels 
of  beans  have  been  raised  per  acre  in  localities  adapted  to  its  culture  in  Texas.  In  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Middle  States,  and  States  bordering  on  the  Ohio  river,  it  grows  to  the 
height  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  yields  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  The  seeds  or 
beans  are  oval  and  quite  large.  Their  value  consists  in  the  oil  which  they  yield.  When 
bruised  and  subjected  to  a  great  pressure,  the  yield  will  be  nearly  a  gallon  per  bushel  of  cold- 
pressed  oil,  which  is  much  superior  to  that  obtained  by  boiling,  the  latter  being  of  dark  color. 

When  pure,  the  oil  is  of  a  hght  yellow  color,  but  when  inferior  in  quality  it  has  a 
greenish  and  sometimes  a  dark  yellowish  tinge.  Exposure  to  the  sun's  rays  bleaches  it  to  a 
certain  extent.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  cathartic.  It  is  also  much  used  in  lubricating 
machinery,  carriage  wheels,  leather,  etc.  In  Hindoostan,  it  is  quite  extensively  employed  for 
burning  in  lamps. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  the  castor  bean  can  only  be  made  profitable  where 
the  climate  and  soil  are  adapted  to  it,  and  also  in  localities  near  a  mill  for  extracting  the  oil. 

The  very  best  seed  should  always  be  obtained  for  the  crop.  That  of  the  large  variety 
grown  in  the  West  Indies,  should  be  planted,  and  not  the  small,  light-colored  bean  that  has 
been  grown  in  some  of  the  Northern  sections.  The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  castor-plant  is  a 
rich,  sandy  loam,  although  any  dry,  fertile  soil  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  surface  should 
be  well-pulverized,  and  the  seed  planted  in  hills,  in  rows  five  or  six  feet  apart.  Three  or 
four  seeds  are  deposited  in  a  hill,  to  make  allowance  for  those  that  may  not  germinate,  and 
for  such  of  the  young  plants  as  may  be  destroyed  by  the  cut-worm,  which  is  sometimes  very 
troublesome.  When  the  plants  are  six  or  seven  inches  high,  they  are  thinned  to  one  plant. 
The  cultivation  afterward  given  should  be  similar  to  that  for  Indian  corn. 
30 


478  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  seeds  will  begin  to  ripen  generally  in  August,  according  to  the  latitude,  and  con- 
tinue to  do  so  until  frost  makes  its  appearance.  A  place  for  spreading  the  seeds  should  be 
prepared  about  the  time  of  their  ripening.  This  is  sometimes  a  spot  of  dry  ground,  cleared 
and  beaten  hard,  and  sometimes  a  low  scaffold  for  spreading  the  pods.  Wbeu  the  pods  on 
the  spikes  begin  to  crack,  they  should  be  cut,  and  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry,  in  the  place  pre- 
viously prepared.  They  should  be  spread  thinly,  in  order  to  dry  well.  There  will  be  several 
gatherings  of  the  crop,  as  the  pods  mature  and  ripen.  The  heat  of  the  sun  causes  the  pods 
to  open,  and  the  beans  to  shell  out.  In  warm  weather,  two  or  three  days  will  generally  be 
sufficient  to  dry  them. 

When  all  the  beans  are  out  of  the  pods,  the  latter  are  raked  off  and  the  beans  gathered 
and  cleaned  by  a  fanning-mill,  or  seed-cleaner,  with  a  suitable  screen.  They  are  then  spread 
in  a  cool,  dry  place  to  become  thoroughly  dried  before  being  stored.  It  is  well  to  occasio'^ 
ally  turn  them  during  the  drying  process. 


BROOM  CORN. 

THIS  plant  is  a  variety  of  the  sorghum,  and  a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  culti- 
vated for  its  branching  panicles  principally,  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brooms,  etc.,  although  it  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  forage  plant.  This  family 
of  plants  are  all  more  or  less  rich  in  saccharine  matter,  but  as  this  variety  has  been  cultivated 
for  a  long  period  with  direct  reference  to  the  production  of  the  brush  or  seed-bearing  stems, 
and  their  improvement  in  length  and  fineness,  ■^dthout  regard  to  its  sugar-producing  proper- 
ties, its  appearance  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  common  sorghum  or  Northern  sugar- 
cane. 

The  introduction  of  broom-corn  into  this  country,  as  a  cultivated  plant,  is  attributed  to 
Dr.  Franklin,  who,  finding  a  seed  on  a  whisk  broom  that  had  been  imported,  planted  it,  and 
produced  seed  from  the  plant  that  was  the  result  of  the  experiment.  From  this,  originated 
its  culture  in  the  United  States. 

The  production  of  broom-corn  was  formerly  quite  limited,  being  confined  almost  exclu- 
sively to  New  England,  but  it  has  now  become  an  extensive  industry  in  some  of  the  Western 
States,  where  the  climate  and  soil  seem  admirably  adapted  to  it,  and  where  it  proves,  in  many 
localities,  a  very  valuable  crop. 

At  the  extreme  North,  the  season  is  rather  too  short  to  admit  of  the  perfect  maturity 
and  ripening  of  the  seed.  In  many  of  the  Western  States  the  seed  is  not  permitted  to  ripen, 
the  crop  being  harvested  before  this  period,  in  order  to  produce  a  finer  quality  of  the  brush 
product.  In  such  cases,  a  more  southerly  latitude  must  be  depended  upon  for  seed  in 
sowing. 

The  average  product  of  brush  per  acre  is  about  five  hundred  pounds,  although  with  the 
best  soil  and  cultivation,  rare  instances  are  known  of  the  crop  amounting  to  nine  hundred  or 
.  a  thousand  pounds  per  acre.  As  there  seems  to  be  no  substitute  for  the  brush,  and  there  is 
always  a  demand  for  it,  and  it  is  a  crop  that  can  be  easily  cultivated,  it  is  a  desirable  and 
profitable  one  for  the  farmer  to  raise,  in  those  sections  to  which  it  is  well  suited. 

"When  mixed  with  oats,  the  seed  makes  very  good  food  for  horses.  It  is  also  valuable 
for  poultry,  especially  chickens  after  they  are  a  week  or  two  old,  and  when  fed  in  connection 
with  other  food.  It  is  much  more  nutritious  when  ground  sufficiently  fine  to  break  up  the 
tough  husk.  When  ground  with,  corn,  in  the  proportion  of  three  bushels  of  broom-corn  to 
one  of  com,  it  makes  very  good  fattening  food  for  cattle,  sheep,  or  swine.  This  proportion 
also  makes  a  good  ration  for  milk-production  in  winter. 


BROOM  CORN.  479 

It  is  always  well  to  mi?  it  with  some  of  the  common  grains.  When  mixed  with  corn, 
it  is  said  to  be  as  nutritious  as  an  equal  quantity  of  oats.  Sheep  will  masticate  the  whole 
seeds  better  than  cattle,  because  they  will  grind  it  finer.  Still,  when  not  ground,  it  is  always 
best  to  cook  the  seed,  as  it  is  thus  rendered  soft  and  more  digestible. 

Soil  and  its  Preparation. — The  best  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  broom-corn  is  that 
to  which  Indian  corn  is  best  adapted.  It  should  be  rich  and  mellow,  free  from  weeds,  and 
not  subject  to  early  or  late  frosts.  Lands  for  this  crop  should  never  contain  a  surplus  of 
water.  Such  as  have  a  subsoil  retentive  of  water,  should  be  under-drained.  The  best  river 
bottoms  are  well  adapted  to  it,  providing  the  situation  gives  them  a  good  natural  drainage. 
Its  culture  is  not,  however,  confined  to  any  particular  kind  of  soil.  Any  soil  that  is  dry  and 
of  average  fertihty,  will  yield  a  fair  crop. 

Unless  the  land  is  naturally  quite  rich,  fertiUzers  of  some  kind  are  essential.  Well-fer- 
mented manure  of  any  kind  is  good,  that  from  the  barn-yard,  pig-sty,  or  sheep-pen  being 
valuable  for  this  crop.  Guano,  plaster,  wood-ashes,  and  lime,  also  give  good  results,  but 
generally  not  quite  equal  to  the  former. 

Soil  should  be  made  as  clean  and  free  from  weeds  as  possible,  as  the  young  plants  seem 
weak  and  feeble  at  first,  and  are  consequently  easily  choked  by  the  weeds.  A  clean  soil  also 
admits  of  less  labor  in  the  after-culture.  • 

As  with  common  corn,  different  cultivators  adopt  different  methods  of  preparing  the 
land.  Whatever  the  method  of  preparing  the  soil,  the  surface  should  be  finely  pulverized  by 
plowing  and  harrowing  before  planting.  The  manure  is  generally  applied  broadcast;  in 
addition  to  this,  a  small  quantity  of  manure  applied  to  the  hills  or  drills  before  planting  would 
serve  to  give  the  young  plants  a  vigorous  start.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  should  in  all 
respects  be  similar  to  that  made  for  corn. 

Planting. — Broom-corn  may  be  planted  either  in  hills  or  drills.  Hills  are  generally 
preferred  as  a  matter  of  convenience  in  the  after-culture,  as  they  admit  of  running  the  culti- 
vator both  ways. 

The  rows  may  be  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart,  according  to  the  variety  to  be 
grown.  Dwarf  varieties  are  sometimes  planted  three  feet  apart,  but  four  feet  is  sufficiently 
near  for  the  large  kinds.  The  hills  may  be  about  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  grown,  although  some  prefer  to  have  them  the  same  distance  as  the  rows. 

In  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  seed  be  of  the  best  quality  and 
thoroughly  ripened.  Seed  of  inferior  quality,  or  that  imperfectly  ripened,  will  either  fail  to 
germinate  or  produce  weak,  sickly  plants. 

As  many  of  the  seeds  often  fail  to  germinate,  even  when  of  average  good  quality,  the 
usual  practice  is  to  plant  a  liberal  quantity  to  the  hill,  and  afterwards  thin  out  the  plants  to 
five  or  six,  leaving  only  the  strongest  and  most  thrifty  looking  ones.  From  fifteen  to  twenty 
seeds  to  the  hill  are  sufScient.  If  too  large  a  quantity  is  planted,  the  young  plants  will  be 
crowded,  and  as  they  are  naturally  at  first  very  weak,  overcrowding  at  this  period  would  ren- 
der them  more  so,  and  prove  injurious  to  the  crop. 

When  the  seed  is  sound  and  well-ripened,  two  quarts  will  be  sufficient  for  an  acre,  this 
being  the  usual  allowance.  If  much  of  it  is  imperfect,  a  much  larger  quantity  will  be 
required.  For  drill  planting,  a  somewhat  larger  amount  will  be  required  than  for  hills.  The 
planting  should  be  done  when  the  soil  is  warm  and  dry,  and  all  danger  of  frost  is  passed; 
about  the  time  of  planting  corn,  or  a  little  later. 

When  the  seed  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  of  the  stems  or  pedicles  adhering  to  them, 
it  can  be  planted  by  any  of  the  common  seed-drills  that  wiU  plant  seed  of  small  size.  Corn 
planting  machines  and  wheat-drills  are  used  for  this  purpose.  When  only  a  few  acres  are  to 
be  planted,  dropping  the  seed  by  hand — although  a  slow  process — is  often  practiced  in  some 
localities.     A  small  garden  seed -planter  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  planting  by  hand. 


480  THE  AMERICAN  FAR3IER. 

The  seed  should  not  be  covered  much  more  than  about  an  inch  deep,  unless  the  soil  is 
light  and  dry.  In  such  a  case,  the  covering  should  be  a  little  deeper.  If  the  seed  is  put  in 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  prepared,  the  moisture  of  the  soil  will  serve  to  hasten  germination. 

Thick  planting  produces  the  finest  and  toughest  brush.  Old  soil  long  in  cultivation  is 
also  thought  to  give  a  better  quality  of  brush  than  new,  fresh  soil. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  plants  make  their  appearance,  the  cultivator  should  be 
nm  between  the  rows  to  loosen  the  soU  and  check  the  growth  of  weeds.  This  should  be  fre- 
quently done  during  the  early  stages  of  growth,  as  stirring  the  soil  promotes  the  growth  of 
the  plants,  and  holds  the  weeds  in  check,  which  are  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  young 
plants.  If  the  weeds  are  allowed  to  once  get  the  start  of  the  crop,  it  will  prove  veiy  detri- 
mental, and  require  the  plants  a  long  time  to  recover  the  effect,  if  they  ever  do. 

It  is  well  to  begin  the  stirring  of  the  soil  before  the  plants  are  up,  and  consequently 
before  the  weeds  appear,  and  when  they  are  germinating  in  the  earth;  but  in  such  cases  it 
will  be  necessary  to  use  considerable  care,  or  the  seed  of  the  crop  may  be  disturbed.  The 
practice  of  some  farmers  of  allowing  the  weeds  to  grow  several  inches  before  they  are  exter- 
minated, is  not  only  very  injurious  to  the  crop,  but  more  than  quadruples  the  labor  of  their 
destruction  afterwards.  Those  farmers  who  have  learned  the  great  economy  of  the  practice 
of  killing  weeds  before  they  come  up,  with  respect  to  corn,  will  appreciate  the  importance  of 
this  practice  as  applied  to  broom  corn. 

This  constant  stirring  of  the  surface  will  make  a  great  difference  in  the  j-ield  of  the  crop. 
The  various  horse  hoes  and  cultivators  in  agricultural  use  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose. 

Tlie  thinning  should  be  done  when  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high,  leaving  five 
or  six  of  the  most  thrifty  ones  in  a  hill;  or,  if  drill-culture  is  practiced,  the  stalks  should  be 
left  three  or  four  inches  apart.  The  thinning  is  a  very  laborious  job,  and  the  most  to  be 
dreaded  of  any  part  of  the  labor  attending  the  cultivation  of  this  crop.  The  general  rule 
with  the  best  cultivators  is  to  keep  the  whole  surface  of  the  soil  clean  of  weeds  from  the  very 
beginning,  and  use  the  cultivator  for  this  purpose  once  a  week,  as  long  as  the  size  of  the 
plants  will  permit.  Different  varieties  of  broom-corn  are  very  liable  to  mix  when  planted 
near  together;  consequently,  when  growing  seed  for  future  crops,  they  should  be  planted 
entirely  separate  and  in  fields  remote  from  other  varieties,  that  the  seed  may  be  kept  pure. 
Tlie  same  is  true  if  it  is  planted  near  any  of  the  varieties  of  the  sorghum  or  Chinese  sugar- 
cane, with  which  it  will  readily  mix. 

Harvesting.  —  The  period  of  harvesting  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  use  to  be 
made  of  the  crop.  When  the  brush  only  is  desired,  broom-corn  can  be  cut  much  earlier  than 
when  the  seed  is  one  of  the  objects  sought.  In  the  former  case,  the  harvesting  may  be  per- 
foi-med  as  soon  as  the  blosSoms  begin  to  fall.  The  quality  of  the  brush  is  better  at  this 
period  than  if  the  cutting  be  delayed  till  later.  The  brush  then  will  be  of  a  green  tint,  and 
fine  and  tough  in  quality. 

A  few  days  later,  when  the  seed  is  in  a  milk  state,  or  is  approaching  maturity,  the  brush 
will  assume  a  reddish  shade,  and  lose  somewhat  of  its  weight,  being  in  quality  inferior  to  the 
green-tinted  product,  and  accordingly  commanding  a  less  price  in  the  market. 

"When  the  grower  wishes  to  secure  a  good  quality  of  seed  and  does  not  care  for  a  very 
fine  quality  of  brush,  the  harvesting  should  not  be  done  until  after  the  seeds  are  fully 
matured.  The  quality  of  the  seed  that  is  planted  influences  largely  the  character  of  the  crop; 
consequently,  care  should  be  taken  that  all  seed  designed  for  planting  should  be  perfectly 
mature  before  harvesting.  Broom-corn  should  always  be  harvested  before  frost  makes  its 
appearance. 

Before  harvesting  the  larger  or  tall-growing  varieties,  it  is  customary  to  break  down  the 
stalks,  turning  the  tops  of  the  stalks  of  two  rows  towards  each  other,  thus  leaving  a  vacant 


BROOil  CORN.  481 

tniace  for  the  harvester  to  work  in  cutting.  This  is  done  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  as,  if 
left  standing,  the  height  of  the  stalk  at  the  place  of  cutting  would  make  it  a  very  laborious 
practice,  some  of  the  large  varieties  on  rich  soil  attaining  a  height  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
feet.  From  ten  to  twelve  feet  is,  however,  a  good  height.  The  stalks  are  generally  broken 
at  the  height  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  from  the  ground,  those  of  two  rows  beinf-' 
turned  towards  each  other  diagonally  in  such  a  way  that  the  stalks  of  one  row  will  cross 
those  of  the  other  with  the  tops  projecting  about  a  foot  on  each  side.  The  crop  is  then  said 
to  be  "  tabled."-  Each  two  rows  of  the  field  are  thus  broken  over,  leaving  a  vacant  space  for 
passing  between  the  rows  and  cutting  the  brush,  which  is  usually  done  immediately  after  the 
crop  is  broken. 

Dwarf  varieties  do  not  require  this  process,  but  are  usually  harvested  by  the  stalk  con- 
taining the  brush  being  pulled  out  from  the  sheath  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  This  is  a 
more  difficult  operation  than  cutting.  « 

After  being  "tabled  "  as  previously  described,  the  brush  should  be  cut  so  as  to  leave 
only  eight  or  ten  inches  of  the  stalk  below  it,  and  no  leaves.  These  should  be  laid  in  small 
bundles  upon  the  tables  as  cut,  and  then  gathered  and  put  under  shelter.  It  is  the  practice 
in  some  sections  to  leave  the  brush  exposed  to  the  sun  two  or  three  days  to  cure;  but  this  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  as  this  wiU  have  a  tendency  to  give  it  a  reddish  tinge,  even  though 
cut  when  quite  green.  It  also  injures  the  quality,  rendering  it  less  tough  and  more  easily 
broken.  Exposure  to  rain  is  also  injurious.  Therefore  it  should  be  gathered  and  put  under 
Shelter  as  soon  as  a  sufBcient  quantity  is  cut. 

Curing,  etc.  —  When  only  small  quantities  of  broom-corn  are  produced,  it  maybe 
cured  in  any  sheltered  place,  such  as  in  a  shed-loft  or  on  a  barn-scaffold,  where  it  will  be 
exempt  from  exposure  to  sun  and  rain.  But  where  extensive  crops  are  grown,  a  house 
especially  adapted  for  curing  the  crop  becomes  a  necessity.  The  interior  of  such  buildings 
have  a  large  number  of  racks  prepared,  upon  which  the  brash  is  spread  very  thinly  to  dry. 
The  racks  are  made  with  narrow  strips  of  boards  alternating  with  open  spaces,  in  order  to 
admit  the  air  and  hasten  the  curing  process.  These  rack-shelves  should  be  from  eight  to  ten 
inches  apart,  so  as  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of  air.  The  building  should  have  every  con- 
venience for  ventilation,  but  the  ventilators  should  always  be  closed  in  stormy  or  damp 
weather. 

When  the  brush  is  harvested  green,  the  seed  is  generally  separated  from  it  before 
curing.  This  may  be  done  in  various  ways.  Machines  made  for  this  purpose,  with  revolving 
cylinder,  or  similar  to  a  threshing  machine,  are  much  used  where  large  crops  are  cultivated. 
They  can  be  worked  by  hand,  foot,  horse,  or  steam  power,  according  to  the  size.  It  can  also 
be  done  by  holding  the  heads  to  the  cylinder  of  a  threshing-machine,  and  not  permitting  the 
brush  to  be  drawn  in.  Where  small  quantities  are  cultivated,  a  hetchel  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  a  long-toothed  curry-comb  are  frequently  used. 

When  seed  is  immature,  it  is  of  little  value  as  food  for  stock,  and  may  be  best  utililized 
in  the  compost  heap.  Broom-corn  seed  is  very  liable  to  heat,  and  should  be  spread  thinly  on 
a  scaffold  or  floor  to  become  perfectly  dry  before  being  stored.  Rats  and  mice  should  be 
kept  from  the  brush  when  curing,  as  they  will  destroy  and  waste  large  quantities. 


482  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

HOPS. 

HOPS  grow  wild  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  There 
seems  to  be  but  one  botanical  species  of  this  plant  but  numerous  varieties  have 
been  produced  from  this  by  long  cultivation.  The  root  is  perennial,  but  the  \-ines 
are  killed  by  the  frost  every  autumn,  new  shoots  starting  up  from  the  roots  in  the  spring. 
It  is  a  climbing  vine,  with  rough  leaves  and  stems,'  grows  rapidly,  and  always  twines  around 
its  support  from  left  to  right,  or  foUowiag  the  course  of  the  sun.  In  its  wild  state,  it  often 
climbs  high  up  among  the  branches  of  tall  trees,  and  when  cultivated  requires  tall  poles  or 
other  substitutes  for  this  purpose.  Different  varieties,  however,  differ  in  this  respect,  some 
requiring  longer  supports  than  others. 

Hops  have  become  an  agricultural  product  of  considerable  importance  in  many  countries. 
They  are  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacmre  of  beer,  although  to  a  certain  extent  for  domestic 
purposes,  such  as  the  making  of  yeast,  and  for  their  medicinal  properties,  etc.  The  portions 
of  the  hop-flower  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  beer  are  the  seeds  and  the  yellow 
matter  which  surrounds  the  outer  covering  of  the  seeds,  and  the  base  of  the  petals.  This 
yellow,  glutenous  material  emits  a  very  pleasant  aroma,  and  has  an  exceedingly  bitter  taste. 
It  is  also  quite  volatile,  and  unless  packed  very  closely  as  soon  as  the  hops  are  dried,  this 
principle  is  in  a  great  measure  lost.  For  this  reason,  hops  that  have  been  kept  more  than  a 
year  are  of  considerable  less  value  than  new.  The  new  product  is  essential  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  beer  of  the  best  quality.  This  bitter  principle  is  of  more  deUcate  flavor  in  some 
varieties  than  others,  and  in  proportion  as  the  seed  is  developed.  In  selecting  varieties  to 
plant,  three  considerations  should  be  taken  into  account;  these  are  the  delicacy  of  flavor, 
yield  of  the  crop,  and  time  of  maturing.  As  a  general  rule,  the  strongest  growers  are  the 
largest  yielders,  but  have  not  that  deKcacy  of  flavor  that  characterizes  the  smaller  and  less 
prolific  varieties.  Early  maturity  is  desirable  in  localities  subject  to  early  frosts.  On  farms 
where  hops  are  extensively  cultivated,  it  is  well  to  plant  varieties  maturing  at  different  times, 
as  the  picking  season  wiU  be  long.  By  this  means  the  early  varieties  may  be  harvested  first, 
and  the  later  varieties  will  not  become  over-ripe  before  being  gathered. 

Tarieties. — In  England  the  Farnham,  Canterbury  whitebines,  and  Goldings  are  most 
extensively  cultivated.  These  are  strong-growing,  prolific  vines,  that  require  poles  from 
fourteen  to  twenty  feet  long.  The  grape  varieties,  of  which  there  are  several,  are  smaller, 
and  are  so  called  because  their  blossoms,  or  the  hops,  grow  in  clusters.  These  reqxure  poles 
of  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  in  length.  In  this  country  some  of  the  grape  varieties  are  quite 
extensively  grown,  although  many  of  the  large  varieties,  embracing  those  of  greater  or  less 
local  popularity,  are  also  cultivated. 

The  hop  is  not  only  grown  as  a  field  crop,  but  it  may  be  made  to  subserve  the  double 
purpose  of  utihty  and  ornament,  by  being  trained  on  supports  for  ornamental  purposes. 
There  are  few  plants  that  have  a  better  foUage,  or  that  cling  more  tenaciously  t-o  any  support 
provided  for  them.  When  in  full  blossom,  it  is  certainly  a  graceful  plant,  while  its  pleasant 
aroma  also  i-enders  it  attractive.  When  grown  for  ornamental  purposes,  there  are  many 
ways  in  which  it  may  be  trained  that  are  suited  to  render  it  graceful  and  truly  beautiful,  the 
use  of  the  straight,  upright  pole  for  this  purpose  being  anything  but  graceful  or  artistic.  For 
the  country  home,  they  make  a  very  pretty  arch  when  trained  to  span  the  walks  in  the 
kitchen  garden,  and  may  be  mixed  with  other  vines,  such  as  the  clematis  or  woodbine.  A 
rustic  trellis,  with  arch  made  for  their  support,  will  thus  be  transformed  into  a  beautiful 
ornament  for  the  home  suiTOundings,  and,  if  desired,  may  be  utilized  to  supply  the  family 
with  aU  the  hops  necessar\-  for  domestic  use.  They  also  add  a  beautiful  feature  to  gardens, 
by  planting  them  where  they  can  run  wild  over  old  fruit-trees,  trunks  of  dead  trees,  or  even 


HOPS.  483 

summer-houses  or  other  outbuildings,  since,  when  once  planted,  they  last  for  many  years, 
requiring  no  care  except  to  train  the  vines  a  little  to  their  supports  when  first  starting  in  the 
spring.  They  will  also  grow  in  almost  any  ordinary  garden  soil.  Hops  cannot  he  profitably 
grown  south  of  latitude  40. 

Cultivation.  —  Where  there  is  suflBcient  depth  of  good  soU,  not  too  rich  or  too  wet, 
hops,  with  proper  cultivation,  may  be  continued  almost  indefinitely.  If,  however,  the  soil  be 
shallow,  with  a  hard,  impenetrable  sub-soO,  or  is  cold  and  wet,  the  roots  will  soon  die  out, 
and  the  enterprise  prove  a  failure.  If  the  land  be  too  rich,  the  product  will  be  vines,  rather 
than  fruit,  a  small,  pale-green  hop  being  the  result,  rather  than  the  large,  fuUy-matured, 
yellow  bur,  which  is  the  product  of  a  less  growth  of  vine,  and  consequently  grown  with  less 
shade  and  more  air  and  sun.  Hops  have  long  roots,  whose  nature  is  to  penetrate  deeply  into 
the  earth;  therefore  it  is  quite  as  necessary  that  the  sub-soU  be  of  the  proper  quality  to  be 
thus  penetrated  on  the  surface-soil.  If  the  sub-soil  be  saturated  with  water,  or  of  a  hard, 
compact  nature,  the  roots  cannot  enter  it,  and  the  plants  cannot  therefore  thrive.  All  soils 
intended  for  hop-culture  should  be  either  naturally  or  artificially  drained.  The  former  is 
better,  but  when  the  latter  is  employed,  tile-draining  is  essential. 

Hops,  Uke  corn,  require  a  warm,  mellow,  and  aerated  soil.  Any  soil  that  will  produce 
a  good  crop  of  corn,  will  also  produce  hops  successfully.  They  are  an  exhausting  crop,  and 
lands  on  which  they  are  grown  require  to  have  manures  rich  in  nitrogen  applied  from  time 
to  time,  in  order  to  maintain  their  fertility.  A  deep,  rich,  well-drained,  alluvial  soil,  in  a 
locahty  well  protected  from  sweeping  winds,  is  generally  considered  the  best  for  hops.  A 
sufficient  quantity  of  air  is  essential,  but  strong  winds  are  very  injurious.  "Wet  soils,  hot 
suns,  and  strong  winds,  in  conjunction,  are  fatal  to  the  hop  product. 

High  land,  if  the  soU  be  good,  is  to  be  preferred  to  low  land,  especially  if  protected  by 
hills  or  trees,  and  not  so  exposed  to  the  winds  that  they  will  be  bare  in  winter.  The  soil 
should  be  deep  and  friable,  containing  a  sufficient  amount  of  humus  but  not  a  surplus  of 
moisture,  and  yet  one  that  will  withstand  drouth.  If  tenacious  clay  soils  are  used  for  this 
product,  they  should  be  well  drained. 

Wlien  the  land  designed  for  planting  hops  has  been  long  in  use  for  other  crops,  it  should 
be  well  dressed  with  compost  or  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  manure,  previously  plowed  in 
for  other  crops  and  largely  retained  in  the  soil.  Fresh  farm  manure  should  be  avoided,  as  it 
has  a  tendency  to  produce  a  heavy  growth  of  vines  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop.  Light 
loams  or  gravelly  soils,  when  made  sufficiently  rich  with  fertilizers,  will  produce  good  results, 
but  a  naturally  fertile  soil  is  much  better.  A  gentle  slope  to  the  south  is  desirable,  but  this 
should  also  be  where  there  is  a  free  circulation  of  air,  yet  protected  from  injurious  winds. 
"When  land  is  strong,  it  should  be  cleared  before  planting.  The  plowing  should  be  quite 
deep.  The  best  time  for  doing  it  is  in  the  fall.  Well-composted  farm  manure  is  used  to 
advantage  for  this  crop;  also  hme  and  phosphates,  on  some  soils. 

The  surface  of  the  land  should  be  well  pulverized,  and  rendered  as  mellow  as  possible. 
It  should  then  be  marked  off  in  squares  at  a  distance  of  about  eight  feet,  the  rows  to  be  in  a 
straight  line.  The  distance  between  the  hills  varies,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
the  variety  to  be  cultivated,  some  kinds  growing  much  more  luxiiriant  than  others.  It  is 
well  to  avoid  crowding,  for  if  planted  too  closely  together,  it  will  have  the  same  effect  upon 
the  product  that  close  planting  has  upon  the  yield  of  corn.  There  should  be  a  sufficient 
amount  of  space  between  the  hUls  for  sun  and  air.  A  lack  of  these  essentials  will  result  in 
more  vines  than  blossoms,  and  there  will  be  a  deficiency  not  only  in  weight,  but  in  the 
quality  of  the  bur.  A  soil  that  is  too  rich,  as  well  as  an  unusually  wet  season,  will  also  give 
the  same  result.  A  Hght  growth  of  vine  will  often  produce  a  surprisingly  large  growth  of 
burs  of  good  quality  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  vine;  hence,  it  is  not  advisable  to 
force  the  growth  of  the  plants  too  much. 


484  THE  AilERICAN  FARMER. 

"\^Tieii  the  hop-seeds  are  planted,  the  result  will  be  a  variety  of  kinds,  the  same  as  with 
potato  or  fruit-seed ;  therefore  tlie  plants  should  be  multipUed  by  planting  sUps  from  a  weU- 
known  and  desirable  variety.  The  undergroxmd  vines,  or  sprouts  from  the  old  plants,  are  used 
in  planting.  Each  piece  should  be  from  six  to  ten  inches  long  and  contain,  at  least,  two  or 
three  eyes,  one  for  root  formation  and  one  or  two  for  the  vine.  About  two  bushels  of  these 
sets  wiU  be  required  for  planting  an  acre.  The  hops,  like  many  other  plants,  produce  the 
male  and  female  blossoms  on  different  plants.  The  blossom  of  the  former  grows  in  a  loose 
panicle,  while  the  latter  is  compact  in  form,  like  the  cone  of  some  varieties  of  the  pine  tree. 

In  obtaining  slips  for  setting  a  hop-field,  those  from  the  male  and  female  plants  should 
be  kept  separate.  Only  about  eight  or  ten  of  the  male  plants  will  be  required  for  an  acre. 
These  should  be  planted  in  separate  hills,  and  evenly  distributed  over  the  field.  In  setting  a 
field,  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to  put  six  plants  in  a  hill,  but  four  are  now  considered  a 
more  desirable  number,  as  it  involves  less  crowding  with  all  the  attendant  e\Tl  results.  Four 
good  slips  should  be  put  in  a  hill,  and  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  finely-pul- 
verized soil. 

Some  growers  put  a  fork-fiJl  of  well-composted  manure  in  each  hiU  before  planting  the 
slip.  Others  make  the  land  sufficiently  rich  without  it.  Whether  this  practice  will  be  advis- 
able or  not,  wiU  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  preparation  it  has  pre^^ously 
received.  If  the  land  is  quite  dry,  hiU-manuring  may  be  omitted,  if  the  soil  is  sufficiently 
fertile  to  warrant  it.  If  it  is  inclined  to  be  too  wet,  manuring  in  the  hiU  wiU  remedy  the 
evil  in  a  measure.  Level  culture  is  considered  best  in  this  coimtry,  as  a  general  rule,  as  the 
drouths  to  which  the  soil  is  subjected  is  detrimental  to  the  hop-plants,  but  in  the  moist  cli- 
mate of  England,  hilling  is  more  generally  practiced.  In  planting,  therefore,  the  land  should 
be  left  as  nearly  level  as  possible.  During  the  first  season  of  growth,  potatoes  or  com  are 
sometimes  planted  between  the  rows  of  hops,  and  the  cultivation  given  is  sufficient  to  keep 
down  the  weeds.  With  some  growers  the  poles  are  not  set,  and  no  effort  is  made  to  obtain 
a  crop  until  the  second  season.  Others  set  the  poles  the  first  season,  and  secure  a 
small   crop. 

No  fresh  manure  should  ever  be  used  for  hops.  In  place  of  manuring  the  hills,  many 
growers  put  a  quantity  of  richer  soil  in  each  hill  before  planting,  in  order  to  secure  a  good 
start.  In  planting,  the  sets  should  be  spread  out  carefully,  and  the  fine,  damp  soil  be 
pressed  down  upon  them.  Where  poles  are  set  the  first  season,  they  may  be  only  from  eight 
to  ten  feet  long,  and  one  pole  will  be  sufficient  for  each  hill.  The  poles  should  be  sharpened 
at  the  end,  and  set  one  foot  in  the  ground.  They  may  be  made  of  various  kinds  of  wood. 
Cedar  is  generally  considered  tlie  best  for  the  purpose.  The  land  should  then  be  kept  free 
from  weeds.  The  length  of  the  permanent  poles  wUl  depend  upon  the  soil  and  growth  of  the 
variety  planted.  Where  the  soil  is  fertile  and  the  strong-growing  varieties  are  planted,  poles 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  long  may  be  necessary;  but  where  plants  of  smaller  growth  are 
cultivated,  shorter  poles  may  be  set.  Two  poles  are  required  for  each  hiU,  to  give  sufficient 
sun  and  air  to  the  plants. 

They  should  be  set  firmly  in  the  ground,  in  order  not  to  be  blown  down  by  the  wind. 
As  they  are  often  thus  blown  down  or  broken  off,  to  the  injury  of  the  crop,  horizontal  yards 
are  preferred  by  many  hop  growers.  This  method  renders  the  labor  of  harvesting  much 
easier.  It  is  also  much  more  economical  than  the  use  of  long  poles,  and  the  plants  generally 
grow  better.  With  this  method,  one  stake  is  set  to  each  hill.  These  stakes  should  be  sawed 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  long,  an  inch  and  a  quarter  square,  and  be  covered  with  coal  tar. 

A  row  of  stakes  are  also  set  aroimd  the  field  at  a  distance  of  eight  feet  from  each 
hUl.  The  tops  of  all  the  stakes  are  thus  connected  with  strong  twine  that  has  been  well 
tarred.  In  those  hiUs  of  the  field  occupied  by  male  plants,  long  poles  should  be  set.  This  is 
for  the  pui-pose  of  facilitating  the  distribution  of  the  poUen  from  their  blossoms  over  the 
whole  field. 


HOPS.  485 

"When  the  vines  attain  the  length  of  two  or  three  feet,  they  should  be  tied  to  the  poles 
to  prevent  being  blown  and  injured  by  the  wind;  also  to  assist  them  in  clinging  to  the  sup- 
ports, care  being  taken  to  twine  them  the  natural  way,  which  is  in  the  course  of  the  sun. 
They  wOl  need  such  assistance  occasionally,  in  the  progress  of  their  growth,  and  when  the 
horizontal  method  of  culture  is  practiced,  the  vines,  after  growing  beyond  the  length  of  the 
stakes,  will  need  to  be  assisted  in  turning  and  twining  around  the  strings. 

In  order  to  attain  the  best  success  in  hop-growing,  the  culture  should  be  similar  to  that 
of  corn.  Frequent  stirring  of  the  soU,  and  the  extermination  of  all  weeds  are  essential.  The 
best  growers  of  hops  cultivate  the  crop  about  once  a  week  during  the  season,  when  the 
weather  will  admit.  The  essentials  for  the  best  success  with  this  crop  are,  a  deep  mellow 
soil,  perfect  drainage,  continued  cultivation  of  the  crop  from  spring  to  fall,  a  sufficient  supply 
of  the  fertilizing  element,  and  a  plenty  of  space  between  the  hills  for  sun  and  air.  The  hop 
is  a  tender  plant  and  cannot  thrive  under  neglect  or  hard  treatment  of  any  kind. 

"When  early  harvested,  it  will  bleed  equal  to  the  grape  vine,  and  with  as  much  injury  to 
the  plants.  Exposure  to  cold  in  winter  will  frequently  kill  it.  If  forced  too  much  in 
growth,  its  vitality  will  be  exhausted  and  mildew  be  the  result.  If  the  weeds  and  grass  are 
kept  out  of  the  field,  the  moisture  and  shade  which  are  so  injurious  will  be  obviated  to  a 
great  extent,  unless  the  plants  are  set  too  closely  together.  A  uniform,  healthy  growth,  with 
light  and  air,  are  the  requisites  necessary  to  perfect  the  development  of  the  vine  and  bur. 

Deep  culture  to  the  soil  after  the  plants  are  set  should  be  avoided,  as  it  tears  the  roots. 
Shallow  and  frequent  working  of  the  surface  is  the  better  practice,  and  the  finer  and  more 
mellow  the  soil  is  kept,  the  better  for  the  crop. 

In  the  autumn,  a  shovelful  of  well-fermented  manure  should  be  thrown  upon  each  hill. 
This  serves  to  keep  the  roots  warm  during  the  winter,  and  the  rains  and  melting  snows  will 
carry  the  fertilizing  elements  from  it  to  the  soil  and  roots.  This  is  carefuUy  removed  in  the 
spring,  and  the  roots,  stalks,  and  vines  trimmed  off,  after  which  the  cultivation  should  be 
frequent,  as  previously  directed,  in  order  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  and  maintain  a  mellow 
surface.     The  ordinary  com  cultivators  are  generally  used  for  this  purpose. 

Harvesting.  —  The  season  for  picking  hops  generally  commences  the  last  week  in 
August,  and  continues  several  weeks.  Some  varieties  mature  earlier  than  others.  The  time 
of  picking  is  denoted  by  the  seed  turning  hard  and  piirple.  If  the  picking  commences 
before  the  hop  is  ripe,  the  plant  bleeds  profusely  and  may  be  either  greatly  injured  or  killed 
by  this  means.  WTien  the  horizontal  method  is  practiced,  the  picking  may  be  done  from  the 
vines  while  they  are  supported  by  the  cords,  or  the  cords  may  be  loosened  from  the  stakes  to 
bring  them  within  easy  reach  of  the  pickers. 

"When  poles  are  used  for  support,  the  vines  are  cut  from  one  to  three  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  the  poles  pulled  up  and  laid  over  large  bins  or  boxes  around  which  the  pickers 
gather,  dropping  the  hops  into  the  bin  as  they  are  picked.  Care  is  necessary  not  to  permit 
leaves,  stems,  or  other  waste  material  to  fall  into  the  bin  during  the  process.  "When  the  bins 
are  fiiU,  the  hops  are  put  into  large  boxes  and  taken  to  the  kiln  for  curing. 

Drying. — When  small  quantities  of  hops  are  cultivated,  they  can  be  dried  by  being 
spread  in  a  store  room,  or  other  suitable  place,  and  stirred  often  enough  to  prevent  heating; 
but  when  extensively  grown,  a  kUn  for  this  purpose  wiU  be  necessary.  A  kiln  is  a  building 
constructed  for  the  purpose  of  drying  the  hops  by  a  quicker  process  than  can  be  secured 
without  artificial  heat.  There  are  numerous  patent  methods  of  constructing  kilns  and  curing. 
The  hops  are  generally  spread  to  a  depth  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches,  where  they  are 
subjected  to  a  heat  of  sufBcient  temperature  to  become  thoroughly  cured  in  from  twelve  to 
twenty  hours. 

The  hops  are  sufficiently,  cured  when  they  will  crumble  two-thirds  to  pieces  when  han- 


486  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

died  and  the  stems  are  dry.  It  is  very  important  that  hops  be  well  dried.  They  should  not 
be  left  exposed  to  the  air  after  being  cured,  as  the  volatile  principle  will  thus  be  lost.  When 
properly  dried,  they  should  be  packed  closely  and  put  in  a  dry  place. 


MUSTARD. 

THE  mustard  family  includes  many  valuable  plants,  such  as  the  cabbage,  turnip,  rad- 
ish,  horse-radish,  water-cress,  nasturtium,  etc.  The  varieties  of  mustard  cultivated 
as  a  field  crop  and  garden  plant  for  the  seed  are  two, — the  white  and  the  black  or 
brown.  The  black  or  brown  mustard  has  a  small  globular  seed  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and 
light  yellow  within.  The  white  variety  has  large  seed  of  a  light  color.  The  flour  mustard 
of  commerce  consists  of  the  mixed  ground  seed  of  both  varieties.  The  black  variety  is  the 
strongest.  The  ground  mustard  is  a  popular  condiment  for  table  use,  and  was  known  to  the 
ancients.  It  is  also  of  great  value  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  is  used  in  cases  of  poisoning. 
A  heaped  teaspoonful  or  more  of  the  ground  mustard,  mixed  with  a  tumbler  of  water 
and  drank,  acts  as  a  prompt  non-nauseating  emetic,  and  may  be  used  with  the  greatest  suc- 
cess and  safety  in  cases  of  poisoning.  This  is  a  fact  that  every  adult  member  of  the  house- 
hold should  know,  as  cases  of  accidental  poisoning  are  liable  to  occur  in  any  family,  and  it  is 
something  that  is  always  at  hand^  and  may  be  used  promptly  in  time  to  save  life  in  such  cases, 
when  waiting  for  a  physician  might  prove  fatal.  "We  once  witnessed  its  wonderful  efficacy 
in  saving  life  when  a  person  was  apparently  in  a  dying  condition  from  the  effects  of  an  over- 
dose of  veratrum  viride.  It  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  in  such  cases.  "When 
moistened  with  vinegar  or  water  (the  former  is  best),  and  applied  to  the  skin,  it  is  a  most 
powerful  counter-irritant,  and  will  reheve  internal  pains  and  sprains. 

The  mustard  plant  furnishes  a  valuable  crop  for  green  food  for  cattle  or  sheep.  It  is 
also  used  for  plowing  under  as  a  green  manure.  In  England  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels 
of  seed  per  acre  are  frequently  grown.  The  principal  objection  to  its  growth  is,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  eradicate  from  a  soil  where  it  has  once  been  cultivated,  the  seed  that  is  self-sown 
in  han^esting,  producing  troublesome  weeds  for  future  crops.  The  wild  mustard  is  an 
exceedingly  noxious  weed  in  some  portions  of  the  "West.  The  best  means  of  ridding  a  soil 
from  mustard  where  it  has  been  previously  cultivated,  is  to  permit  the  plants  to  grow  until 
they  are  in  blossom,  and  then  plow  them  under. 

Cultivation. — A  rich,  loamy,  moist  soil,  reduced  to  a  fine  tilth,  is  the  most  desirable 
for  mustard,  although  it  will  grow  well  on  any  soil  of  medium  fertihty,  if  it  is  not  too  wet 
or  cold.  A  warm  soil  is  essential.  It  may  be  sown  either  broadcast  or  in  drills.  The  latter 
method  admits  of  after-ciilture,  which  is  an  advantage  over  the  former.  When  the  latter  is 
practiced,  the  driUs  should  be  about  two  feet  apart,  for  convenience  in  cultivation.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  sow  the  seed  too  thickly.  A  peck  to  the  acre  is  required  for  broad- 
cast sowing;  for  driUs,  about  six  quarts  is  sufficient.  The  ground  should  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  and  frequently  .stirred.  When  a  majority  of  the  plants  have  ripened  their  seed, — 
which  may  be  indicated  by  the  pods  turning  brown  or  yellow, — the  crop  should  be  carefully 
cut  with  a  reaper  or  scythe.  It  may  be  set  in  small  stacks  for  a  day  or  two  in  the  field  to ' 
dry,  or,  if  so  ripe  when  cut  that  the  seeds  shell  out  in  handling,  it  should  be  taken  at  once  to 
the  store-house.  It  should  always,  when  taken  from  the  field,  be  carefully  laid  in  a  cart 
with  a  light  covering  of  cloth  over  the  bottom  and  sides  to  prevent  the  seed  from  wasting. 
It  should  be  taken  to  a  store-room,  where  it  may  remain  until  ready  to  be  threshed.  It 
should  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care,  as  it  is  very  liable  to  shell  out  and  a  good  share  of 
the  crop  will  thus  be  wasted. 

The  quality  of  the  seed  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  wet  weather  about  the  time  of  harvest- 
ing.    As  soon  as  it  is  perfectly  dry,  it  may  be  threshed  and  cleaned  ready  for  market. 


ENSILAGE.  489 


ENSILAGE, 

THE  system  of  ensilage,  which  has  attracted  so  much  attention  for  a  few  years  past  both 
in  this  country  and  Europe,  is  cue  of  vast  importance  in  the  agricultural  world,  and  of 
practical  interest  to  every  farmer,  since  it  bids  fair  to  supplant  in  part,  if  not  wholly, 
the  present  system  of  hay-making,  or  preserving  fodder  by  drying, — a  process  not  only  laborious, 
but  expensive,  while  it  involves  at  the  same  time  considerable  loss  of  valuable  nutriment  by 
desiccation,  or  the  drying  process.  One  has  but  to  enter  a  meadow  or  mowing  field  where 
the  new  mown  hay  is  being  thus  cured,  and  inhale  the  fragrant  odors  that  are  so  invigor- 
ating and  pleasant,  to  be  convinced  of  the  fact  that  some  of  the  best  elements  of  the  grass  are 
by  this  process  being  wasted  by  passing  into  the  atmosphere.  Thus  much  is  lost  by  the  curing 
process,  even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  while  great  loss  is  often  sustained 
through  rains,  heavy  dews,  and  unfavorable  weather  at  the  time  of  gathering  this  crop, — 
so  important  to  the  farmer.  Now,  any  improvement  in  the  method  of  preserving  vegetation, 
which  not  only  involves  less  labor,  time,  and  expense,  but  furnishes  better  and  more  nutri- 
tious food  for  the  stock, — keeping  cattle  in  as  good  condition  through  the  winter,  and  causing 
milch  cows  to  produce  as  much  milk  and  of  as  good  quality  as  when  supplied  with  the  best 
pasturage  in  summer, — is  well  worthy  the  attention  and  interest  of  all  lovers  of  improvement 
and  laudable  prosperity.  The  advocates  of  the  ensilage  system  who  have  experimented  most, 
and  consequently  have  had  the  most  experience  with  regard  to  it,  make  this  claim  in  behalf 
of  its  adoption  into  common  practice.  And  not  only  this,  but  that  it  furnishes  the  opportimity 
in  time  of  an  abundance  to  lay  by  a  supply  for  the  time  of  drought  or  other  failure  of  the 
forage  crops.  By  this  process,  also,  a  much  larger  number  of  cattle  can  be  supported  upon  a 
yg;iven  extent  of  land,  and  thus  the  land  of  any  farm  utiUzed  to  better  advantage,  since  the 
yield  of  the  nutritive  matter  in  the  stalks  of  cereals  is  much  greater  per  acre  than  that  of  any 
of  the  grasses.  By  maintaining  a  larger  number  of  cattle,  the  quantity  of  manure  produced 
on  the  farm  is  proportionately  greater,  which  affords  the  farmer  a  better  opportunity  of 
enriching  his  lands  and  keeping  them  in  a  higher  state  of  cultivation,  obviously  resulting 
in  larger  crops,  with  consequent  larger  profits  for  his  labor.  Ensilage  is  a  French  word 
which  means  "  the  act  of  compressing  into  pits,  trenches,  or  compartments  called  silos."  It 
Is  also  used  to  denote  the  green  crops  thus  preserved  in  silos.  Silo  is  a  word  used  to  denote 
a  "  compartment  used  for  storing  green  fodder  in  an  air-tight  manner."  A  Silo  may  be 
wholly  above  the  ground,  an  excavation,  or  partly  below  and  partly  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Great  credit  is  due  Monsieur  Auguste  Goiiart  for  not  only  discovering,  or  invent- 
ing, the  system  of  ensilage,  but  for  his  patient  and  persevering  efforts  in  bringing  it  so  nearly 
to  perfection  as  it  is  at  present,  having  labored  assiduously  for  over  twenty-five  years  before 
arriving  at  desired  ^results.  The  following  from  M.  Gofllart's  writings,  as  translated  by  Mr. 
J.  B.  Brown,  gives  a  brief  history  of  that  gentleman's  experiments:  — 

"  In  1850  I  made  some  experiments  in  the  ensilage  of  wheat  at  Versailles,  since  which  time 
the  preservation  of  fodder  has  become  my  favorite  occupation.  In  1852  I  constructed  four 
underground  silos,  with  masonry,  and  connected  them,  each  having  a  capacity  of  two  cubic 
metres;  these  silos  I  have  filled  a^d  emptied  several  thousand  times.  Maize,  Jerusalem  arti- 
chokes, beets,  sorgho,  turnips,  potatoes,  and  straw  I  have  experimented  upon  with  more  or 
less  success.  Some  years  ago  I  had  in  the  autumn  more  than  eighty  homed  cattle,  and  my 
hay  crop  would  not  have  permitted  me  to  support  ten.  One  should  be  an  agriculturist  of 
Sologne  to  know  what  such  a  trouble  means.  In  rich  countries,  when  the  hay  crop  fails,  it 
means  that  instead  of  harvesting  5,000  or  6,000  kilogrammes  to  the  hectare,  there  are  only 
3,000  or  4,000,  but  in  Sologne  it  means  that  there  is  no  crop  at  all  In  sucn  diflBculties  the 
enterprising  cultivator  must  use  more  intelligence  and  more  industry.     '  What  the  man  is 

Note.— A  hectare  is  about  9i  acrea.    A  kilogramme  is  about  2J  lbs,  Avoirdupoise. 


J  90  THE  AMERICAN  PARMER. 

worth,'  is  an  old  proverb,  but  I  -will  improve  upon  it  by  saying  that  the  man  should  be  worth 
more,  as  the  land  is  worth  less. 

I  got  safely  through  that  year  by  having  50,000  bundles  of  wheat,  rye,  and  oat  straw. 
I  cut  them  up,  and  with  35  kilogrammes  of  rye  flour,  which  I  fermented  each  day  in  large 
tubs,  and  in  which  I  soaked  the  straw,  I  obtained  food  that  was  softened  by  fermentation, 
which  my  cattle  ate  freely  and  digested  easily.  Thus  I  reached  the  following  spring  without 
being  obliged  to  sell  my  cattle  at  a  low  price.  I  must  acknowledge,  however,  that  at  the  end 
of  the  winter  they  were  in  a  sorry  condition,  but  the  first  grass  quickly  restored  them,  and  I 
was  not  compelled  to  replace  them  at  a  high  price  in  the  spring;  and  now  the  two  years  of 
scarcity  which  my  fellow-agriculturists  have  passed  through  have  been  for  me — owing  to  my 
silos — years  of  unprecedented  plenty.  What  I  have  done  can  be  done  by  thousands  of 
others,  and  my  earnest  desire,  my  sole  ambition,  is  to  enable  them  to  imitate  me  as  soon  as 
possible.  Until  1872  I  only  expected  from  my  hmited  ensilages  the  means  of  prolonging 
for  three  weeks,  or  at  most  a  month,  the  use  of  maize,  so  desirable  a  food  for  my  cattle.  To 
that  end  I  made  many  experiments.  I  have  mixed  my  cut  maize  with  various  proportions  of 
straw,  in  order  to  find  which  would  give  the  best  result.  I  have  made  silos  without  cover, 
burying  the  ensilage  under  bundles  of  straw,  then  with  earth  (never  sand).  I  have  filled  my 
four  silos  with  every  possible  mixture,  which  would  sooner  have  put  me  upon  the  road  to  a 
positive  success,  if  I  had  not  been  too  easily  alarmed  by  slight  alterations  on  the  surface,  and 
which  I  caused  to  extend  all  through  by  too  frequent  examinations. 

In  1873  I  had  a  real  success,  due  mainly  to  accident;  and  it  is  to  be  recognized  that 
chance  nearly  always  plays  an  important  part  in  the  happiest  discoveries. 

Until  this  time  I  had  hardly  believed  that  the  preservation  of  green  maize  for  a  long 
time  was  possible,  and  I  had  very  little  confidence.  1  hesitated  a  while,  and  should  have 
probably  hesitated  a  good  while  longer  if  I  had  not  been  in  a  measure  compelled  to  do  some- 
thing. The  year  1873  had  been  exceptionally  favorable  for  the  culture  of  maize.  At  Bur- 
tin  the  crop  was  enormous.  After  having  fed  my  cattle  abundantly  until  October,  besides 
having  all  that  they  could  eat  while  green  till  December,  I  found  that  I  had  more  than 
170,000  kilogrammes  that  would  be  lost  if  I  could  not  keep  it,  at  least  till  the  following 
March.  I  went  resolutely  to  work,  and  I  have  described  elsewhere  the  means  that  I  used 
and  the  result  that  I  obtained.  The  difficulties  were  greater  than  one  would  believe,  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  faith  of  my  employees.  One  day  I  had  to  leave  my  workmen  for  a 
while,  but  my  return  was  sooner  than  they  expected.  The  work  had  ceased,  of  course. 
They  were  talking  together,  and  I  overheard  my  foreman  say  to  the  workmen,  '  This  work 
that  we  are  doing  is  all  foolishness,  M.  Goffart  had  better  throw  his  maize  into  the  dung-heap 
at  once,  because  that  is  where  it  will  go  to  at  last.'  I  said  nothing,  but  redoubled  my 
watchfulness,  knowing  how  little  zeal  I  could  expect  from  people  so  convinced  of  the  use- 
lessness  of  their  labor." 

In  his  earlier  experiments,  M.  Goffart,  after  making  his  silos  air  and  water  tight  at  the 
bottom  and  sides  with  cement,  put  in  the  maize,  cut  in  pieces  of  three  or  four  centimeters 
long,  with  a  mixture  of  cut  straw,  and  pressing  it  down,  placed  on  the  top  a  layer  of  straw, 
cut  in  length  about  ten  centimetres;  over  this  a  layer  of  loam  beaten  with  care  to  prevent  all 
contact  with  the  air  outside.  When  fissures  appeared  in  the  earth,  they  were  immediately 
closed  with  care;  but  on  opening  the  silo,  a  vacuum  was  always  found  between  the  fodder 
and  earth  covering,  showing  that  the  mass  had  settled  and  fermentation  had  set  in ;  conse- 
quently the  ensilage  could  be  preserved  but  a  short  time.  After  many  experiments  he  found 
that  by  cutting  the  fodder  into  very  short  lengths  (about  one  centimetre),*  and  mixing  but 
about  one-tenth  part  straw,  or  leaving  the  straw  out  entirely,  and  placing  upon  the  mass  a 
continuous  pressure,  that  would  settle  with  the  fodder  (which  will  always  settle  in  any  silo  to  a 

*  A  centimetre  is  about  4-lOtli  inch. 


ENSILAGE.  491 

certain  extent),  thus  entirely  excluding  the  air,  the  preservation  of  the  fodder  was  a  com-' 
plete  success,  and  it  could  be  thus  preserved  for  any  length  of  time. 

This  continued  pressure  is  a  heavily  weighted  plank  covering,  which  will  follow  the 
material  as  it  settles,  and  thus  maintain  a  uniform  pressure.  M.  Gofl'art  says:  "  I  pile  on  the 
cover  of  my  silo  when  it  is  filled,  foui-  or  five  hundred  kilogrammes  of  stones  or  blocks  of 
wood  per  square  metre  of  sui'face.*  By  my  first  processes  (covering  without  much  weight)  I 
obtained  only  a  temporary  and  incomplete  preservation ;  with  my  last,  I  obtained  a  preserva- 
tion indefinite  and  absolute."  Thus,  after  many  failures,  and  partial  successes,  and  years  of 
study  and  experiment,  was  the  problem  at  length  solved,  and  it  is  now  no  longer  a  theory, 
but  a  demonstrated  fact,  that  green  crops  can  be  preserved  in  this  manner  with  their  valu- 
able nutritive  elements  unimpaired,  which  is  the  real  object  of  the  ensilage  system. 

Mr.  Brown  says  respecting  M.  Goffart's  achievement:  "No  doubt  many  farmers  in  this 
country  have  an  idea,  especially  since  the  canning  process  has  become  so  popular,  that  vegeta- 
tion might  be  preserved  in  a  similar  way.  Some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  pack  some  green 
stuS  in  barrels  by  way  of  experiment;  some  have  piled  stalks  in  heaps  and  covered  with  dirt. 
When  the  heat  and  moisture  of  the  season  have  favored  vegetation  and  produced  larger 
crops  than  could  be  consumed  before  frost  destroys  it,  many  a  farmer  has  doubtless  revolved 
the  problem  in  his  mind. 

Apple  pomace,  turnips,  cabbage,  and  different  kinds  of  leaves  seasoned  with  celery, 
grape  leaves,  leaves  of  beets,  beets  themselves,  pulp  of  beets,  beets  from  sugar-factories, 
some  of  these  have  been  preserved  in  pits  from  time  immemorial  in  Europe  for  feeding  cows 
and  goats.  Necessity  has  so  long  compelled  the  efforts  of  human  beings,  that  we  may  find 
precedents  in  almost  every  line  of  improvement.  But  all  experienced  men  who  know  the 
great  difference  that  separates  a  happy  suggestion,  or  even  a  successful  attempt,  from  a  prac- 
tice well  enough  confirmed  to  become  the  base  of  a  regular  business,  will  admit  that  these 
proceedings  do  not  destroy  the  merit  of  any  man  who,  like  Monsieur  Auguste  Goffart,  has 
accomplished  a  continued  success.  In  187G  the  French  Government  rewarded  him  with  the 
prize  so  dear  to  every  Frenchman,  the  Decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor." 

How  to  Build  a  Silo. — Various  methods  of  preserving  different  crops  in  a  green 
state  in  such  a  manner  that  their  nutritive  value  will  remain  unimpaired  have  been  resorted 
to,  some  of  which  have  proved  exceedingly  satisfactory,  while  others  have  resulted  either 
wholly  or  partially  in  failure.  Although  the  system  of  ensilage  is  still  in  a  comparatively 
experimental  stage,  and  the  experience  and  experiments  of  the  future  will  suggest  and 
develop  improvements  upon  the  present  standard  attained,  enough  has  already  been  demon- 
strated by  this  system  to  show  that  its  success  is  no  longer  a  subject  of  doubt  or  conjecture, 
but  an  established  fact.  The  methods  thus  far  that  have  resulted  most  satisfactorily  are  by 
the  use  of  the  silo  and  trenches,  the  former  being  most  generally  preferred.  In  giving 
directions  respecting  the  manner  of  building  a  silo,  it  may  be  of  special  interest  to  the 
farmer  to  receive  this  instruction  directly  from  some  of  the  pioneers  in  the  ensilage  system, 
who  have  thoroughly  tested  silos  of  different  construction,  and  are  therefore  prepared  to 
speak  from  experience.  "We  have,  therefore,  adopted  this  method,  in  the  main,  in  connection 
with  the  subject,  as  well  as  in  giving  the  experiments  which  have  led  to  successful  results. 

Mr.  Potter's  Method  of  Constructing  Brick  Silos.— Mr.  0.  B.  Potter,  of  New 
York,  the  first  person  to  try  the  ensilage  system  on  a  large  scale  in  this  country,  furnishes  us 
for  this  work  the  following  description  of  his  manner  of  constructing  silos: — 

"  The  process  of  preserving  fodder  in  pits  is  exceedingly  simple  and  easily  practiced. 
The  conditions  of  success  are  these: — 

First. — The  preserving-pits  must  be  wholly  air-tight,  so  that  when  sealed,  the  air  cannot 
come  in  contact  with  the  food  preserved. 

*  A  metre  is  about  three  feet  and  SJ  inches. 


492  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

•  Second. — The  pits  should  be  of  such  form  and  dimensions  as  will  best  facilitate  the  set- 

tling and  compacting  of  the  food  into  a  solid  mass,  and  when  opened  for  feeding  will  expose 
as  small  a  part  of  the  surface  to  the  atmosphere  as  practicable. 

Third. — The  fodder  must  be  cut  green  when  in  the  best  condition  or  in  bloom,  passed 
immediately  through  the  cutting-machine  to  reduce  it  to  uniform  short  lengths  of  not  more 
than  one  inch,  and  at  once  be  deposited  and  trod  firmly  into  the  pit,  sufficient  salt  being  used 
to  render  it  palatable,  but  no  more.  As  fermentation,  which  will  commence  at  once,  proceeds 
and  the  mass  settles,  the  cutting  and  treading  in  of  fresh  fodder  must  be  continued  at  inter- 
vals of  thirty-sis  to  forty-eight  hours  (depending  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  fermentation 
and  settUng  proceeds)  until  settling  has  ceased,  and  no  more  can  be  trod  into  the  pit. 

Fourth. — The  pit,  as  soon  as  completely  fiUed  and  settling  has  ceased,  must  be  securely 
sealed  to  exclude  the  air  wholly  and  arrest  fermentation,  and  must  be  kept  so  sealed  tmtil 
opened  for  use.     My  own  practice  is  as  follows: — 

I  make  my  pits  of  hard  brick,  with  twelve-inch  perpendicular  walls,  well  laid  in  cement 
with  smooth  joints.  If  the  ground  is  sandy  or  gravelly,  the  outside  of  the  wall  next  the 
earth  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  cement,  or  the  walls  are  filled  m  behind  with  clay  or  clayey 
earth  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  air  through  them.  The  bottoms  are  also  laid  with 
brick  upon  the  flat  in  cement.  The  pits  are  made  from  eight  to  ten  feet  wide,  from  six- 
teen to  twenty  feet  long,  and  about  fifteen  feet  deep.  The  deeper  the  pits,  the  more  they  will 
contain  in  proportion  to  measurement,  owing  to  greater  density  of  the  contents  from  the 
weight  of  the  mass  above.  In  all  cases  where  practicable,  pits  should  be  made  at  least  twenty 
feet  deep.  The  walls  are  made  so  smooth  upon  their  inner  sides  as  to  offer  no  obstacle  to  the 
settling  or  compacting  of  the  food  by  friction  of  the  sides.  These  pits  are  made  either  open 
at  the  top  and  covered  with  a  roof,  or  arched  over,  and  covered  underground,  with  two  necks 
to  each  coming  up  to  within  one  foot  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  through  which  they  are 
filled,  and  the  necks  then  sealed  with  earth.  This  last  construction  I  have  found  most  con- 
venient in  connection  with  basement  stables,  to  which  the  food  is  carried  or  wheeled  by  a 
passage  from  the  pits  through  the  foundation  waUs  of  the  stable.  In  this  construction  I 
make  one  pit  parallel  with  this  foundation  wall,  and  from  the  side  of  this  pit  most  distant 
from  the  stable,  other  rows  of  pits  are  made  at  right  angles  with  and  connecting  with  this, 
and  with  each  other  by  doorways. 

It  wUl  be  seen  from  this  construction,  that  as  many  tiers  of  pits  may  be  made,  end  to 
end,  at  right  angles  to  the  first  or  entrance  pit,  as  may  be  required  and  space  allow,  and 
that  after  the  contents  of  this  first  or  entrance  pit  are  fed  out,  each  of  the  other  rows  of  pits 
may  be  opened  and  fed  out,  one  pit  at  a  time,  and  that  only  the  surface  of  the  food  at  the 
end  of  the  one  pit  which  is  being  fed  will  at  any  time  be  exposed  to  the  air  until  the  whole 
are  fed  out — and  this  without  opening  or  disturbing  the  necks  of  the  pits  above,  which 
remain  sealed.  Any  other  form  of  construction  of  pits  which  answei's  the  conditions  may 
be  used.  Pits  or  wells  open  only  at  the  top,  either  round,  elHptical,  or  rectangular,  may  be 
used,  the  food  being  put  in  and  taken  out  through  the  top  only.  Such  pits  would  have  one 
ad%-antage,  that  successive  croppings  might  be  put  in  the  same  pit,  one  above  the  other,  each 
being  sealed  with  a  layer  of  earth  when  put  in.  Where  sufficient  depth  cannot  be  got  above 
water,  pits  may  be  made  partly  above  and  partly  below  the  surface,  the  earth  excavated  being 
used  to  make  a  broad  and  fii-m  embankment  around  them  to  their  tops. 

It  is  important  that  the  pits  be  so  constructed  and  located,  that  the  fodder  as  drawn  from 
the  field  may  be  deposited  conveniently  at  or  over  the  top  of  the  pits,  and  the  cutting-machine 
may  be  so  placed  that  the  fodder  when  cut  will  fall  as  readily  as  possible  into  the  pits.  Tlie 
fodder  when  green,  being  very  heavy,  it  is  quite  important  to  avoid  handling  it  unnecessarily." 

Mr.  Potter  objects  to  silos  built  above  ground,  having  tested  those  built  partly  above  and 
partly  below  groimd,  and  those  constructed  entirely  below  ground  thoroughly,  and  gives  the 


ENSILAGE.  493 

latter  a  decided  preference.  He  states  that  that  portion  of  the  ensilage  contained  in  the  part 
of  the  silo  above  ground  was  found  spoiled  on  several  occasions,  while  he  has  experienced  no 
such  difficulty  with  the  silos  constructed  entirely  under  ground. 

Mr.  Stewart's  Method  of  Constructing  Concrete  Silos.— Mr.  E.  W.  Stewart, 

of  Lake  View,  N.  Y.,  gives  his  method  of  buihng  a  concrete  silo  as  follows: — 

"  For  a  silo  twelve  feet  by  twenty  feet  (or  longer)  and  fourteen  feet  deep, — which  would 
hold  seventy-two  tons,  or  sufficient  for  ten  cows  six  months  with  full  rations, — the  concrete 
wall  should  be  fourteen  inches  thick  at  the  bottom  and  ten  inches  thick  at  the  top  of  the  side 
walls,  with  the  bevel  on  the  outside  of  the  wall,  and  the  end  walls  twelve  inches  thick  top 
and  bottom,  the  inside  being  perpendicular  and  smooth,  so  that  the  plank  covering  may  settle 
with  the  ensilage.  The  concrete  wall  is  stronger  than  ordinary  stone  wall,  and  for  this  short 
silo  fourteen  inches  at  bottom  is  thick  enough.  It  is  not  best  to  go  any  deeper  in  the  earth 
than  can  be  well  drained,  and  a  trench  should  be  cut  on  the  outside  of  the  wall,  six  to  ten 
inches  deep  all  around,  to  carry  off  all  water  that  may  reach  this  depth.  U  the  land  around 
the  silo  is  nearly  level,  it  is  best  to  go  only  so  deep  that  the  bottom  of  the  wall  will  be  below 
the  frost. 

Having  excavated  the  earth  as  deep  as  the  wall  is  to  go,  fifteen  feet  wide  and  twenty- 
three  feet  long,  then  set  the  standards  for  the  boxes  to  form  the  concrete  walls  in.  It  will 
require  twenty  standards  three  by  six  inches,  fifteen  feet  long  (if  the  walls  are  to  be  fourteen 
feet  high),  of  straight-grained  timber.  Those  standards  intended  for  the  inside  of  the  wall 
should  be  joined  straight  on  one  edge,  so  that  the  wall  may  be  made  very  straight  and  plumb 
on  the  inside.  There  will  be  three  standards  upon  each  long  side — one  at  each  corner  and 
one  in  the  middle. 

The  outer  edges  of  these  inside  standards  will  be  1 1  feet  9  inches  apart,  and  as  the  box- 
ing plank  are  1-^  inches  thick,  this  will  bring  the  walls  just  12  feet  apart.  The  outside  stand- 
ards will  be  opposite  the  inside  ones,  and  just  three  inches  farther  apart  than  the  wall  is  thick, 
so  that  when  the  planks  are  placed  inside,  it  forms  a  box  14  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  and 
the  bevel,  or  slant,  on  the  outside  of  the  wall  is  made  by  bringing  the  outside  standard  4 
inches  nearer  the  inside  standard  at  the  top. 

The  end  standards  will  be  parallel  with  each  other  and  15  inches  apart.  These  stand- 
ards are  held  together  by  nailing  a  lath  under  the  bottom  end,  and  a  bracket  across  the  top 
end,  holding  the  side  standards  17  inches  apart  at  the  bottom,  and  13  inches  at  the  top.  Then 
when  the  standards  are  set  up,  and  the  inside  standard  plumbed  very  carefully,  and  both 
stay -lathed  to  hold  them  firmly  in  position,  and  the  standards  placed  all  around  the  proposed 
silo,  it  is  all  ready  for  fitting  in  the  boxing-planks. 

These  boxing-planks  should  be  straight-grained  hemlock  or  pine,  14  inches  wide,  1^ 
inches  thick,  and  may  be  the  whole  length  of  each  side  and  end,  or,  if  more  convenient,  the 
sides  may  be  two  planks  long,  and  the  outside  end  plank  will  require  to  be  14^  feet  long,  but 
they  may  run  by  the  ends  of  the  side  planks. 

The  outside  of  the  ends  must  be  plumb,  so  that  the  outside  plank  of  the  long  sides  can 
be  raised,  but  for  the  end  walls,  being  shorter,  1 2  inches  thick  is  enough  for  strength,  and 
has  the  same  material  per  foot  of  surface.  When  these  boxing-planks  are  placed,  there  will 
be  a  continuous  box,  14  inches  on  the  sides  and  12  inches  on-  the  ends,  around  the  silo. 

Water-lime  concrete  is  the  only  concrete  suitable  for  silos,  as  it  requires  a  strong,  air- 
tight, smooth  wall,  and  one  that  can  stand  moisture  to  some  extent.  This  kind  of  wall  is 
easily  made  air-tight,  and  is  built  cheaper  than  an  ordinary  stone- wall.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  use  water-hme  or  cement  enough  to  completely  coat  the  particles  of  sand,  so  as  to  cement 
them  together,  and  this  becomes  a  cement  to  fill  in  spaces  among  large  gravel  or  between 
stones.  The  cement  is  made  by  mixing  one  part  of  water-hme  with  four  of  fine  sand,  while 
dry,  so  that  the  Ume  and  sand  can  be  evenly  mixed.     Then  work  it  into  mortar,  and  if  you 


494  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

have  coarse  gravel  and  no  stone,  you  may  put  in  five  or  six  parts  of  gravel,  and  this  will  be 
sufficient  to  cement  all  together.  The  gravel  is  best  mixed  in  the  mortar-bed,  but  it  must  be 
used  at  once,  as  such  mortar  sets  in  a  few  minutes  after  wetting.  But  if  you  have  rough 
stones  of  any  kind,  cobble  or  flat  stones,  they  can  be  worked  into  the  wall  to  good  advantage, 
and  save  cement.  When  stones  are  to  be  worked  in,  put  one  or  two  inches  of  thin  mortar 
in  the  wall  box,  then  bed  into  this  mortar  a  layer  of  stone,  keeping  the  stone  back  a  half  inch 
from  the  boxing-plank,  so  that  the  cement  may  be  tamped  all  around  the  stone,  leaving  a 
smooth  surface  on  both  sides  of  the  wall.  This  cement  is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat,  cold, 
and  moisture  than  stone.  A  properly  built  concrete  wall  never  shows  frost  on  the  inside.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country,  thin,  flat,  irregular  stones  aje  found  in  abundance,  and  these  are 
well  adapted  to  concrete  walls,  it  requiring  only  a  thin  layer  of  concrete  mortar  between 
them,  and  the  wall  becomes  solid  in  a  few  days.  But  with  these  flat  stones,  it  is  better  not 
to  biing  them  quite  to  the  boxing-plank,  but  to  let  the  concrete  come  over  the  edges  so  as  to 
form  a  smooth  surface. 

When  this  concrete  wall  is  laid  with  stone,  sand,  and  lime,  as  stated,  so  large  a  propor- 
tion of  stone  may  be  worked  in,  that  the  water-lime  will  be  only  one-tenth  of  the  wall,  and  the 
same  when  the  wall  is  made  of  sand  and  coarse  gravel;  so  that,  to  find  the  amount  of  water- 
lime  required,  count  one  barrel  to  40  cubic  feet  of  wall  to  be  built.  If  water-lime  is  very 
expensive,  and  you  have  flat  stones,  no  matter  how  irregular,  you  may  use  quicklime  after 
you  get  one  foot  higher  than  the  earth  will  come  against  it.  One  of  quicklime  to  five  of 
sand  will  make  an  excellent  mortar  to  lay  these  stones  in,  doing  the  work  in  all  respects  as 
above  stated.  The  concrete  should  be  well  tamped  into  the  boxes,  filling  all  crevices  between 
the  stones,  and  solid  against  the  planks.  Water-lime  will  set  hard  enough  so  that  these  box- 
ing-planks can  be  raised  1 2  inches  every  day.  That  is,  if  you  fill  the  box  all  around  the  sUo 
in  one  day,  the  next  morning  you  may  raise  the  boxing-planks  where  you  began  the  day 
before;  and  as  you  fill,  raise  section  after  section  of  planks  till  you  get  around  again.  This 
you  may  repeat  each  day  till  the  wall  is  completed,  provided  the  mortar  sets  in  the  usual 
time.  But  if  quicklime  is  used,  this  sets  slower,  and  will  take  two  or  three  days  to  become 
strong  enough  to  raise  the  plank.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  planks  are  1 4  inches  wide,  but 
are  raised  only  12  inches,  which  leaves  a  lap  of  2  inches  on  the  wall  below,  keeping  the  sides 
of  the  wall  smooth  and  even.  The  proposed  silo  wall  will  have  952  cubic  feet  in  it,  and 
requires  22  barrels  of  water-lime,  of  the  Akron  or  Rosendale  brand.  This  lime  in  many 
places  will  cost  from  $1  to  $1.25  per  barrel,  or  $22  to  $27.50.  The  only  other  cost  of  the 
waU  is  the  labor,  which  can  be  done  by  common  laborers.  The  standards  can  be  set  by  any 
one  who  can  use  a  level  and  plumb.  When  the  walls  are  completed,  take  a  seasoned  board 
as  wide  as  the  wall  is  thick,  tar  one  side  and  turn  the  tarred  side  down  upon  the  wall.  This 
will  prevent  the  moisture  from  rotting  the  plate  rim  placed  on  top  of  the  wall. 

The  roof  placed  over  this  silo  must  be  elevated  some  3  feet  above  the  plates,  so  as  to 
give  head-room  for  filling  the  silo  full.  This  may  be  done  by  frammg  short  posts  into  the 
timber  on  top  of  the  wall,  and  placing  light  plates  on  these,  upon  which  the  roof  is  to  stand. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  silo  can  be  built,  by  many  farmers,  with  only  a  small  expenditure  for 
water-lime,  shingles,  and  nails,  all  the  rest  of  the  materials  being  from  their  own  farms.  The 
bottom  of  the  silo  is  cemented  to  prevent  moisture  from  rising  from  below. 

I  bel  leve  the  silo  is  to  be  generally  used  in  the  future  for  storing  green  food  for  winter 


Dr.  Bailey's  Silo. — Dr.  J.  M.  Bailey  of  Billerica,  Mass,  says:  "Having  resolved  to 
try  the  experiment  thoroughly,  I  broke  ground  on  the  1 7th  of  July,  selecting  a  side-hill,  and 
locating  the  silo  so  that  the  corner  joined  the  northeast  corner  of  my  barn.  I  excavated  on 
the  west  side  and  south  end,  seven  foot  deep,  and  put  in  a  solid  stone-wall  on  the  west  side, 
44  feet  long  and  12  feet  high.     This  was  built  of  very  heavy  stone,  and  in  the  most  substan- 


ENSILAGE.  495 

tial  manner.  I  afterwards  graded  up  on  this  side  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  making  a  level  spot 
to  set  an  engine  and  ensilage-cutter  upon;  also  to  drive  upon  to  deposit  the  corn-fodder  as  it 
came  from  the  fields  on  dump-carts.  It  took  13  days'  work  of  a  .stone-mason,  43|  days'  work 
of  laborers,  and  28^  days'  work  for  one  horse,  to  excavate  and  build  the  stone  wall  and  foun- 
dations for  the  silo. 

On  the  tenth  day  of  August  I  commenced  building  the  silo  walls.  These  are  15  inches 
thick,  built  of  concrete  in  the  following  manner: 

First,  3X.i  joists  are  set  up  at  each  of  the  angles,  and  also  at  intervals  of  about  eight 
feet  on  each  side  of  the  walls.  These  scantling  are  placed  eight  inches  apart,  spruce  plank 
12  inches  wide  and  1^  inches  thick,  are  set  up  on  the  inside  of  the  scantling,  which  leaves  15 
inches  between  the  planks  as  the  thickness  of  the  walls. 

We  are  now  ready  to  commence  building  the  silo  walls.  The  concrete  is  made  by  mix- 
ing one  barrel  of  Newark,  Rosendale,  or  Akron  cement,  with  three  barrels  of  plastering  sand 
and  four  barrels  of  clean  gravel.  This  is  thoroughly  mixed  together  while  dry.  It  is  then 
wet  and  thoroughly  mixed  again,  making  a  very  thin  mortar. 

About  three  inches  in  depth  of  this  mixture  is  put  in  between  the  planks;  then  stone  of 
all  sizes  and  shapes  are  packed  and  bedded  in  this  layer  of  concrete,  after  which  another 
layer  of  concrete  is  poured  in  on  top  of  this  layer  of  stones,  and  the  operation  is  repeated 
until  the  space  between  the  planks  all  round  each  silo  is  filled;  then  the  planks  are  raised 
about  ten  inches,  and  the  space  filled  with  concrete  and  stones  as  before,  until  the  walls  are 
at  the  desired  height.  The  best  way  is  to  have  a  sufficient  number  of  hands  to  just  raise  the 
wall  the  width  of  the  plank  each  day.  Time  was  pressing  with  me,  however,  and  I  some- 
times raised  the  plank  two  and  three  times  in  one  day,  the  concrete  '  setting '  so  that  I  was 
able  to  do  so  safely.  But  I  do  not  recommend  this  haste,  as  the  walls  will  not  be  as  smooth 
as  they  would  be  if  the  cement  had  all  nigj^t  to  '  set '  in  before  the  planks  were  raised.  A 
4x  12  sill  was  bedded  on  the  wall  in  the  last  layer  of  concrete.  This  sill  was  made  of  2  x  12 
inch  spruce  plank  nailed  together.  Upon  these  sills  a  building  was  placed  with  posts  five 
feet  high,  the  beams  on  the  top  of  these  posts  being  thoroughly  braced  to  the  posts,  thus 
firmly  tying  the  whole  structure  together. 

In  sections  of  the  country  where  clean  sand,  gravel,  or  stone  is  not  easily  obtained,  silo 
walls  may  be  constructed  of  brick  in  the  usual  manner  of  brick  buildings.  To  nut  up  the 
concrete  walls  and  bed  the  sills,  together  with  grading  the  upper  side,  where  the  cutting  of 
the  fodder  is  done,  took  of  the  foreman  ?8^  days;  work  of  laborers,  149  days,  and  34  days' 
work  of  one  horse.  Butting  up  the  frame  to  hold  the  plank,  took  two  carpenters  two  days. 
It  required  124  barrels  of  cement,  costing  $1.25  per  barrel  at  Lowell. 

The  teaming  of  the  cement  and  lumber  is  included  in  the  above  account  of  horses  and 
laborers.  My  silos  (capacity  about  800,000  pounds)  cost  me  about  $500.  In  other  words, 
silos  will  cost  about  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  for  each  ton's  capacity.  Large  ones  wiU  cost  less, 
small  ones  more.  Silos  may  be  built  of  stone  pointed  with  cement  mortar,  and  plastered  on 
the  inside,  or  of  brick,  or  concrete.  "Whichever  material  is  the  cheapest  and  most  conven- 
ient in  any  locality  is  the  best  to  use  there.  Brick  will  cost  more  than  the  concrete.  Con- 
crete walls  cost  about  ten  cents  per  cubic  foot.  As  a  general  rule,  silos  should  be  built  rect- 
angular in  form,  the  width  being  about  one-third  the  length,  and  the  height  about  two-fifths 
of  the  length,  and,  if  possible,  should  be  sunk  about  one-half  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

If  there  is  a  side-hill  near  the  stables,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  will  come  nearly 
to  the  top  of  the  walls  at  one  end  of  the  silos,  it  wiU  be  found  very  convenient  in  filling  the 
silos,  in  weighing  the  ensilage,  and  in  removing  the  weights  as  it  is  fed  out. 

These  walls  must  be  built  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand,  when  empty,  the  pressure  of 
the  earth  inward,  as  well  as  the  pressure  outward,  caused  by  the  settling  of  the  ensilage  under 
31 


496  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

the  weights  placed  upon  it.  Where  it  is  not  convenient  to  get  stone  for  weights,  heavy  logs 
of  wood  may  be  used,  sawed  in  pieces  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  placed  on  end  all  over 
the  planks  which  cover  the  ensilage — three  feet  of  wood  being  about  equal  in  weight  to  one 
foot  of  stone.  Bags  or  boxes  of  earth  may  be  used  as  weights.  M.  Goffart  recommends  that 
the  corners  be  rounded;  I  find  that  cutting  them  off  answers  the  purpose  as  well,  and  is  less 
expensive.  I  find  upon  opening  the  silo,  that  the  ensilage  is  preserved  as  well,  and  settled  as 
evenly  in  these  corners  as  elsewhere;  also,  that  the  preservation  is  just  as  perfect  close  to  the 
walls,  as  in  the  center,  showing  that  a  concrete  wall  is  more  impervious  to  air  than  a  brick 
one." 

Monsieur  GoflFart's  Silos.  —  The  description  of  Monsieur  Goffart's  silos,  as  given 
by  himself,  is  translated  as  follows:  —  "With  my  new  stables  at  Burton  finished,  I  shall  be 
able  to  house  one  hundred  horned  cattle.  I  have  just  finished  three  united  silos,  which  form 
a  part  of  the  plan  of  my  new  stable.  The  form  of  the  silo  exercises  a  great  influence  on  the 
results.  It  should  avoid  all  angles,  and  should  offer  the  least  possible  resistance  to  the  pack- 
ing down  of  the  ensilage.  The  elliptic  silo  with  vertical  walls  is  the  best  form,  both  for  use 
and  durability.  It  is  important  to  have  them  as  large  as  possible  compatible  with  the  con- 
ditions of  easy  and  economical  use.  The  preservation  of  the  ensilage  in  small  silos  is  always 
less  perfect  than  in  large  ones.  No  matter  how  much  care  is  used,  and  how  much  weight  is 
applied,  I  have  always  found  the  portion  which  is  farthest  from  the  walls  to  be  the  best  pre- 
served, and  that  close  to  the  walls  there  is  always  some  alteration,  not  serious,  but  which  it 
is  important  to  reduce  as  much  as  possible.  Small  receptacles  offer  proportionately  much 
more  surface  for  contact.  A  rectangular  silo,  for  example,  of  one  metre  each  way,  containing 
one  cubic  metre,  presents  five  square  metres  of  contact  surface,  while  one  of  ten  cubic 
metres,  with  1000  cubic  metres  of  contents,  presents  only  500  square  metres  of  contact  sur- 
face, diminishing  nine-tenths  the  evil  indicated.  • 

But  I  do  not  advise  silos  of  such  dimensions  as  this.  At  the  commencement  of  my 
experiments  I  recommended  small  silos,  in  order  that  when  opened  they  might  be  quickly 
consumed  before  they  became  a  prey  to  the  slow  combustion  which  the  contact  with  the  air 
produced,  with  as  small  an  entrance  as  possible  for  the  air,  of  which  the  first  effect  was  to 
raise  the  temperature,  and  then  produce  fermentation  —  first  alcohoKc,  next  acetic,  and  then 
putrid.      • 

But  the  day  that  I  discovered  the  new  process  of  a  movable,  weighted  covering,  so  that 
I  was  able  to  maintain  in  the  mass  a  continuous  density  whereby  the  penetration  of  air 
became  impossible,  I  abandoned  the  small  silos.  Since  then  I  have  made  them  as  large  as 
possible,  and  they  are  only  limited  by  the  economy  of  the  different  operations  of  ensilage. 
My  new  stables  are  a  square  of  twenty-four  metres  on  each  side,  divided  into  two  compartments, 
each  of  which  has  a  central  passage  between  two  rows  of  stalls.  These  passages  are  con- 
nected with  the  silos  by  a  small  railway,  which  makes  it  convenient  to  bring  the  feed  before 
each  animal.  The  maize  and  the  other  ensilaged  fodder  is  carried  in  willow  baskets,  all  of 
the  same  size,  which  are  frequently  weighed,  in  order  to  keep  account  of  the  weight  of  the 
rations  given  to  each  lot  of  cattle.  My  silos  are  elliptic  in  form,  with  perpendicular  walls  as 
smooth  as  possible  inside,  five  metres  wide  and  the  same  in  height.  Should  I  modify  them 
in  any  way  in  future,  it  would  be  only  to  increase  the  height.  My  farm  at  Burtin  presents 
exceptional  difficulties  for  building  silos.  Everywhere  the  water  is  met  at  one  metre  below 
the  surface,  and  as  I  want  to  sink  my  silos  nearly  two  metres,  because  the  part  below  the 
ground  preserves  in  summer  more  moisture  than  that  part  above  the  groimd,  I  am  obliged  to 
first  dig  a  ditch  lower  than  the  excavation  all  around  it,  and  then  to  cement  the  lower  part, 
which  causes  a  considerable  expense. 

I  put  concrete  on  the  bottom,  and  upon  this  I  build  the  vertical  walls  of  the  thickness  of 
two  bricks  (45  centimetres)  to  the  top  of  the  ground.  Above  the  ground  I  reduce  the 
thickness  to  one  brick  and  a  half  (about  3-4  centimetres). 


ENSILAGE. 


497 


I  coat  the  walls  with  Portland  cement  sufficient  to  insure  their  perfect  imperme- 
ability. My  triple  silos  have  cost  me  4176  francs,  and  their  total  capacity  812.45  cubic 
metres,  about  5  francs  14  centimes  per  cubic  metre. 
I  intend  next  year  to  raise  the  walls  of  my  silos 
another  metre,  so  that  their  capacity  will  be  about 
a  thousand  cubic  metres.  I  postpone  till  that  time 
my  decision  as  to  a  special  cover  for  them. 

Most  agriculturists  are  more  favored  in  the 
profile  of  their  soil;  many  of  them  have  a  hillside  in 
the  neighborhood  of  their  barn,  in  which  they  can 
open  sUos  that  will  always  be  dry.  and  in  some 
places  can  dispense  with  masonry  by  having  solid 
rock.  Those  who  wish  to  imitate  me  will  have  less 
hesitation  when  they  know  that  Burtin  is  a  particu-  ^ 
larly  bad  place  for  building  silos,  and  that  they  can 
obtain  the  same  results  with  much  less  outlay. 

In  making  use  of  such  large  silos  as  these,  it  is 
necessary,  of  course  to  have  a  cutting-machine  with 
a  six  horse  power  engine  at  least,  and  an  elevator  to 
raise  the  cut  fodder  over  the  walls  of  the  silos.     I 

estimate  that  with  these  instruments  one  silo  can  be  filled  in  three  days,  at  most,  without 
difficulty.  This  rapidity'is  necessary  in  order  to  assure  the  success  of  the  ensilage.  When 
the  elevator  and  cutter  are  combined  in  the  same  machine,  the  process  will  be  simplified." 

Earth  Silos.  —  The  practice  of  depositing  the  ensilage  in  trenches  dug  in  the  ground, 
with  a  sUght  covering  of  some  material  that  will  keep  the  earth  from  coming  in  direct 
contact  with  the  cut  fodder,  followed  by  a  covering  of  earth,  or  earth  and  other  weights 
combined,  is  preferred  by  some  to  a  well-constructed  silo.  The  arguments  offered  by  the 
adherents  of  this  system  of  preserving  ensilage  are  that  it  obviates  the  expense  and  labor  of 
building  silos,  while  the  preservation  of  the  ensilage  is  as  complete  as  that  stored  in  silos. 

At  the  recent  ensilage  congress  assembled  in  New  York  city,  in  which  several  hundred 
farmers  and  others  prominently  interested  in  the  subject  of  ensilage  participated,  Mr.  Francis 
Morris  of  Maryland  —  one  of  the  ensilage  pioneers  of  this  country  —  stated  that  ensOage  was 
a  very  simple  thing,  but  farmers  generally  seemed  to  think  there  was  something  mysterious 
about  it,  because  the  words  "ensilage  "  and  ''silo"  were  new  to  them;  but  it  was,  in  fact,  a 
very  simple  thing.  He  dug  his  trenches  in  the  ground  and  did  not  line  them  with  brick  or 
cement  at  all,  but  used,  when  filling,  a  covering  of  felt,  with  the  earth  above  for  a  weight. 
Mr.  C.  W.  MiUs  of  New  Jersey,  also  well  known  in  his  connection  with  the  system  of  ensilage, 
spoke  on  the  same  occasion  in  favor  of  trenches,  and  claimed  that  all  that  was  essential  in 
hning  such  trenches  was  that  there  should  be  a  slight  wooden  frame  —  not  necessarily  air- 
tight —  which  would  prevent  the  spread  of  the  ensilage  crop  when  the  weight  was  placed  on 
the  top,  the  pressure  being  about  three  himdred  pounds  to  the  square  foot;  and  that  the 
expensive  silos  of  concrete,  brick,  and  stone,  the  cost  of  which  had  frightened  so  many  farm- 
ers, were  unnecessary.  Tlius  we  see  that  the  practice  of  those  who  have  adopted  the  ensilage 
system,  varies  very  materially  in  the  manner  of  storing  the  fodder,  as  well  as  the  expense 
attending  it.  We  should  suppose  that  one  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  earth  silo  would  be 
the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  ensilage  unmixed  with  water  and  earth,  which  are  obviated  in 
properly  constructed  silos. 

Mr.  Morris'  System  of  Ensilage. — The  following  description  of  the  earth  silos 
used  by  Mr.  Francis  Morris  is  given  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Brown,  to  whose  courtesy  we  are  also 


498  THE  A>rERICAN  FARMER. 

indebted  for  tlie  illustration  of  M.  Goffart's  silos:  —  "  The  eartli  silo  has  been  used  by  Mr. 
Francis  Morris  more  than  by  anyone  else  in  this  country.  His  soil  in  Maryland  consists  of 
clay  for  a  foot  or  two  and  a  kind  of  rotten  rock  beneath.  He  uses  oxen  and  a  scraper,  and 
makes  a  trench  or  pit  5|-  feet  deep,  7^  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  and  1 1  feet  wide  on  the  top, 
and  any  length  desired.  A  width  of  11  feet  on  top  prevents  danger  of  arching.  At  this 
slope  the  sides  remain  firm,  and  he  does  not  plaster  the  face.  The  surface  water  is  drained 
from  it.  In  filling  it,  the  sides  are  lined  with  straw  standing,  so  that  the  ensilage  will  slip 
down  well.  The  bottom  is  floored  with  plank,  the  top  rounded  up  and  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  long  straw,  the  thinner  the  better;  above  that  a  sheet  of  tarred  roofing  felt,  and 
above  that  the  earth  is  piled  on  two  feet  deep.  The  cut  stalks  are  pounded  in,  and  rolled 
with  a  heavy  roller  frequently  at  first.  "Vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety  with  an  earth  sUo. 
He  has  recently  built  more  of  them,  all  radiating  from  a  center  where  the  cutter  stands,  so 
that  he  can  fill  all  without  moving  his  machinery.  He  can  cut  ten  tons  per  hour  with  a  six- 
horse  engine.  The  stalks  are  hauled  from  the  field  in  advance  in  the  morning,  in  order  lo 
keep  the  machine  going.  He  still  uses  two  masonry  silos  in  the  stone  barn,  which  were  the 
first  pits  built  for  the  purpose  in  this  country;  those,  however,  are  also  covered  with  dirt  and 
compressed  until  they  have  ceased  to  settle.  Mr.  Morris  thinks  very  much  of  ensilage  as  a 
forenmner  of  great  wheat  crops.  He  says:  —  "Clover,  with  its  long  roots,  drawing  susten- 
ance from  the  sub-soil,  when  plowed  under,  and  barnyard  manure  in  abundance,  will  keep 
land  strong  for  wheat  and  other  exhaustive  crops,  such  as  cannot  now  be  raised  profitably  in 
the  Eastern  States. 

I  made  use  of  Indian  com  as  winter  food  for  stock  as  long  ago  as  the  winter  of  1876, 
and  I  have  used  it  in  each  succeeding  winter  with  great  success.  The  earlier  it  is  sown  the 
better;  its  growth  is  more  rapid  and  luxuriant  in  ^lay  and  June  than  in  July  and  August — 
a  bushel  of  com  to  the  acre,  in  drills  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  apart.  The  crop  should  be 
worked  twice,  and,  when  in  tassel,  should  be  cut  by  a  mowing  machine,  carried  from  the 
field  in  wagons  to  the  feed-cutter,  cut  up  in  pieces  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  put 
into  the  silo  prepared  for  it.  The  trench  should  have  a  shed  over  it,  or  a  shed  thatched 
with  straw.  Water  should  be  kept  from  the  cut-up  maize,  as  it  would  doubtless  injure  the 
quaUty,  if  not  destroy  it. 

Maize  or  Indian  com  requires  from  forty-five  to  sixty  days  to  ripen  it  into  tassel,  and 
therefore  it  can  be  safely  sown  up  to  the  15th  of  July.  If  the  land  is  in  good  condition,  it 
will  yield  twenty  tons  to  the  acre;  it  requires  a  ton  a  month  for  each  cow,  and  all  animals 
will  improve  and  do  well  upon  it.  By  the  use  of  superphosphates  the  crop  can  be  doubled, 
but  this  is  a  matter  subject  to  the  will  of  the  farmer.  Ten  acres  of  maize  wiU  feed  thirty 
cows  during  the  season  that  they  cannot  feed  out  of  doors,  and  will  furnish  a  quantity  of 
manure  to  give  a  wheat  or  com  crop.  The  advantage  of  this  crop  is  so  great  that  it  must 
change  the  agriculture  of  every  corn-growing  country. 

Cattle  and  sheep  will  be  raised  on  every  farm  to  an  extent  heretofore  not  thought  of. 
Wheat,  today,  by  all  our  best  farmers,  is  followed  by  clover,  the  clover  is  cut  and  made  into 
hay,  and  this  is  fed  to  the  stock.  Maize  will  take  the  place  of  clover-hay,  and  the  clover  will 
be  grazed  ofi  the  land,  and  the  animals  will  return  it  to  the  land  better  prepared  to  act  as  a 
manure  than  if  the  clover  was  cut,  made  into  hay,  carried  to  the  barn,  and  then  fed  to  the 
stock.  The  advantage  of  grazing  clover  off  the  land  is  very  great,  as  it  at  once  returns  to  it 
all  that  the  clover  takes  from  the  sod. 

We  recommend  every  farmer  who  reads  these  suggestions  to  sow  an  acre  of  land  with 
corn  or  maize — if  you  have  no  drill,  sow  it  broadcast,  and  when  in  tassel,  use  any  old  mowing 
machine  you  may  have  to  cut  it  down,  and  then  if  you  have  no  feed-cutter,  buy  or  borrow 
one  and  cut  up  the  fodder,  as  ordered — bury  it  in  the  ground,  and  when  winter  comes  feed 
your  stock  upon  it,  and  when  you  try  it  once  you  will  never  be  without  it  again.     I  have 


ENSILAGE.  499 

used  it  for  four  seasons,  every  time  with  complete  success,  and  I  know  that  it  multiplied  the 
value  of  our  land  three  or  four  times  over." 

Mr.  Mills'  System  of  Ensilage. — At  the  first  meeting  of  the  Ensilage  Congress  in 
January,  1882,  Mr.  C.  W.  Mills  stated  as  follows:  "In  1876  I  tried  an  experiment,  but  failed 
from  lack  of  knowledge.  I  tried  to  mix  the  southern  corn  with  our  species  of  corn  indigen- 
ous to  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  but  I  made  a  mistake.  When  one  kind  was  ripe  enough  to 
cut,  the  other  had  only  just  begun  to  tassel.  Some  of  the  Southern  corn  grew  higher  than 
this  room.  My  neighbors  would  say,  '  Is  that  the  two-year-old  corn? '  '  Is  it  going  to  come 
out  next  year?'  'There  is  another  city  farmer  come  down  to  show  us  how  to  do  things.'  I 
got  pretty  well  nettled,  and  I  determined  to  put  it  out  of  sight,  any  way.  I  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  if  I  could  exclude  the  air,  I  could  keep  it.  To  produce  fermentation,  three 
things  are  required,  air,  warmth,  and  moisture.  Take  away  any  one  of  these  and  there  is  no 
fermentation,  consequently  no  decomposition. 

I  placed  it  in  pits  whole,  and  covered  it  over  with  boards  and  straw.  I  then  covered 
the  top  with  dirt.  It  settled  until  the  top  was  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  My 
neighbors  would  say,  '  What  are  you  doing?'     I  would  reply,  'I  am  making  manure.' 

When  I  opened  one  of  the  pits  and  commenced  to  take  it  out  it  seemed  to  be  packed 
and  glued  together.  The  color  was  richer  than  any  samples  I  have  seen  here,  and  I  do  not 
think  I  have  ever  seen  a  sample  of  ensUage  to  compare  with  it.  To  get  it  out,  I  had  to  rig 
up  a  derrick,  put  on  a  double  purchase,  and  pull  it  out  with  a  team  of  powerful  horses  by  the 
use  of  grappling  irons.  The  cattle  would  smell  the  stuff  from  quite  a  distance,  and  were  wild 
for  it.  It  was  eaten  up  very  clean.  Then  I  found  I  had  a  good  thing,  and  I  doubled  my 
stock  to  eat  up  this  ensilage. 

Now  about  the  matter  of  preservation.  If  you  do  not  exclude  the  air,  but  keep  it  down 
to  a  low  temperature,  it  will  keep  quite  well.  Though  incipient  fermentation  may  have  set 
in,  it  does  not  seriously  injure  it,  but  I  prefer  the  exclusion  of  the  air,  as  far  as  possible.  I 
think  I  can  keep  the  air  out  by  pressure.  Let  us  have  the  matter  as  simple  as  possible, 
whether  we  exclude  the  air  by  pressure,  or  by  hermetically  sealing,  which  is  more  particularly 
Mr.  Potter's  plan.     I  maintain  that  pressure  excludes  the  air  the  most  effectually. 

I  have  two  large  masonry  silos  each  40  feet  in  length,  20  feet  deep,  and  12^  feet  wide. 
There  is  a  wooden  extension  above  each  silo  of  15  feet,  making  the  whole  depth  35  feet.  I 
shall  never  build  another  such  silo.  If  I  should  wish  to  increase  my  capacity,  I  should  build 
on  the  surface,  notwithstanding  I  have  fine  facUities  for  putting  in  silos.  L  am  satisfied  that 
the  less  contact  there  is  with  the  ensilage,  the  better  it  will  keep.  Last  winter  both  of  my 
silos  were  full.  My  west  wall  was  exposed  for  about  eight  feet  deep.  I  had  taken  out  part 
of  the  other  end,  and  left  it  standing  with  nothing  intervening;  I  had  a  pressure  of  about  300 
pounds  to  the  square  foot.  The  part  left  standing  with  nothing  intervening  between  it  and 
the  weather,  kept  perfectly,  say  for  two  or  three  weeks,  in  the  coldest  and  bitterest  weather 
we  had  last  winter,  while  the  ensilage  on  the  other  end  was  spoiled  for  some  three  or  four 
feet,  next  the  wall. 

If  I  should  build  another  receptacle  for  my  fodder  I  should  build  it  of  wood,  entirely 
above  ground.  My  system  is  unique  and  different  from  that  of  M.  Goffart.  I  depend 
entirely  upon  a  sufficient,  uniform,  and  continuous  pressure  with  no  let  up  from  the  time  it  is 
put  on  until  the  fodder  is  taken  out  for  use. 

The  principle  of  ensilage  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  preservation  of  green  fodder 
from  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere.  I  cut  it  up  no  shorter  than  is  necessary  to 
have  it  pack  well  in  the  silo;  I  allow  no  tramping.  If  you  bruise  the  succulent  stalk,  the  juice 
will  exude,  and  air  will  take  its  place  in  the  cellular  tissue,  the  very  thing  to  be  avoided. 

I  would  not  use  rye  for  the  silo  at  all,  on  account  of  the  ergot.  I  prefer  oats  to  com, 
but  give  me  perennial  grasses  above  them  all.     When  I  get  my  farm  rich  enough,  I  propose 


600 


THE  AMERICAN  PARMER 


to  raise  nothing  but  the  perennial  grasses.  I  cut  my  com  after  tasselling,  when  it  is  full  of 
saccharine  matter.  I  use  the  Southern  horse-tooth  com,  getting  my  seed  from  one  section, 
from  one  particular  State.     I  plant  about  eight  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  I  plant  by  hand.' 

It  will  be  seen  by  extracts  previously  given  that,  while  the  methods  of  preserving  ensi- 
lage differ  somewhat  with  adherents  of  the  system,  they  all  agree  with  respect  to  the  value  of 
the  fodder  thus  preserved. 

The  Most  Profitable  Crops  to  Ensilage.  —  As  has  been  previously  stated,  all 
kinds  of  forage  crops  may  be  preserved  in  accordance  with  the  system  of  ensilage;  still  some 

kinds  are  better  suited  and  more  profitable  to  be  pre- 
served in  this  manner  than  others.  Mr.  0.  B.  Potter 
states  as  the  result  of  his  experience  in  preserving  com, 
rye,  grasses,  clover,  sorghum,  etc.,  that  in  many  re- 
spects red  clover  is  most  admirably  adapted  for  ensilage, 
since  it  settles  in  the  most  compact  mass,  and  thus  meets 
the  principal  requisite  of  the  process,  which  is  to  ex- 
clude the  air  and  retain  the  moisture,  and  that  he  pre- 
fers sorghum  to  corn  for  this  purpose.  That  sorghum 
will  produce  more  milk  and  flesh  to  the  acre  than  com, 
but  wUl  also  exhaust  the  soil  more  in  its  production 
than  the  latter,  and  also  requires  longer  to  mature. 

Corn  has  been  used  thus  far  more  extensively  for 
ensilage  than  any  other  crop,  while  perhaps  clover,  and 
sorghum  or  miUet  would  rank  next  in  this  respect. 

The  varieties  of  com  generally  used  for  this  purpose 
are  those  of  the  largest  and  most  thrifty  growth,  such  as 
the  Southern  Seed  Corn,  or  some  of  the  large  varieties 
of  sweet  com. 

The  Southern  Seed  Com  has  an  abundance  of  foli- 
age, heavy  stalks,  and  is  veiy  sweet  and  nutritious. 
It  does  not  mature  in  the  Northern  States,  but  reaches 
full  height  and  tassels  in  that  climate. 

The  cow-pea  is  a  very  valuable  food  for  ensilage, 
but  cannot  be  raised  as  easily  as  fodder-corn  in  all  parts 
of  the  country. 

Broom-corn,  sorghum,  millet  of  various  kinds,  oats, 
r}'e,  clover,  the  various  kinds  of  grasses,  etc.,  can  also 
be  preserved  in  this  manner,  but  as  has  been  previously 
mentioned,  corn  has  thus  far  been  given  the  preference 
generally. 

Method  of  Cultivating  Maize  for  Ensilage. 

— Maize  or  com  for  ensilage  may  be  sown  either  broad- 
cast or  in  drills,  but  the  drill  method  is  to  be  preferred, 
since  it  admits  of  after-culture,  produces  a  heavier 
growth,  and  is  less  liable  to  be  blown  down  by  the  wind. 
The  soil  should  be  rich  and  well  pulverized.  It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  farmers  that  the 
richest  soil  will  produce  but  a  partial  crop  where  this  necessary  part  of  agriculture  is 
neglected.  The  usual  method  is  to  plant  in  drills  three  or  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  the 
seed  from  four  to  six  inches  apart  in  the  drills. 

Different  methods  are   preferred   by   different  farmers,    some  of   which   differ  very 


SOUTHERN    SEED   CORN. 


ENSILAGE. 


501 


materially  from  others.  Mr.  J  B.  Brown  claims  that  the  best  method  of  planting  corn  for 
ensilage,  whereby  the  largest  crop  can  be  secured  with  the  least  labor,  is  to  make  two  diills 
four  inches  apart,  with  spaces  of  twenty-eight  inches,  cultivating  while  small  with  a  light 
smoothing-harrow,  and  afterwards  with  the  plow  and  cultivator;  the  grains  in  the  drills  to 
be  from  three  to  four  inches  apart,  and  the  drills  to  be  made  North  and  South.  By  this 
means  the  sun  and  air  strike  both  sides.  The  varieties  of  largest  growth  will,  of  course, 
require  more  space  than  the  smaller  kinds.  The  planting  can  be  done  with  any  kind  of 
grain-drill  or  corn-planter.  The  cut  below  represents  the  Ensilage  Corn-planter,  manufactured 
by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.  It  is  a  one-horse  machine,  which  opens  the  drills,  drops  the  seed 
and  covers  it. 

After  planting,  the  ground  should  be  rolled  to  press  the  soil  upon  it,  in  order  to  insure 
quick  germination.  Care 
should  be  used  not  to  drill 
the  seed  in  too  thick,  as  the 
growth  will  not  then  be  as 
heavy.  About  three  pecks 
per  acre  of  the  Southern 
Horse-tooth  corn  is  sufhci 
ent,  and  gives  more  nutii 
tive  stalks  than  thicker  sow 
ing.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  richer  the  soil,  the  less 
seed  is  required.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  the  last 
of  May  or  first  of  June,  ac 
cording  to  the  season.  It 
should  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  and  grass,  and  the  surface  frequently  stirred  to  promote  rapid  growth;  the  after- 
culture being  the  same  as  that  for  the  ordinary  corn  crop. 

Time  for  Harvesting  Maize  for  Ensilage. — The  best  time  for  cutting  maize  for 

ensilage  is  when  the  stalks  are  fully  matured,  being  then  full  of  saccharine  matter  and  conse- 
quently containing  the  greatest  amount  of  nutriment.  This  stage  is  indicated  by  full 
blossoming.  If  the  harvesting  is  delayed  beyond  the  proper  point  of  matuiity,  the  crop  is 
deteriorated,  since  the  plant  does  not  remain  juicy  and  tender  more  than  ten  days  or  two 
waeks  after  blossoming.  If  cut  later  than  tliis,  it  is  also  not  as  liable  to  be  preserved  as  well 
in  the  silo.  Whenever  a  change  takes  place  in  the  leaves,  like  fading  or  turning  yellow,  it 
shows  that  the  air  has  entered  the  cells  and  fermentation  has  begun,  and  when  cut  in  this 
condition  the  ensilage  will  invariably  become  sour.  This  practice  of  leaving  the  maize  stand- 
ing too  long  before  cutting  for  the  silo,  will  be  the  common  error  of  beginners  in  the 
system  of  ensilage,  and  much  loss  will  in  consequence  be  the  result.  But  by  proper  attention 
and  care  in  what  may  seem  at  first  to  be  minor  matters  and  of  little  importance,  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  first  experiments  in  this  method  of  preserving  green  fodder  may  not  be 
attended  with  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

The  corn-cutter  is  the  best  machine  for  cutting  the  corn  fodder  in  the  field  preparatory 
to  ensilaging  it.  Some  use  an  old  mowing-machine,  others  corn-knives.  Dr.  Bailey  recom- 
mends corn-knives  for  this  purpose,  on  the  ground  that  the  labor  can  be  performed  cheaper 
than  by  a  mowing-machine,  since  when  thus  harvested  it  can  be  laid  in  bunches,  rendering  it 
easy  to  load,  the  extra  cost  of  cutting  being  thus  more  than  made  up  by  the  facility  with 
which  the  crop  can  be  loaded,  and  taken  to  the  silo  for  cutting. 


°"<  P^ 


ENSILAGE    CoRX-PI  ANTER. 


502  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

How  to  Cut  the  Maize  for  the  Silo. — Various  and  repeated  experiments  have 
proven  the  fact  that  the  finer  the  ensilage  is  cut,  the  better  the  preservation  in  the  silo,  other 
conditions  being  equal.  Since  it  is  essential  to  the  perfect  preservation  of  green  fodder 
that  all  fermentation  must  be  prevented,  and  this  cannot  be  prevented  without  entirely 
excluding  the  air  (as  air  furnishes  the  means  of  combustion  or  fermentation)  this^can  best  be 
accomplished  by  having  the  maize  cut  in  very  short  pieces,  as  it  requires  less  room  and  packs 
more  densely  in  the  silo,  leaving  less  space  for  the  air  to  occupy. 

More  time  and  labor  will,  of  course,  be  required  to  cut  the  fodder  four  or  five-tenths  of 
an  inch  in  length,  than  to  cut  it  three  or  four  inches,  but  its  good  preservation  when  thus 
cut  fully  compensates  for  all  the  labor  required. 

Many  of  the  large  ensilage  cutters,  when  run  by  steam  power,  will  make  from  twenty- 
five  hundred  to  three  thousand  cuts  per  minute,  thus  cutting  as  fast  as  two  men  can  spread  it 
in  the  silo.  The  great  secret  of  success  in  ensilage,  as  thus  far  indicated  by  experience,  is  in 
the  exclusion  of  air,  which,  as  previously  specified,  is  secured  by  short  cutting,  and  dense 
packing.     M.  Goffart  says  on  this  subject: — 

"The  fineness  to  which  the  maize  is  cut  at  the  moment  of  ensilation,  is  extremely  impor- 
tant in  view  of  good  preservation.  Cut  in  disks  of  only  one  centimetre  thick,  the  maize 
packs  better  in  the  silo,  it  occupies  less  space,  and  takes  the  form  and  consistency  of  a  species 
of  pulp,  leaving  in  its  mass  the  least  possible  amount  of  air.  In  proportion  as  the  length  is 
increased,  the  preservation  becomes  less  perfect,  and  finishes  by  being  entirely  defective. 
Last  year  a  cultivator  of  the  valley  of  the  Loire  took  from  me  the  dimensions  of  my  elliptic 
silo,  and  reproduced  it  exactly  on  his  own  farm.  He  filled  it  in  the  autumn,  and  when  he 
opened  it  during  the  winter,  he  took  out  a  poorly-preserved  product,  which  his  beasts  only 
eat  with  repugnance.  Greatly  disappointed,  he  brought  to  me  a  sample  of  his  maize  that  he  had 
cut  in  lengths  of  five  to  six  centimetres,  instead  of  one  or  two  at  most,  as  I  had  advised  him. 
I  recognized  at  once  the  cause  of  his  failure,  and  asked  him  why,  contrary  to  my  advice,  he 
had  cut  it  so  long.  He  replied,  '  I  was  not  able  to  procure  a  steam  engine  which  I  expected 
to  use,  and  I  had  to  use  a  horse-power;  the  work  did  not  get  along  fast  enough,  and  in  order 
to  hasten  it,  I  decided  to  cut  it  in  such  long  pieces.'  He  was  surprised  at  the  excellent  pres- 
ervation of  the  maize  at  Burtin,  and  he  carried  home  a  hundred  kilogrammes;  his  cattle 
were  thus  enabled  to  appreciate  the  difierence.  I  cite  this  fact  because  it  contains  a  valuable 
lesson. 

At  the  beginning  of  my  ensilages  I  had  as  principal  resource  for  the  sustenance  of  my 
stock  a  great  quantity  of  wheat,  oat,  and  rye  straw,  etc.  In  order  to  induce  my  cattle  to  eat 
it,  I  mixed  all  that  I  could  with  my  maize  and  my  green  cut  rye,  but  I  was  not  slow  to  notice 
iSat  this  mixture  kept  much  less  time,  as  the  proportion  of  straw  was  greater.  A  fiftieth  in 
volume,  or  a  tenth  in  weight,  was  the  maximum  of  whaX  the  maize  could  carry  without  being 
exposed  to  an  early  alteration;  when  I  increased  this  quantity,  the  time  that  it  kept  always 
diminished,  and  at  last  did  not  exceed  forty-eight  hours.  I  attribute  this  to  the  fact  that  the 
straw,  being  very  dry,  absorbs  from  the  maize  too  much  of  its  water.  The  moist  condition 
of  the  ensilages,  instead  of  being  a  cause  of  deterioration,  is,  on  the  contrary,  to  a  certain 
extent,  indispensable  to  the  good  preservation  of  the  whole  matter. 

Maize  in  its  normal  condition  contains  about  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  water;  when  the 
addition  of  dry  straw  has  caused  the  mixture  to  decline  to  an  average  holding  less  than 
seventy-five  per  cent.,  the  good  preservation  is  much  compromised,  and  quickly  becomes 
impossible  if  we  try  to  go  below  it.  Besides  the  too  great  dehydratation  that  the 
presence  of  the  straw  may  cause,  it  also  offers  another  serious  inconvenience,  especially 
rye  straw.  This  straw  when  cut  forms  a  great  quantity  of  little  tubes,  the  envelopes 
of   which    resist    decomposition    for   a  long    time;    these    tubes    inclose    an    appreciable 


ENSILAGE. 


503 


quantity  of  air  which  is  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  ensilage.  Oat  straw,  or  others  of 
softer  texture,  are  less  objectionable  in  this  respect  than  rye  straw.  "While  I  used  at  first 
the  short  straw  from  my  threshing,  always  troublesome  on  account  of  the  room  that  it  occu. 
pied,  henceforth  I  shall  bury  my  fodder  almost  without  any  mixture.  When  maize  has  been 
cut  before  the  frost,  and  arrives  in  good  condition  at  the  cutting  machine  and  then  at  the 
silo,  it  will  not  yield  water  easily,  even  when  it  is  submitted  to  a  considerable  pressure.  But 
it  is  not  the  same  when  the  fodder  is  too  old,  and  has  been  exposed  to  the  rams  and  frosts  at 
the  end  of  autumn." 

Crops  designed  for  ensilage  should  be  cut  and  packed  into  the  silo  as  soon  as  possible 
after  gathering,  as  any  wilting  or  dr3ring  by  exposure  to  air  or  sun,  even  for  a  short  time  after 
being  gathered,  is  very  injurious,  and  Uable  to  produce  fermentation  in  the  silo.  The  Cycle 
Ensilage  Cutter,  manufactured  by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.,  and  of  which  we  give  an  illus- 


CYCLE  ENSILAGE  CUTTEB. 

tration,  can  be  run  by  either  horse  or  steam  power.  It  combines  three  knives  with  a  long  draw- 
ing cut,  so  leading  each  other  that  the  cut  is  continuous  and  steady  without  jar.  There  is  an 
aperture  for  dropping  out  stones  before  reaching  the  rollers,  and  another  after  passing  the 
rollers,  so  that  there  is  very  httle  danger  of  any  reaching  the  knives.  It  is  well  however  to 
keep  the  stalks  as  free  from  stones  as  possible,  as  breaking  a  cutter  while  filling  a  silo  is  a 
serious  accident. 

The  system  of  ensilage  requires  a  large  cutter  to  make  it  profitable  and  safe  where  the 
silas  are  of  large  capacity,  in  order  that  they  may  be  filled  sufficiently  fast  to  prevent  heating. 

The  cost  of  cutting  fodder  four-tenths  of  an  inch,  with  a  large  machine  and  sufficient 
power,  is  estimated  by  reliable  authority  to  be  not  more  than  twenty-five  cents  per  ton.  The 
following  cut  represents  a  somewhat  smaller  machine  than  the  former,  manufactured  by  the 
Whittemore  Brothers,  Boston,  Mass.  It  cuts  from  one-eighth  to  two  and  a  half  inches  long. 
The  length  of  the  knives  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches.  It  cuts  rapidly,  and  requires  but  a 
small  amount  of  power. 


504 


THE  AMERICA2J  FARMER. 


It  will  be  seen  by  what  has  been  prevdouslj'  stated  that  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to 
cut  the  fodder  for  ensilage  very  fine.  Some  cut  to  the  length  of  one  inch,  but  a  half  or  four- 
tenths  of  an  inch  is  greatly  to  be  preferred,  and  although  it  requires  more  time  and  labor,  it 
is  a  safer  practice,  insuring  a  better  preservation. 

How  to  Fill  a  Silo. — The  following  directions  for  filling  a  silo  are  given  by  Monsieur 
GoSart:  "  It  is  necessary  to  procure,  either  by  purchase  or  rental,  a  motive-power  and  a  pow- 
erful feed-cutter.  Large  farms  are  generally  provided  with  these  machines,  but  the  average 
farmer  will  have  to  hire.  It  may  be  that  the  traveling  contractors  for  threshing  will  become 
contractors  for  cutting  maize  for  ensilage,  with  a  machine  that  possesses  sufficient  weight  to 
be  solid,  and  is  also  portable.  Filling  the  silo  should  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the 
layer  of  maize  should  be  kept  level  all  the  time.  The  greater  the  compression,  the  better 
will  be  the  preservation.  The  packing  along  the  walls  (which  should  be  as  smooth  as  possi- 
ble,) should  be  attended  to  carefully. 


4  SILVER  Sl  deminq  ensilage  cutter. 

"When  the  silo  is  filled  to  the  top  and  carefully  leveled,  spread  along  the  surface  short 
straw  four  or  five  centimeters  thick,  then  place  on  top  of  this  boards  fitting  close  together. 
These  should  be  put  across  the  silo  in  order  that  when  it  is  being  fed  out  they  may  be  taken 
oS  one  by  one,  as  the  silo  is  cut  down  vertically.  Upon  this  flooring  there  should  be  piled 
abundance  of  weight,  such  as  stones,  bricks,  logs  of  wood,  or  old  bags  filled  with  dirt,  etc. 
At  Burtin  I  have  abandoned  using  loose  earth  as  a  means  of  compression,  as  it  infiltrates  into 
the  ensilage,  and  adhering  to  the  walls,  a  vacuum  forms  as  the  maize  settles  away,  which  is 
destructive. 

Any  ridge  on  the  sUos  is  objectionable,  as  the  ensilage  cannot  be  sufficiently  compressed, 
and  the  dry  rot  soon  attacks  it  and  communicates  to  the  material  below.  As  to  using  salt  in 
the  silos,  it  is  not  very  important,  and  I  often  omit  it  without  any  bad  result;  but  I  believe 
the  moderate  use  of  salt  is  favorable  to  the  health  of  animals,  and  I  sometimes  mis  in  my 
ensilage  one  kilogramme  to  a  cubic  metre  of  maize,  the  average  weight  of  which,  after 
being  packed,  is  812  kilogrammes. 


ENSILAGE. 


605 


"When  the  ensilage  is  fed  out,  it  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  fifteen  or  twenty  hours,  in 
order  that  the  alcoholic  fermentation  may  commence.  The  proper  time  depends  upon  the 
temperature,  but  if  kept  longer  than  this,  the  fermentation  becomes  excessive  ajid  injurious. 
The  spontaneous  heat  which  is  produced  in  the  feed  should  never  exceed  35  or  40  degrees 
(R.).  Two  years  ago  I  had  no  silos  at  my  farm  at  GouiUon,  and  I  carried  every  other  day 
from  Burtin  what  was  necessary.  From  the  second  day  the  heat  exceeded  these  limits,  and 
the  alcoholic  vapor  abundantly  emitted  indicated  the  serious  loss  that  was  going  on.  The 
acetic  acid  was  not  slow  to  join  the  party.  In  the  north  of  France  the  best  pulp  that  is  fed 
in  winter  is  nearly  always  quite  sour.  It  is  to  this  circumstance  that  I  attribute  the  poor 
quality  of  milk  and  butter  obtained  from  the  animals  kept  on  this  food. 

It  is  indispensable  to  superimpose  four  or  five  hundred  kilogrammes  per  square  metre  of 
heavy  materials  upon  the  covering  or  movable  planks  of  the  filled  silos.  I  meet  here  the 
most  important  question — that  which  1  have  had  the  most  trouble  to  solve,  and  which  I  have 
only  really  solved  quite  recently.  When  a  silo  has  been  filled,  it  does  not  answer  only  to 
prevent  the  external  air  from  penetrating  it ;  it  is  necessary  at  once  to  seek  means  for  expel- 
ling the  mass  of  air  that  it  encloses  between  its  disks  and  in  its  cells.  It  is  here  that 'the 
heavy  materials  with  which  I  load  my  silos  become  important ;  it  is  necessary  that  the  air 
inclosed  in  the  silo  should  find  between  the  joints  of  the  covering  planks  an  outlet  ;  it  is 
necessary  that  a  strong  compression  should  compel  this  air  to  pass  out  quickly  and  to  quit 
the  place  where  it  would  cause  most  serious  damage  it  it  remained  It  is  neces'-aij'  that  this 
powerful  compression  should  con 
tinue  during  several  months,  be 
cause  the  tramping  of  the  work 
men  is  insufflcient,  for  the  follow 
ing  reasons  :  At  the  moment 
when  the  green  maize  is  cut,  it 
is  all  alive,  and  is  so  elastic  that 
it  reacts  forcibly  against  the 
momentary  pressure  of  the  feet 
of  the  workmen.  It  is  not  the 
same  several  days  or  weeks  there- 
after, but  its  elasticity  diminishes,  or,  in  other  words,  its  compressibility  increases  in  consider- 
able proportions;  it  is  then  that  the  heavy  superimposed  materials  follow  the  maize  down  in 
its  softened  condition,  continuing  to  press  it  in  proportion  as  its  compactness  increases,  and 
brings  it  to  that  state  of  density  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  put  it  out  of  reach  of  all 
alteration." 

Some  farmers  who  have  had  experience  in  the  ensilage  system  advise  mixing  clover,  and 
grass  in  which  clover  predominates  in  the  same  silo  with  fodder  corn,  millet,  or  sorghum ;  the 
clover  becoming,  after  sHght  fermentation,  a  putty-like  mass  which  renders  the  whole  amount 
more  compact  and  weighty,  excluding  the  air,  while  at  the  same  time  it  improves  the  quality 
of  fodder.  Farther  experiments  will  doubtless  greatly  improve  this  system,  the  greater 
number  of  experiments  made  thus  far  having  been  with  fodder  corn. 

As  has  been  previously  stated,  great  care  is  necessary  in  order  to  exclude  as  much  of 
the  air  as  possible,  and  to  distribute  the  fodder  evenly  in  the  silo.  Some  object  to  tramping 
down  the  mass  in  order  to  compress  it,  for  the  reason  that  any  portion  of  the  stalk  subjected 
to  pressure  wiU  cause  the  juice  to  exude,  and  when  this  pressure  is  removed  the  air  immedi- 
ately rushes  into  the  cells  of  the  plant  taking  its  place,  wliich  results  in  fermentation.  A  little 
salt,  sufficient  to  render  the  food  palatable,  is  sometimes  sprinkled  into  the  silo  during  the 
process  of  filling  ;  this  is  not,  however,  necessary  for  preserving  it. 

After  being  filled  sufSciently  full,  the  plank  covering  should  be  put  on  across  the  silo  so 


A    FILLED   SIl 


506  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

that  a  small  portion  can  be  uncovered  at  one  time  in  opening,  thus  exposing  to  the  atmosphere 
only  what  is  taken  out,  which  should  be  cut  down  vertically.  A  little  space  is  usually  left 
between  the^  planks  for  the  escape  of  air  from  the  silo  as  the  mass  settles.  Every  facility 
should  also  be  made  for  the  covering  to  move  so  freely  that  it  will  meet  with  no  obstacles  on 
the  sides  of  the  silo,  but  follow  the  whole  mass  as  it  settles,  thus  excluding  all  air,  by  a  uni- 
form pressure.  The  weights  for  compressing  the  ensilage  should  be  evenly  distributed  on  the 
covering  in  order  that  the  pressure  may  be  equal  in  all  parts  of  the  silo.  This  will  gradually 
settle  until  the  average  shrinkage  in  the  silo  will  equal  about  one-third  the  original  bulk. 

Mr.  Francis  Movdton  thus  describes  Mr.  Mills'  method  of  fiUing  a  silo :  "  The  corn  is 
harvested  in  the  latter  part  of  September,  when  the  stalks  are  fully  matured — not  dead,  but 
whilst  still  green  in  color — and  filled  with  saccharine  matter.  This  stage  of  growth  is 
indicated  by  full  tasseling  and  the  beginning  to  ear.  The  harvesting  is  done  in  the  ordinary 
old-fashioned  way,  by  hand,  with  a  stalk-knife,  and  a  sufficient  labor  force  is  employed  to  fill 
a  pit  of  300  tons  capacity  within  three  days,  because  it  is  essential  to  gather  and  cut  the  com 
and  put  it  into  the  silo,  and  get  it  under  uniform  and  continuous  pressure  within  the  shortest 
possible  time,  in  order  to  save  all  the  food  properties.  Mr.  MiUs  uses  two  corn-cutters,  one 
cutting  one-half  inch,  and  the  other  an  inch  length,  of  a  combined  capacity  of  100  tons  per 
day,  using  steam-power  for  the  purpose. 

He  has  two  silos  or  pits,  each  40  feet  long,  13  feet  wide,  and  20  feet  deep,  located  in  the 
center  of  his  barn,  the  waUs  of  which  are  constructed  of  a  concrete  of  stone  and  cement  two 
feet  thick,  the  sides  and  ends  parallel,  and  the  bottom  well  cemented.  Upon  the  walls,  flush 
with  the  inside  of  them,  a  structure  of  ordinary  boards  is  built,  fifteen  feet  high,  which  serves 
as  a  feeder  to  the  pit,  and  which,  when  both  are  filled,  will  compensate  for  the  shrinkage  of 
the  mass  by  compression.  When  the  pit  and  feeder  are  filled,  the  surface  is  leveled,  and  sec- 
tional covers  four  feet  in  width,  and  in  length  one  inch  shorter  than  the  width  of  the  pit,  are 
placed  upon  it,  upon  which  are  placed  50  tons  of  grain  in  bags  (making  five  tons  to  each  sec- 
tion) evenly  distributed.  Mr.  Mills  uses  grain  for  weight  because  it  is  convenient.  Any- 
thing else  that  can  be  uniformly  distributed  would  answer.  It  takes  about  ten  days  for  the 
whole  mass  to  compress  sufficiently  for  the  covers  to  be  on  a.  level  with  the  top  of  the  pit,  and 
then  the  feeder  can  be  taken  down.  Mr.  Mills  allows  no  tramping  or  mussing  of  the  mass, 
for  the  reason  that  he  finds  that  any  portion  of  the  succulent  stalks  subjected  to  pressure  will 
cause  the  juice  to  exude,  and  immediately  upon  relieving  the  pressure  the  air  takes  its  place 
in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  plant,  and  fermentation  results  in  the  body  of  the  mass.  The  one 
inch  of  space  between  the  cover  and  the  sides  of  the  pit  is  left  for  the  escape  of  air  and 
ambient  moisture;  the  uniform  and  continuous  pressure  forces  out  the  atmosphere  and  gases 
— which  may  have  accumulated  while  preparing  the  mass  for  pressure — through  the  half -inch 
opening  between  the  cover  and  the  sides,  and  keeping  them  out  until  the  pressure  is 
removed. 

When  this  fodder  is  to  be  used  for  the  cattle,  the  bags  of  grain  from  the  first  section  of 
the  cover  are  removed  and  their  contents  ground  for  use,  while  the  fodder  lying  immediately 
underneath  them  is  being  fed.  The  fodder  is  taken  down  perpendicularly  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pit.     Thus  one  section  after  another  is  fed  until  the  whole  is  exhausted." 

Removing  Fodder  from  Silos. — When  the  fodder  in  the  silo  is  needed  for  use,  the 
■weight  and  cover  from  the  first  section  should  be  removed,  exposing  as  little  of  the  contents 
of  the  silo  as  possible  to  the  action  of  the  air.  The  fodder  is  then  taken  out  perpendicularly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  pit. 

While  one  section  is  being  used,  the  pressure  on  the  remaining  ones  should  continue  to 
be  the  same,  which  practice  will  exclude  the  air  as  effectually,  and  thus  fermentation  be  as 
completely  obviated  as  though  each  section  were  in  a  separate  pit.  One  section  after  another 
is  thus  fed  out  until  the  silo  is  empty. 


ENSILAGE.  607 

How  to  Feed  Ensilage. — The  quantity  of  ensilage  fed  to  stock  will,  of  course,  vary 
with  different  individuals,  the  same  as  with  other  kinds  of  food;  hence,  in  determining  this 
question  by  comparing  the  results  of  experiments  made  by  leading  ensilagists  of  the  country, 
an  approximate  estimate  only  can  be  obtained.  Ensilage  is  generally  fed  in  connection  with 
bran,  meal,  shorts,  or  some  other  article  of  nitrogenous  food.  "While  some  feed  all  the  ensi- 
lage that  the  stock  will  eat,  aside  from  other  food  given  in  connection  witli  it,  others  practice 
the  better  method  of  allowing  a  certain  amount  per  day  to  each  animal.  The  amount  of  ensi- 
lage estimated  as  a  full  ration,  is  one  and  a  half  cubic  feet,  or  about  seventy  pounds  per  day 
for  an  ox,  cow,  or  other  large  animal,  or  one  cubic  foot  per  week  for  a  sheep ;  the  amount  of 
food  required  for  a  sheep  being,  as  a  general  rule,  about  one-sixth  of  that  required  for  a  cow. 
Others  use  from  twenty-five  to  a  hundred  pounds  of  ensilage  per  day,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  other  food  used  in  connection  with  it.  Mr.  Mills  formerly  fed  sixty  pounds  of  ensilage 
per  day  with  three  quarts  of  grain,  but  has  recently  reduced  the  amount  of  ensilage  to  about 
one-half  that  quantity,  with  the  same  amount  of  grain.  Dr.  Bailey  states  that  from  his  expe- 
rience he  considers  ensilage  to  be  worth  one-half  as  much  as  the  same  weight  of  the  best 
timothy  hay ;  but  that  he  would  not,  however,  exchange  ensilage  for  hay  and  give  two  tons 
of  it  for  one  of  hay.     He  says: — 

"My  method  of  feeding  is  as  follows:  I  remove  from  the  silo  50  pounds  of  ensilage 
(about  one  cubic  foot)  for  each  grown  animal  daily,  mixing  one  pound  of  oil-meal  and  wheat 
bran  to  every  1 0  pounds  of  ensilage.  I  have  a  large  box  standing  upon  the  barn  floor,  in 
which  I  mix  it  and  let  it  stand  about  twenty-four  hours  before  feeding.  By  that  time  it  is 
quite  warm;  the  grain  addition  has  had  time  to  become  soft,  and  its  digestibility  is  undoubt- 
edly increased  to  a  greater  degree.  There  is  in  every  50  pounds  of  ensilage  about  40  pounds 
of  water, — nearly  all  the  animal  requires.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  this  amount  of 
water  rearm  when  taken  into  the  stomach.  There  has  been  no  labor  or  fuel  expended  in 
warming  it,  which  is  quite  an  item.  When  animals  are  allowed  to  drink  ice-cold  water  in 
winter,  there  is  quite  a  large  percentage  of  the  food  which  would  produce  fat  consumed  in 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  water  they  drink,  from  freezing  cold  to  blood  heat." 

In  experimenting  on  the  value  of  ensilage  when  fed  alone,  the  same  writer  says: — 

''  On  the  29th  day  of  April  I  weighed  two  thoroughbred  two-year-old  Jersey  bulls.  Ross- 
more  weighed  960  pounds;  from  then  until  the  second  day  of  June,  I  fed  him  40  pounds  of 
ensilage  daily,  and  nothing  else.  The  other,  Hero,  weighed  at  the  same  time  890  pounds;  he 
was  fed  40  pounds  of  ensilage  and  3  pounds  of  wheat  bran  daily,  and  nothing  more.  On  the 
second  day  of  June  I  weighed  them  both  again.  Eossmore  weighed  960  pounds,  having 
neither  gained  nor  lost.  Hero  weighed  943  pounds,  having  gained  in  the  34  days  53  ' 
pounds.  Both  times  they  were  weighed  in  the  morning  after  eating  their  breakfast,  and 
before  drinking. 

I  do  not  pretend  that  50  to  60  pounds  of  ensilage  is  sufficient  to  keep  a  cow  in  full  flow 
of  milk.  She  should  have  in  addition  to  the  ensilage,  four  to  six  pounds  of  wheat  bran  or 
its  equivalent  in  some  other  nitrogenous  food.  But  I  do  say  that  the  50  or  60  pounds  of 
ensilage  will  keep  her  better  than  all  the  timothy  hay  she  will  eat." 

Mr.  Potter  expresses  as  his  opinion,  that  where  clover  is  properly  preserved  by  ensilage, 
a  piece  about  six  inches  cube — owing  to  its  compactness — is  sufficient  for  a  good  ration  for  a 
cow. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Washburn,  of  Massachusetts,  feeds  about  70  pounds  of  ensilage,  5  pounds  of 
hay,  and  3  of  grain  to  each  animal  per  day.  It  might  be  well  for  each  farmer  who  adopts 
the  system  to  experiment  for  himself  as  to  the  amount  of  ensilage  necessary  for  a  fair  ration. 
By  this  means  he  can  establish  his  own  method,  and  adapt  it  to  the  requirements  of  his  herd, 
and  other  conditions. 


508  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

Ensilage  Adapted  to  the  Southern  States.— There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
the  agricultural  interests  of  the  South  may  not  be  particularly  benefited  by  this  system,  which 
has  been  proven  to  be  as  practicable  in  that  climate  as  at  the  North.  If  any  doubts  arise  with 
reference  to  this  subject,  it  may  be  well  to  remember  the  fact,  that  the  cUmate  of  that  part  of 
France  where  Monsieur  Goffart  has  been  so  very  successful  in  preserving  ensilage  in  silos,  is 
about  the  temperature  of  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  etc.,  and  if  cut  at  the  proper  time 
and  ensilaged  with  care,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  system  will  prove  a  success 
throughout  the  entire  Southern  section.  By  means  of  this  new  departure  in  Southern  agri- 
culture,  one  of  the  great  needs  in  the  culture  of  the  soil  in  nearly  all  the  Southern  States — 
farm  manure — may  be  obtained  at  a  low  cost.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  providing  an 
inexpensive  food  in  abundance  for  stock,  whereby  a  large  number  of  farm  animals  can  be 
kept,  where  now  there  are  but  few. 

Stock-raising  and  profitable  farming  cannot  well  be  separated  in  any  country,  or  section 
of  a  country,  where  the  soil  will  not  produce  spontaneously,  and  where  a  good  supply  of 
either  commercial  fertilizers  or  farm  manures  are  required  to  produce  a  moderate  crop.  Com- 
fodder,  sorghum,  millet,  and  other  crops  used  in  ensilaging  can  be  grown  to  perfection  in  the 
Southern  States.  The  varieties  of  com  used  for  fodder  at  the  South  are  of  heavy  growth, 
with  leaves  long  and  broad,  the  stalks  when  in  full  bloom  being  peculiarly  sweet  and  nutri- 
tious, and  are  also  the  kinds  most  iised  for  this  purpose  at  the  North,  while  the  cow-pea, 
growing  as  it  does  in  the  greatest  luxuriance  at  the  South,  would  be  admirably  adapted  for 
the  silo,  if  cut  while  in  full  bloom,  with  the  pods  just  forming.  Being  fully  equal  in  nutritive 
value  to  clover,  an  acre  of  rich  land  will  produce  about  twice  the  amount  that  it  would  of 
clover. 

If  the  silo  is  a  desideratum  at  the  North,  where  grasses  of  the  best  quality,  and  clover 
grow  in  abundance,  how  much  more  essential  is  it  at  the  South,  where  the  best  grasses  do 
not  thrive  well,  or  require  frequent  renewing.  With  ensilage  as  a  new  departure  in  Southern 
agriculture,  the  South  may  become  a  stock-producing  section,  with  all  the  attendant  benefi- 
cial results,  and  the  resources  of  this  part  of  the  country,  as  well  as  those  of  the  North,  thus 
more  perfectly  developed. 

Analysis  of  Corn  when  Cut  in  a  Green  State.— By  summarizing  various  anal- 
yses made  of  the  different  parts  of  the  corn-plants,  as  given  in  Mr.  Brown's  translation  of 
M.  Goffart's  work  on  Ensilage,  it  is  found  that  the  ear  with  cob  and  stem,  forms  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  whole  plant,  either  green  or  dry.  That  the  leaves  contain  over  forty  per  cent,  of 
the  solid  material  of  the  whole  plant,  also  three-fourths  of  the  mineral  element  of  the  plant. 
That  the  stalk,  leaves,  and  tassel  contain  nearly  three  times  as  much  nutritive  value  as  the 
ear,  taken  when  the  ear  is  in  the  milk.  That  the  ear  and  cob  contain  but  little  more  than 
two-thirds  as  much  sugar  as  the  leaves,  and  less  than  one-sixth  as  much  as  the  entire  plant; 
also  a  little  more  than  one-fourth  as  much  as  the  stalk.  That  the  leaves  contain  one-fourth 
more  phosphoric  acid  than  the  ear,  and  that  the  latter  contains  but  thirty -two  per  cept.  of  the 
entire  amount  of  this  element  in  the  whole  plant.  That  the  ears  contain  only  six  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  sulphuric  acid  of  the  plant,  and  but  eighteen  per  cent,  of  the  chlorine.  That  the 
leaves  contain  more  than  half  as  much  potash  as  the  ears,  the  stalks  nearly  as  much  as  the 
ears,  and  that  the  ear,  cob,  and  stem  contain  but  about  forty-two  per  cent,  of  the  potash  in 
the  entire  plant.  Iron  was  not  found  in  the  ears,  while  but  a  small  amount  of  silica  was 
present  there.  When  com  is  preserved  by  the  ensilage  process,  all  these  nutritive  elements 
are  retained  as  food,  and  the  waste  that  attends  the  drying,  storing,  and  feeding  of  the  dried 
product  is  entirely  avoided. 


ENSILAGE.  509 

Analysis  of  Ensilage. — The  following  is  an  analysis  of  ensilaged  com  fodder,  by 
Prof.  C.  A.  Goessmann,  the  sample  analyzed  being  taken  from  the  silo  of  Dr.  J.  "W.  Bailey, 
of  Massachusetts: — 

PER  CENT, 

Moisture  at  212°-220°  Fahrenheit,     .....  80.70 


Dry  matter  left,           .... 

19.30  100.00 

ry  matter  consists  of : — 

PART?. 

Crude  cellulose. 

6.43 

Fat  ether  abstract,        .... 

0.63 

Albuminoids,     ..... 

1.56 

Non-nitrogenous  extract  matter. 

8.93 

Ash  (with  traces  of  sand), 

1.77     19.30 

By  way  of  comparison,  we  also  give  an  average  analysis  of  the  corn-plant  in  the  milk 
by  the  same  authority : — 

Moisture  at  212°-220°  Fahrenheit,     .  .  .  .  .  85.04  • 

Dry  matter,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  14.96  100.00 

PART3. 

Ash, 0.83 

Albuminoids,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  0.86 

Fat, 0.26 

Crude  cellulose,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  4.53 

Non-nitrogenous  extractive  matter,    .....  8.49     14.96 

Advantages  of  the  Ensilage  System.— In  summing  up  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  the  ensilage  system,  some  of  which  have  been  alluded  to  in  previous  pages,  we  will 
place  first  (since  farmers  generally  are  such  an  incessantly  laborious  class)  economy  in  time 
and  labor,  although  this,  in  a  monetary  point  of  view,  may  not  appropriately  take  the  first 
rank.  When  once  a  fanner  has  his  silo  well  built,  it  will  last  for  years  vdth  little  or  no 
expense  in  repairs,  while  the  labor  and  expense  attending  the  preservation  of  his  forage 
crops  by  ensilage  are  but  slight  when  compared  with  that  of  cutting,  drying,  and  securely 
housing  the  hay  crop,  to  say  nothing  of  the  anxiety  in  successfully  accomplishing  this  result 
on  account  of  unfavorable  weather,  or  the  loss  often  sustained  by  rains  and  cloudy  weather. 

Another  important  advantage  of  this  system,  is  in  preventing  the  loss  of  nutritive  matter 
necessarily  sustained  by  the  dryiag  process  in  converting  the  green  forage  into  hay,  all  the 
succulent  and  nutritious  juices  of  the  food  being  preserved  by  the  ensilage  process. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  hay-fed  cows  always  produce  milk  and  butter  of  an  inferior 
quality  and  light  color,  and  that  cows  fed  upon  the  same  kind  of  grass  before  it  has  been 
converted  into  hay,  produce  milk  and  butter  of  excellent  quality,  the  butter  being  of  a  golden 
tint  and  delicious  flavor.  The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  what  causes  this  difference.  If 
the  only  difference  consists  in  diying  out  the  water  contained  in  the  green  grass  by  changing 
it  into  hay,  or  in  other  words,  simply  concentrating  the  nutritive  juices  of  the  grasses,  there 
would  be  no  loss  of  nutriment.  Consequently  rations  of  hay  and  water  in  quantity  propor- 
tionate to  that  of  the  rations  of  grass  before  it  was  dried,  would  give  the  same  results  as 
grass  in  producing  butter.  The  fact  that  dry  hay  and  water  when  fed  to  cows  do  not  pro- 
duce the  same  results  as  are  secured  by  feeding  green  grass,  is  but  one  of  the  many  proofs 
that  there  is  great  loss  of  nutritive  matter  in  the  drying  process. 

Now  if  this  same  grass,  or  an  equivalent  fodder,  can  be  preserved  in  a  green  state  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  that  which  is  grazed  in  summer,  without  the  loss  of  nutriment,  it  follows 
that,  aside  from  the  labor  and  expense  attending  the  drying  process,  there  is  not  only  an 
economy  in  preventing  any  loss  of  the  nutritive  element  by  drying,  but  better  milk  and 
butter  are  also  furnished  by  the  cows  feeding  upon  the  ensilaged  fodder.  Again,  as  fodder- 
corn  can  be  cultivated  so  much  easier,  and  in  such  larger  crops  per  acre  than  grass,  the  ensil- 


510  THE  A>rERICAN  FARMER. 

age  of  that  food  will  prove  more  economical,  since  a  much  larger  number  of  cattle  can  be 
kept  on  the  same  farm  than  before,  while  with  the  increased  supply  of  manure  thus  obtained, 
the  farmer  can  enrich  his  soil  to  the  extent  of  making  it  much  more  avaOable,  and  conse- 
quently profitable,  than  it  has  ever  previously  been.  "With  less  labor,  and  a  consequent 
saving  of  time,  there  follows,  as  a  natural  consequence,  more  time  for  reading  and  self- 
improvement  to  the  farmer,  taking  from  his  life  much  of  the  toil  and  drudgery  that  has  so 
long  characterized  it,  with  a  like  benefit  to  the  farmer's  wife,  whose  lot  is  often  the  harder  of 
the  two,  she  working  early  and  late  to  accomplish  each  day's  duties,  with  the  added  burden 
of  more  hired  help  upon  the  farm  to  care  for  during  the  hayrng-season. 

This  new  departure,  then,  means  to  the  farmer  less  lalxir,  less  expense,  better  stock,  an 
increased  capacity  on  the  farm  for  keeping  stock,  a  larger  supply  of  yard-manure,  better 
crops,  increased  fertility  and  productiveness  of  the  land,  preser\nng  the  nutritive  quality  of 
the  forage  that  has  previously  been  wasted  in  the  drying  process,  a  better  income  from  the 
farm,  more  home  comforts,  more  time  for  reading,  and  the  means  of  intellectual  improvement. 
These  are  some  of  the  advantages  that  experience  and  experiment  in  this  new  departure  of 
agriculture  seem  to  promise,  and  which  we  trust  will  be  secured  to  the  farmers  of  our  country 
after  the  test  of  a  few  years,  which  will  be  necessary  to  secure  its  general  adoption. 

Opinions  and  Experiments  from  Various  Anthentic  Sources  Respecting 

the  Ensilage  System. — Among  the  many  favorable  opinions  current  respecting  the 
ensilage  S3'stem,  we  have  space  to  insert  but  a  few,  and  these  are  from  sources  that  would 
seem  to  be  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  their  reliabDity.  It  is  often  a  fact  that  the  advocates  of 
a  new  and  favorite  system  are  too  enthusiastic  in  their  praise  of  the  same,  and  place  an  exag- 
gerated estimate  upon  its  merits.  Although  this  may  or  may  not  be  true  with  reference  to 
some  of  the  advocates  of  the  ensilage  system,  we  know  that  there  are  those  among  them,  and 
by  far  the  larger  number,  who  are  strictly  practical  men,  and  whose  judgment  and  conclu- 
sions, as  derived  from  actual  experience,  can  be  accepted  without  discount.  In  a  letter  to 
Mr.  J.  B.  Brown,  Monsieur  Goffart  writes  that  the  cost  of  the  maize  he  was  then  feeding  was 
ten  cents  per  225  pounds,  and  the  crop  was  36  tons  per  acre.     He  says: — 

"  The  longer  experience  I  have,  the  more  I  am  convinced  that  this  method  of  feeding 
cattle  is  destined  to  render  the  greatest  service  to  the  agricultural  interest.  From  October, 
1878,  to  October,  1879,  I  fed  the  one  hundred  animals  in  my  stable  exclusively  upon  ensil- 
aged maize  during  winter,  and  concurrently  with  fresh  maize  during  the  season  when  1  had 
it.  The  animals  have  always  enjoyed  the  most  excellent  health,  and  I  can  testify  that  they 
had  more  appetite  for  ensilaged  maize  than  for  fresh  food,  whatever  kind  it  might  be.  The 
cows  fed  with  fresh  maize  give  milk  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  butter  is  of  exquisite  taste; 
fed  upon  ensilaged  maize,  the  milk  is  still  very  good,  and  its  quantity  imdiminished,  but  the 
butter,  while  being  still  of  excellent  quality,  is  not  quite  so  fine.  But  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that,  whatever  is  the  food  of  the  cows  in  winter,  butter  is  neVer  quite  so  good  as  that 
which  is  made  during  the  fine  weather  (la  belle  saisony 

In  regard  to  the  cost  of  this  fodder,  he  says: — 

"Taking  six  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  for  its  daily  ration,  I  arrive  at  an 
expense  of  3.6  cents  per  day  to  feed  an  animal  of  1,400  pounds.  I  do  not  know  any  kind  of 
food  that  costs  so  little  as  my  ensilaged  maize,  and  it  was  a  bad  year  for  raising  it,  owing  to 
the  wet,  and  labor  was  unusually  expensive,  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  wine." 

Mr.  C.  W.  Mills  claims  that  the  system  of  ensilage  will  revolutionize  the  present  system 
of  farming.  He  says :  "  Last  summer  my  pasturage  run  short,  and  being  out  of  ensilage,  I 
cut  oats  when  in  blossom  from  five  acres  and  put  that  in  the  silo,  and  subjected  it  to  pressure. 
It  sustained  my  milch  cows  (about  80  in  number)  for  a  space  of  six  weeks.  I  had  no  trouble 
except  in  contact  with  the  stone  wall.  I  kept  last  year  one  hundred  and  twenty  head  of 
homed  cattle  and  twelve  horses,  from  October  15th  to  May  15th  upon  the  product  of  twelve 


.   ENSILAGE.  611 

acres,  without  any  liay  or  straw.  I  fed  three  quarts  of  grain  per  day.  I  gave  about  sixty 
pounds  of  ensilage  per  day,  and  it  was  a  great  mistake;  I  am  now  feeding  but  thirty,  and 
two  or  three  quarts  of  grain  per  day. 

I  planted  my  corn  in  hedges  about  thirty-two  inches  apart,  and  about  six  inches  wide, 
planting  forty  or  fifty  kernels  to  the  running  foot,  and  I  got  a  wonderful  growth.  My  land 
is  not  rich.     It  has  been  abused  for  the  last  hundred  years." 

Mr.  O.  B.  Potter's  statement  respecting  ensilage  is  as  follows:  "I  have  been  feeding  out 
of  silos  for  five  years,  and  I  never  have  any  trouble.  I  commence  and  cut  it  down  from 
the  top  with  a  hay-knife,  and  usually  cut  off  enough  at  one  cutting  to  sustain  the  animals 
one  day  ahead.     The  cattle  eat  it  up  very  clean. 

I  had  one  result  which  may  interest  farmers.  Last  spring  I  was  milking  fifty-six  cows, 
and  sending  fifteen  cans  of  milk  to  the  city  every  day.  They  were  being  fed  upon  ensilage 
entirely,  with  two  quarts  of  barley  meal.  About  the  middle  of  June  I  turned  them  out 
where  the  grass  was  from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  with  the  best  of  water  and  shade.  The 
result  was  that  the  yield  decreased  from  fifteen  cans  to  eleven,  and  they  did  not  begin  to  gain 
until  I  put  them  back  on  ensilage  again  in  the  fall. 

I  think  a  great  gain  will  be  fo.und  in  feeding  different  kinds  of  ensilage  at  the  same 
time.     My  cattle  do  not  do  as  well  on  corn  alone  as  when  it  is  varied,  with  clover  or  mixed 


Mr.  Hood,  of  Dutchess  County,  New  York,  says:  "My  silos,  of  which  I  have  four,  are 
about  sixteen  feet  square  and  twenty-one  feet  deep.  We  opened  one  on  December  1st,  and 
found  it  was  perfectly  green  and  sweet.  We  were  then  feeding  hay,  and  six  quarts  of  feed 
to  each  cow.  We  stopped  the  hay  and  commenced  on  ensilage,  and  fed  four  quarts  of  feed 
and  twenty-five  pounds  of  ensilage  to  each  cow.  The  milk  gained  rapidly,  and  is  still  gaining. 
The  top  portion  of  the  ensilage  is  slightly  moulded,  but  so  slightly  that  the  cattle  did  not 
seem  to  object  to  it." 

Colcgiel  J.  W.  Wolcott  gives  the  result  of  his  experiments  in  the  dairy  as  follows  :  — 

"  The  result  of  my  experience  is  that  the  heavier  the  weight,  the  better  the  ensilage 
will  keep.  As  to  the  quahty  of  the  cream  I  can  say  that  by  feeding  fifty  pounds  of  ensilaged 
maize,  and  one  quart  of  cotton-seed  meal,  the  increase  over  the  amount  when  feeding  English 
hay,  and  six  quarts  of  com  meal  averaged  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  milk,  and  ten  per  cent,  in 
butter  from  the  milk,  which  is  a  total  gain  in  butter  of  thirty-seven  and  a  half  per  cent. 
The  butter  brings  the  highest  market  price  in  Boston  markets." 

Mr.  E.  M.  Washburn,  of  Lenox,  Mass.,  thus  gives  the  result  of  his  experience  with 
ensilage:  ''Our  crops  the  present  season  consisted  of  192  tons  of  corn  and  91  of  millet, 
counting  40  cubic  feet  of  compressed  ensilage  one  ton.  The  whole  cost  of  the  corn  in  the 
silo,  aside  from  manure,  $1.33  per  ton.  The  corn  was  raised  in  drills  3J  feet  apart,  three 
stalks  to  the  foot.  Variety,  Southern  white.  The  whole  cost  per  ton  for  millet  in  the  silo, 
aside  from  fertilizer,  was  $1.03.  The  com  was  cut  by  hand  in  the  field,  and  the  millet  with 
a  reaper.     Wages  for  men  $1.50,  for  team  and  man,  §4.00  per  day. 

In  one  silo  was  put  135  tons  of  corn,  in  the  other  50  of  corn  and  90  of  millet.  The  silo 
that  was  filled  with  corn  has  been  all  fed,  and  the  preservation  was  found  perfect  throughout 
the  entire  mass. 

Our  herd,  to  which  we  have  fed  this  ensilage,  consists  of  40  Holsteins,  and  have  been 
fed  an  average  of  70  pounds  of  ensilage,  5  pounds  of  hay  and  3  of  grain,  to  each  animal  per 
day.  This  has  fed  them  87  days,  or  135  tons  of  ensilage,  8-|  tons  of  hay,  5^  tons  of  grain 
has  fed  one  animal  3,480  days  or  116  months,  at  a  cost  for  ensilage  of  $178.45,  for  hay 
$127.50,  for  grain  $157.50,  total  $463.45,  or  13^  cents  per  day  for  each  animal.  Upon 
this  feed  my  stock  have  steadily  gained  in  fl.esh,  and  the  younger  ones  have  made  a  satis- 
factory growth,  the  returns  in  milk  have  been  greater  than  ever  before  in  the  winter.     The 


512  THE  AlVrERICAN  FARMER 

quality  of  the  milk  has  improved  from  that  made  while  the  cows  were  in  pasture,  showing  au 
improvement  of  over  ten  degrees  by  the  lactometer.  The  butter  is  fully  equal  in  color,  flavor, 
and  in  every  way  to  that  made  from  the  same  cows  in  September,  while  at  pasture. 

In  feeding  our  ensilage  last  season,  we  found  a  decided  superiority  in  the  millet  over 
the  corn,  though  it  was  so  mixed  that  we  could  make  no  accurate  trial.  Analysis  shows  that 
the  feeding  value  of  millet  compares  to  that  of  corn  as  30  to  17,  when  both  are  cut  at  the 
most  suitable  state,  and  clover  and  rye  vary  but  little  in  value  from  millet,  so  that  should  the 
millet  cost  to  raise  and  ensilage  twice  as  much  as  corn,  it  still  would  be  about  as  profitable  in 
the  end.  There  is  much  said  at  present  by  scientists  and  others  about  the  great  loss  in  ensi- 
lage by  fermentation,  the  sugar,  glucose,  and  starch,  almost  wholly  disappearing,  leaving  all 
the  water  and  fiber  and  a  small  amount  of  alcohol,  with  some  other  nearly  valueless  constitu- 
ent, making,  in  their  estimation,  a  food  of  about  the  value  of  fine  sawdust.  Now,  when  I  go 
into  my  neighbor's  stables,  and  see  the  amount  of  dried  corn  fodder  that  it  requires  to  feed 
his  cattle  and  see  the  amount  that  is  wasted  and  refused  by  the  stock,  when  I  see  their  condi- 
tion and  amount  of  milk  they  yield,  and  compare  it  all  with  our  experience  with  ensilage, 
I  think  it  would  not  take  a  very  wise  man  to  decide  which  is  the  better  method. 

Another  great  point  made  by  many  farmers,  is  the  great  cost  to  build  silos.  Now,  my 
silos  that  will  hold  about  375  tons,  have  cost  me  less  than  $460,  and  I  certainly  would  like 
to  see  the  barn  that  will  hold  the  equivalent  of  this  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  tons  of 
ensilage,  in  hay  or  dried  corn  fodder,  that  was  built  for  the  same  money.  I  have  yet  to 
learn  of  the  first  man  that  has  built  a  silo  and  not  proved  it  a  success.  With  me  ensilage 
has  proved  a  success,  in  its  relative  y;V5<  cost  as  compared  with  hay  or  dried  corn  fodder,  in 
its  comparative  value  in  feeding,  and  in  its  results  in  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  and 
beef." 

Numerous  other  authorities  might  be  cited  in  favor  of  this  system  if  necessary,  but 
enough  has  been  given  to  prove  the  preserving  of  fodder  by  ensilage  a  success  thus  far  in 
practice,  and  to  render  it  safe  to  predict  for  it  a  general  adoption  by  the  farmers  of  the 
country  before  many  years  shall  have  passed  away.  Although  a  long  time  may  elapse  before 
it  will  entirely  supersede  the  curing  of  hay  by  the  long-practiced  method,  yet  the  present  indi- 
cations are  that  it  is  destined  to  do  so  eventually. 


GOOD  SEED. 

IF  there  is  any  one  thing  that  will  cause  the  agricultural  products  of  the  soil  to  deteriorate 
more  than  another,  it  is  in  the  use  of  inferior  seed.  The  custom  of  some  farmers,  of 
selecting  seed  at  random,  and  of  using  successively,  year  after  year,  seed  grown  upon 
the  same  soil,  or  that  produced  by  chance,  or  with  little  or  no  cultivation,  or  perhaps  seed 
that  has  lost  its  vitality  from  being  kept  over  for  several  seasons,  is,  to  say  the  least,  not  an 
economic  one. 

The  poor  quality  of  seed  and  light  yield  of  crops  may  often  be  justly  attributed  to  the  care- 
lessness or  indifference  of  farmers  and  gardeners  with  respect  to  that  which  they  plant.  With 
the  best  soil  and  the  most  skilled  cultivation,  poor  seed  cannot,  in  the  nature  of  things,  give 
good  results  ;  hence,  unless  the  seed  planted  be  of  proper  quality,  the  labor  and  fertilizers 
bestowed  upon  the  crop  are  in  a  great  measure  lost. 

The  average  yield  of  ordinary  crops  is  much  below  what  it  ought  to  be,  or  would  be,  pro- 
viding more  pains  were  taken  in  the  selection  and  cultivation  of  the  seed  that  produced 
them.     Plants  for  seed  raising  should  not  only  have  the  best  possible  culture,  but  they  should 


GOOD  SEED.  513 

be  the  most  vigorous  plants  selected  from  the  best  variety  for  this  purpose.  Even  then,  only 
the  most  perfectly  developed  and  matured  seed  of  such  plants  should  be  preserved  for 
planting. 

The  effect  of  cultivation  and  careful  selection  of  seed  may  be  seen  by  comparing  any  one  of 
our  agricultural  products  with  the  original  plant  in  its  wild  state,  such  as  the  potato,  for  instance, 
which,  when  growing  wild,  has  scarcely  any  tubers  at  all,  they  being  very  small  and  of  an 
exceedingly  strong,  unpleasant  flavor ,  its  product  being  principally  the  balls  growing  at  the 
top  of  the  vines  for  the  production  of  the  seed.  The  long  period  of  cultivation  given  this 
plant,  the  constant  aim  being  to  develop  the  size  and  quality  of  the  tubers,  has  resulted  in 
changing  its  appearance  almost  beyond  recognition,  when  compared  with  its  original  progen- 
itor. We  shall  find  it  thus  with  respect  to  all  cultivated  plants.  Our  many  and  choice  vari- 
eties of  fruit  are  the  result  of  long  and  patient  labor  in  improving  upon  the  wild  types,  the 
flavor,  size,  color,  period  of  ripening,  adaptation  to  climate  and  soil,  etc.,  all  being  taken  into 
account  in  the  process  of  development  towards  the  ideal  standard  which  the  grower  has  in 
mind,  and  at  which  he  is  constantly  aiming,  the  time  required  to  reach  the  desired  results 
sometimes  requiring  many  years,  or  even  a  life-time. 

Clioice  of  Plants  for  Producing  Seed.— In  no  department  of  agriculture  is  more 
skill  and  good  judgment  essestial  than  in  the  raising  or  selection  of  seed.  It  is  well  known, 
as  has  been  previously  stated,  that  all  variations  of  agricultural  products  have  been  produced 
by  a  long  course  of  cultivation  and  reproduction  from  the  seed,  in  many  cases  changing  a 
seemingly  worthless,  bitter  weed  into  a  valuable,  edible  plant.  In  this  cultured  state,  which 
has  a  tendency  to  develop  the  highest  possibilities  of  the  plant,  it  is  in  an  artificial  condition, 
as  it  were,  and  there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  revert  or  return  to  its  original  wild  state  ; 
therefore  there  is  required,  on  the  part  of  the  cultivator,  much  care  in  the  selection  and  grow- 
ing of  the  seed,  in  order  to  counteract  this  tendency. 

In  the  production  of  seed,  the  choice  of  plants  is  of  the  highest  importance.  All  plants 
of  the  most  approved  varieties  will  not  produce  the  same  quality  of  seed.  Other  conditions 
being  equal,  the  general  rale  of  nature,  that  "like  produces  like,"  is  as  tree  when  applied  to 
the  vegetable  as  the  animal  kingdom  ;  and  the  principles  of  reproduction  that  apply  to  the 
one,  will  also  apply  equally  well  to  the  other.  No  farmer  would  expect  to  obtain  a  pure-bred 
animal  from  a  mongrel  and  inferior  herd,  or  a  healthy  progeny  from  a  weak  and  diseased 
animal  of  a  pure  breed.  Such  a  result  would  of  necessity  be  an  anomaly  in  nature.  It  is 
equally  true  that  seed  of  the  best  quality  cannot  be  produced  from  inferior  plants,  whether 
they  be  of  an  inferior  kind,  or  the  weak  and  sickly  plants  of  a  choice  variety.  The  process 
of  forming  or  establishing  a  distinct  breed  of  animals  that  will  transmit  fixed  characteristics, 
is  d,  slow  and  difficult  one.  However  fine  the  individual  animal  may  be,  there  is  that  tendency, 
which  is  everywhere  seen  in  nature,  to  revert  to  the  original  type,  and  the  hopes  of  the 
breeder  will  often  be  blighted  by  the  occasional  sports  and  reversions  of  this  kind,  that  will 
prove  serious  obstacles  in  his  way.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  select  the  most  perfect  types  of  ani- 
mals, those  having  those  qualities  that  are  desirable  for  transmission,  for  perfecting  or  maintain- 
ing the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  breed.  The  same  skill  is  essential  in  producing  and  im- 
proving varieties  of  plants,  and  since  the  larger  portion  of  the  profits  of  the  general  farmer 
are  obtained  from  the  quality  and  yield  of  his  plant  growths,  the  labor  and  expense  in- 
volved in  the  raising  or  purchasing  of  the  very  best  seed  will  be  amply  repaid  in  the  results  of 
the  crop.  In  the  first  place,  then,  farmers  should  take  pains  to  raise  only  the  best  varieties 
of  crops.  It  costs  no  more  labor,  time,  or  money  to  produce  a  good  variety  of  vegetable 
growth,  than  a  poor  one,  unless  it  be  at  first  in  the  purchase  of  choice  and  rare  varieties  of 
seed  when  making  a  change  in  this  respect.  A  tree,  grape  vine,  crop  of  potatoes,  or  grain, 
yielding  an  inferior  product,  will  extract  as  much  nutriment  from  the  soil,  and  require  as 
much  care  and  attention  from  the  grower,  as  those  that  yield  the  choicest  products  of  their 


514  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

kind.  There  is,  therefore,  economy  in  always  selecting  the  best  varieties  for  cultivation, 
those  jdelding  the  best  in  quality,  and  the  largest  amount  in  quantity,  since  this  course  is  the 
most  profitable  and  satisfactory.  Farmers  should,  therefore,  take  pains  to  keep  themselves 
informed  with  respect  to  the  most  desirable  and  improved  varieties,  and  not  be  left  in  the 
background  with  the  cultivators  of  a  past  age.  "We  do  not  mean  by  this  that  farmers 
should  discard  a  good  and  rehable  variety  for  a  new  and  untried  one.  simply  because  some 
speculative  seed-seller  loudly  trumpets  its  merits  through  their  special  agents,  or  the  medium 
of  exaggerated  advertisements.  Too  many  impositions  have  already  been  perpetrated  upon 
the  farmers  of  this  country  in  palming  off  a  worthless  or  inferior  article  at  an  exorbitant  price; 
but  when  the  merits  of  a  really  valuable  product  have  been  thoroughly  tested,  and  proven  to 
be  superior  in  all  respects  to  the  old,  it  will  then  be  foimd  more  profitable  to  discard  the  old 
and  adopt  the  new.  We  do  not  intend  by  this  to  cast  any  reflections  upon  seed-men  and 
gardeners  in  general.  We  believe  the  majority  of  those  engaged  in  this  business  to  be 
strictly  reliable  and  honorable  in  all  their  business  relations.  But  in  this  business,  as  well  as 
all  others  under  the  sun,  there  are  impostors,  and  they  have,  by  their  false  dealings,  shaken 
the  faith  of  many  pre%'iously  unsuspecting  \'ictims,  and  created  a  prejudice  against  adopting 
the  new  and  untried  that  is  not  easily  overcome. 

There  are  those  in  this  business  who  know  nothing  whatever  of  producing  or  improving 
what  they  offer  to  the  public,  but  buy  up,  at  a  low  price,  old  and  worthless  or  inferior  stock 
that  can  be  found  in  the  market,  and  then  offer  it  for  sale  at  an  exorbitant  price,  under  the 
claim  of  rare  and  special  merit.  All  such  impostors  should  be  classed  with  counterfeiters  of 
all  kinds,  including  the  manufacturers  of  oleomargarine  and  other  food  adulterers,  and  swin- 
dlers generally,  and  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  penalties  of  the  law.  Buying  only  of 
well  known  and  reliable  parties,  will  be  a  safeguard  against  such  frauds. 

Planting  a  little  seed  for  one  or  two  seasons  in  a  small  plot  by  itself,  sufficiently  far  from 
all  others  to  pi'event  mixing,  and  giving  it  good  cultivation,  will  be  a  safe  way  to  test  a  new 
variety  before  planting  a  large  crop,  where  a  knowledge  of  the  experience  of  reliable  parties 
in  planting  it  cannot  be  readily  obtained. 

Next  in  importance  to  obtaining  the  best  variety  for  seed-production,  is  that  of  selecting 
the  most  healthy  and  vigorous  plants  for  this  purpose,  and  these  should  be  grown  apart  from 
all  others. 

All  plants  will  mix  more  or  less  readily  with  others,  when  planted  with,  or  sufficiently 
near  other  varieties  to  permit  of  fertilization  from  the  pollen  of  their  blossoms.  Maize  or 
common  com,  broom  corn,  sorghum,  millet,  will  all  readily  mix  with  each  other,  as  well  as 
with  different  varieties  of  the  same  species.  This  mixing  or  hybridizing  will,  of  course, 
greatly  deteriorate  the  quality  of  a  choice  variety,  and  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The 
distance  to  which  the  pollen  may  be  conveyed  by  the  wind,  or  by  bees  or  other  insects,  is 
almost  incredible.  It  will  often  happen  that  in  a  field  of  corn,  an  occasional  red,  mottled,  or 
blue  ear  will  occur  among  those  of  a  choice  variety  of  the  yellow  or  white  tj^pe,  the  origin 
of  which  can  be  accounted  for  only  in  this  way.  When  such  cases  occur,  it  will  usually  be 
found  that  in  an  adjoining  field  or  farm,  or  at  a  distance  even  more  remote,  the  variety  that 
is  represented  by  this  mixture  will  be  found  to  have  been  grown  during  the  season.  The 
dust  of  the  pollen  of  blossoms,  being  exceedingly  fine,  can  be  carried  quite  a  distance  by  the 
wind.  This  is  seen  in  the  culture  of  hops,  where  five  or  six  hills  of  male  plants,  being  dis- 
tributed at  equal  distances  over  an  acre  in  a  hop  field,  and  supplied  with  tall  poles  for  climb- 
ing, by  which  the  fertihzing  process  may  be  facilitated,  will  have  a  sufficient  amount  of  pol- 
len conveyed  over  the  blossoms  of  the  field  by  the  wind  to  fertilize  the  entire  acre  of  plants. 
Bees  are  another  fruitful  cause  of  the  mixing  of  varieties,  their  influence  extending  even 
beyond  that  of  the  wind,  by  carrying  the  pollen  that  adheres  to  their  wings  and  bodies  to  dis- 
tant fields  while  going  from  one  flower  to  another  in  pursuit  of  honey.     We  therefore  see 


GOOD  SEED.  515 

the  necessity  of  growing  all  plants  designed  for  seed-productions  apart  from  all  others,  that 
it  may  be  kept  as  pure  as  possible.  It  would  be  well  for  farmers  living  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood, or  adjoining  farms,  to  agree  to  plant  the  same  varieties  for  this  reason.  "When 
different  varieties  are  grown  on  the  same  farm,  such  as  pop  com,  sweet  corn,  and  the  kind 
constituting  the  regular  corn  product,  these  should  be  planted  as  far  apart  as  practiable. 

Special  Cultivation  Essential.  —  Plants  for  producing  seed  should  not  only  be 
planted  apart  from  all  others,  but  should  receive  special  cultivation,  in  order  to  maintain 
their  high  standard  and  prevent  deteriorating;  also,  to  improve,  if  possible,  upon  the  variety. 
The  benefits  of  cultivation  have  already  been  referred  to  in  regard  to  all  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, in  comparing  the  improved  and  long-cultivated  plants  with  the  wild  types  from  which 
they  originated.  This  difference  is  equally  striking  in  horticultui'e.  No  one  but  a  botanist 
would  recognize  the  small  and  single  blossom  of  the  wild  rose,  or  the  coarse  flower  of  the 
wild  dahlia  from  the  tablelands  of  Mexico,  with  its  single  row  of  petals,  as  kindred  to  the 
beautiful  and  rare  products  of  the  skillful  gardener's  art;  and  yet  this  great  difference  is  aU 
due  to  cultivation,  combined  with  careful  selection.  When  a  better  class  of  plants  are  to  be 
developed,  as  those  possessing  special  characteristics  in  a  more  marked  degree  than  has  been 
attained,  care  must  always  be  exercised  in  selecting  those  that  possess  the  desired  qualities 
most  prominently,  whether  it  be  for  special  color,  fragrance,  beauty  of  form,  size,  or  other 
quahties.  It  is  only  by  this  means  that  certain  characteristics  can  be  perpetuated  and  more 
fully  established.  In  the  cultivation  of  seed,  the  locality  selected  should  not  only  be  apart 
from  all  other  plants  with  which  it  may  become  mixed,  but  the  locality  chosen  should  be  that 
to  which  it  is  well  adapted,  whether  with  regard  to  the  soD,  degree  of  heat  and  cold,  sunlight 
and  shade,  shelter  from  winds  or  other  influences  adverse  to  its  proper  development. 

The  soil  should  be  well  tilled,  and  of  the  degree  of  fertility  adapted  to  the  plant  that  is 
grown,  while  frequent  and  careful  culture  should  be  given  of  such  a  nature  as  is  also  suited 
to  its  most  perfect  growth  and  maturity.  During  the  progress  of  the  growth  of  the  plants, 
all  injurious  insects  should  be  kept  from  them,  and  the  weak  and  sickly  plants  carefully 
thinned  out,  leaving  only  the  most  healthy  and  vigorous  ones  to  mature  and  ripen  their  seed. 
AU  foreign  growths,  such  as  weeds  and  grass,  should  be  kept  down,  and  the  surface  of  the 
soil  frequently  stirred  to  increase  the  growth  and  productions  of  the  plants.  Those  plants 
that  produce  suckers,  such  as  corn,  for  instance,  should  have  these  inferior  growths  removed 
as  they  make  their  appearance,  for  if  allowed  to  blossom  and  shed  their  pollen,  they  will 
thus  fertilize  the  fine  ears  of  corn  as  readily  as  the  blossoms  of  the  most  perfectly  developed 
stalks.  This  wiU  be  sure  to  deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  product;  too  much  importance 
cannot  therefore  be  placed  upon  their  removal  before  blossoming.  It  often  happens  that 
when  planting  even  the  largest  and  finest  looking  ears,  where  this  precaution  has  not  been 
taken,  the  farmer  will  be  greatly  disappointed  in  the  result,  the  crop  produced  being  in  every 
respect  an  inferior  one.  This  is  caused  by  the  kernels  of  the  fine,  large  ears  having  been 
fertilized  by  the  blossoms  of  one  of  these  inferior  growths,  and  deterioration  natui-ally 
follows.  If  every  farmer  would  take  such  precautions,  the  average  corn  crop  of  the  country 
would  be  greatly  increased. 

Harvesting  and  Storing.  —  It  is  very  essential  that  seed  should  be  harvested  before 
the  appearance  of  the  frost,  and  if  possible,  when  sufficiently  ripe,  before  a  long  rain  storm. 
If  allowed  to  remain  exposed  several  days  to  a  rain,  some  kinds  of  seed  might  be  seriously 
injured  by  sprouting,  while  others  might  become  shelled  out  and  wasted.  All  seed  should 
be  well  ripened  before  gathering.  It  should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  field 
after  becoming  sufficiently  ripe  for  harvesting.  A  slight  neglect  in  this  respect  will,  with 
some  kinds  of  seed,  often  cause  the  loss  of  nearly  the  entire  crop. 

Some  plants  ripen  their  seed  very  unevenly.    With  such,  the  time  for  harvesting  will  be 


516  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

when  the  largest  portion  of  the  best  seed  is  ripened.  In  harvesting,  care  will  be  necessary 
in  handling  certain  varieties,  to  prevent  shelling  out  and  loss.  After  gathering,  it  should,  as 
a  general  rule,  be  well  dried  before  shelling;  this  is  usually  done  in  a  cool,  dry,  airy  room. 
In  shelling,  the  most  perfectly  developed  seed  from  the  most  vigorous  and  productive  plants 
only  should  be  saved  for  planting.  Partially  ripened  or  imperfect  seed  may  germinate,  but 
it  will  invariably  produce  inferior  plants.  All  seed  should  be  thoroughly  dried  before  being 
stored ;  otherwise  it  will  be  liable  to  mould,  and  its  quality  be  greatly  impaired  or  rendered 
entirely  worthless.  In  storing,  a  perfectly  dry  place  should  be  selected.  If  allowed  to  gather 
dampness  while  being  stored,  even  though  perfectly  cured,  its  vitality  will  be  ruined.  Oc- 
casional dampness  and  drying  are  equally  injurious.  It  should  also  never  be  exposed  to 
extreme  heat,  or  greatly  varying  degrees  of  heat  and  cold,  but  will  best  be  preserved  by 
being  kept  perfectly  dry,  and  at  a  uniformly  cool  temperature. 

Qualities  Desirable  in  Seed.  —  In  order  to  attain  the  most  satisfactory  results,  the 
seed  which  is  to  produce  the  crop  should  possess  certain  essential  qualities.  These  are 
vitality,  vigor,  and  productiveness.  In  order  to  possess  vitality,  the  seed  should  be  grown 
from  vigorous,  healthy  plants,  and  properly  matured  before  being  harvested.  It  is  equally 
essential  that  it  be  well  dried  and  protected,  in  storing,  from  dampness  and  other  adverse 
influences.  It  is  also  very  essential  that  it  be  fresh.  The  length  of  time  that  seed  will 
retain  its  vitality  varies  with  different  varieties,  but,  as  a  general  rule,  most  seed  will  deteri- 
orate after  the  first  year,  some  kinds,  such  as  onion  seed,  and  some  of  the  varieties  of  grasses, 
being  ahnost  worthless  if  kept  over  to  the  second  or  third  year.  The  seed  of  melons, 
cucumbers,  wheat,  corn,  etc.,  will  usually  retain  their  vitality  for  several  years;  but  although 
such  old  seed  may  be  made  to  germinate  and  grow,  fresh  seed  of  any  kind  is  always  the  best, 
and  possesses  the  greatest  amount  of  vitality  and  vigor.  It  is  always  well  to  test  seed  before 
planting,  by  planting  a  small  quantity  or  otherwise  germinating  it,  the  length  of  time  required 
to  produce  germination  being  a  good  test  of  its  vitality  and  vigor. 

Seed  that  will  produce  a  vigorous  growth  is  also  highly  essential.  Some  seed  may  have 
sufficient  vitality  to  germinate,  but  not  suflScient  to  produce  vigorous,  healthy  plants.  Pro- 
ductiveness in  a  plant  is  also  as  fully  essential  as  vigor,  and  these  qualities  should  always  be 
combined  in  the  plant  that  is  to  be  instrumental  in  perpetuating  its  kind.  There  are  some 
plants  that  in  certain  soils  will  grow  rank  and  thrifty,  but  yield  little  else  than  stalks,  or  vines, 
and  foliage.  Seed  from  such  growths  will  never  give  good  results.  It  is  only  the  \'igorous, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  most  productive  plants  which  -wall  produce  a  satisfactory  crop.  In 
using  old  seed,  many  will  fail  to  germinate  at  all,  but  such  as  do  germinate  will  produce 
plants  having  less  vitality  than  those  from  the  new,  consequently  are  Hable  to  be  feeble  and 
less  productive,  and  their  use  will  be  attended  with  serious  loss  to  the  farmer.  For  all  crops, 
without  exception,  whether  for  the  farm  or  garden,  we  would  recommend  the  planting  of 
fresh  seed  of  the  purest  and  best  quality. 


TIMBER  CULTURE. 

THE  preservation  and  extension  of  our  forests  is  a  subject  of  vast  importance  to  the 
interests  of  the  country.  The  great  value  of  timber  for  the  various  purposes  to  which 
its  use  is  applied — for  many  of  which  no  substitute  could  be  found  —  and  the  yearly 
diminishing  of  the  timber  resources  of  our  continent,  are  the  cause  of  grave  apprehensions 
among  the  leading  minds  of  the  present  age,  lest  the  needless  and  reckless  waste  that  has  so 
rapidly  increased  the  scarcity  of  timber  within  the  past  few  years,  will  cause  the  utter  ruin 


TIMBER  CULTURE.  517 

and  annihilation  of  our  noble  forests,  unless  some  means  are  taken  to  check  this  waste  and 
restore  them  by  planting  trees.  The  European  governments  long  ago  recognized  the  de- 
struction of  their  forests  as  an  evil,  and  took  active  measures  to  counteract  it  by  planting 
and  cultivating  trees,  having  special  officers  appointed  to  supervise  the  work.  The  care  of 
forests  receive  so  much  attention  by  most  of  the  governments  in  Europe  that  schools  have 
been  established  where  young  men  are  educated  with  special  reference  to  this  branch  of  pub- 
lic service. 

In  this  country  an  increased  interest  is  being  taken  in  forestry,  and  we  hope  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  more  active  measures  than  have  yet  been  adopted  will  be  taken  in 
regard  to  this  subject.  There  are,  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  tracts  of  waste  or  poor  land 
that  might  be  devoted  to  timber  culture  most  successfully  and  profitably.  If  each  farmer, 
even,  would  take  measures  to  plant  trees  upon  his  own  lands,  that  could  most  profitably  be 
devoted  to  the  purpose,  and  encourage  others  to  do  so  by  example,  much  could  be  done  in 
this  direction  for  future  generations,  as  well  as  the  present;  for  while  some  trees  are  of  slow 
growth  and  require  a  long  time  to  reach  maturity,  others  grow  very  rapidly,  and  will  in  a 
few  years  attain  a  considerable  size. 

Various  Influences  Exerted  by  Forests. — The  ruthless  and  wanton  destruction 
of  the  magnificent  forests  which  once  characterized  our  land,  is  to  be  greatly  deplored,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  reckless  waste  of  valuable  timber,  and  the  barbarous  practice  that 
depletes  the  face  of  the  country  of  one  of  its  most  beautiful  and  attractive  features,  but  also 
on  account  of  the  deleterious  effects  of  tlieir  removal  upon  the  climate,  vegetation,  and  health- 
fulness  of  the  country.  The  chmatic  influence  exerted  by  trees,  and  the  results  that  follow 
their  removal  are  subjects  of  great  interest;  and  while  there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  perfect 
unanimity  of  opinion  among  scientists  in  this  respect,  there  is  no  doubt  that  not  only  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  amount  of  rain-fall  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  removal  of  the  forests,  but 
also  the  climate  and  healthfulness  of  a  country,  as  well  as  the  soil,  and  consequently  its  agri- 
cultural interests. 

We  believe  it  was  Humboldt  who  said  that,  in  felling  trees  which  cover  the  crowns  and 
slopes  of  mountains,  man  in  all  climates  is  evidently  bringing  upon  future  generations  two 
calamities  at  once — a  want  of  fuel  and  a  scarcity  of  water.  He  might  also  have  added,  that 
he  who  plants  trees  and  protects  them  from  destruction  confers  blessings  upon  future  genera- 
tions, and  for  his  philanthropy  is  worthy  their  gratitude.  A  certain  poet  has  said,  with  much 
truth,  as  well  as  considerable  sarcasm : — 

Give  fools  their  gold,  and  knaves  their  power. 

Let  fortune's  bubbles  rise  and  fall; 
Who  sows  a  field  or  trains  a  flower, 

Or  plants  a  tree,  is  more  than  all. " 

For  our  own  part,  aside  from  all  practical  and  utihtarian  views  of  the  subject,  we  never 
could  see  the  ax  of  the  woodman  on  its  mission  of  destruction,  cutting  into  the  very  heart 
and  life  of  a  noble  tree,  without  a  pang  of  pain  penetrating  our  own  soul,  and  an  impulsive 
desire  to  implore — 

"  Oh,  woodman,  spare  that  tree! " 

It  may  be  a  foolish  superstition,  but  we  have  never  been  able  to  quite  banish  the  impres- 
sion, that  almost  took  the  form  of  a  certainty  and  belief  in  our  childhood  days,  that  every 
noble  tree  possessed  an  indwelling  spirit,  and  it  was  this  that  made  them  so  companionable 
and  sjrmpathetic ;  that  whenever  the  ax  penetrated  into  its  Kfe,  a  shudder  of  pain  ran  through 
that  noble  trunk  with  each  cruel  blow,  and  when  at  last  it  fell,  we  could  almost  in  imagination 
hear  the  groan  that  accompanied  the  severing  of  that  spirit  from  its  loved  habitation. 

Trees  have  a  double  mission — utility  and  ornament;  and  while  we  would  not  underrate 
the  former,  we  would  not  ignore  the  latter;  for  whatever  is  beautiful  in  this  world  should  be 


518  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

cherished  and  appreciated  on  account  of  its  ennobling  influence,  and  the  happiness  it  imparts, 
and  is  consequently,  in  one  sense,  quite  as  important  as  that  which  is  only  useful.  He  who 
sees  onlv  with  practical  eyes,  fails  of  much  of  the  happiness  in  Hving,  hence  his  life  is 
incomplete  and  imperfect.  « 

Influence  of  Forests  on  Rain-fall. — While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  average 
amount  of  rain-fall  in  a  coimtry  during  a  period  of  several  years  will  not  largely  vary, 
whether  the  land  be  diversified  with  extensive  forests  or  not,  yet  the  uniformity  of  the  distri- 
bution of  the  rain  is  largely  influenced  by  this  feature.  Where  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
land  is  covered  with  timber,  the  trees  are  instrumental  in  intercepting  the  clouds,  and  the  rain 
falls  frequently  and  in  refreshing  showers,  thus  favoring  the  growth  of  vegetation  and  puri- 
fying the  air;  but  in  regions  where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  trees,  the  rain-storms  are  less  fre- 
quent and  more  heavy,  being  often  accompanied  with  violent  winds.  A  large  portion  of  the 
water  that  thus  falls  upon  the  earth  runs  into  the  rivers  and  seas  without  proving  of  much 
benefit  to  the  land,  and  frequently  doing  considerable  damage.  Hence,  in  sections  subject  to 
such  violent  storms,  the  soil  becomes  dry  and  parched  in  summer  during  the  long  and  unequal 
intervals  of  rain-falls,  while  there  is  not  that  benefit  received  from  them  generally  that  is 
derived  in  forest  regions. 

In  this  manner  forests  are  instrumental  in  preventing  both  floods  and  drouths,  and  are 
consequently  of  great  benefit  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  Even  the  rivers  owe 
their  origin  to  the  streams  that  have  their  birth  in  the  forest-covered  moimtains  and  hiUs. 
We  know  it  to  be  a  fact,  that  where  the  forests  have  been  cut  down,  the  brooks  and  rivulets 
that  for  years  had  been  a  marked  feature  of  the  region,  either  become  nearly  exhausted  or 
disappear  altogether. 

Extensive  regions  entirely  destitute  of  forests  have  but  little  or  no  rain,  and  often 
become  deserts,  with  scarcely  a  vestige  of  vegetation.  This  is  due,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  the  lack  of  fertilizing  elements  in  the  soil,  as  the  absence  of  water.  Many  previously 
desert  sections  have  by  the  means  of  artificial  irrigation  been  transformed  into  some  of  the 
most  fertile  lands  with  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation  of  all  kinds.  In  regions  thus  trans- 
formed, there  is  always  this  noticeable  peculiarity,  namely,  that  as  soon  as  the  growth  of  trees 
and  vegetation  is  secured  by  artificial  irrigation,  then  the  rain  becomes  frequent  and  falls  in 
gentle  showers,  enriching  the  soil  and  refreshing  vegetation.  Utah,  previously  referred  to  in 
connection  with  the  subject  of  irrigation,  furnishes  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  kind. 

Inflnence  of  Forests  on  Climate,  etc.— Forests  are  a  protection  against  the  force 
of  bleak  winds  in  winter,  and  therefore  render  the  climate  warmer  in  cold  weather,  and 
modify  in  a  measure  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  They  also  render  it  more  cool  in 
summer  by  preventing  the  rapid  evaporation  from  soil  thus  shaded,  that  would  otherwise  be 
caused  by  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun,  whUe  their  power  for  retaining  moisture  enables,  them  to 
become  the  source  of  springs  and  small  streams  which  are  always  found  there.  The  more 
extensive  our  forests,  the  more  uniform  our  temperature,  and  the  more  we  are  exempt  from  the 
extremes  of  both  heat  and  cold.  The  modifying  influences  of  forests  will  readily  explain  the 
reason  why,  in  sections  that  were  formerly  protected  by  chem,  but  which  are  now  denuded  of 
them,  the  chmate  is  more  severe,  the  springs  later,  and  it  is  impossible  to  cultivate  certain  deli- 
cate plants  and  trees  that  before  this  period  could  be  grown  with  ease.  Thirty  years  ago  or  more 
peaches  were  a  profitable  crop  in  many  of  the  Northern  States  where  now  they  can  scarcely 
be  grown  at  all,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  the  trees  to  winter-kill.  Trees  are  also  healthful 
in  their  influence,  and  act  as  purifiers  of  the  atmosphere.  We  quote  the  following  from 
Hon.  George  B.  Emerson  on  this  subject: — 

"  By  planting  your  fields  with  trees,  you  not  only  make  your  homes  more  pleasant,  but 
you  make  them  healthier,  and  you  make  your  own  domain  more  valuable.     Here  is  a  fact 


TIMBER  CULTURE.  519 

wliicli  every  individual  ought  to  know.  It  is  a  most  important  fact  in  the  relations  of  the 
vegetable  world  to  mankind.  Every  tree  is  a  purifier  of  the  atmosphere.  There  are  on  the 
leaves  of  every  tree  literally  millions  of  little  openings,  large  enough  for  the  particles  of  air 
to  enter,  and  into  which  they  do  enter.  When  a  breeze  passes  over  a  forest,  or  over  a  single 
tree,  the  particles  of  air  enter  these  little  openings  in  the  leaves,  and  there  the  leaves  part 
with  their  carbonic  acid,  which  is  so  unwholesome  to  breathe;  they  part  with  their  nitrogen, 
and  with  everything  else,  really,  which  is  not  perfectly  wholesome,  and  they  pour  into  the  air 
pure  oxygen.  The  forest  thus  completely  purifies  the  air  that  blows  through  it ;  it  takes  from 
it  everything  that  is  poisonous  or  even  injurious  to  man,  and  throws  out  to  us  pure  oxygen, 
or  that  mixture  of  oxygen  which  is  best  for  us  to  breathe. 

There  are  regions  in  Italy  which  anciently  were  very  wholesome  and  pleasant  places, to' 
live  in,  but  which,  for  the  last  one  or  two  hundred  years,  have  been  growing  more  and  more 
unhealthy,  until,  a  few  years  ago,  they  were  considered  pestiferous  and  unsafe  for  anybody 
to  live  in,  and  those  who  dwelt  there  took  care  to  go  away  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
This  was  in  a  part  of  Italy  nearest  the  sea,  which  is  thence  called  Maremma.  Within  a  few 
years  trees  have  been  planted  in  various  places  in  that  region,  and  the  effect  has  been  to 
restore  the  original  purity  of  the  atmosphere.  Large  forests  have  been  planted  in  some 
places,  and  tlie  region  has  in  consequence  become  perfectly  healthy,  so  that  the  ancient  towns 
and  villages  which  had  been  deserted  are  again  repeopled.  The  same  thing  has  been  found 
in  various  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  also  in  this  country.  In  Washington,  a  gentleman 
who  had  paid  some  attention  to  this  subject,  said:  'Here  is  a  region  which  the  soldiery  have 
occupied,  and  found  very  unhealthy.  If  you  will  give  me  leave,  I  will  plant  it  with  sun- 
flowers.' He  planted  a  great  number,  several  rows,  and  the  effect  was  immediate.  The  very 
next  season  that  region,  protected  by  the  sunflowers,  became  healthy.  The  sunflowers  have 
been  continued,  or  something  else  put  in  their  places — trees  and  plants  of  various  kinds;  and 
that  region  is  now  one  of  the  most  healthy  in  Washington.  The  Lives  of  hundreds  of  our 
soldiers  and  others  who  are  obliged  to  live  in  Washington,  have  undoubtedly  been  saved  by 
that  device  of  the  sunflowers.  So,  I  say,  you  may  render  every  farm  more  healthy,  as  well 
as  more  pleasant,  by  planting  trees." 

Although  trees  planted  near  a  house  beautify  it  and  render  it  more  healthful,  yet  they 
should  not  be  planted  so  near  as  to  intercept  the  sun's  rays,  and  thus  shade  it.  A  house  from 
which  the  sunshine  is  excluded  will  soon  become  unhealthful.  They  should  be  planted  near, 
yet  always  sufficiently  removed  to  prevent  shading. 

Yai'ieties  of  Trees  for  Planting.  —  Great  benefit  may  be  derived  to  the  timber 
resources  of  the  country  by  not  only  planting  trees,  but  in  preventing  the  needless  destruction 
of  those  that  remain,  especially  young  and  immature  trees.  When  necessary  to  cut  timber, 
there  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose  only  the  mature  trees,  leaving  the  young  and 
vigorous  ones  for  future  gi  owth. 

Tree-planting  has,  however,  become  a  necessity,  as  a  means  of  restoring  the  forests,  and 
the  sooner  and  more  thoroughly  this  is  done,  the  better. 

The  questions  naturally  arise  with  regard  to  the  varieties  best  adapted  for  the  purpose, 
when,  where,  and  how  to  plant  them.  With  respect  to  the  first,  much  will  of  course  depend 
upon  the  locality  and  climate.  As  a  general  rule,  the  most  valuable  timber  trees  adapted  to  the 
climate  should  be  planted. .  Most  of  the  forest  trees  thrive  best  when  they  are  mixed  with 
others  that  differ  widely  from  them  in  character. 

A  natural  forest  is  always  mixed,  and  Nature's  rule  in  this  respect  is  the  safe  one  to 
follow.  Different  varieties  probably  extract  different  elements  from  the  soil,  the  same  as 
different  kinds  of  agricultural  plants,  and  this  is  doubtless  the  reason  for  it.  That  a  tree  may 
be  useful  for  general  planting,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  grow  without  culture  over  a 
large  belt  of  country,  thus  possessing  the  power  to  thrive  and  adapt  itself  to  various  condi- 


520  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

tions  of  climate ;  also  that  it  should  grow  rapidly,  and  that  its  timber  may  be  used  for  either 
general  or  special  purposes. 

In  making  a  selection,  therefore,  for  forest-planting,  the  timber  value,  rapidity  of  growth, 
and  adaptation  to  climate  should  be  considered.  Some  timber  is,  of  course,  much  more 
valuable  than  others,  but  nearly  all  kinds  may  be  applied  to  some  useful  purpose. 

There  is  no  tree  more  beautiful  than  the  sugar-maple,  and  it  is  a  very  valuable  one  as 
well.  It  is  adapted  to  a  wide  extent  of  territory,  will  thrive  in  a  variety  of  soils,  and  should 
be  planted  extensively  in  regions  suited  to  its  growth.  The  ash,  beech,  elm,  and  walnut  are 
all  valuable  trees,  as  well  as  the  European  larch,  the  oak,  locust,  chestnut,  cedar,  and  pine  of 
their  several  varieties,  many  of  which  will  thrive  both  North  and  South. 

For  the  Western  States,  the  hardy  variety  of  the  catalpa  tree  is  very  desirable,  as  it 
grows  rapidly  and  furnishes  a  very  durable  wood.  The  yellow  Cottonwood  is  also  valu- 
able for  that  section,  and  is  said  to  make  a  saw-log  or  rail-cut  sooner  than  almost  any  other 
tree,  while  the  osage  orange,  white  elm,  black  walnut,  maple,  locust,  willow,  silver  and 
Lombardy  poplars,  are  all  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate,  besides  several  of  those  previously 
mentioned. 

The  Kentucky  coSee-tree  is  also  highly  recommended  for  forest-planting.  It  grows  quite 
as  rapidly  as  many  other  choice  varieties  of  trees,  and  its  timber  is  also  valuable.  With  regard 
to  the  locaUty  to  which  it  is  adapted,  Prof.  C.  S.  Sargent,  Director  of  the  Arboretum  of 
Harvard  University,  says :  — 

"  Of  its  power  of  adapting  itself  to  very  different  climatic  conditions,  there  can  be  no 
question.  Few  trees  range  over  a  wider  area  of  the  United  States.  It  grows  from  Canada 
and  Western  New  York,  to  Wisconsin,  and  south  to  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  It  extends 
across  the  ^Missouri  into  Nebraska ;  is  common  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  not  rare  in 
Kansas  and  the  Indian  Territory.  It  is  not  often  found  in  New  England,  where,  however, 
it  is  perfectly  hardy,  nor  in  the  Atlantic  or  Gulf  States.  The  Kentucky  CofEee  Tree  grows 
always  in  rich,  strong  soil,  generally  along  river  valleys,  and  reaches,  probably,  its  largest 
size  in  that  of  the  Lower  Ohio.  It  is  not  a  particularly  fast-growing  tree,  nor  does  it  increase 
more  slowly  than  other  North  American  trees,  while  it  produces  a  wood  equally  strong 
and  heavy." 

At  the  South,  the  many  varieties  of  pine,  cedar,  and  oak  flourish  and  make  valuable 
timber;  also  the  maple,  ash,  hickory,  persimmon,  linden,  magnolia,  cypress,  bay,  etc. 

We  have  a  great  variety  of  beautiful  and  valuable  timber  trees,  many  of  wliich  are 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate  and  soil.  Some  increase  in  size  very  rapidly,  while  others 
are  of  a  slower  growth.  Hon.  G.  B.  Emerson  states  that  in  his  opinion,  we  have  the  most  beauti- 
ful trees  in  the  world ;  that  in  visiting  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  forests  there, 
he  was  convinced  that  there  were  more  valuable  trees  growing  naturally  in  our  forests,  than 
can  be  found  in  any  portion  of  Middle  or  Northern  Europe. 

Age  and  Size  of  Trees.  — The  age  to  which  trees  live,  differs  greatly  with  different 
species.  While  many  are  short-Hved,  and  decay  in  a  few  years,  others  will  maintain  their 
vigor  for  thousands  of  years.  The  elm  has  been  known  to  live  three  hundred  and  fifty 
years;  the  chestnut  nearly  twice  as  long;  the  cedar  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  years;  the 
oak  from  a  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred,  while  some  of  the  California  giant  trees  have  been 
estimated  to  be  at  least  five  thousand  years  old.  The  old  Charter  Oak,  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
was  estimated  to  be  about  nine  hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  and  measured  nine  feet  in 
diameter,  at  a  distance  of  four  feet  from  the  ground. 

Some  of  the  gigantic  trees  of  CaUfornia,  (the  Sequoia  gigantea),  a  species  of  mammoth 
cedar,  have  attained  the  height  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  with  a  circumference  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  or  more  near  the  ground.  The  largest  of  these  trees  now  standing 
is  said  to  be  three  hundred  seventy-six  feet  in  height,  and  about  one  hundred  and  six  feet  in 
circumference. 


TREES. 


621 


SEQUOIA  GIG-ANTEA  (G-IANT  REDWOOD). 

(590feet  high,  aud  UG  in  circumference.     See  page  532.) 


522  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  tree  of  this  species,  of  which  we  give  an  illustration,  stands  two  hundred  and  ninety 
feet  in  height,  and  ninety-six  feet  in  circumference.  It  has  been  broken  oS  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  top,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  size  at  the  point  broken.  By  an  accui-ate  esti- 
mate the  tree  before  being  broken  must  have  been  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from 
the  base,  and  higher  than  any  now  standing.  The  tree  represented  at  the  left  in  the  illus- 
tration, is  a  gigantic  English  oak  that  measured  forty-eight  feet  in  circumference.  The  one 
at  the  right,  the  old  Boston  Elm.  They  are  both  drawn  on  the  same  scale  as  the  redwood, 
and  show  by  comparison,  the  immense  size  of  the  latter. 

Where  to  Plant  Trees.  —  Trees  for  shade  should  be  planted  almost  everywhere,  or 
rather,  anywhere  that  they  may  be  either  ornamental  or  useful;  on  the  lawn  around  dwell- 
ing-houses, about  other  farm-buildings,  by  the  road-side,  in  groups  in  the  pastures  to  serve  as 
shade  for  stock  during  the  sultry  summer  weather,  in  fact,  in  any  place  that  can  be  rendered 
more  attractive,  comfortable,  or  healthful  by  their  presence. 

Where  to  plant  for  timber-culture  is  also  an  important  question.  As  a  general  rule,  we 
would  say,  plant  on  land  not  well  suited  to  cultivation.  There  are  tracts  of  what  are  now 
almost  useless  lands,  in  almost  every  section,  both  North  and  South,  that  the  planting  of  trees 
would  not  only  render  more  healthful,  but  would  greatly  improve  the  soil,  besides  producing 
valuable  timber.  On  every  farm  there  are  lands  which  ai-e  not  as  desirable  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  common  agricultural  crops  as  others,  and  which  would  be  admirably  adapted  to 
this  purpose.  A  hillside  is  a  good  location.  There  are  many  such  lands  that  if  ciiltivated, 
would  soon  be  washed  to  the  extent  that  they  would  become  nearly  barren,  which  if  planted 
with  trees  and  sown  with  grass  suited  to  the  purpose,  would  become  both  a  source  of  profit 
and  ornament  to  the  farm. 

It  is  well  to  plant  a  belt  of  trees  for  shelter  on  the  north  and  west  sides  of  orchards,  or 
exposed  fields,  for  the  cultivation  of  crops.  It  has  been  stated  by  good  authority,  that  if  one- 
fifth  of  the  prairie  land  in  the  Western  States  were  covered  with  forests,  they  would  produce 
as  much  wheat  as  when  the  entire  land  was  sown,  or  rather,  the  warmth  and  protection 
secured  by  the  forest  would  increase  the  wheat  crop  to  such  an  extent,  that  its  present  yield 
would  be  produced  on  four-fifths  of  the  land  now  devoted  to  it. 

Tree-Planting  from  Seeds.  —  Trees  may  be  planted  from  the  seed,  in  the  place  they 
are  intended  to  grow,  or  may  be  planted  in  a  nursery  or  garden,  and  transplanted  when  three 
or  four  years  old.  Transplanting  is  the  better  method,  since  it  secures  more  uniformity, 
and  obviates  the  evils  attending  the  too  common  practice  of  sowing  the  seed  too  thickly. 

Tlie  following  are  some  of  the  most  common  causes  of  failure  in  producing  timber 
trees  from  seed:  the  use  of  poor  seed,  or  that  which  has  become  too  old  or  dry  to  germinate; 
insufficient  preparation  of  th^  soil;  covering  the  seed  too  deep,  and  lack  of  suflBcient  shade  for 
the  young  plants.  It  is  important  that  the  seed  be  gathered  at  the  right  time,  that  is,  when 
it  is  fully  ripe. 

The  following  directions  on  tree-planting  from  seed,  taken  from  the  columns  of  the 
Country  Gentleman,  wiU  be  found  valuable  and  interesting:  — 

"  In  planting  such  large  fleshy  seeds  as  chestnuts,  acorns,  horse-chestnuts,  and  beechnuts, 
the  most  common  cause  of  want  of  success,  is  allowing  them  to  get  too  dry.  As  soon  as 
they  ripen  and  fall,  therefore,  which  is  usually  about  the  middle  of  autumn  or  soon  after,  they 
should  be  gathered  and  kept  slightly  moist  and  fresh  till  they  germinate.  They  might  be 
planted  at  once,  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  protected  from  drying  winds  by  moss  or  ever- 
green branches  were  it  not  for  mice,  which  show  much  skUl  in  finding  everything  of  the 
kind.  A  light  covering  of  straw  is  still  more  certain  to  attract  them.  The  safest  way,  there- 
fore, is  to  pack  them  in  damp  sand  or  slightly  damp  moss,  and  place  them  in  a  cold  cellar  or 
other  cool  place  till  early  spring  planting.     As  they  sprout  very  early  they  need  not  be  planted 


TIMBER  CULTURE.  523 

deep,  they  will  have  moisture  enough  until  they  have  thrown  down  their  roots  into  the 
soil,  if  liuried  with  only  an  inch  of  earth.  The  hickory  and  walnut  are  to  be  treated  similarly 
except  that  somewhat  more  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  drying,  as  the  thick  shells  serve  as 
partial  protection.  But  after  the  exterior  covering  of  either  chestnuts  or  walnuts  have  dried 
so  long  that  they  become  hard  and  impervious  to  moisture  from  without,  it  will  be  useless  to 
plant  them. 

The  maples  are  of  two  classes — those  which  ripen  their  seed  the  first  of  summer,  like  the 
red  and  the  silver  maples,  and  those  which  do  not  ripen  till  October,  as  the  black  and  the 
sugar  maple.  The  former  will  supply  well-matured  seeds  three  weeks  after  the  leaves  have 
expanded,  and  as  they  soon  lose  the  power  of  germinating,  they  should  be  planted  at  once  in 
finely  pulverized  soil,  not  over  an  inch  deep — if  moist  enough,  half  an  inch  would  be  better — 
and  if  hot,  dry  weather  follows,  they  should  be  partially  shaded  from  the  sun's  rays.  But 
seeds  of  the  sugar  maple,  maturing  in  October,  may  be  kept  in  damp  sand  in  a  cool  place  and 
planted  early  in  spring;  or  if  properly  protected,  as  above  mentioned  for  nuts,  they  may  be 
planted  in  autumn. 

All  the  elms  ripen  seeds  quite  early  in  the  season,  and  if  sown  shallow  at  once  in  fine 
mellow  soil,  they  will  make  a  good  growth,  and  be  a  foot  high  in  autumn.  White  ash  seeds, 
which  mature  early  in  October,  may  be  treated  like  the  seeds  of  the  sugar  maple.  The  same 
treatment  may  be  given  to  the  tulip  tree  and  the  basswood.  The  catalpa  ripens  plenty  of 
seeds  in  its  long  pods,  and  these  are  easUy  kept,  and  planted  the  next  spring;  they  grow 
freely.  The  birches  have  small  seeds  ripening  in  summer  or  autumn,  and  when  sown  the 
following  spring  require  good  care,  as  the  fine  earth  must  be  thinly  sifted  over  them,  and 
kept  sufficiently  moist  to  insure  germination;  and  the  young  plants  may  need  the  protection 
of  shade  under  a  hot  sun.  It  may  be  cheapest  for  the  inexperienced  to  buy  the  young  plants 
by  the  thousand  of  nurserymen. 

Seeds  of  the  common  locust  and  the  honey-locust  will  keep  several  years  if  quite  dry. 
The  common  locust  seeds  require  scalding  to  make  them  germinate.  Put  a  quantity  in  a  pint 
or  quart  basin ;  pour  on  boiling  water  and  let  it  cool.  In  a  few  hours  a  part  will  be  found 
swollen  to  double  size.  Pick  these  out  and  plant  them  at  once  an  inch  deep  and  they  will 
grow.  Repeat  the  process  successively  on  the  remainder  until  all  are  swollen  and  planted. 
Without  this  scalding  process,  the  seeds  will  remain  for  years  unchanged  in  the  soil.  The 
honey-locust  does  not  require  this  treatment.  The  poplars  and  willows  grow  freely  from 
cuttings,  and  are  rarely  raised  from  seed. 

Conifers  require  more  skillful  management  than  deciduous  trees,  and  it  is  commonly 
cheaper  to  buy  the  young  trees,  or  seedlings,  of  nurserymen.  A  few  suggestions  are,  how- 
ever,  offered  to  those  who  would  attempt  the  experiment.  The  larch  is  perhaps  the  easiest 
to  raise,  but  the  seeds  should  be  fresh  and  good,  as  they  will  not  keep  a  year.  The  cones  of 
the  white  pine  drop  their  seeds  about  the  first  of  October,  and  they  must  be  gathered  in  time 
to  secure  them.  The  Norway  spruce  (now  so  largely  grown  of  bearing  size)  matures  its  cones 
late  in  November,  and  they  must  be  saved  before  the  seeds  fall  out.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  native  black  spruce.  The  seeds  of  conifers  often  require  a  month  to  germinate  and 
come  up.  They  must  have  the  soil  finely  and  thinly  sifted  over  them,  and  the  young  plants 
always  require  more  or  less  shading. 

The  berries  of  the  red  cedar  are  to  be  gathered  late  in  autumn,  mixed  with  an  equal 
bulk  of  moist  sand,  and  planted  at  once,  or  early  the  next  spring.  Most  of  them  will  grow 
the  second  year.  We  have  always  found  them  to  succeed  best  by  washing  the  pvlp  from  the 
berries,  although  it  is  usually  not  regarded  necessary  by  nurserymen. 

The  seeds  of  most  evergreens  being  quite  small,  a  great  number  of  plants  may  be  raised 
from  a  small  quantity,  if  the  seeds  are  good  and  fresh,  and  most  of  them  grow.  A  pound 
of  seed  of  the  white  pine  contains  20,000;  of  the  Scotch  pine,  69,000;  of  the  Norway  spruce, 


524  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

58,000;  of  the  hemlock,  100,000;  of  the  European  larch,  60,000  to  75,000,  and  of  the  Amer- 
ican  arbor  vitas,  320,000.  It  will  usually  be  much  cheaper  to  buy  evergreen  seeds  than  to 
collect  them,  but  the  latter  mode  will  be  sure  to  secure  them  fresh.  Many  other  seeds  of 
trees  may  be  gathered  advantageously  by  those  who  desire  to  make  plantations,  and  in  this 
way  fine  collections  of  young  trees  are  obtained  at  small  expenditure." 

For  maple,  birch,%nd  seeds  of  a  similar  kind,  it  will  be  well  to  delay  planting  until 
spring,  in  very  cold  latitudes.  The  soil  should  not  be  too  retentive  of  moisture,  for  any 
variety.  The  planting  should  not  be  done  in  wet  weather  on  naturally  wet  soils,  as  the  seed 
would  be  hable  to  rot  before  germinating. 

All  trees  require  considerable  shade  in  the  early  stages  of  growth.  The  natural  protec- 
tion of  the  mother  tree  and  the  forest  are  best  smted  to  their  growth.  A  hot  sun  will  often 
kill  many  young  trees,  especially  the  evergreen  species,  while  all  varieties  require  more  or 
less  protection  by  shade  when  young.  When  planting  in  a  nursery,  a  high  hedge  of  thick 
growth,  or  a  high,  tight  board -fence  will  be  necessary,  if  no  other  shade  is  afforded  for  their 
protection. 

Several  years  since,  a  gentleman  in  Massachusetts  experimented  in  tree-planting,  select- 
ing for  his  location  a  very  high  hill  containing,  in  all,  about  twenty-five  acres.  This  section 
was  bare,  without  a  single  tree.  At  the  top  where  it  was  bleak  and  cold,  and  the  soil 
extremely  poor,  he  planted  as  elsewhere,  at  first,  trees  of  many  kinds,  but  they  did  not  thrive. 
He  then  obtained,  at  considerable  expense  and  trouble,  some  of  the  hardiest  varieties  of  the 
pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock,  from  a  more  northerly  latitude,  and  from  abroad,  and  planted 
these.  Being  varieties  that  would  thrive  almost  anywhere,  they  grew  and  flourished.  When 
they  had  made  a  good  growth,  he  planted  close  by  the  side  of  each,  that  shelter  might  be 
thus  afforded,  some  other  variety  such  as  the  oak,  maple,  or  hickory,  that  had  previously 
failed  to  grow  there.  This  experiment  proved  a  perfect  success,  and  to-day,  owing  to  the 
eiiorts  of  this  man,  that  whole  hill  is  covered  from  summit  to  base  with  a  fine  growth  of  a 
variety  of  forest  trees.  Many  forests  have  been  grown  in  this  manner,  and  it  would  be  well 
if  more  would  follow  examples  of  this  kind. 

Hon.  Geo.  B.  Emerson,  previously  referred  to,  expresses  as  his  opinion,  that  every  one 
of  our  native  trees  may  be  propagated  by  seed.  He  says:  "  I  have  tried  so  many  of  them 
that  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  every  one  of  our  native  trees  may  be  propagated  with 
perfect  certainty,  if  you  only  know  how  to  take  care  of  them.  A  tree  speaks  for  itself, 
generally,  as  to  the  time  the  seed  should  be  planted.  When  a  seed  falls  to  the  ground,  it 
falls  to  produce  another  tree.  When,  therefore,  the  seeds  are  ripe  and  fall  to  the  ground, 
that  is  the  time  to  sow  them.  As  to  the  mode  of  sowing  them,  you  can  sow  them  in  the 
field,  just  as  you  do  a  crop  of  com,  taking  care  not  to  cover  them  too  deep,  and  taking  care 
to  have  them  protected.  I  have  heard  of  a  man  (and  I  was  very  sorry  not  to  go  and  see 
him)  who  had  sown  a  quantity  of  seeds  in  a  field  of  rye,  and  the  rye  protected  those  little 
trees  that  sprang  up  perfectly,  and  the  owner  let  the  rye  stay  till  the  next  spring,  to  protect 
them.  Here  is  a  hint  that  the  trees  give  us  of  how  they  ought  to  be  planted.  The  oak  tree 
lets  its  acorns  fall  on  the  groimd,  and  there  they  take  root.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  almost 
all  our  trees;  not  all;  they  grow  best  under  their  mother's  care,  under  her  protection.  In 
Germany  I  went  to  a  great  forest  school,  thirty  miles  from  Berlin,  and  the  superintendent 
escorted  me  about  and  showed  me  how  they  planted  their  oaks.  I  found  a  magnificent  for- 
est of  several  himdred  acres  that  has  been  given  up  to  this  forest  school,  that  the  young  men 
may  have  an  opportunity  to  study  the  tree  in  every  position  and  in  every  condition.  I  found 
the  place  that  he  had  selected  to  plant  oaks  was  a  little  opening  among  oak  trees, — a  noble 
forest,  with  high  trees  on  every  side.  The  seed  is  planted  in  this  spot,  where  the  trees  pro- 
tect them  from  the  sun,  except  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day; 
they  are  partially  protected  almost  the  whole  time.     That  is  a  matter  of  very  great  import- 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM.  527 

ance,  very  much  greater  than  it  is  commonly  considered.  If  you  are  going  to  plant  seeds, 
the  fruit  of  trees,  in  a  place  which  is  not  protected,  it  will  be  always  advisable  to  have  a 
hedge  or  a  fence  built  up  between  them  and  the  sun,  so  that  they  shall  not  be  exposed  to  the 
full  heat  of  summer." 

Transplanting  Trees. — At  the  North,  trees  are  transplanted,  both  in  the  autumn 
and  spring.  Both  practices  have  their  advocates,  who  use  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  their 
respective  theories.  As  a  general  rule,  we  should  recommend  that  it  be  done  in  tlie  spring, 
just  before  the  leaf  buds  begin  to  swell.  When  performed  in  the  autumn,  it  should  be  late 
in  the  season,  after  all  the  leaves  have  fallen.  At  the  South,  an  intermediate  time  is  most 
favorable,  which  is  in  mid-winter. 

The  soil  for  the  reception  of  the  roots  should  be  finely  pulverized,  and  the  opening  in  the 
earth  be  made  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  the  size  and  extension  of  the  roots.  If  the 
work  be  carelessly  performed,  the  growth  of  the  tree  will  be  liable  to  be  checked  considera- 
bly, or  it  may  die  altogether.  Many  valuable  trees  are  annually  lost  by  indifEerence  or  care- 
lessness in  transplanting.  A  cloudy  day,  or  towards  night,  is  the  best  time;  or,  better  still, 
just  preceding  a  rain.  Wetting  the  soil  freely  about  the  roots  is  a  good  plan  while  setting, 
if  there  is  no  immediate  prospect  of  rain. 

All  mutilated  portions  of  the  roots  should  be  trimmed  off,  the  tree  set  to  the  same  depth 
in  the  soil  that  it  was  before  being  taken  up,  and  the  soil  carefully  pressed  upon  the  roots. 
Tender  trees  may  require  some  shading  for  a  few  days  after  transplanting,  until  the  roots 
become  well  established  in  the  soil. 

If  the  tree  transplanted  has  attained  a  considerable  size,  it  will  be  well  to  protect  it  from 
being  blown  about  by  the  wind,  by  driving  a  stake  near  the  trunk,  to  which  the  latter  may 
be  tied. 

The  bark  of  the  tree  should  be  protected  from  rubbing  by  a  piece  of  cloth  or  other  sub- 
stance being  wrapped  around  before  tying.  In  transplanting  young  trees  for  a  forest,  a  suffi- 
cient allowance  of  space  should  be  made  for  the  size  of  the  tree  when  grown,  if  it  is  not 
intended  to  thin  out  at  different  stages  of  their  growth.  Where  the  latter  is  the  object,  the 
planting  can  be  much  closer,  and,  when  partially  grown,  a  portion  of  the  timber  can  be 
removed,  leaving  the  remainder  to  fully  mature.  By  this  means,  a  larger  product  can  be 
secured  from  an  equal  area  of  land. 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM. 

EQUALLY  important  as  the  proper  amount  of  pvire  air  for  the  health  and  comfort  of 
both  man  and  the  lower  animals,  is  an  adequate  supply  of  pure  water;  yet  how  fre- 
quently do  we  find  the  farm  supply  not  only  limited  in  quantity  or  inconvenient  of 
access,  but  also  often  poor  in  quality,  and  containing  the  elements  of  poison  and  disease, 
which,  though  they  may  not  be  apparent  for  a  time,  will  eventually  be  the  cause  of  most  dis- 
astrous results.  This  is  not  only  true  of  country  farms,  but  in  many,  and  we  might  say  most 
of  our  large  cities  the  water  supplied  for  drinking  purposes  and  cooking  is  not  as  pure  as  it 
should  be  for  the  health  and  welfare  of  the  inhabitants,  and  too  little  interest  and  concern  is 
manifested  by  the  majority  of  the  consumers  in  remedying  this  evil.  A  city  frequently 
depends  for  water  upon  a  river,  which  a  few  miles  above  receives  the  sewage  of  another 
fity,  or  town,  or  the  refuse  of  tanneries,  paper  manufactories,  woolen  mills,  chemical  works, 
or  other  manufacturing  establishments,  which  deposit  in  it  substances  which  render  it  foul 
and  unwholesome     Even  some  of  the  cleanest  spring  waters  are  often  frequently  impure, 


528  THE  A5IERICAN  FARJIER. 

since  they  contain,  in  a  soluble  form,  more  or  less  of  the  elements  of  the  soil,  and  axe  fre- 
quently largely  charged  with  mineral  and  other  substances.  The  character  of  all  spring 
water,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  through  which  it  has  passed  before 
it  issues  from  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  spring,  the  impurities  often  not  being  perceptible, 
either  to  sight,  taste,  or  smell.  It  should,  therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  be  filtered  before  using. 
As  ordinary  wells  are  supplied  partly  by  springs,  and  partly  by  surface  drainage,  it  is  highly 
important  that  they  be  located  where  they  will  not  be  contaminated  by  cesspools,  privy  vaults, 
barn-yards,  kitchen  refuse  of  any  kind,  or  anything  that  shall  have  a  tendency  to  render  the 
water  fouL  In  many  instances  of  the  most  malignant  t}'pes  of  diphtheria,  fevers,  and  kin- 
dred diseases  of  blood  poisoning,  often  resulting  in  death,  the  real  cause  of  the  disease  has 
been  traceable  to  the  contamination  of  water  through  some  of  the  above-mentioned  or  simi- 
lar sources,  from  wTiich  the  deadly  poison  has  emanated.  And  yet  the  usual  custom  is  to 
ignore  all  such  causes  of  the  evil,  and  regard  such  aflSictions  in  families  as  inscrutable  dispen- 
sations of  an  All- Wise  Providence,  when,  if  a  little  more  intelligent  supervision  of  the  sani- 
tary conditions  of  the  premises  had  been  exercised,  the  ev-il  might  have  been  avoided.  We 
believe  there  is  more  attributed  to  the  Supreme  Being,  in  the  suffering  and  sorrow  of  this 
world,  than  we  have  any  right  to  suppose  that  source  responsible  for,  and  that  if  we  traced 
the  responsibiUty  of  it  more  frequently  to  its  proper  source,  we  should  find  it  in  our  own 
ignorance  and  neglect. 

Doubtless  the  Supreme  Being  could  avert  the  evil  effects  of  all  ill  that  w-e  bring  upon 
ourselves,  if  He  chose  thus  to  do;  but  He  does  not  generally  do  it;  and  if  we  take  poison 
into  our  stomachs,  either  through  ignorance  or  design,  nature  is  generally  permitted  to  take 
its  course,  and  the  natural  results  follow,  as  a  consequence.  It  is  often  astonishing  to  see 
how  indifferent  people  are  respecting  such  common  sanitary  conditions.  We  do  not  beheve 
there  is  more  than  one  farmer  in  a  hundred  that  regards  water  of  a  poor  quality  on  his  prem- 
ises, any  thing  more  than  an  inconvenience,  simply,  the  ninety-nine  of  the  number  consider- 
ing a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  water  a  fortunate  circumstance,  but  failing  to  realize  the  danger 
involved  in  the  use  of  that  which  is  not  pure. 

Prof.  Chandler  of  New  York  says,  that  in  many  cases,  from  the  proximity  of  cesspools 
and  privy  vaults,  the  water  becomes  contaminated  with  filtered  sewage — matters  which, 
while  they  scarcely  affect  the  taste  or  smell  of  the  water,  have,  nevertheless,  the  power  to 
create  the  most  deadly  disturbances  in  the  persons  who  use  the  water,  and  that  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  grave-yards  the  water  of  wells  is  often  fovmd.  on  analysis,  to  be  impregnated  with 
animal  matters  from  the  recently  filled  graves.  Jules  Lefort  states,  that  as  long  ago  as  1808, 
it  was  decreed  in  France  that  no  one  should  dig  a  well  within  one  hundred  metres  of  any 
cemetery.  In  driven  wells,  the  water  is  not  exempt  from  contamination,  the  same  as  other 
wells,  except  in  cases  where  there  is  near  the  surface  a  bed  of  clay  or  "  bard  pan  "  impervious 
to  water;  when  such  a  stratum  is  penetrated  by  the  tube,  and  the  water  is  drawn  from  be- 
neath it,  the  well  is  somewhat  protected  from  surface  drainage.  The  water  from  small,  stagnant 
ponds  is  very  impure,  though  that  from  large  ponds  or  lakes  is  often  purer  than  the  water 
of  some  springs,  as  well  as  also  being  softer.  When  used  in  stationary  or  locomotive  boilers, 
impure  water  produces  incrustations  which  often  form  a  complete  hning.  In  those  sections  of 
the  country  where  the  water  is  quite  hard,  from  the  presence  of  lime  salts,  many  housekeepers 
have  noticed  the  same  effect  upon  the  inside  of  the  tea  kettles,  that  are  in  constant  use,  and 
are  obliged  occasionally  to  remove  it  in  some  way.  It  is  stated  by  reliable  authority  that  as 
much  as  1,300  pounds  of  such  calcareous  matter  in  the  form  of  incrustations,  have  been  taken 
from  the  boiler  of  a  single  locomotive  on  the  New  York  Central  Rail  Road.  Boiler  explo- 
sions  are  sometimes  occasioned  by  such  incrustations,  on  account  of  the  metal  becoming  very 
much  overheated,  causing  the  scale  of  the  calcareous  matter  to  crack,  and  permitting  the 
water  to  come  in  contact  with  the  hot  metal,  which  produces  immediately  such  a  surplus  of 
steam,  that  the  boiler  is  burst. 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM.  529 

Injurious  Effects  of  Metallic  Pipes. — Water  is  frequently  rendered  impure  and 
unsafe  for  use  by  the  metallic  tubes  through  which  it  is  conducted.  In  many  cases  even 
pure  water  dissolves  the  metal,  such  as  copper  and  lead,  the  mineral  being  readily  detected  in 
the  water,  by  analysis.  Cases  of  sickness  are  known  to  have  occurred,  caused  by  water  being 
drawn  through  copper  pumps ;  but  lead  poisoning  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence,  since  lead  pipes 
are  most  commonly  used  for  conducting  water.  This  metal  is  most  easily  dissolved  by  water, 
and  is  also  the  most  poisonous,  the  quantity  thus  dissolved  often  causing  paralysis  or  palsy, 
and  even  death.  Lead  should  therefore  never  be  used  for  conducting  water  that  is  to  be 
drank  by  man,  or  any  living  creature.  Its  use  for  this  purpose  is  positively  dangerous,  and 
any  one  who  will  give  the  subject  due  consideration  cannot  fail  of  being  convinced  of  the 
fact.  Any  farmer  therefore,  having  not  only  the  health  of  his  family  in  view,  but  also  of  his 
farm  animals,  will  provide  other  means  than  lead  pipes  for  conveying  water  to  them.  Many 
instances  are  known  of  cattle  failing  to  do  well  where  the  cause  was  traceable  directly  to  the 
use  of  lead  pipes  in  conveying  water  to  them.  Besides,  the  beef  produced  by  cattle  having 
metallic  poison  in  their  veins  cannot  be  healthful. 

For  farm  purposes,  some  writers  recommend  wooden  pipes  of  good  material  carefully  laid. 
These  are  safe,  as  far  as  metallic  poisons  are  concerned,  but  their  chief  objection  is  that  they 
are  not  very  durable.  Iron  pipes  are  often  recommended,  but  they  are  very  apt  to  make  the 
water  rusty,  galvanized  iron  is  considered  unsafe  on  account  of  the  zinc  which  is  so  readily 
taken  up  by  the  water,  rendering  it  as  objectionable,  on  account  of  being  poisonous  as  lead, 
for  this  purpose,  many  cases  of  zinc  poisoning  having  occurred  from  its  use  not  long  since  in 
New  England.  Brass  is  also  equally  objectionable.  Gutta  percha  is  not  durable,  and  glass 
and  porcelain,  which  have  been  tried  to  a  certain  extent,  do  not  possess  the  flexibility  and 
softness  which  is  requisite  for  bending,  cutting,  and  fitting  pipes. 

After  various  e.xperiments  with  different  materials  as  a  substitute  for  lead,  a  pipe  has 
been  invented  which  consists  of  lead  for  the  outside,  encasing  a  block-tin  pipe,  or  in  other 
words,  a  tin-lined  lead  pipe,  which  is  found  to  answer  the  purpose  best,  since  the  water  comes 
in  contact  only  with  the  tin  surface,  which  does  not  render  the  water  impure.  Prof. 
Chandler  states  that  the  water  in  the  tin-Lined  pipe,  when  tested  side  by  side  with  that  from 
the  ordinary  lead  pipe,  from  which  the  water  would  take  up  from  one-tenth  to  two-tenths  of 
a  grain  of  lead  per  gallon,  was  not  perceptibly  affected  by  remaining  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time  in  contact  with  the  tin  surface.  In  using  this  pipe,  of  course,  one  of  solid  tin  or  some 
other  material  that  would  not  affect  the  water,  should  be  used  to  be  extended  under  the  water 
in  the  well  or  tank,  as  the  lead  on  the  outside  of  the  tin-lined  pipe  would  be  objectionable,  if 
coming  in  contact  with  the  water.  Doubtless  a  better  substitute  than  this  kind  of  pipe  may 
yet  be  found. 

Springs,  Brooks,  etc. — The  farmer  who  has  a  good  spring  from  which  to  supply  his 
house  and  farm  buildings  with  pure,  running  water,  has  a  treasure  indeed.  Or  if  he  has  a 
good  well  for  a  water  supply,  he  is  fortunate ;  but  he  should  be  especially  careful  that  it  does 
not  become  contaminated  by  surface  drainage,  or  poisonous  substances  that  may  enter  it  by 
percolating  through  the  soU,  in  a  manner  so  gradual  and  subtle  as  not  to  be  detected  except 
by  its  disastrous  effects. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  also  to  keep  a  spring  which  supplies  water  to  the  premises,  clean 
and  free  from  everjrthing  that  would  render  it  impure.  A  good  strong  fence  should  be  buUt 
around  the  spring  to  keep  off  cattle  and  all  intruders.  A  fine  grate  or  strainer  should  also  be 
placed  over  the  end  of  the  pipe,  to  prevent  obstructions  from  entering.  The  water  should 
flow  into  a  tank  or  reservoir  near  the  spring,  from  which  pipes  should  connect  it  to  the  build- 
ings. The  spring  should  also  be  frequently  examined  by  the  owner,  and  kept  as  free  from 
impurities  as  possible.  If  the  spring  is  higher  than  the  buildings  to  which  the  water  is  to  be 
conveyed,  it  will  be  a  very  easy  matter  to  take  it  there,  as  water  will  readily  run  down  hill. 
33 


530  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

K  the  buildings  are  on  a  higher  point  than  the  spring,  the  water  can  be  forced  up  by  a 
hydraulic  ram  or  by  means  of  a  windmill,  either  of  which  are  not  expensive,  and,  if  properly 
cared  for,  are  quite  durable. 

A  clear,  running  brook  that  never  dries  up  in  summer  is  of  immense  value  on  a  farm. 
Ponds  of  pure,  fresh  water  are  also  to  be  highly  prized,  but  ponds  of  stagnant  water  are 
seriously  objectionable  in  any  locality,  rendering  it  extremely  unhealthy  for  both  man  and 
beast.  The  importance  of  having  a  good  supply  of  pure  water  for  stock  of  all  kinds  is  very 
properly  set  forth  by  the  late  Alexander  Hyde,  whose  pen  has  given  so  much  valuable  agri- 
cultural instruction  to  the  world: — 

"All  farmers  recognize  the  necessity  of  good  food  for  their  stock,  but  the  value  of  pure, 
wholesome  water  is  not  so  generally  appreciated.  It  has  been  said  that  green,  succulent  grass 
is  both  food  and  drink  for  sheep  in  the  summer,  and  in  the  winter,  when  they  exercise  and 
perspire  but  httle,  snow  will  furnish  them  all  the  drink  they  need.  Sheep  may  possibly  live 
under  such  management,  but  they  cannot  thrive,  and  if  they  could  talk  they'  would  tell  a  sad 
tale  of  suffering.  Snow  is  a  miserable  substitute  for  water.  Sheep  wiU  eat  it  if  they  can  get 
nothing  else,  but  it  is  so  cold  that  it  partially  paralyzes  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach,  and 
when  reaction  takes  place,  it  is  accompanied  with  more  or  less  fever,  and  the  health  of  the 
animal  is  impaired.  Precisely  what  the  action  of  snow  is  upon  the  sheep  we  can  learn  by 
trying  it  as  a  substitute  for  drink  for  ourselves.  The  first  feehng  may  be  one  of  refreshment 
to  the  parched  tongue,  but  it  is  followed  by  a  sensation  of  numbness,  and  soon  after  heat  and 
increased  craving  for  drink. 

Sheep  can  stand  such  cold  treatment  better  than  cattle  and  horses,  but  it  is  poor  economy, 
to  say  nothing  of  its  cruelty.  If  they  can  have  convenient  access  to  pure  water,  they  drink 
a  dozen  times  a  day,  and  often  leave  the  feeding-rack  to  go  to  the  watering-trough.  As  for 
cattle  and  horses,  no  one  pretends  that  they  can  get  along  without  daily  rations  of  water. 
Many,  however,  compel  their  cattle  to  go  to  such  a  distance  from  the  stables  for  drink  that, 
in  a  cold,  blustering  day,  the  beasts  hesitate  whether  to  expose  themselves  to  the  winds  and 
snow  or  suffer  with  thirst.  Generally  they  muster  up  courage  enough  to  start  off  for  the 
brook  or  spring  once  a  day  at  least,  but  sometimes  have  to  be  goaded  into  going  even  once. 
If  water  is  brought  into  the  yards  where  cattle  have  free  range,  they  will  drink  three  or  four 
times  each  day,  and  this  is  much  better  for  them  than  to  stuff  themselves  once  or  twice,  till 
they  are  as  round  as  a  snow-ball,  and  almost  as  cold. 

Drink  early  and  drink  often,  is  a  much  better  maxim  for  stock,  than  its  paraphrase  is  for 
voters.  The  health  and  thrift  of  an  animal  depend  about  as  much  upon  its  drink,  as  upon  its 
food.  Water  is  so  common  and  so  cheap  in  most  parts  of  our  country  that,  Uke  air,  its  vir- 
tues are  not  sufficiently  prized.  A  Northern  farmer  needs  to  go  upon  the  prairies  of  the 
Southwest  to  fully  appreciate  the  value  of  the  springs  and  ri\'ulets  that  ooze  out  from  the 
hnis  and  flow  through  the  valleys  of  his  well-watered  section.  This  abundance  of  pure 
water  is  no  small  compensation  to  the  New  England  farmer  for  the  want  of  the  deep  and  easily- 
tilled  soil  of  the  prairies,  and  the  wonder  is  that  he  does  not  better  improve  his  facilities  for 
irrigating  his  land  and  watering  his  stock.  A  Texan  stock-breeder,  owning  a  ranch  of  5,000 
acres  and  a  flock  of  4,000  sheep,  recently  told  me  that  the  great  drawback  to  the  success  of 
his  business  is  the  want  of  water.  Here  at  the  North,  when  almost  every  farmer  possesses  a 
spring,  the  water  of  which,  at  small  expense,  can  be  brought  to  the  barn,  comparatively 
few  farmers  avail  themselves  of  the  blessing.  Such  neglect  shows  ignorance  or  shiftle^ness, 
possibly  a  mixture  of  the  two.  So  much  has  been  said  of  the  value  of  pure  air,  that  the 
community  are  generally  alive  to  the  importance  of  securing  good  ventilation  both  in  the 
house  and  the  barn,  but  pure  water  is  equally  essential  with  good  air.  True,  both  man  and 
beast  can  go  without  water  longer  than  they  can  without  air,  but  the  suffering  for  the  want 
of  it  is  more  intense  than  that  from  the  want  of  food.     Shipwrecked  and  starving  sailors 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM.  531 

testify  that  their  first  want  is  water,  and  that  a  parched  tongue  is  more  intolerable  than  a 
gnawing  stomach.     Our  farm  stock  would  bear  the  same  testimony  could  they  speak. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  value  of  water  for  stock,  we  must  remember  that  it  constitutes, 
on  the  average,  three-fourths  of  the  weight  of  the  animal,  and  it  furnishes  largely  the 
elements,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  of  the  bodily  structure,  that  it  is  essential  for  softening  solid 
foods,  so  as  to  facilitate  mastication,  digestion,  and  the  passage  of  waste  material  through  the 
body,  and.  finally,  by  its  evaporation  from  the  surface,  it  keeps  the  body  cool  and  healthy. 
Fever  always  ensues  when  perspiration  is  checked.  The  estimated  amount  of  water  which 
an  average  man  throws  off  each  day  is  eighty-three  ounces — forty  in  the  urine  and  fseces,  and 
forty  through  his  lungs  and  skin.  The  average  ox  requires  a  much  larger  allowance  than 
this,  and  a  cow  that  gives  twenty  quarts  of  milk  a  day  must  have  at  least  eighteen  quarts  of 
water  in  some  form  from  which  to  manufacture  this  mUk,  for  its  analysis  shows  about  ninety 
per  cent,  of  water. 

The  objection  most  commonly  urged  against  bringing  water  to  the  barn  for  the  conven- 
ience of  stock  is  the  expense,  but  where  there  are  large  herds  or  flocks,  the  benefit  in  one 
year  will  compensate  for  the  outlay.  Most  farmers  have  logs  suitable  for  making  the  aque- 
duct, but  if  not,  lead  and  iron  pipe  are  so  cheap  in  these  days,  that  it  pays  even  to  borrow 
the  money  and  invest  it  in  a  water  pri\alege.  A  three-quarter  inch  iron  pipe  can  now  be 
bought  for  five  or  six  cents  a  foot,  and  there  is  no  better  material  for  constructing  an  aque- 
duct. Logs  rot  and  lead  corrodes,  but  iron,  if  it  does  rust  a  little,  furnishes  no  poison.  In 
a  constantly-filled  pipe  there  is  not  rust  enough  to  make  a  good  tonic,  so  that  iron  is  probably 
the  best  conductor  of  water.  After  a  log  becomes  rotten,  the  water  conveyed  through  it 
must  be  more  or  less  contaminated,  and  what  the  farmer  wants  for  his  stock  is  what  he  wants 
for  himself  and  family — the  pure  article. 

If  the  farm  is  so  unfortunately  situated  that  no  spring  or  brook  can  be  tapped  that  will 
flow  to  the  barn,  then  a  water-ram  or  wind-mill  can  be  used  that  will  overcome  gra^^ty. 
Windmills  have  long  done  service  in  Europe,  and  they  are  getting  to  be  quite  common  in 
this  country.  Their  advantage  over  water-rams  is  that  they  can  be  utilized  not  only  for 
pumping  water,  but  for  threshing  and  grinding  grain,  sawing  wood,  and  any  other  farm 
purpose  for  which  power  is  required.  A  neighbor  has  two  or  three  in  operation  on  his  farm, 
and  they  are  labor-saving  machines.     Wind  in  a  cheap  power  with  which  to  furnish  water." 

We  believe  with  the  above-mentioned  writer,  that  all  animals  should  have  free  access  to 
an  abundant  supply  of  good  water,  and  it  will  well  repay  any  farmer  in  the  improved  condition 
of  his  stock  to  incur  the  necessary  expense  of  procuring  it  for  them,  since  it  is  one  of  the 
first  essentials  of  successful  farming.  We  regret  to  say  that  many  farmers  still  adhere  to 
the  shiftless  and  unprofitable  practice  of  failing  to  provide  sufficient  water  for  their  stock, 
and  oblige  them  to  drink  from  holes  cut  in  the  ice  from  some  frog-pond  or  brook,  often 
driving  them  long  distances,  and  exposing  them  to  the  cold  weather  and  danger  of  having 
their  legs  broken  by  slipping  on  the  ice,  or  of  being  hooked  by  others  of  the  drove  while 
crowding  about  such  drinking  places.  This  is  not  only  a  very  inconvenient  way  of  managing 
stock,  but  it  is  extravagant  and  detrimental  to  success.  About  eighty  per  cent,  of  all  flesh 
being  water,  animals  cannot  thrive  well  without  a  sufiicient  supply  of  it.  Clean  water  abun- 
dantly supplied  to  cows  in  the  barn-yard,  where  they  can  have  frequent  access  to  it,  will 
prove  a  paying  investment  and  cheapen  the  production  of  milk. 

Cisterns. — Aside  from  wells  and  springs  for  a  water  supply,  another  very  cheap  and 
easy  means  of  furnishing  this  necessary  element  is  in  utilizing  the  rain  that  falls  upon  the 
roofs  of  buildings,  and  collecting  it  in  a  cistern  for  present  and  future  use.  If  cisterns  are 
made  of  ample  size  (as  they  always  should  be),  a  permanent  and  sufficient  quantitv  of  water 
can  be  obtained  in  this  manner,  and  with  so  little  trouble  or  expense  that  no  farmer  need  be  put 
to  any  inconvenience  in  procuring  good  water  for  his  house  or  bam.     We  would  not  recom- 


532  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

mend  this  water  for  drinking  purposes  for  the  family,  as  many  writers  do,  though  it  is  used 
in  many  of  the  lime  sections  of  the  country  for  this  purpose,  but  we  must  say  that  when 
properly  filtered  (as  it  always  should  be),  we  prefer  it  to  that  of  many  wells  and  springs  that 
we  have  tested.  It  is  excellent  for  the  various  household  purposes,  such  as  washing,  being 
very  soft,  which  renders  that  necessary  operation  in  every  household  a  much  easier  task  than 
when  performed  with  the  hard  water  from  many  wells  or  springs,  and  does  not  require  much 
more  than  half  the  amount  of  soap  that  hard  water  does.  Aside  from  the  convenience  of 
having  cistern-water  for  use, — where  other  supply  of  water  is  uncertain,  or  rain-water  is  used, 

it  is  much  better  for  the  premises  to  have  it  collected,  than  running  into  the  cellars  and 

about  the  buildings,  besides,  eaves-troughs  and  conductors  are  a  great  protection  to  the  yard 
manure  when  supplied  to  a  barn,  and  prevent  many  dollars'  worth,  yearly,  from  washing 
away,  or  leaching  into  the  soil;  hence,  when  a  barn  is  supplied  with  a  good  capacious  cistern, 
two  very  desirable  benefits  result  from  this  means  of  water  supply.  Cisterns  or  tanks  are 
constructed  in  various  ways ;  sometimes  of  wood,  lined  with  lead,  zinc,  cement,  or  of  slate, 
in  which  latter  case  the  sides  and  bottoms  are  grooved  and  cemented,  to  prevent  leak- 
age. The  usual  and  better  method  is  to  construct  a  cistern  of  stone  or  brick,  and  cement  it 
at  the  bottom  and  sides.  When  stones  are  used  for  this  piirpose,  small  ones  of  nearly  a  uni- 
form size  are  selected,  but  brick  is  to  be  preferred.  When  lead  or  zinc  are  used  for  Iming  a 
cistern,  the  water  is  unfit  for  drinking  purposes,  either  being  poisonous. 

In  a  compact  clay  soil,  cisterns  are  often  made  for  stock  purposes,  by  making  an  exca- 
vation of  sufficient  size,  and  laying  a  thick  coating  of  cement  over  the  entire  inner  surface, 
from  which  reservoir  the  water  is  to  be  pumped  into  troughs  for  the  stock.  Water  for  house- 
hold purposes  should  always  be  filtered.  Cisterns  of  this  kind  should  be  made  in  two  apart- 
ments, so  as  to  contain  water  filtered  ready  for  use  in  the  one,  while  the  other  receives  it  from 
the  pipes.  In  cementing  the  interior  of  a  cistern,  great  care  should  be  used  in  making  it  per- 
fectly water-tight;  hence,  the  sides  and  bottoms  should  be  properly  joined,  and  tlie  cement 
well  prepared  before  applying.  The  most  desirable  form  for  a  cistern  is  circular,  though  they 
are  made  in  various  forms.  A  recent  agricultural  writer  describes  that  of  his  barn  as  being 
a  long  brick  arch,  running  under  the  earth  drive-way,  with  a  capacity  for  holding  500  bar- 
rels. This  cistern  runs  a  foot  deeper  than  the  basement  floor  of  the  barn,  and  as  near  the  top 
and  ends  of  the  bank  as  is  safe,  in  view  of  frost.  The  size  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
water  to  be  used,  and  the  extent  of  surface  of  the  roofs  to  furnish  the  supply.  It  is  better  to 
have  a  cistern  larger  than  necessary,  rather  than  too  small.  A  large  cistern  does  not  cost  as 
much,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  as  a  small  one. 

A  circular  cistern  five  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter  will  hold,  for  every  ten  inches  in  depth, 
a  little  more  than  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  and  a  half  gallons. 

According  to  the  best,  scientific  authority,  the  average  amount  of  rain  in  the  United 
States  is  about  three  feet  per  year,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  three  inches  per  month. 

Upon  this  average,  every  inch  of  rain-fall  upon  each  ten  feet  square  of  the  roof  will 
amount  to  a  little  more  than  two  barrels,  and  a  little  more  than  seventy-two  barrels  a  year 
(based  upon  the  calculation  of  three  feet  of  rain) ;  therefore,  a  barn  of  only  ordinary  dimen- 
sions would  supply  a  large  amount  of  water  during  the  season,  when  rains  are  heavy  or 
frequent. 

The  cistern  should  be  arched  over  with  brick,  leaving  an  opening  for  a  trap-door  at  the 
top  large  enough  to  admit  a  man  when  necessary  to  clean  out  the  interior.  This  opening 
should  be  kept  covered  with  a  closely-fitting  trap-door.  It  should  be  kept  constantly  closed, 
not  only  to  exclude  rats  and  other  vermin,  but  because  of  being  very  dangerous  for  children, 
who,  through  the  carelessness  of  parents  or  servants,  are  frequently  drowned  in  such  places. 
After  a  long  season  of  dry  weather,  roofs  of  buildings  are  usually  quite  dusty;  therefore  it 
is  better  to  have  pipes  connecting  the  eaves  with  the  cistern  so  arranged  that  the  water  can 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM. 


533 


be  turned  off  for  a  few  moments  after  it  commences  raining,  to  prevent  the  dirty  water  enter- 
ing it,  after  which,  the  roofs  becoming  sufficiently  washed,  the  pipes  can  be  re-adjusted  to 
supply  the  cistern. 

Table  of  Contents  for  Circular  Cisterns.— The  following  table  of  contents  may 

be  of  assistance  to  those  designing  to  build  cisterns.  For  each,  foot  in  (hpth,  the  contents  of 
circular  cisterns  is  as  follows: — 


A  cistern  5  feet 

in  diameter  will  hold  for  every  foot  in  depth, . 

466  barrels. 

"       6 

6.71       " 

"       7 

9.13       " 

"       8 

11.93       " 

9 

15.10       " 

"     10 

18.65       " 

A  cistern  3i  feet  diameter  will  hold  for  every  10  inches  in  depth, 

59  gallons. 

4 

78       " 

•■       44 

99       " 

5 

123 

"       5i 

148       " 

••       6 

176 

"       8 

310       " 

By  the  above  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  cistern  five  feet  in  diameter  and  six  feet  deep 
will  hold  nearly  twenty-eight  barrels;  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  ten  feet  deep,  119.3  barrels, 
and  so  on. 

Eule  for  finding  the  contents  of  any  circular  cistern  in  wine  gallons,  the  diameter  and 
depth  being  known — 

1.  Find  the  square  of  one-half  of  the  diameter,  and  multiply  the  product  by  Z\,  which 
will  give  the  area  of  the  bottom  of  the  cistern — nearly. 

2.  Multiply  the  product  thus  obtained  by  the  number  of  feet  in  depth,  which  will  give 
the  cubic  contents  in  feet. 

3.  Multiply  this  last  product  by  1,728  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  foot)  which  will 
give  the  number  of  cubic  inches. 

4.  Divide  the  result  thus  obtained  by  231  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  wine  gallon), 
which  will  give  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cistern. 

By  dividing  the  number  of  gallons  in  capacity  by  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  barrel,  we 
have  the  capacity  of  the  cistern  given  in  barrels. 

Filters  for  Cisterns. — lu  making  cisterns,  it  is  very  essential  that  arrangements  be 
furnished  for  filtering  the  water  as  it  is  received  from  the  pipes  of  the  roof.  By  the  filter- 
ing process,  all  the  suspended  impurities,  such  as  mud,  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  etc., 
are  removed  from  the  water. 

The  usual  method  is  to  divide  the  cistern  into  two  equal  compartments  by  a  wall  of  brick, 
which  is  open  at  the  bottom  to  the  height  of  six  or  eight  inches.  One  of  these  compartments 
is  for  receiving  the  water  from  the  roof,  and  the  other  for  containing  it  when  it  is  filtered, 
ready  for  use. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  one  for  receiving  the  water,  alternate  layers  of  pounded  charcoal, 
sand,  and  gravel  are  placed  to  a  little  more  than  the  depth  of  the  bottom  opening  between 
the  partitions.  In  the  filtered  department  it  is  fiUed  to  the  same  height  as  the  former,  with 
clean  sand  and  gravel.  Since  the  water  passes  through  all  these  layers  in  reaching  the 
filtered  department,  it  will  be  comparatively  pure  by  this  process.  Of  course,  the  pipe  from 
the  roof  enters  the  former  compartment,  and  that  of  the  pump  the  latter.  In  making  such  a 
cistern,  it  would  be  well  to  build  the  wall  forming  the  partition  between  the  two  compart- 
ments with  a  curve,  so  as  to  act  as  an  arch  towards  the  unfiltered  portion,or  side  that  is  always 
fullest,  setting  the  ends  firmly  into  the  sides  of  the  cistern.     This  form  will  counteract  the 


534  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

pressure  of  the  water  from  the  receiving  side,  and  the  tendency  to  break  down  the  middle 
wall,  which  would  be  liable  to  occur,  if  empty,  in  a  heavy  storm,  providing  the  wall  was  buUt 
straight,  since  the  water  would  enter  so  much  faster  than  it  could  filter  through.  It  wiU  be 
necessary  to  occasionally  clean  out  the  cistern,  and  substitute  new  filtering  material,  in  order 
to  keep  the  water  pure,  as  the  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  will  in  a  few  months  become  filled  with  the 
refuse  substances  taken  from  the  water. 

Another  method  of  filtering,  is  to  build  the  brick  wall  forming  the  partition,  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cistern,  leaving  no  opening  whatever  between  the  two.  In  such  cases  the  water 
filters  through  the  bricks,  the  bricks  making  a  perfect  filter,  as  is  stated  by  those  who  have 
used  cisterns  made  in  this  way;  but  we  should  prefer  the  former  mode,  providing  proper 
care  be  taken  to  keep  the  filtering  material  clean. 

Wells.  —  The  common  source  of  water  supply  among  farmers  is  in  the  ordinary  well, 
which  is,  with  but  comparatively  few  exceptions,  a  permanent  and  unfailing  one,  even  in 
time  of  drouth.  A  well  of  good,  pure  water  is  something  to  be  prized  by  anyone  possessing 
it,  containing,  as  it  does,  the  elements  of  comfort  and  health;  for  pure,  cold  water  is  truly  a 
luxurj',  aside  from  all  sanitary  considerations.  "We  have  said  so  much  at  the  beginning  of 
this  subject  of  water  supply  respecting  the  necessity  of  keeping  wells  free  from  surface 
drainage,  sewage  contaminations,  etc.,  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  repeat  here;  but  we  wish 
to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  our  readere  that  pure  water  is  essential  to  health  and  impure 
water  is  incompatible  with  health,  either  in  man  or  beast,  and  one  of  the  principal  sources  of 
disease  among  mankind ;  also,  that  the  decomposition  of  animal  matter  in  water,  such  as  the 
animal  excreta  from  privy  vaults,  or  bara-yards,  are  by  far  the  most  objectionable  and 
dangerous  to  the  system  of  all  impurities,  often  engendering  the  most  fatal  diseases.  The 
decomposition  of  vegetable  matters  is  highly  dangerous,  acting  as  a  poison  upon  the  blood, 
but  not  to  the  extent  that  animal  substances  are.  It  is  also  well  to  remember  that  these 
poisonous  substances  will  percolate  through  the  soil  for  a  long  and  sometimes  almost  an 
incredible  distance  before  being  deposited  in  a  well,  and  that  water  thus  contaminated  will 
often  be  considered  of  the  finest  flavor  and  quality  by  those  who  drink  it,  the  evil  not  being 
detected  by  taste  or  smell.  "We  have  in  mind  a  well  of  this  kind  in  a  certain  city  not  far 
from  New  York,  which  was  located  in  one  of  the  pubhc  parks.  It  was  celebrated  for  the 
delicious  coolness  of  its  water,  as  well  as  excellent  flavor,  which  was  clear  and  spark- 
ling. In  warm  weather  people  would  often  go  out  of  their  way  quite  a  distance  to  get  a 
drink  of  it.  Some  of  this  water  was  finally  analyzed  by  a  competent  chemist,  and  found  to 
contain  a  substance  that  could  be  traceable  to  no  other  source  but  urine,  either  human  or 
animal,  and  the  well  was  ordered  closed  by  the  city  authorities.  The  diflBculty  was  after- 
wards found  to  be  in  the  leakage  of  a  city  sewage  pipe  that  passed  several  feet  from  the  well. 
We  might  give  many  similar  instances,  but  state  this  simply  to  prove  how  easy  it  is  for  per- 
sons to  be  deceived  respecting  the  quaUty  of  water,  in  taste,  sight,  or  smell,  and  how  very 
important  it  is  to  take  special  care  in  preventing  any  contaminating  substances  whatever 
from  entering  a  well.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  earth  around  a  well  brought  up  in  the 
form  of  a  mound,  to  prevent  surface  water  from  running  into  it.  A  well  should  never  be 
located  in  a  low  spot  of  ground  to  receive  such  drainage.  The  higher  the  ground  for  the 
weU  the  better,  other  conditions  being  favorable. 

A  cellar,  or  a  locaKty  near  to  a  cellar,  is  also,  for  this  reason,  an  objectionable  place  for 
digging  a  well.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see,  in  the  country,  a  well  for  household  purposes 
located  but  a  few  feet  from  the  barn-yard,  so  that  in  a  wet  season  the  drainage  must  of 
necessity  enter  it.  "Wells  should  also  be  frequently  examined,  and  occasionally  cleaned  out, 
that  the  sediment,  soil,  and  other  substances  that  may  have  found  an  entrance  there  may  be 
removed. 

In  digging  wells,  it  is  better  to  go  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  furnish  an  abundant  supply  of 


"WATER  SUPPEY  FOR  THE  FARM.  535 

water,  ttat  in  time  of  drouth  it  may  not  be  as  liable  to  fail;  besides,  mucb  trouble  and 
expense  is  attended  with  deepening  a  well  that  has  once  been  completed.  Farmers  some- 
times have  a  well  for  stock  purposes,  located  in  or  very  near  a  barn-yard.  In  such  cases 
great  care  should  be  taken  that  no  drainage  from  the  yard  entered  it.  All  water  from  the 
yard  should  be  conducted  in  another  direction,  the  earth  about  the  well  be  made  higher  than 
other  portions  of  the  yard,  and  every  precaution  possible  used  to  keep  the  water  pure,  since 
cattle  cannot  thrive  without  pure  water,  and  the  milk  of  cows  that  drink  water  contaminated 
with  the  drainage  of  the  yard  cannot  be  healthful  or  palatable. 

The  danger  of  this  drainage  is  lessened  when  the  sub-soil  is  of  a  clayey  nature,  being  in 
a  measure  impervious  to  water;  but  when  the  sub-soU  is  of  a  gravelly  or  sandy  character, 
there  would  be  danger  of  its  leaching  through  the  soil  into  the  well,  even  with  all  necessary 
precautions  observed  on  the  surface.  Absorbents  to  take  up  the  liquid  manure  will  obviate 
the  evil  in  a  measure,  when  a  sufficient  quantity  is  used  for  that  purpose.  The  digging  of  a 
well  is,  of  course,  attended  with  considerable  labor  and  expense;  but,  when  once  properly  dug, 
it  becomes  a  permanent  source  of  water  supply,  and  the  convenience  of  having  such  a  source 
to  depend  upon  in  all  seasons  weU  repays,  even  in  one  year,  all  that  is  expended  in  obtain- 
ing it 

Driven,  or  Tube  Wells,  sometimes  called  American  wells,  are  an  ingenious  and 
easy  method  of  obtaining  water.  They  are  made  by  driving  a  smaU  iron  tube,  which  has  a 
perforated  hollow  conical  point  of  steel,  into  the  ground  until  it  strikes  a  subterranean  spring. 
By  applying  a  hand-pump  to  the  orifice,  a  supply  of  water  is  generally  obtained  sufficient  for 
all  practical  purposes,  and  often  obviates  the  necessity  of  common  wells,  the  digging  of  which 
is  attended  with  more  labor  and  expense.  In  some  localities  these  wells  are  a  perfect  suc- 
cess, and,  when  they  prove  so,  are  one  of  the  cheapest  means  of  water  supply.  They  are  not, 
however,  as  permanent  and  durable  as  wells  that  are  dug  in  the  usual  way,  since  the  iron 
tube  will,  in  time,  rust  out;  but  they  will  last  many  years,  and  when  they  prove  a  success, 
will  well  repay  the  slight  expense  incurred  in  making.  As  they  sometimes  prove  a  failure,  it 
is  well  for  the  farmer  to  always  have  a  good  supply  of  water  guaranteed  by  the  agent  before 
arranging  the  terms,  that  the  risk  may  not  be  his  own.  No  one  should  pay  for  such  a  well 
unless  it  supplies  water,  and  as  agents  are  always  desirous  of  custom,  they  wUl  generally 
take  the  risk  themselves. 

In  many  of  the  hilly  and  mountainous  portions  of  Europe,  water  for  irrigating  the  land 
and  supplying  the  domestic  animals,  as  well  as  for  household  purposes,  is  obtained  by  driving 
a  tube  horizontally  into  the  side  of  a  hOl  or  mountain  until  it  reaches  some  spring,  which 
furnishes  a  constant  flow.  The  water  from  such  springs  is  generally  very  cold,  and  of  good 
quality. 

Artesian  Wells.  —  The  use  of  artesian  wells  is  becoming  quite  common  in  some 
portions  of  the  country,  both  for  irrigation  and  other  uses,  and  especially  in  some  of  the  arid 
regions  of  the  West,  where  both  surface  and  spring  water  is  frequently  not  only  very  scarce, 
but  is  so  impregnated  with  certain  mineral  substiinces  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. In  California,  artesian  wells  are  used  quite  extensively  for  irrigating  the  lands,  but 
are  comparatively  rare  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States.  They  are,  however,  quite 
common  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  some  of  them 
throwing  up  oil,  some  mineral  water,  and  others  pure  water.  The  numerous  oil  wells  of 
"Western  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  vicinity  are  principally  remarkable  for  the  large 
supply  of  petroleum  which  they  furnish. 

Among  the  deepest  artesian  wells  in  this  country  are  two  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  The  first 
was  bored  to  the  depth  of  2199  feet,  and  discharged  75  gallons  of  water  per  minute.  The 
second  was  simk  to  the  depth  of  3843.5  feet,  the  last  40  feet  being  in  solid  granite.     The 


536  THE  AMERICAJf  FARilER. 

diameter  of  these  wells  is  four  and  a  half  inches,  and  both  furnish  water  impregnated  with 
saKne  sulphur.  The  water  from  the  first  has  a  temperature  of  73.4°  F.,  the  second  150°  F. 
At  Louisville,  Kentucky,  there  is  an  artesian  well  three  inches  in  diameter  and  208(i  feet 
deep.  At  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  there  is  one  sunk  to  the  depth  of  1250  feet,  which 
discharges  water  ten  fec:t  above  the  surface  at  the  rate  of  1200  gallons  per  hour.  At  Chicago 
there  are  two  artesian  wells,  one  of  which  is  700  feet  and  the  other  1000  feet  deep.  These 
wells  are  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  supply  the  city  with  800,000  gallons  of  pure  water 
daily.  One  of  the  deepest  artesian  wells  in  the  United  States  is  that  at  the  State  House  in 
Columbus,  Ohio,  which  is  27 75^  feet,  but  the  water  ia  salt,  and  does  not  rise  above  the 
surface. 

Among  the  most  noted  of  these  wells  in  Europe  is  that  of  Grenelle,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Paris.  It  is  about  1800  feet  deep,  and  exerts  a  pressure  equal  to  a  rise  of  812  feet  above  the 
surface  (in  pipes),  and  discharges  about  half  a  mUlion  of  gallons  per  day.  This  water  is  very 
pure,  and  is  supplied  to  the  portion  of  the  city  in  which  it  is  located ;  but  as  its  temperature 
is  82°  F.,  it  requires  cooling  before  being  used  for  drinking  purposes.  It  is  used  also  for 
warming  the  hospitals  at  Grenelle. 

Artesian  wells  are  of  ancient  origin,  there  being  unmistakable  traces  of  them  in  Lom- 
bardy,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  China,  Egypt,  Algeria,  and  even  in  the  great  desert  of  Sahara. 
A  well  within  the  old  Carthusian  convent  at  Lillers,  bored  in  the  year  1126,  still  flows  with 
undiminished  force.  They  derive  their  name,  however,  from  Artois  in  France  (the  ancient 
Artesium),  where  they  have  been  used  for  a  long  period. 

They  are  usually  from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  though  sometimes  even  larger, 
but  never  exceeding  twelve  inches,  and  are  made  by  boring  into  the  earth  until  the  required 
depth  is  reached.  This  depth  varies  in  different  localities,  depending  upon  the  geologic 
structure  and  general  surface  conformation.  When  a  subterranean  sheet  of  water  is  reached, 
which  is  confined  between  two  incHned,  impervious  strata  of  clay  or  rock,  one  above  and  the 
other  below,  and  so  formed  that  the  pressure  of  the  water  is  brought  to  bear  against  the  part 
penetrated  by  the  boring  instruments,  an  artesian  well  is  formed,  which  furnishes  constantly- 
flowing  water.  In  this  respect  they  differ  from  the  common  well,  since  they  are  simply 
artificial  springs,  which  bring  water  to  the  surface  from  a  great  depth,  often  throwing  it  to  a 
greater  or  less  height  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

They  are  bored  either  by  hand,  horse,  or  steam  power,  the  latter  being  the  most  effective 
in  facihtating  the  labor;  various  kinds  of  augurs,  chisels,  and  other  implements  being  required 
for  boring  through  the  different  layers  of  rock,  clay,  etc.  A  great  improvement  has  been 
made  within  a  few  years  by  the  invention  of  the  diamond-pointed  drill.  It  consists  of  a  long 
steel  bar,  the  end  of  which  may  be  either  conical,  concave,  or  annular,  and  is  firmly  set  with 
diamonds,  so  as  to  present  cutting  edges  to  the  rock  when  turned  right-handed.  It  is  gener- 
ally worked  by  steam  or  compressed  air,  and  by  its  use  the  hardest  granite  may  be  bored  at 
the  rate  of  several  inches  per  minute;  this  instrument  is  also  extensively  used  in  mining. 
Tubing  is  generally  necessary  to  prevent  the  well  from  caving  in  at  the  sides,  to  exclude 
undesirable  veins  of  water,  or  the  entrance  of  quicksand,  the  latter  of  which  is  said  to  be  the 
most  troublesome  source  of  difficulty  in  such  wells.  The  tubing  is  sometimes  of  wood,  but 
generally  of  iron;  bronze  and  copper  also  being  used  to  a  certain  extent.  Of  course,  the 
making  of  such  wells  is  attended  with  considerable  expense;  but  in  those  regions  which  are 
deficient  in  other  sources  of  water  supply,  it  often  becomes  a  necessity,  and  when  we  con- 
sider their  durabiUty  and  the  great  benefits  to  be  derived  from  their  use  in  such  localities, 
they  are  comparatively  cheap.  "We  know  of  some  farmers  and  fruit-growers  in  California 
that  have  three  or  four  artesian  wells  on  their  lands,  which  are  exceedingly  productive,  but 
which  would  be  almost  worthless  for  agricultural  purposes  without  them. 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM.  537 

Hydraulic  Rams. —  For  the  purpose  of  forcing  water  to  a  height  greater  than  that 
of  the  source  from  which  it  is  obtained,  this  simple  and  inexpensive  power  is  admirably- 
adapted.  To  those  having  no  spring  above  the  level  of  the  house,  but  one  below  it,  that  they 
wish  to  utihze,  this  little  machine  will  be  found  useful  in  bringing  the  water  to  the  desired 
locaUty.  It  can  be  made  to  force  about  one-eighth  of  the  water  that  flows  through  it  up  a 
steep  hill  and  through  a  pipe  a  long  distance,  taking  it  even  to  a  reservoir  in  the  attic  of  the 
house,  if  desired.  Water  discharged  from  the  constantly  running  pipes  of  some  under- 
drained  lands  is  sometimes  utilized  and  conveyed  to  barns  by  this  means. 

Wind-mills,  however,  are  at  present  more  commonly  employed  for  this  purpose.  They 
are  inexpensive,  and  with  good  care  will  often  last  many  yeai-s.  A  recent  writer  says  that 
he  has  used  the  hydraulic  ram  for  supplying  his  house  with  water  from  a  spring  for  more 
than  thirty  years,  and  during  that  time  has  only  had  two  rams,  the  one  he  is  now  using  being 
apparently  good  for  many  years  to  come.     He  says:  — 

"  Repairs  have  cost  me,  about  once  in  eighteen  months  or  two  years,  five  or  ten  cents  for 
a  leather  valve  inside  the  air  chamber,  and  once  in  about  six  or  eight  years  a  new  brass 
plunger  valve,  costing  about  five  dollars." 

The  illustration  which  we  insert  of  an  improved  implement  of  this  kind,  by  Joseph 
Beck  &  Sons,  Boston,  is  a  good  representation  of  this  little  machine  in  operation. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Scientific  American  gives  the  following  directions  for  increasing 
the  power  and  capacity  of  hydraulic  rams:  "Drill  or  file  a  small  hole,  say  one-thirty-second 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  in  the  supply  pipe  about  a  foot  above  the  place  where  it  enters  the 
ram.  At  every  stroke  of  the  ram  a  small  stream  will  be  discharged  from  this  orifice.  This 
at  first  sight  would  seem  to  decrease  the  power  rather  than  augment  it,  but  when  the  reaction 
takes  place  in  the  pipe  there  seems  to  be  a  small  quantity  of  air  sucked  in,  and  this  air  is 
probably  Liberated  from  the  water  when  it  reaches  the  air  chamber,  thus  increasing  the  pres- 
sure. At  least  this  seems  to  be  the  most  feasible  explanation.  Certain  I  am  that  I  have 
repeatedly  tried  this  plar^  and  find  it  to  increase  materially  the  power  of  the  ram." 

Wind-mills. — These  have  for  a  long  time  been  employed  as  a  motive  power  for  the  various 
purposes  of  farm  use  in  many  portions  of  Europe.  In  this  country  their  use  has  been,  until 
recently,  confined  almost  exclusively  to  California  and  some  of  the  other  Western  States. 
They  are  at  present,  however,  being  introduced  to  other  sections,  where  they  prove  very 
cheap  and  efiScient  aids  in  various  ways,  such  as  pumping  water,  grinding  grain,  threshing, 
sawing  wood,  shelling  com,  cutting  hay,  straw,  or  other  fodder  for  cattle,  churning,  turning 
a  grindstone,  etc.,  including  nearly  all  that  can  be  done  by  hand  or  horse-power. 

In  many  portions  of  Europe  they  are  used* both  for  draining  and  irrigating  lands.  They 
are  especially  useful  for  pumping  water,  or  any  similar  work  that  does  not  require  the  con- 
stant attention  of  a  person.  They  require  neither  food  nor  fuel,  work  constantly  except  in 
calms,  and  are  self-regulating.  They  can  run  during  the  night  as  well  as  day,  performing 
such  labor  as  does  not  require  attention,  such  as  pumping  water,  grinding  grain,  etc. ;  con- 
sequently this  will  make  up  for  loss  of  time  in  calms.  But  they  are  at  the  present  time  so 
perfected  in  their  construction  as  to  run  with  ease  in  very  light  winds. 

By  the  use  of  a  windmill,  water  can  be  furnished  at  any  desired  place,  and  by  making  a 
tank  sixteen  feet  long,  eight  feet  wide,  and  two  feet  deep,  a  reservoir  of  nearly  sixty  barrels 
can  be  kept  filled  by  a  mill,  which  will  be  a  supply  for  occasional  calms.  The  principal  objec- 
tion to  wind -mills  has  hitherto  been  their  Hability  to  get  out  of  order,  or  blow  down  in  a  heavy 
gale,  and  in  not  supplying  a  constant  power.  But  these  objections  have  been  in  a  great 
measure  overcome  by  improvements  that  have  been  made,  combining  strength  and  lightness, 
with  an  adaptabiUty  to  utilize  the  lightest  winds,  and  to  be  self-adjusting  in  a  severe  storm, 
so  as  to  prevent  injury.  They  are  without  doubt  the  cheapest  power  the  farmer  can  employ 
on  the  farm. 


538 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER' 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  FARM. 


539 


President  Barnard  of  Columbia  College,  New  York,  says:  "They  adapt  themselves 
admirably  to  the  circumstances  of  sparse  settlements,  in  prairie  districts,  and  low  alluvial 
regions  where  streams  are  few  and  sluggish,  where  fuel  is  costly,  and  where  the  population, 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  living  in  comparative  isolation  from  each 
other,  find  the  conversion  of  their  grains  into  flour  and  meal  for  domestic  use  a  serious  tax 
upon  both  their  time  and  means.  To  such,  it  would  be  very  useful  for  the  elevation  of  water 
for  drainage,  for  grinding,  and  many  of  the  other  exigencies  of  rural  life." 

And  not  only  are  they  adapted  to  such  localities  as  President  Barnard  has  described,  but 

they  can  be  finished  with  such 
taste  as  not  to  be  an  inappropriate 
attachment  to  the  elegant  suburban 
buildings  of  any  country  gentle- 
man, by  means  of  which  a  cheap 
water  supply  can  be  obtained  for 
the  house,  garden,  stable,  fountain, 
fish-pond,  lake,  and  various  other 
uses. 

The  water  can  thus  be  brought 
from  well,  spring,  or  river,  at 
almost  any  distance,  and  deUvered 
in  the  house,  barn,  or  elevated 
tank  in  a  tower,  from  which  it 
may  be  drawn  for  any  desired 
purpose.  Towers  can  be  very  or- 
namentally constructed  for  the 
double  pui-pose  of  water  supply 
s  and  observatory  in  the  upper  por- 
tion, while  studios  or  reading- 
rooms  can  be  made  on  the  first 
and  second  stories  of  the  tower. 
They  are  made  to  rim  quietly, 
with  no  annoyance  of  noise  or 
^B  rattle  of  any  kind,  while  a  boy 
can  easily  keep  one  in  order. 

The  foregoing  illustrations  of 
the  Iron  Turbine  and  the  Eclipse 
wind-mills,  by  Mart,  Foos,  &  Co., 
Springfield,  Ohio,  and  the  Eclipse 
"Wind-Engine  Co.,  Beloit,  "Wiscon- 
sin, respectively,  show  admirably 
the  construction  and  working  of 
such  farm  machines  that  are  becoming  at  present  so  common  in  many  sections. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  front  view  of  the  latter  wind-mill,  when  facing  full  in  the 
wind.  On  the  right  appears  the  small  side  vane  (the  rudder  in  the  rear  not  shown),  which 
is  attached  to  the  same  casting  as  the  wheel,  and  against  which  the  wind,  as  it  increases  to  a 
gale,  blows,  and  acting  as  a  lever,  takes  the  wheel  around  to  the  side  of  the  rudder  out  of  the 
way  of  the  wind,  in  the  same  way  that  a  door,  if  not  latched,  blows  open  and  presents  no 
resistance  to  the  wind. 

The  figure  on  the  following  page  represents  the  mill  at  rest,  when  pulled  out  of  the  wind 
or  closed  by  a  storm,  no  part  of  which  presents  a  resistance  to  the  wind,  except  the  edge  of 


IN    MOTIOX. 


540 


THE  AJCERICAN  FARMER. 


the  wheel  and  tail,  consequently  there  is  very  little  strain  upon  it  even  in  the  severest  gale. 
It  regulates  itself  in  turning  out  of  position  by  simply  raising  a  weight,  which  brings  the 
wheel  back  again  when  the  wind  dies  away,  on  the  same  principle  that  a  gate  will  shut  itself 
when  hung  with  a  weight.  When  the  utility  of  wind-mills  becomes  better  appreciated  by 
the  farmers  of  the  country,  they  cannot  fail  of  being  used  quite  extensively  in  the  various 
employments  pertaining  to  the  farm. 

Use  of  Siphon  in  Water  Supply. — The  use  of  the  siphon  has  long  been  known  and 
applied  to  many  valuable  purposes.  It  consists  of  a  bent  tube,  one  portion  of  which  is  longer 
than  the  other,  and  can  be  used  in 
conducting  liquids  from  one  place 
to  another,  when  the  place  of  dis- 
charge is  lower  than  that  from 
which  it  is  taken,  and  the  air 
from  the  tube  is  exhausted.  In 
this  manner,  liquids  may  be  con- 
ducted from  a  higher  to  a  lower 
level,  over  an  obstacle,  provided 
the  height  be  not  more  than  that 
of  the  fluid  column  the  atmosphere 
can  support  above  the  higher 
level,  like  drawing  the  entire  con- 
tents of  one  barrel  into  another 
when  on  nearly  the  same  level,  by 
inserting  the  siphon  into  the  vent 
of  each.  The  siphon  can  be  used 
to  great  advantage  in  conducting 
water  to  a  house  or  barn  from  a 
well  or  spring,  when  they  are 
located  a  little  higher  than  the 
building  they  are  intended  to  sup 
ply.  This  is  the  cheapest  and 
simplest  agent  for  transferring 
water,  where  the  circumstances 
will  admit  of  its  use.  "WTien  once 
properly  arranged,  there  is  noth 
ing  to  get  out  of  repair,  hence,  is 
a  permanent  water  supply. 

A    gentleman     in     Carlisle, 
Iowa,  has  recently  succeeded  in  :^ 
supplying    his    stock-yards   with  i 
water  from  his  well  by  the  use  of 
a  siphon.     He  dug  a  well  in  front 

of  his  barn,  and  struck  a  large  vein  of  water  at  ten  feet.  By  putting  in  a  half-inch  lead  pipe 
from  the  water  up  over  the  top  of  the  well,  and  extending  it  two  hundred  feet  down  a  hill  to 
the  corner  of  a  stock-lot,  a  continuous  stream,  supplying  about  nine  himdred  gallons  every 
twenty-four  hours,  was  secured. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Lawrence,  chief  director  of  the  Illinois  Industrial  University,  gives  the  follow- 
ing result  of  an  experiment  made  not  long  since  on  the  farm  connected  with  that  institution: 
"  The  subject  of  obtaining  water  for  stock  being  one  of  vast  interest  to  the  stock-growers  of 
the  West,  I  propose  to  give  the  result  of  an  experiment  made  on  the  farm  of  the  Illinois 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  THE  yARM.  541 

Industrial  University,  with  a  view  of  obtaining  a  pure  and  permanent  supply  in  a  more  eco- 
nomical way  than  by  the  usual  manner  of  a  wind-mill. 

At  one  side  of  a  lot,  recently  seeded  and  used  as  a  pasture-field,  is  a  well  nine  feet  deep, 
with  a  supply  of  water  varying  from  three  to  four  and  one-half  feet.  On  making  a  survey, 
I  found  that,  by  going  700  feet,  and  making  an  excavation  of  three  feet,  a  point  could  be 
reached  one  foot  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  well.  This  passed  over  an  elevation  some  five 
feet  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  well,  and  would  give  a  maximum  fall  of 
about  six  feet,  when  the  tank  I  proposed  to  construct  was  empty  and  the  well  full;  and  I 
estimated  an  average  fall  of  three  feet.  By  calculation  I  estimated  that  by  the  use  of  the 
siphon — using  a  one-half  inch  gas-pipe,  placed  two  and  one-half  feet  below  the  surface,  thus 
giving  a  total  rise  of  six  feet,  and  a  fall  as  stated  above — a  sufficient  amount  of  water  would 
be  discharged  to  supply  fifty  head  of  cattle. 

In  July  last  this  plan  was  carried  out  and  put  in  operation,  and  now  has  been  going 
three  months,  and  I  can  safely  say  that  it  is  a  perfect  success,  as  we  have  pumped  no  water 
from  that  date  to  the  present. 

To  prevent  mud  and  water  in  the  space  excavated,  eight  by  twelve  feet  was  planked 
over  at  tlie  side  of  the  tank,  with  tile  laid  under  the  plank,  connecting  with  a  previously-laid 
drain,  one  hundred  feet  fartlier  down  the  slope;  and  a  gas-pipe  from  the  top  of  the  tank  was 
run  through  the  plank  and  into  the  drain,  to  carry  o£E  any  overflow  of  water.  Later,  a  float 
was  arranged  to  stop  the  flow  when  the  tank  was  filled,  thus  preventing  any  waste  of  water. 

As  in  these  times  the  cost  of  everything  is  a  large  item,  I  will  give  it  in  this  case: — 

Tank,  holding  12  barrels, $9.75 

700  feet  -|-inch  gas-pipe  &  3  cents,      .....  21.00 

Digging  and  filling  700  feet  of  ditch,  .  .  .  .  9.00 

Excavating  for  tank,  fitting  pipe,  etc.,  ....  15.00 

Total, 154.75 

To  remove  the  air  from  the  pipe,  an  old  thrown-away  iron  pump  was  used;  and  this  is 
left  in  position  to  force  out  any  sediment  that  may  settle  in  the  pipe.  A  common  cistern- 
pump,  such  as  is  usually  used  in  sinks,  costing  about  three  dollars,  would  be  sufficient  for  this. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  use  of  the  siphon  to  exhaust  all  the  air  from  the  pipe, 
and  to  so  arrange  the  end  inserted  in  the  weU  or  spring,  that  sand  or  mud  will  not  be  Hable 
to  get  into  it  and  obstruct  the  water. 

The  water  will  sometimes  become  obstructed  in  the  siphon  on  account  of  air  getting  into 
it.  All  running  water  contains  more  or  less  air.  This  air  will  naturally  accumulate  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  siphon,  and  when  the  pipe  becomes  filled  with  it,  the  water  stops  running. 
When  this  occurs,  the  only  thing  that  remains  to  be  done  is,  of  course,  to  remove  the  air. 
A  vertical  branch  may  be  inserted  in  the  top  of  the  siphon  (the  highest  point  in  the  bend), 
having  one  or  two  stop-cocks.  If  two  are  used,  a  space  of  a  few  inches  of  tube  should  be  left 
between  the  two.  When  air  accumulates  in  the  bend  of  the  siphon,  open  the  lower  stop-cock, 
and  let  the  air  up  into  the  tube  above  it,  which  should  previously  be  filled  with  water. 
When  the  air  fills  the  tube  close  the  lower  stop-cock,  and  open  the  upper  one,  and  pour 
in  water  to  fill  the  tube  again.  By  repeating  this  process  the  air  can  all  be  removed.  Care 
should  be  taken,  in  inserting  the  branch,  that  it  does  not  extend  into  the  tube  to  impede  the 
current  of  the  water.  It  should  only  extend  to  the  upper  face  of  the  inside  of  the  tube.  This 
branch  should  have  hay,  leaves,  sawdust  or  some  other  material  packed  about  it,  in  order  to 
be  kept  from  freezing  in  winter.  When  a  single  stop-cock  or  a  screw-cap  is  used  for  the  same 
purpose,  the  two  ends  of  the  siphon  will  need  to  be  plugged  up,  after  which  water  should  be 
poured  through  the  branch.  When  the  air  has  escaped,  close  the  branch,  unstop  first  the 
upper  and  then  the  lower  end  of  the  siphon.  A  stop-cock  at  either  end  of  the  siphon  will 
prove  a  more  ready  and  easy  means  of  opening  and  closing  it. 


542 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


MOTIVE  POWERS  FOR  FAR.MS. 


643 


MOTIVE  POWERS  FOR  FARMS. 

A  GOOD  motive  power  is  a  great  convenicnc  ■  for  both  large  and  small  farms,  as  well  as 
often  a  necessity.     Such  powers  are  valuable  for  pumping  water,  churning,  sawing 
wood,  grinding  grain,  cutting  feed  for  stock,  threshing,  shelling  corn,  and  various 
other  faiTU  purposes.     The  principal  kinds  in  common  use  are  horse-power,  wind,  and  steam. 

Dog  and  sheep  powers  are  often  employed  for 
light  purposes,  such  as  churning,  etc.  As  steam-en- 
gines are  expensive,  and  water-power  rarely  available 
on  a  farm,  the  powers  that  can  be  employed  for  an 
ordinary-sized  farm  at  a  limited  expense  are  either 
horse-power  or  that  furnished  by  a  windmill,  either 
of  which  will  do  valuable  service  and  economize  in 
the  expense  of  labor,  some  farmers  finding  it  more 
profitable  to  use  the  fonner,  and  others  the  latter. 

Horse-Power. — As  horses  are  kept  for  use  on 
most  farms,  they  furnish  a  very  convenient  power  for 
many  piu-poses,  while  they  possess  the  advantage  of 
being  a  power  that  can  be  transferred  to  any  locality 
on  the  farm  or  off  from  it,  as  desired,  and  also  one 

that  comes  within  the  means  of  most  farmers.  A  horse-power  is  easily  regulated,  and  readily 
attached  to  any  ijiachine  that  is  desired  for  use.  It  is  also  a  very  inexpensive  power,  and  can 
be  used  at  any  time,  while  wind  is  variable  and  can  be  used  only  at  certain  times.  Each 
power  has  its  own  especial  advantages  over  others.  A  wind-engine,  once  located,  requires  no 
further  expense  but  to  merely  keep  it  in  order,  which  is  sUght,  while  it  is  the  only  available 
power  that  can  be  used  in  pumping  water  in  distant  fields.  Steam-power  can  be  either 
stationary  or  movable,  but  for  small  farms  is  too  expensive  to  be  made  profitable,  while  on 
very  large  farms  it  becomes  a  necessity.  The  power  to  be  used  on  any  farm  must  always  be 
adapted  to  the  amount  and  kind  of  work  to  be  performed. 

The  machinery  for  horse-power  is  generally  so  constructed  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  use  of 
one,  two,  or  three  horses,  as  desired,  and  according  to  the  amount  of  power  required.  That 
represented  on  the  previous  page  is  by  the  well-known  firm  of  A.  W.  Gray's  Sons,  Middletown 
Springs,  Vermont.  There  is  an  endless  platform  on  which  the  horses  walk.  This  platform 
is  made  of  pieces  of  plank  of  suitable  length  fastened  together  on  the  under  side  by  a 
wrought-iron  gear  connected  by  cast-steel  rods,  which  also  serve  as  axles  for  rollers,  and 
move  with  the  platform,  running  on  a  cast-iron  and  steel  track. 

Wind-Power. — In  some  portions  of  the  country,  especially  the  Western  States,  wind- 
mills have  for  some  time  been  used  quite  extensively  for  furnishing  power  for  many  farm 
purposes.  They  are  becoming  more  common  in  other  sections,  as  has  been  stated  in  previous 
pages  (See  Windmills,  page  537),  and  are  one  of  the  most  economic  powers  known.  Wind 
is  variable,  it  is  true,  and  cannot  always  be  relied  upon,  and  a  wind-mill  is  confined  to  a  cer- 
tain locality,  yet  the  power  it  furnishes  is  one  that  never  tires,  and  when  the  winds  are 
favorable  it  can  work  both  night  and  day,  often  unattended,  performing  such  labor  as  pump- 
ing water  for  distant  pastures  or  household  use,  grinding  grain,  etc.  For  the  former  pui-pose 
it  has  no  equal,  and  by  having  a  large  tank  provided,  a  supply  of  water  can  be  constantly 
kept  on  hand  in  all  seasons  for  use  when  there  is  not  sufficient  wind  for  running  it,  while  it 
can  be  so  regulated  as  to  be  self-adjusting,  ceasing  to  pump  when  the  tank  is  full  and  com- 
mencing again  when  it  requires  fiUing. 


544  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Steam-Power. — For  large  farms,  such  as  many  of  the  extensive  ones  in  the  Western 
States  and  other  portions  of  the  countr)',  steam  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  as  a  motive 
power,  and  a  steam-engine  becomes  one  of  the  necessary  farm  implements.  Steam-engines 
for  such  purposes  may  be  stationary  or  portable,  each  having  their  peculiar  advantages;  the 
latter  for  most  uses  being,  of  course,  the  most  desirable. 

The  past  few  years  liave  been  conspicuously  marked  by  the  extensive  increase  in  this 
country  in  the  use  of  steam-power  in  connection  with  agriculture,  and  numerous  maniifac- 
tories  of  farm  engines  have  sprung  up  throughout  the  different  sections,  sho'nang  the  largely- 
increasing  demand  for  such  power.  The  introduction  of  steam-engines  on  farms  has  been 
greatly  facilitated  by  their  cheaper  and  simpler  form,  the  various  improvements  made,  besides 
greater  ease  in  their  management. 

The  smaller  and  lower-priced  engines  of  two  or  three  horse  power  may  be  used  for  cut- 
ting or  grinding  feed,  pumping  water,  sawing  wood,  driving  small  threshing-machines,  and 
churning  in  large  dairies,  while  the  larger  ones  are  extensively  employed  for  large  threshing- 
machines,  for  itinerant  work,  or  for  extensive  farms.  TVe  learn  from  reliable  sources  that 
twenty  or  more  large  agricultural  engines  are  in  use  by  Mr.  Dalrymple  in  his  operations  in 
wheat  farming  on  his  extensive  and  noted  farm,  commonly  known  as  the  "Dalrymple  Farm," 
in  Dakota,  and  which  contains  about  a  hundred  thousand  acres.  A  good  stationary  engine  for 
farm  use  can  be  isrocured  at  a  comparatively  low  price,  and  in  those  portions  of  the  country 
where  fuel  is  cheap  and  abundant  they  may  be  used  quite  extensively  as  a  motive  power  for 
driving  various  fami  machines.  Of  course,  it  is  essential  to  safety  and  the  successful  use  of 
an  engine,  that  the  person  having  it  in  charge  should  perfectly  understand  the  business,  and 
use  it  with  discretion  and  care,  to  prevent  accident.  « 

Engines  may  be  made  nearly  self -regulating,  and  thus  less  liable  to  explosions;  but  in  any 
case,  if  the  manager  of  it  is  careless  or  indifferent,  the  machine  might  be  soon  ruined,  and  its 
owner  meet  with  a  heavy  loss  in  consequence.  Efficient  and  careful  management,  in  any  de- 
partment of  the  farm,  pays  best  and  brings  in  the  end  the  most  satisfactory  results.  An 
engine  may  also  be  utilized  in  steaming  food  for  stock,  cooking  roots,  etc.,  when  desired. 

Steam-power  has  been  used,  to  a  considerable  extent,  as  is  commonly  known,  for  plow- 
ing in  England,  for  several  years,  but  to  only  a  limited  extent  in  our  own  country;  yet  we 
predict  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  most  of  the  plowing  will  be  done  by  steam  on 
the  larger  farms,  such  as  are  foimd  on  the  extensive  prairies  of  the  West,  or  on  the  large 
plantations  in  many  portions  of  the  South.  The  testimony  of  large  landholders  in  England 
who  have  used  steam-power  extensively  is,  that  it  is  less  expensive  than  horse-power;  but,  of 
course,  it  would  not  prove  as  economical  for  a  small  farm. 

In  many  localities  where  the  farms  are  not  sufficiently  large  to  warrant  each  farmer  in 
the  purchase  of  an  engine' or  horse-power,  the  plan  of  mutual  ownership  can  be  profitably 
adopted.  By  this  means,  a  few  farmers  doing  a  small  business,  whose  lands  are  near  or 
adjacent,  may  purchase  the  machine  in  company,  and  thus,  at  a  comparatively  slight  expense, 
each  may  derive  nearly  as  much  benefit  from  it  as  though  owning  it  entirely. 

In  other  cases,  a  single  individual  may  own  a  machine  and  make  it  very  profitable  in 
going  from  farm  to  farm  doing  itinerant  work  in  threshing,  etc..  for  his  neighbors.  When 
moving  on  the  road,  a  self-propelling  engine  is  usually  guided  by  a  pair  of  horses,  as  shown 
on  the  following  pages,  which  represent  engines  manufactured  by  C.  &  G.  Cooper  &  Co.,  Mt. 
Vernon,  Ohio.  It  is  much  cheaper  and  more  convenient  to  guide  or  steer  an  engine  on  the 
road  by  one  or  two  horses,  than  by  any  mechanical  means;  besides,  the  horses  are  a  reserved 
force  which  may  be  employed  to  take  the  engine  along  in  case  anything  should  occur  to  render 
such  assistance  necessary,  as,  for  instance,  provided  any  part  of  the  machinery  should  get  out 
of  repair  on  the  way  to  the  field. 


FARM  TEAMS.  547 

FARM  TEAMS. 

ATE  AM  of  some  kind  is  indispensable  to  every  farm,  however  small.  And  since  it  costs  no 
more  to  maintain  a  good  team  than  a  poor  one,  the  former  will  always  be  found  the 
most  profitable.  Whatever  the  kind  of  team  employed,  the  animals  selected  for  the 
purpose  should  be  intelligent,  tractable,  gentle,  strong  and  healthy.  We  will  also  add,  that  if  to 
these  quahties  we  add  comeliness  in  form  and  color,  we  increase  their  value  very  materially, 
for  no  one  is  so  blind  to  the  sense  of  beauty  as  not  to  prefer  to  see  about  them  animals 
attractive  in  appearance  rather  than  those  that  are  unsightly  in  color,  ugly  in  form,  ungainly, 
and  awkward  in  movements,  however  desirable  they  may  be  in  other  respects.  Some  far- 
mers seem  to  think  that  the  abihty  to  perform  the  work  required  is  all  that  is  essential  in  an 
animal  for  farm  use,  utility  being  the  chief  and  only  object  sought;  but  inasmuch  as  comeli- 
ness is  to  be  preferred  to  deformity  and  unsightliness  in  everything  else,  we  see  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  apply  equally  well  here.  We  remember  an  old  farmer  in  New  England 
that,  in  our  boyhood  days,  used  for  several  years  on  his  farm  a  pair  of  the  most  unattractive 
oxen  we  ever  saw,  and  yet  the  owner  was  always  descanting  upon  their  rare  merits  for  work. 
One  was  a  brindle  with  a  wall-eye  and  short  lopped  horns,  the  other  a  red-and-white  spotted 
animal,  with  wide  branching  horns  and  a  hollow  back,  the  sight  of  the  two  together  being  about 
as  good  a  combination  of  ugliness  as  could  well  be  imagined.  We  recall  another  honest  old 
farmer  who  drove  for  years  a  horse  so  ill-looking  that  it  was  enough  to  give  one  the  night- 
mare whenever  the  beast  made  its  appearance,  and  yet  it  was  a  valuable  animal  for  work. 
Great  improvements  have  been  made  with  respect  to  farm  teams,  as  with  everything  else  per- 
taining  to  agriculture,  since  that  period,  and  yet  we  frequently  see  too  much  indifference 
manifested  by  some  farmers  in  this  respect.  Let  us  not  only  have  good  and  valuable  teams 
for  service  on  the  farm,  but  let  us  have  those  that  are  pleasing  to  look  upon,  as  well.  The 
principal  animals  used  for  the  purpose  of  farm  labor  are  the  horse,  mule,  and  ox. 

The  horse  is  usually  considered  the  best  for  all  general  purposes,  and  is  employed  more 
extensively  for  farm  work  than  either  the  mule  or  ox.  For  most  uses  the  horse  or  mule  is 
better  than  the  ox;  still,  there  are  places  where  an  ox-team  can  work  to  much  better  advant- 
age than  either  of  the  former.  Horses  are  employed  more  extensively  in  New  England  for 
farm  work  than  they  were  from  twenty  to  thirty  years  ago,  and  seem  to  be  gradually  taking 
the  place  that  the  ox-team  formerly  occupied  there;  but  in  many  sections  oxen  are  still 
preferred. 

The  mule  is  an  exceedingly  strong  animal,  and  possesses  remarkable  powers  of  endur- 
ance; besides,  it  is  easily  kept,  and  is  very  long-lived.  It  is  sure-footed  and,  when  worked 
singly,  will  often  be  preferred  to  a  horse  for  some  kinds  of  labor.  They  are  also  quicker 
than  oxen  on  the  road,  and  for  this  purpose  are  greatly  preferred  to  the  latter.  It  is,  how- 
ever, difficult  to  keep  them  in  an  enclosure,  as  they  will  leap  any  ordinary  fence.  When 
kept  on  a  farm,  it  will  be  almost  a  necessity  to  keep  them  stabled  for  this  reason,  when  not 
at  work.  Mules  are  used  quite  extensively  in  connection  with  horses,  both  in  the  Southern 
and  Western  States.  Oxen  are  very  useful  for  heavy  kinds  of  work  that  require  strength, 
patience,  and  docility,  such  as  plowing  rough  lands,  pulling  out  stumps,  drawing  off  heavy 
stones,  etc.  For  plowing  on  rough,  stony  lands  or  on  steep  hillsides,  they  have  no  superior. 
They  are  slow  travelers  when  compared  with  the  horse  or  mule;  still,  they  are  generally  very 
patient,  docile,  and  reliable,  '•  as  patient  as  an  ox  "  being  an  old  and  trite  maxim. 

Where  teaming  is  to  be  done  to  a  considerable  extent,  horses  or  mules  would  do  better 
service  than  oxen,  since  the  latter  are  so  slow  in  getting  over  the  road  and  consequently 
require  so  much  time.  Horses  are  more  expensive  to  keep  than  either  mules  or  oxen,  and 
the  cost  of  purchasing  a  good  team  of  horses  is  considerably  more  than  that  of  a  good  ox  or 
mule  team. 

34 


548  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  kind  of  team  that  is  best  for  the  farmer  to  keep  will  depend  entirely  upon  his  cir- 
cumstances, and  the  character  of  the  land  he  is  to  till.  On  some  farms  oxen,  as  we  have 
seen,  would  prove  the  most  inefficient  team  the  farmer  could  employ,  while  on  others  they 
would  prove  the  most  efficient  and  profitable. 

Horses  and  mules  are  indispensable  in  the  extensive  grain-growing  sections  of  the  coun 
try,  where  a  delay  of  a  few  days  in  the  sowing  or  harvesting  of  the  crop  might  be  attended 
with  great  loss.  On  a  small  farm,  where  the  farmer  cannot  afford  the  e.xpense  of  keeping 
horses  or  mules,  a  good  ox-team  may  perhaps  be  found  most  desirable,  all  things  being  con- 
sidered. 

The  expense  of  keeping  a  pair  of  horses  or  mules  shod  during  the  year  will  exceed  that 
of  oxen.  The  necessary  outfit  of  harnesses,  wagons,  etc.,  for  a  horse  or  mule  team  will  also 
be  considerably  more  than  that  required  for  the  ox-team,  while  the  feeding  expense  of  horses 
and  mules  is  greater  than  that  of  oxen.  The  horse  and  mule  will  depreciate  in  value  as  they 
grow  older,  until  they  finally  become  worthless,  while  an  ox  may  be  readily  fattened  and 
converted  into  beef,  bringing  a  good  price  in  the  market. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  horse  is  almost  a  necessity,  even  on  a  small  farm,  for  use  in 
travel,  and  it  might  be  that  some  farmers  would  be  so  circumstanced  that  it  would  be  more 
profitable  for  them  to  keep  an  extra  horse  to  complete  the  farm-team  than  to  keep  in  addi- 
tion a  pair  of  oxen.  Each  farmer  must  consider  his  own  individual  circumstances  and 
decide  accordingly,  as  to  what  team  is  best  adapted  to  his  use. 

The  number  and  kind  of  teams  should  always  be  suited  to  the  kind  and  amount  of 
work  to  be  performed.  On  large  farms,  where  a  large  amount  and  variety  of  labor  is  to  be 
performed,  a  large  number  of  teams  will  be  required.  It  will  not  be  economy,  however,  to 
keep  more  animals  for  this  purpose  than  are  needed  on  the  farm. 

Whatever  the  kind  of  animals  used  for  farm-teams,  they  should  always' be  humanely 
and  kindly  treated.  They  are  the  farmer's  patient  and  willing  servants,  constantly  doing  his 
bidding  in  performing  tasks  for  him,  wearing  their  lives  out  day  after  day  uncomplainingly 
in  his  service,  and  as  such  are  entitled  to  kind  consideration  and  care.  He  who  abuses  such 
faithful  servants,  or  permits  those  in  his  employ  to  do  so,  is  guilty  of  base  cruelty,  and  does 
not  deserve  to  be  benefited  by  their  labors.  There  is  no  farm  animal  but  that  can  be  best 
managed  by  kindness,  while  with  some,  such  as  a  high-spirited,  sensitive  horse,  blows  and 
harsh  words  are  often  absolutely  ruinous,  and  always  greatly  lessen  the  money  value  of  the 
animal  thus  treated. 

We  have  known  many  valuable  horses  to  have  been  rendered  vicious  and  worthless  by 
such  means.  Very  few  animals  are  naturally  vicious,  the  majority  of  those  that  are  so  having 
been  made  thus  by  improper  management.  To  some  animals  harsh  words  are  almost  as 
abusive  as  blows  and  kicks.  The  man  who  abuses  in  any  way  the  innocent  creatures  in  his 
power  deserves  to  change  places  with  them,  and  learn  from  experience  the  suffering  caused 
by  such  treatment.  Aside  from  the  humane  consideration,  animals  kindly  treated  are 
much  more  valuable  and  profitable  to  their  owners,  being  more  tractable  and  reliable;  there- 
fore for  this  reason,  if  for  no  other  (although  the  humane  principle  should  be  the  leading 
one),  every  farmer  should  feel  personally  responsible  for  the  treatment  his  animals  receive. 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING.  649 

ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING. 

THE  importance  of  having  good  roads  cannot  well  be  over-estimated;  and  since  the 
subject  of  roads  and  road-making  is  one  that  pertains  to  the  personal  interests  of 
every  farmer,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  and  roads  of  country  towns  are  made  and 
kept  in  repair  principally  by  farmers,  it  may  not  be  inappropriate  to  give  a  few  practical  sug- 
gestions relative  to  it  in  an  agricultural  work  designed  especially  for  farmers. 

In  so  doing,  we  give,  as  most  applicable  to  the  purpose,  the  larger  portion  of  an  address 
on  this  subject,  dehvered  before  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Society  not  long  since,  by  the 
editor  of  this  work,  omitting  those  parts  that  may  be  mainly  of  special  local  interest: 

It  would  be  easy  to  show  the  importance  of  this  subject  by  referring  to  the  intimate  con- 
nection which  exists  between  the  value  of  land,  the  general  prosperity  of  the  community,  and 
the  condition  of  its  roads.  Every  farmer,  every  owner  of  real  estate,  has  a  vital  interest  in 
the  perfection  of  the  roads  which  lead  to  it,  and  especially  the  roads  which  lead  from  it  to 
the  natural  market.  And  this  interest  is  a  pecuniary  one,  not  based  on  considerations  of 
comfort  merely,  but  coming  home  to  the  pocket  in  the  shape  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  teams 
and  vehicles,  and  the  amount  of  draught  required  to  move  a  load,  always  dependent,  to  a 
very  large  extent,  on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  surface  of  the  road,  and  in  the 
enhanced  value  of  a  farm  lying  on  a  thoroughly  good  highway.  So  true  is  this,  that  it  is 
no  exaggeration  to  say  that  there  can  be  no  better  test  of  the  progress  of  civilization  in  a 
community  than  the  condition  of  its  roads.  This  close  connection  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
people  and  the  perfection  of  the  means  of  communication  between  one  community  and 
another,  is  so  well  understood  in  Europe  that  good  roads  may  be  said  to  be  the  rule  there, 
and  poor  ones  the  exception — just  the  reverse  of  what  we  see  everywhere  in  this  country. 
Nor  do  we  think  if  too  much  to  say  that  the  poorest  road  we  saw  in  Switzerland,  Germany, 
and  France  is  better  than  the  best  of  our  own. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  common  roads,  though  the  original  cost,  mile  for  mile,  may  have 
been  much  less,  are  vastly  more  important  to  the  population  of  the  State  than  the  railroads. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  do  without  railroads,  to  be  sure,  and  no  doubt  put  us  to  untold  incon- 
venience, especially  as  we  have  become  accustomed  to  their  use ;  but  it  would  be  quite  impos- 
sible to  do  without  common  roads.  They  are  indispensable  to  a  civilized  community,  and 
may  be  reckoned  among  the  necessities  of  life. 

Location  of  Roads,  etc. — In  proceeding  to  treat  upon  this  subject,  we  shall  have  but 
little  to  say  in  regard  to  the  location  of  our  roads,  since,  bad  as  they  are  in  many  cases,  their 
line  was  long  since  determined,  and  new  roads  to  be  laid  out  will  always  bear  a  very  small 
proportion  to  the  old  ones.  It  ought  to  be  borne  in  mind  hereafter,  however,  when  any  new 
road  is  proposed,  that  any  reasonable  amount  of  money  spent  in  procuring  surveys  by  the 
most  competent  engineers,  will  be  the  best  investment  that  can  be  made,  rather  than  to  run 
the  location  by  "  guess-work,"  and  perhaps  eventually  involve  a  vastly  larger  expense  in  build- 
ing and  grading,  than  a  well-considered  location  would  have  cost. 

Our  roads  are  neither  laid  out  properly  nor  constructed  as  roads  ought  to  be.  The  first 
settlers  pushed  ofE  into  the  forest  to  seek  new  lands,  and  naturally  bmlt  in  elevated  situations 
to  avoid  the  miasms  of  swamps,  and  for  the  purposes  of  protection  or  greater  safety.  Their 
ways  were  foot-paths  or  bridle-paths  cut  through  the  woods,  till  they  could  clear  up  and  make 
passable  roads,  and  when  a  town  finally  grew  up,  the  roads  were  naturally  made  to  accommo- 
date its  individual  citizens.  Of  course  it  could  not  be  expected  that  they  would  be  laid  out 
in  accordance  with  any  fixed  principles,  or  with  any  reference  to  the  wants  of  a  more 
advanced  civilization.  The  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number  was  sacrificed  to  individual 
interest,  or  the  convenience  or  caprice  of  a  single  person.     It  is  time  now  that  we  had  some- 


650  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

thing  better.  And  let  us  not  boast  of  oixr  times  till  we  have  better  means  of  communication. 
It  is  a  principle  perfectly  well  established  among  engineers,  that  roads  should  be  so  sub- 
stantially constructed  that  the  cost  of  maintenance  shall  be  reduced  to  the  mmimum.  The 
fundamental  principles  of  formation  and  construction  should  be  studied  and  understood  by 
every  road-builder,  and  observed  in  all  localities,  though  they  may  not  admit  of  so  complete 
application  in  a  thinly-settled  district  as  in  the  vicinity  of  a  city  where  the  travel  is  greater, 
and  the  means  of  construction  more  abundant. 

One  of  these  general  principles  is  that  the  nearer  the  location  of  the  road  approximates 
to  a  straight  and  level  line,  the  better;  but  a  straight  line  which  does  not  at  the  same  time 
admit  of  a  level  profile  will  often  lose  the  advantage  of  being  the  shortest  distance  between 
two  places.  It  did  not  occur  to  the  projectors  of  our  earlier  roads  and  of  our  turnpikes,  that 
the  handle  of  a  pail  or  a  kettle  is  no  longer  when  it  lies  at  rest  in  a  horizontal  position  than 
when  held  upright.  They  did  not  know  that  while  a  horse  on  a  level  is  as  strong  as  five  men, 
on  a  steep  hill  he  is  not  so  strong  as  three;  for  three  men  with  a  hundred  pounds  each  will 
ascend  a  hill  faster  than  a  horse  with  three  himdred  pounds.  Straightness  of  line  should 
always  be  sacrificed  to  obtain  a  level  or  to  avoid  a  steep  and  heavy  grade. 

A  road  curving  around  a  hill  will  often  be  no  longer  than  a  straight  one  over  it,  for  this 
latter  is  called  straight  only  because  its  curvature  is  less  apparent  to  the  eye,  and  compared 
with  a  horizonal  plane  it  is  decidedly  crooked.  And  after  all,  the  difference  in  length  of  a 
straight  and  slightly  curved  or  winding  road  is  small,  for  taking  two  places  ten  miles  apart 
with  a  road  curving  so  that  you  could  nowhere  see  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mUe  of  it  at 
once,  and  its  length  would  exceed  a  perfectly  straight  road  between  the  two  places  by  only 
a  hundred  and  fifty  yards. 

It  has  been  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  you  may  increase  the  length  of  a  road  to 
avoid  a  hill  to  twenty  times  the  height  that  is  to  be  saved  by  such  increase;  that  is,  to  save  a 
hill  a  hundred  feet  high,  it  is  better  to  go  two  thousand  feet  around  it,  &§d  even  then  you'll 
find  "the  longest  way  round  the  shortest  way  home."  "We  see,  therefore,  that  straightness, 
though  very  desirable  when  it  can  be  had,  is  by  no  means  the  highest  characteristic  of  a  good 
road.  It  is  far  more  important  that  it  should  be  level,  for  unless  we  have  a  level  surface,  a 
large  part  of  the  strength  of  the  team  must  be  spent  in  raising  the  load  up  the  hill,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  friction  to  be  overcome.  To  draw  a  load  up  an  incline,  the  resistance  of  the  force 
of  gravity  is  as  great  an  addition  to  the  whole  weight  of  the  load,  as  the  height  of  the  incline 
added  to  its  length,  so  that  an  incline  of  one  foot  in  twenty  requires  the  team  to  lift  up  by 
main  strength  one-twentieth  of  the  whole  weight  in  addition  to  overcoming  the  friction 
caused  by  the  entire  load. 

But  leaving  the  location  and  the  construction  of  new  roads,  as  coming  more  properly 
within  the  province  of  the  professional  road  engineer,  we  call  attention  to  a  few  of  the  more 
striking  and  common  mistakes  in  the  mending  and  care  of  country  roads,  faults  which  seem 
to  arise  from  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  first  principles  of  road-making  on  the  part  of  those 
intrusted  with  the  supervision  of  the  highways. 

Form  of  the  Road-Bed. — Over  a  gravelly  and  hilly  country,  and  over  a  flat  country 
with  a  stiff  or  clayey  soil,  no  one  would  hesitate  to  say  that  the  road-bed  should  be  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  sides,  and  crowned  suGBciently  to  shed  the  water;  but  the  error,  aston- 
ishingly prevalent,  is  to  finish  them  in  a  convex  curve  forming  an  arc  of  a  circle  with  the 
center  raised  a  foot,  and  often  eighteen  inches  or  more,  and  the  curvature  at  the  sides  so 
abrupt  as  to  make  it  dangerous  to  turn  out  on  meeting  a  carriage,  and  always  giving  the 
driver  a  feeling  of  insecurity.  "We  do  not  refer  to  the  elevation  above  the  surrounding  land, 
but  simply  to  the  shape  of  the  road-bed,  the  elevation  of  the  center  above  the  sides,  or  what 
might  be  called  the  "  transverse  profile  "  of  the  traveled  part  of  the  road  itself. 

To  show  that  this  is  no  uncommon  occurrence,  we  may  mention  that  the  county  cdmmis- 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING.  551 

Bioners  of  one  of  our  large  counties,  only  two  or  three  years  ago,  in  making  the  specifications 
for  a  road  only  twenty  feet  wide,  required  that  the  road  should  "crown  "  in  the  center  no  less 
than  eighteen  inches,  or  one  and  one-half  in  ten,  and  no  amount  of  reasoning  could  lead  them 
to  reduce  this  enormous  convexity.  Is  it  not  time  for  the  law  to  step  in  and  define  what  the 
transverse  profile  of  a  road  ought  to  be  for  a  given  width? 

Let  us  see  the  results  of  this  serious  error.  The  convexity  is  so  great  that  the  center  of 
the  road  is  the  only  place  where  a  carriage  stands  upright.  The  travel,  therefore,  clings  to 
the  middle  of  the  road,  wearing  one  path  for  the  horse,  and  two  ruts  for  the  wheels,  thus 
wearing  the  road  down  very  unevenly. 

The  water,  therefore,  invariably  stands  on  the  middle  of  the  road,  while  it  is  constantly 
washing  away  the  sides.  A  road  ought  to  be  formed  so  as  to  induce  travel  over  all  parts  of 
It.  But  with  this  great  convexity,  whenever  a  carriage  is  compelled  to  turn  to  the  sides,  it 
causes  great  additional  wear  on  account  of  sUding  down  the  sides,  while  by  this  sliding 
tendency,  being  at  right  angles  to  the  Une  of  draught,  the  labor  of  the  horse  and  the  wear  of 
wheels  is  very  greatly  increased.  The  evil  of  too  great  convexity  is  manifold,  and  a  vastly 
better  form  is  that  of  two  inclined  planes  meeting  at  the  center,  with  the  angle  of  jimction  at 
the  top  slightly  rounded  by  a  curve.  Of  course  the  exact  incUnation  will  depend  much  on 
the  character  of  the  surface,  and  the  width  of  the  road.  A  very  rough  and  bad  surface  will 
require  a  greater  incline  than  a  hard  smooth  face,  but  no  road  should  ever  be  allowed  to  be 
so  rough  as  to  require  a  transverse  inchnation  greater  than  one  in  twenty,  which,  for  a  road- 
bed twenty  feet  wide,  would  make  the  center  six  inches  higher  than  the  sides. 

With  broken  stone  or  a  hard  unyielding  surface,  a  proper  medium  of  one  in  twenty- four 
is  adopted,  or  half  an  inch  to  a  foot.  Telford,  the  most  successful  and  noted  road-builder  of 
England,  adopted  one  in  thirty,  or  six  inches  curve  in  a  road  thirty  feet  wide,  and  MacAdam 
fixed  one  upon  one  in  thirty-six,  and  sometimes  as  slight  as  one  in  sixty,  or  only  three  inches 
crown  in  a  thirty-feet  road. 

The  transverse  slope  should  increase  with  the  longitudinal  inclination,  and  should  always 
a  little  exceed  it  in  order  to  prevent  water  from  running  down  the  length  of  the  road  to  gully 
it  out,  but  it  must  be  apparent  that  no  practicable  amount  of  crowning  or  convexity  would  serve 
to  carry  the  water  from  the  slightest  rut,  not  even  if  it  were  only  an  inch  deep.  And  hence 
MacAdam  testified  before  a  committee  of  ParHament,  saying:  —  "I  consider  a  road  should 
be  as  flat  as  possible  with  regard  to  allowing  the  water  to  run  off  it  at  all.  I  have  generally 
made  roads  three  inches  higher  in  the  center  than  at  the  sides,  when  they  are  eighteen  feet 
wide."  Now,  a  dirt  or  even  a  gravel  road  may  require  a  little  greater  inclination  than  the 
solid  surface  of  broken  stone,  but  if  the  road  is  so  neglected  as  to  have  a  soft  or  loamy  sur- 
face, no  amount  of  convexity  will  shed  the  water,  and  a  very  convex  surface  will  invariably 
hold  the  more  water. 

It  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  any  convexity  at  all  is  a  necessary  evil,  and 
that  the  less  that  it  can  be  made,  and  accomplish  its  object,  the  better  for  the  travel. 

Removing  Obstructions  from  Roads.  —  Analogous  to  the  previously -mentioned 
fault  is  the  practice,  often  seen  on  a  wide  road  and  through  a  village  street,  of  dumping 
down  along  the  center  of  the  highway  a  kind  of  winrow  of  material,  whether  loam  or 
gravel,  eight  or  ten  feet  wide  and  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  thick,  and  sometimes  more  in 
the  middle,  designed  to  form  a  crown  to  the  road.  If  you  ask  what  that  is  for,  you  will  be 
likely  to  be  told,  that  it  will  all  flatten  down  in  a  few  months,  and  that  it  is  the  best  way  to 
drain  the  water  off.  You  will  observe  that  it  drives  the  teams  off  to  one  side,  often  com- 
pelling  them  to  cut  up  the  grass  along  the  gutters.  It  requires  no  argument  to  show  that 
this  is  all  wrong,  both  in  principle  and  in  fact,  for  this  mass  of  stuff  acts  more  like  a  sponge 
than  like  a  duck's  back,  and  you  can  never  expect  to  make  a  permanently  good  road  by  leav- 
ing the  surface  in  that  way. 


552  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

And  this  leads  to  another  most  common  defect,  which  arises  from  the  custom  of  semi- 
annual repairs,  and  that  is  the  neglect  to  pick  up  and  remove  the  small  loose  stones  that  are 
constantly  working  up  through  the  improperly-applied  material  to  lie  on  the  surface,  to  ham- 
mer up  the  road-bed  at  every  blow  of  the  wheel,  and  to  endanger  life  and  limb.  Hard,  firm 
rocks  projecting  above  the  surface  are  bad  enough,  and  cause  the  resistance  of  collision:  but 
other  inequalities,  loose  round  stones  and  other  loose  materials,  striking  against  the  wheels, 
are  far  worse,  for  they  cause  great  loss  of  momentum  and  waste  of  the  power  of  draught,  for 
the  carriage  has  to  be  lifted  up  over  them  by  the  leverage  of  the  wheels.  Any  town  that 
fails  to  remove  such  obstacles  promptly  and  often,  ought  at  least  to  be  reported  to  the  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  (/ruelty  to  Animals.  No  money  can  be  better  invested  than  in  fre- 
•  quently  removing  the  loose  stones  always  to  be  found  in  a  badly-constructed  road,  and  in 
snow  ploughs  for  a  prompt  removal  of  snow  in  winter. 

Drainage  for  Roads. — Perhaps  the  most  common  defect  to  be  observed  in  the 
methods  of  making  repairs  upon  roads  is  the  total  want  of  any  proper  attention  to  the 
drainage.  You  will  see  whole  miles  of  roadway  perfectly  water-logged  in  spring,  making  it 
very  difficult  for  light  carriages  to  pass  over  them,  and  for  heavily-loaded  teams  quite  impos- 
sible.    The  treatment  for  such  sections  requires  to  be  radical. 

They  need  to  be  reconstructed,  and  it  requires  quite  as  much  skill  and  judgment  to  recon- 
struct properly  roads  that  have  been  badly  built,  as  it  does  to  make  good  roads  in  the  first  place, 
and  probably  more.  But  drainage  is  one  of  the  things  that  can  be  carried  out  in  the  course 
of  repairing  without  any  very  serious  outlay  over  and  above  what  it  would  have  cost  to 
have  drained  them  properly  in  the  original  construction  of  the  roads. 

There  is  no  one  point  in  which  our  highways  are  so  lamentably  defective  as  in  being 
wet  at  the  foundation.  They  need  thorough  drainage  as  the  first  step  to  any  possible  improve- 
ment in  their  permanent  condition,  and  thorough  drainage  alone  wiU  in  many  cases  make  a 
good  road  out  of  a  bad  one,  while  without  it  no  amount  of  labor  will  result  in  pcnuanent 
improvement. 

In  many  cases,  hundreds  of  cartloads  of  gravel  will  be  dumped  in  to  fill  up  a  sinking 
slough,  when  perhaps  half  the  money  spent  in  drainage  would  have  remedied  the  evil. 

As  a  general  rule,  there  ought  to  be  two  independent  systems  of  drainage  for  most  com- 
mon roads,  one  to  control  the  surface  water  by  moans  of  side  ditches  and  culverts  wherever 
needed,  and  another  to  drain  the  foundation  on  which  the  surface  or  shell  of  the  road-bed 
rests.  For  this  latter,  under-drains  are  most  serviceable  and  properly-laid  tile-drains  on  the 
whole  the  cheapest,  because  they  are  most  durable  and  effective,  and,  being  laid  below  tbe 
frost,  they  continue  to  operate  when  the  surface  is  frozen,  and  allow  the  road  to  settle  when 
the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground  in  spring  without  an  entire  breaking  up  of  the  surface  cov- 
ing, to  the  infinite  inconvenience  of  the  public.  Of  course,  this  work,  wherever  it  is  done,  is 
in  the  nature  of  a  permanent  improvement,  and  could  not  generally  be  undertaken  by  a  small 
and  poor  town  on  all  its  roads  at  once,  but  by  taking  a  portion,  or  the  worst  portions,  from 
year  to  year,  and  doing  them  well,  the  roads  in  such  a  town  would,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  begin  to  wear  an  entirely  different  aspect. 

Catch-Waters,  or  Bars. — One  of  the  very  common  errors  in  the  manner  of  con- 
structing catch-waters  or  bars  on  steep  grades,  and  one  which  often  causes  the  traveUer  no 
little  inconvenience,  is  to  make  them  too  high,  and  crossing  the  road  often  diagonally,  so  that 
the  wheels  strike  them  at  different  times  with  a  shock  sometimes  sufHcient  to  unseat  the 
driver.  If  raised  too  high,  also,  they  become  dangerous  for  the  horse.  They  should  be 
made  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  V,  with  the  point  directed  up  the  ascent,  so  as  to  divide  the 
water. 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING.  653 

Repairing  Roads. — Another  very  serious  mistake  in  mending  our  roads,  or  rather 
in  attempting  to  mend  them,  is  to  plow  up  the  side  ditches  and  throw  the  material,  sods,  sand 
and  manure,  which  the  rains  have  washed  o9  into  them,  back  into  the  center  of  the  drive- way. 
Absurd  as  this  practice  appears,  it  is  quite  too  common  in  our  country  roads,  and  that,  too,  in 
many  cases  where  good  road-material  is  easily  accessible.  The  consequence  of  it  is,  that  the 
first  rains  convert  this  loose  organic  material,  vastly  better  for  a  top-dressing  for  grass  than 
for  the  surface  of  a  road,  into  a  perfect  slough  of  mud,  and  a  hard  rain  washes  it  back  into  the 
ditch.  In  a  dry  season  this  material  becomes  a  perfect  bed  of  dust,  annoying  to  the  traveler, 
destructive  to  vehicles,  and  about  as  bad  as  the  mud  itself.  No  strength  of  language  is  ade- 
quate to  do  justice  to  the  iniquity  of  this  bad  practice,  and  the  surveyor  who  allows  it  ought 
to  be  complained  of  as  an  enemy  to  society. 

Nothing  is  more  certain,  nothing  better  established  by  the  experience  of  engineers  and 
of  practical  men,  than  that  a  solid  and  unyielding  foundation  is  one  of  the  first  requisites  for 
a  good  road.  And  yet,  to  throw  such  material  as  sods  and  sand  and  loam  into  the  road 
from  the  sides,  even  if  it  is  designed  to  cover  it  with  a  coating  of  gravel,  is  utterly  destruct- 
ive to  the  foundation  of  the  road.  All  such  stuff  should  be  carefully  thrown  out  of  the 
road-bed,  as  the  first  and  most  important  step  in  laying  the  foundation.  The  loose  stones 
that  have  from  time  to  time  been  picked  from  the  surface  and  thrown  aside  to  be  an  eyesore 
to  every  man  of  taste  who  travels  there,  constitute  an  infinitely  better  road-material  than  the 
soil  on  which  they  lie.  Sods  and  turf  are  often  deceptively  tough,  and  they  seem  "so 
handy  "  to  fill  a  hole  or  a  rut  with,  that  they  are  used  for  the  purpose  without  considering  that 
they  rapidly  decay  and  work  down  into  soft  mud.  But  some  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  fiU 
up  the  deep  ruts  with  stones,  put  in  and  covered  up  in  such  a  way  as  to  conceal  them  at  first, 
but  so  that  they  never  wear  uniformly  with  the  rest  of  the  road,  but  appear  in  hard  ridges 
and  bumps. 

And  here  we  must  condemn  the  promiscuous  use  of  the  plow  and  the  scraper  in  repair- 
ing roads.  Common  as  they  are,  they  should  never  be  used  in  crowning  up  a  road  from  the 
sides,  and  perhaps  the  only  place  where  they  should  ever  be  tolerated  on  the  road  is  in 
loosening  and  removing  the  tops  of  hills  to  reduce  the  grade  by  taking  off  the  gravel,  for 
their  work,  though  large  in  quantity,  is  very  poor  in  quality,  and,  in  fact,  destructive  to  the 
condition  of  the  road ;  for  the  one  breaks  up  the  surface  and  the  shoulders  of  the  road  which 
time  and  travel  may  have  sohdified,  while  the  scraper  drags  up  from  the  side  ditches  the 
soft  alluvial  matter  previously  washed  into  them,  and  leaves  it  upon  the  road,  the  very  place 
of  all  others  where  it  is  never  wanted  and  never  should  be  allowed. 

We  shall  find,  on  inquiry,  that  the  most  common  reason  given  as  to  why  this  vegetable 
matter  is  used  is,  that  there  is  no  suitable  material  handy.  In  some  cases,  like  sandy  loca- 
tions and  where  long  stretches  of  country  occur,  destitute  of  rocks  and  gravel,  there  is,  no 
doubt,  some  shadow  of  reason  in  this  excuse;  but  we  have  often  heard  it  where  plenty  of 
good  gravel  could  be  had,  within  a  hundred  rods,  almost  for  the  carting.  And  how  easy  it 
would  be,  in  most  sections,  to  remedy  the  difiiculty  by  employing  men  by  the  year,  to  be 
always  on  hand  to  keep  up  the  roads  and  to  keep  an  abundance  of  material,  crushed  rocks, 
screened  gravel,  etc.,  on  hand  for  u»e  in  various  parts  of  the  town. 

Would  it  not  be  better  economy  for  some  towns  to  invest  a  few  hundred  dollars  in  a 
good  stone-crusher  and  a  heavy  roller,  to  be  kept  on  the  town-farm  for  use  on  the  roads,  than 
to  pay  men  a  dollar  or  two  dollars  a  day  to  stand  out  their  road-tax,  leaning  upon  their  hoe- 
handles  upon  the  road  ?  There  are  stone-crushers  that  will  crush  a  ton  of  boulders  an  hour 
with  a  ten-horse-power  engine,  with  the  help  of  three  or  four  men  to  throw  the  stones  into 
the  hopper  and  clear  away  the  fragments. 

Crushed  stone  forms  one  of  the  best  materials  for  a  road-bed,  being  firm  and  unyielding, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  such  as  is  easily  kept  in  repair.     A  heavy  roller,  for  solidifying  the 


554  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

material  and  evening  the  surface,  is  essential  in  the  proper  construction  and  repairing  of 
good  roads. 

Objections  to  the  Connnon  System  Relative  to  the  Construction  and 

Care  of  Roads.  —  One  of  the  striking  evils  of  the  present  system,  sanctioned  by  the 
statutes  of  many  States  for  the  building  and  care  of  roads,  is  the  want  of  uniformity.  One 
town  takes  a  pride  in  its  roads,  spends  money  freely,  adopts  a  progressive  plan  of  operations, 
and  really  secures  very  passable  highways;  and  if  aU  the  adjoining  towns  would  do  the  same 
the  traveler  on  a  long  line  of  main  road  could  get  along  very  well.  But  the  next  town,  per- 
haps, shirks  its  duty  to  the  public,  works  out  its  highway  tax  by  labor  (a  plan  most  skillfully 
devised  to  accomplish  nothing),  does  as  little  as  possible  to  enable  it  to  just  graze  within  the 
letter  of  the  law,  and  the  great  pubhc  has  to  sufEer  accordingly. 

Now,  we  will  see  what  will  be  the  result.  There  may  be  a  long  stretch  of  road  over 
which  a  team  could  easily  carry  a  ton,  or  perhaps  two  tons.  But  in  some  part  of  the  line 
over  which  the  traveler  has  to  pass,  there  is  a  long,  steep,  and  rocky  hill,  up  which  the  team 
can  draw  only  a  half  or  a  quarter  part  as  much  as  it  can  easily  draw  on  a  level,  hard,  and 
unyielding  surface.  The  consequence  is  thaf  on  account  of  this  one  steep  inchne,  or  it  may 
be  more,  the  load  can  be  only  one-quarter  or  one-half  as  much  as  could  have  beeli  easily 
drawn,  but  for  such  an  obstacle.  The  teamster,  therefore,  loses  a  large  part  of  the  advantage 
of  the  good  portion  of  the  road,  because  he  must  reduce  his  load  to  what  can  be  carried  up 
the  one  or  two  miserable  hills  which  he  must  chmb  before  reaching  the  end  of  his  journey. 

We  have,  therefore,  the  general  proposition,  that  steep  ascents,  being  always  injurious, 
become  especially  so  when  they  occur  on  a  long  road  which  is  comparatively  level.  In  such 
a  case,  it  becomes  vastly  more  important  to  avoid  or  lessen  the  slope,  or  else  to  perfect  its 
surface.  But  it  lies  in  a  town  which  does  not  care  enough  about  its  roads  to  improve  them 
by  reducing  the  hill,  and  the  whole  community  has  to  suffer.  If  it  costs  the  teamster  more 
to  transport  produce,  both  producers  and  consumers  of  that  produce  are  obliged  eventually 
to  pay  that  cost. 

And  why  should  the  condition  of  our  great  highways,  which  constitute  so  very  important 
an  element  of  the  wealth,  the  comfort,  and  the  safety  of  the  whole  public,  be  allowed  to 
depend  on  the  short-sighted  views  of  economy,  or  perhaps  the  indolence  or  indifference  of 
every  small  town  through  which  the  roads  may  happen  to  pass  ? 

Another  great  objection  to  the  present  system  is  that  it  allows  towns  to  elect  a  multitude 
of  surveyors  without  reference  to  their  competency,  who  cannot  by  any  possibility  manage 
the  money  appropriated  with  that  degree  of  economy,  comprehensive  foresight,  and  wisdom 
of  one  thoroughly  competent  and  skillful  road  engineer  or  superintendent. 

The  town  meeting  comes,  and  the  people  are  called  to  vote  for  surveyors  of  highways, 
often  without  any  previous  consultation  as  to  the  competency  of  men  to  fill  the  position, 
perhaps  by  nomination  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  and  many  are  chosen  who  have  no  ade- 
quate conception  of  the  manner  of  performing  the  responsible  duty  assigned  to  them.  Each 
has  a  certain  district  allotted  to  him,  and  not  unfrequently,  having  an  idea  of  fixing  the  road 
near  his  own  place,  he  takes  measures  to  procure  the  appointment  for  the  special  purpose  of 
working  on  the  road  near  home.  The  object  is  to  do  just  enough  to  prevent  the  road  from 
breaking  his  neck  —  an  object  altogether  too  selfish  to  admit  of  a  proper  regard  to  the  public 
good.  What  better  illustration  could  there  be  of  the  old  adage  that  "  what  is  everybody's 
business  is  nobody's  ? "  Instead  of  doing  a  work  which,  of  all  others,  has  its  times  and 
seasons  fixed  by  natural  laws,  they  do  it  "when  it  comes  handy,"  after  the  spring  work  is 
over,  or  at  any  other  leisure  time  that  will  most  suit  their  own  convenience.  There  are,  there 
can  be,  no  continuous  repairs.  "  A  stitch  in  time  "  has  no  apphcation  here.  The  fact  that  a 
dollar  judiciously  spent  in  repairs  in  April,  or  when  the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground,  is 
worth  more  than  two  in  June  or  July,  and  more  than  three,  or  even  five,  at  a  later  date,  is 
of  no  significance  where  this  plan  is  adopted. 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKING.  555 

Now,  if  this  mode  of  management  afiected  only  the  town  which  adopted  and  persisted 
in  it,  the  evil  would  be  of  comparatively  smaU  consequence;  but  the  main  roads  through  a 
town  are  often  great  thoroughfares  between  other  important  points,  so  that  the  whole  com- 
munity suffers,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  for  the  want  of  an  efScient  head  to  do  the  thinking 
and  the  planning  for  the  roads  in  such  a  town. 

The  worst  feature  of  the  whole  is,  that  no  amount  of  ability  or  faithfulness  displayed  in 
the  performance  of  the  duties  of  a  surveyor  will  insure  his  continuance  in  oflBce  over  one 
year.  If  he  does  his  duty  by  making  a  good  road,  he  will  be  quite  sure  to  lose  the  position. 
All  his  experience,  study,  and  observation  will  be  lost  to  the  public  when  another  takes  his 
turn  to  undo  what  the  former  has  done,  and  begins  his  apprenticeship  at  the  expense  of  the 
public,  and  of  the  condition  of  the  road  itself.  In  other  occupations,  an  apprenticeship,  often 
of  some  years,  used  to  be  thought  requisite  to  authorize  a  man  to  set  up  business;  but  a  sur- 
veyor, the  moment  he  is  chosen,  is  presumed  to  be  fit  to  direct  works  which  often  require 
much  scientific  attainment,  great  skill,  and  intelligence. 

Besides,  the  hasty  appointment  of  surveyors,  and  the  assignment  of  districts  to  each, 
with  a  specific  amount  of  money  to  spend,  leads  to  another  kind  of  wastefulness.  Some  dis- 
tricts may  have  money  to  spare  from  the  want  of  any  knowledge  or  inclination  to  put  it  into 
permanent  improvements,  while  others  have  too  little.  In  one  district,  teams  will  often  be  • 
standing  idle  with  a  surplus  of  men,  while,  perhaps,  in  another  there  is  a  want  of  both. 
How  can  you  expect  any  harmony  of  action  with  twenty  or  thirty  men  to  do  the  work  of 
one  first-class,  competent  superintendent  ? 

And  again,  that  part  of  the  present  plan  recognized  by  the  law  by  which  the  taxes  are 
or  may  be  worked  o^d,  is  altogether  out  of  date.  It  is  unsound  in  principle,  as  GUlespie  says, 
wasteful  in  practice,  and  altogether  unsatisfactory  in  its  results;  a  remnant  of  the  times  of 
feudal  vassalage,  when  the  tenure  of  land  required  the  farmer  to  make  the  roads  passable  for 
the  troops  of  the  lord  of  the  manor.  And  how  absurd  it  appears,  on  a  moment's  reflection. 
Men  who  may  be  skillful  enough  in  their  own  occupations  are  taken  for  the  performance  of 
work  of  which  oftentimes  they  know  absolutely  nothing.  A  good  plowman  is  not  necessarily 
a  good  watchmaker,  and  yet  to  build  a  good  road  requires  more  thought,  more  skill,  more 
scientific  knowledge  than  to  make  a  good  watch,  for  the  latter  is  an  operation  chiefly  mechan- 
ical, while  the  former  often  demands  the  highest  engineering  attainment,  and  to  spend  money 
with  the  greatest  degree  of  economy,  even  in  repairing  a  common  road,  requires  much  judg- 
ment, knowledge  of  materials,  and  practical  experience  in  using  and  applying  them.  And 
yet  the  law  presumes  that  every  man  is  competent  to  build  a  road  ! 

Is  it  any  wonder  that  there  is  a  universal  complaint  of  its  utter  ineflBciency  ?  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  we  have  to  wade  through  mud  and  mire  in  the  spring  and  through  dust  in  the 
summer,  stumbling  over  rocks,  with  the  endless  wear  and  tear  of  carriages,  horses  and  teams, 
and  that  we  suffer  the  discomforts  and  annoyances  which  traveling  over  such  roads  implies  ? 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  defects  of  the  system,  yet  many  others  might  be  enmnerated  in 
this  connection. 

Now,  how  shall  they  be  remedied  or  removed  ?  It  would  seem  that  the  change  ought 
to  be  radical,  that  the  medicine  could  hardly  be  too  strong  to  meet  so  serious  a  case  of  disease; 
but  lest  the  general  sentiment  of  the  community  should  not  be  found  educated  up  to  such  a 
treatment,  we  will  allude  to  one  or  two  milder,  half-way  measures  at  first,  which  would  clearly 
be  an  improvement  upon  the  present  state  of  things,  and  then  say  what  seems  to  us  to  be 
required  to  effect  a  complete  change  in  the  present  system. 

At  first  the  law  might  require  that  the  whole  supervision  of  roads  should  be  vested  in  the 
board  of  selectmen,  who  should  be  obliged  to  appoint  a  thoroughly  competent  superintendent, 
who  should  hold  his  ofBce  for  a  term  of  years,  not  less  than  three,  and  perhaps  not  more  than 
five,  subject  to  removal  only  for  good  cause  shown,  to  whom  should  be  committed  the  entire 


556  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

responsibility  of  the  repairs  of  roads,  and  who  should  have  a  suflBcient  force  of  workmen  con- 
stantly employed  to  make  permanent  improvements,  and  to  keep  up  the  roads.  Nothing  is 
better  or  more  clearly  proved  by  the  experience  of  the  past,  than  that  the  plan  of  annual  or 
semi-annual  repairs  is  totally  inadequate  to  keep  up  the  roads,  though  it  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  expensive  and  wasteful  of  the  public  money. 

It  might  be  well,  also,  to  require  by  law  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  money  raised  should 
be  devoted  to  making  permanent  improvements,  using  the  balance  each  year  to  keep  up  such 
parts  of  the  ways  as  could  stand  the  delay,  picking  out  loose  stones  and  otherwise  keeping 
them  in  a  passable  condition  till  their  turn  came  for  a  more  perfect  treatment. 

This  would  be  one  plan.  Another  would  be  to  authorize  or  require  the  towns  to  elect  a 
road-master,  under  whose  direction  all  the  surveyors  for  the  year,  whatever  the  number  might 
be,  should  work,  and  to  whom  alone  they  should  be  responsible  after  their  election  by  the 
town.  He  should  also  be  elected  for  a  term  of  years  with  a  liberal  salary,  to  be  fixed  either 
by  the  law  or  by  the  town  at  the  time  of  his  election.  He  should  be  required  to  give  his 
personal  attention  to  all  the  important  alterations  or  repairs  of  the  highways,  and  generally 
direct  the  time  and  manner  of  the  performance  of  all  labor  done  on  the  roads  by  the  sur- 
veyors or  those  under  their  employ,  reporting  in  writing  at  the  annual  to-mi  meeting  with  a 
statement  of  what  had  been  done,  and  suggesting  the  requirements  of  the  road  for  the  future. 

Another  plan  would  be  to  authorize  the  towns  to  elect  a  board  of  perhaps  three  commis- 
sioners, in  the  same  manner  as  school  committees,  who  should  hold  their  office  for  a  term  of 
years,  to  whom  should  be  committed  the  whole  supervision  of  the  roads,  and  who,  so  far  as 
the  construction,  laying  out,  and  repair  of  roads  go,  should  hold  the  position  already  sug- 
gested with  refei-ence  to  the  selectmen.  Being  chosen  with  special  reference  to  fitness  for  the 
position,  they  might  be  more  competent  than  any  board  of  selectmen  chosen  for  other  and 
more  general  duties. 

Another  still  better  plan,  perhaps,  would  be  to  authorize  or  require  the  towns  to  appoint 
a  skillful  road  engineer,  with  all  powers,  rights,  and  duties  suggested  for  the  superintendent, 
and  which  are  now  exercised  by  the  highway  surveyors.  He  should  be  required  to  perform 
all  the  duties  relating  to  laying  out,  altering,  and  repairing  the  highways,  which  now  devolve 
upon  the  selectmen.  His  plans  might  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board  of  selectmen, 
if  thought  best,  or  be  submitted  to  the  town  for  acceptance. 

Still  another  plan  would  be  to  require  each  town  to  appoint  an  inspector  of  roads,  to  act 
in  concert  with  two,  three,  or  more  similar  inspectors  from  adjoining  towns,  and  also  three 
agents  in  each  town  to  make  the  repairs  of  roads,  one  to  have  the  entire  charge  of  repairs  on 
the  main  roads,  for  instance,  and  the  other  two  to  have  control  of  needed  repairs  on  cross- 
roads, all  the  roads  being  divided,  perhaps,  for  convenience,  into  first  and  second-class. 

The  three,  four,  or  five  inspectors  so  appointed  should  be  required  to  pass  over  the  main 
roads  in  company  with  the  agents,  and  point  out  to  them  in  detail  the  manner  in  which  the 
roads  should  be  repaired.  To  save  time  and  money,  the  inspector  for  each  town  might  have 
the  supervision  of  the  cross-roads  in  his  own  town,  and  the  same  direction  over  the  agents 
having  charge  of  those  roads  which  the  board  of  inspectors  had  over  the  agent  having  charge 
of  the  main  roads.  After  the  repairs  are  made,  it  should  be  the  duty  of  the  inspectors  to 
pass  over  the  roads  and  see  that  the  work  has  been  properly  done,  with  the  power  of  accept- 
ance or  rejection,  according  to  circumstances.  These  inspectors  might  be  chosen  by  the 
towns  or  appointed  by  the  selectmen,  and  in  case  an  agent  proved  himself  to  be  incompetent, 
the  inspectors  should  be  required  to  report  him  to  the  selectmen,  who  should  be  empowered 
to  discharge  him  and  appoint  a  temporary  agent  in  his  place. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  simple  changes  that  might  be  made  to  secure  greater  efficiency, 
the  labor-tax  of  the  commutation  system  being  entirely  abolished  in  either  case.  They  are 
at  best  only  half-way  measures,  and  liable  to  some  of  the  objections  of  the  present  system, 


ROADS  AND  ROAD-MAKLSTG. 


557 


558  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER 

such  as  local  prejudices  and  interests,  and  political  strife  and  rivalry  in  the  election  or  choice 
of  the  officers  suggested,  by  which  the  best  interests  of  the  pubUc  might  in  some  cases  be 
sacrificed  to  party  intrigues. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  plan  insures  a  constant  oversight  over  all  the  roads,  and  this, 
after  the  roads  are  once  properly  constructed,  is  unquestionably  the  best  economy,  and  costs 
less,  in  a  series  of  years,  than  that  of  semi-annual  repairs.  It  is  the  only  way,  in  fact,  by 
which  a  road  can  be  kept  constantly  in  good  condition. 

Now,  after  aU,  as  we  have  stated,  the  plans  which  have  been  suggested  are  what  might 
be  called  only  half-way  measures,  which  might  be  adopted  as  modifications  of  the  present 
system,  with  the  understanding  that  the  fundamental  principle  which  underlies  them  all,  and 
which  is  based  on  the  truest  and  most  far-sighted  economy,  is  "  to  sacrifice  a  portion  of  the 
resources  of  the  road,  or  the  money  raised  for  roads,  to  insure  the  good  and  judicious  employ- 
ment of  the  remainder." 

A  far  better  plan,  it  seems  to  me,  is  that  suggested  in  one  of  the  prize  essays  on  this 
subject,  published  by  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture: — 

"For  the  efficient  and  economical  maintenance  of  the  public  roads,  it  is  essential  that 
there  be  a  uniform  system  of  management  common  to  the  whole  State.  The  first  step 
towards  a  complete  reform  of  system  would  be  the  creation  of  a  State  department  of  roads 
and  bridges,  to  have  general  charge  of  aU  the  roads,  to  arrange  and  direct  the  carrying  out 
of  the  details,  and  generally  to  look  to  the  effective  working  of  the  system. 

The  chief  of  the  department  should  be  a  practical  civil  engineer,  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  art  of  road-making.  For  the  pui-poses  of  proper  supervision,  the  State  might  be 
divided  into  districts,  say  by  coxmties,  and  these  again  into  sub-districts,  larger  or  smaller,  as 
might  be  found  expedient. 

There  should  be  a  resident  engineer  or  superintendent  for  each  district,  to  have  charge 
and  ovei-sight  of  the  roads  and  bridges  within  his  district,  and  to  be  held  accoimtable  to  the 
chief  of  the  department. 

He  will  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  roads  in  his  district,  determine  what  improvements 
are  to  be  made,  and  in  what  order,  decide  upon  the  kinds  and  amount  of  work  to  be  done, 
estimate  the  sums  needed  to  carry  it  on,  and  at  stated  periods  report  the  same,  with  all  the 
matters  pertaining  to  his  office,  to  the  chief  of  the  department. 

For  each  sub-district  there  will  be  required  an  assistant-engineer  or  road-master,  subor- 
dinate to  the  resident  of  the  district,  to  manage  the  working  details  within  the  limits  assigned. 
As  the  improvements  progress,  these  sub-districts  may  be  enlarged  and  the  number  of  subor- 
dinates reduced,  so  that  each  and  all  shall  always  have  work  enough  to  keep  them  occupied." 


FARM  ROADS. 

EOADS  leading  from  one  part  of  the  farm  to  another  aie  a  great  convenience,  and 
the  benefits  derived  from  them  amply  repay  for  the  labor  and  expense  of  their 
'  construction.  Those  farmers  who  do  not  have  them  are  apt  to  drive  their  teams  aU 
over  their  lands  wherever  they  have  occasion  to  go,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  mowing 
and  grain  fields  are  thus  badly  cut  up  by  wheel-tracks,  and  the  treading  of  the  team.  Where 
heavy  loads  are  to  be  drawn,  it  is  much  easier  for  a  team  to  have  a  firm,  substantial 
road  on  which  to  draw  them,  and  much  more  labor  can  be  accompKshed  in  a  given  time 
by  this  means;  besides,  when  the  soil  is  softened  by  the  rains,  it  is  difficult  to  draw  heavy 
loads,  and  hence,  aside  from  the  injury  done  the  lands,  much  more  labor  and  time  will  be 
required  in  transferring  produce  and  other  material  from  one  point  to  another,  without  good 


FARM  ROADS.  559 

roads.  A  team  will  draw  a  much  heavier  load  on  a  good,  hard  road  than  on  tiu-f-land  or 
simply  a  cart-path,  which  soon  becomes  worn  into  ruts  by  the  wheels.  These  ruts  not  only 
render  the  drawing  more  diflBcult,  but  furnish  a  place  for  standing  water,  after  every  rain, 
which  is  soon  converted  into  mud.  Such  paths  are  especially  troublesome  in  the  spring  when 
the  ground  is  wet  and  soft. 

Although  constructing  roads  on  the  farm  will  require  some  labor  and  expense,  the  bene- 
fits derived  will  soon  more  than  compensate  for  it  all,  and  when  once  properly  made,  a  very 
little  labor  will  be  required  to  keep  them  in  repair  from  year  to  year. 

The  manner  in  which  the  roads  on  a  farm  should  be  laid  out,  will  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  farm,  its  locality,  and  the  relative  locality  of  different  fields,  and  that  of  the  farm-build- 
ings, especially  the  barn.  As  a  general  rule,  there  should  be  one  good  road,  which,  with  its 
branches,  shall  lead  from  each  field  to  the  barn. 

Farm  roads  should  be  constructed  in  a  manner  similar  to  those  for  public  use,  the  harder 
and  firmer  the  road-bed  is  made  the  better.  "Where  the  land  is  naturally  dry,  their  construc- 
tion is  very  easy,  but  where  the  land  is  wet,  considerable  labor  will  be  required,  since  drain- 
age will  be  essential.  The  ground  for  the  road  should  be  plowed,  and  the  bed  so  graded 
that  it  will  be  elevated  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  land,  and  the  middle  of  it 
slightly  higher  than  the  sides,  in  order  to  admit  of  the  water  running  off  easily. 

After  properly  grading,  it  will  be  greatly  improved  by  the  use  of  a  roller.  "Where  the 
land  is  nearly  level  a  furrow  shoi;ld  be  plowed  on  either  side  for  drainage,  and  to  prevent  the 
road  from  being  washed  by  heavy  storms.  Coarse  gravel  makes  an  excellent  bed  for  a  road, 
and  when  it  is  convenient  of  access  will  on  most  soils  well  repay  for  the  labor  and  expense  of 
procuring  it  for  this  purpose.  On  lands  that  are  naturally  wet  and  retentive  of  water,  the 
construction  of  roads  is  more  difficult. 

The  soil  should  first  be  thoroughly  underdrained,  after  which  the  earth  should  be  thrown 
out  of  the  road-bed  to  about  the  depth  of  two  feet,  and  the  trench  thus  made  filled  with 
small  stones  or  coarse  gravel,  over  which  the  earth  is  placed.  Care  should  be  used  to  grade 
it  in  such  a  manner  that  the  center  of  the  road  shall  be  somewhat  more  elevated  than  at  the 
sides.  Ample  provisions  should  also  be  made  for  drainage  at  the  sides.  For  this  purpose 
a  trench  filled  with  stones,  tiles,  or  a  deep  open  furrow  may  be  used.  "V\^here  the  soil  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  it  is  easily  washed,  the  furrow  will  need  to  be  opened  frequently  to  pre- 
vent its  filling  up  with  sediment,  where  only  the  latter  is  employed  for  drainage. 

The  Champion  Road-Grader  is  an  implement  much  used  in  many  of  the  "Western  States 
in  road-making,  and  it  is  said  to  prove  a  very  efficient  and  valuable  machine  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  made  by  the  Eureka  Manufacturing  Company,  Rock  Falls,  Illinois;  when  properly 
adjusted  it  will  grade  the  road-bed  as  desired,  and  roU  it  down,  rendering  it  compact  and 
hard. 

Farm  roads  need  not  be  expensive  in  construction,  since  they  are  not  in  constant  use 
like  public  roads,  but  they  should  be  made  sufficiently  substantial  for  all  practical  purposes. 
"Where  the  ditches  at  the  side  for  drainage  are  shallow  enough  to  admit  of  teams  passing, — 
which  will  not  frequently  occur  inside  a  farm, — the  road  need  not  be  made  over  ten  or  twelve 
feet  wide.  Roads  should  always  be  kept  in  good  repair.  It  is  much  cheaper  and  more 
profitable  to  provide  good  roads  than  poor  ones,  whether  for  public  or  private  use.  A  small 
amount  of  labor,  properly  employed,  will  serve  to  keep  the  road-bed  smooth  and  in  condition 
to  admit  of  the  water  passing  off  readily,  thus  enabling  it  to  become  more  and  more  compact 
by  use,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  neglected,  a  small  defect  soon  becomes  a  serious  one;  the 
surface  gets  worn  and  torn  up,  and  places  are  formed  for  the  water  to  accumulate.  The  soil 
becomes  soaked  and  softened,  and  gullies  are  formed  which  grow  deeper  by  use,  soon  render- 
ing it  either  very  inconvenient  or  unsafe  for  passage. 

Many  serious  accidents  might  be  avoided,  and  expense  and  time  saved  by  keeping  roads 


560  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

in  a  better  condition  than  they  commonly  are.  Horses  often  receive  injuries  that  render 
them  lame  for  life  through  such  negligence,  to  say  nothing  of  the  danger  to  the  life  and  Umb 
of  the  driver,  while  the  wear  and  breakage  of  wagons  and  carts  are  no  small  item  in  this 
connection.  Roads  when  not  properly  cared  for  will  also  become  so  worn  by  constant  use, 
that  the  middle  of  the  bed  will  be  concave  instead  of  convex,  where  the  water  readily  col- 
lects and  often  nmkes  a  channel  lengthwise  until  it  finds  an  outlet,  cutting  guUies  in  its 
course.  A  single  rain-st«nn  will  frequently  cause  great  damage  to  a  road  when  in  this  con- 
dition, while  if  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  amount  necessary  to  expend  in  properly  repair- 
ing it  had  been  devoted  to  keeping  it  in  good  condition  at  first,  time  and  money  would  have 
been  saved.  Good  roads  on  a  farm,  as  well  as  in  the  locality  of  it,  are  not  only  a  very  great 
convenience,  but  increase  the  value  of  land.  Such  farms  will  always  find  a  more  ready  and 
remunerative  sale,  other  conditions  being  equal,  than  those  that  are  not  thus  pronded  with 
proper  means  of  transit  from  one  point  to  another. 


FARM  FENCES. 

To  what  extent  farm  fences  are  a  necessity,  is  a  question  that  is  at  present  attracting 
considerable  attention  from  agriculturists.  That  an  immense  amoimt  of  needless 
expenditure  in  time  and  money  are  employed  in  making  and  keeping  in  repair  fences 
that  are  not  only  of  no  practical  benefit  to  the  farm,  but  which,  if  dispensed  with,  would 
greatly  improve  in  appearance  the  lands  which  they  enclose,  cannot  be  denied.  In  no 
country  on  the  whole  globe  is  there  such  an  enormous  fence-tax  as  in  the  LTnited  States.  In 
fact,  it  might  be  stated  in  a  general  sense,  that  the  custom  of  entirely  encircling  farms  and 
separating  one  owner's  lands  from  another  by  fences,  is  an  innovation,  and  one  that  is  pecu- 
liar to  this  country. 

In  Germany.  England,  Italy,  and  many  other  countries  of  the  Old  World,  long  under 
cultivation,  and  containing  a  dense  population,  fences  for  the  purpose  of  marking  the  terminus 
of  land,  or  as  lines  of  demarkation,  are  rarely  seen.  In  this  country,  especially  in  many 
portions  of  New  England,  farms  in  many  instances  are  divided  and  subdivided  by  lines  of 
fences  that  enclose  small  areas,  and  which  must  have  cost,  in  the  aggregate,  nearly  as  much  if 
not  more  to  construct,  than  the  entire  farms,  in  some  cases,  will  now  sell  for.  Frequently 
these  lines  of  division  have  httle  or  no  regularity,  and  seem  to  be  entirely  without  any 
established  plan  or  system. 

Under  the  usages  and  customs  of  a  former  generation,  who.  in  settling  their  country, 
first  cleared  a  field  and  then  fenced  and  cultivated  it,  permitting  the  farm  stock  to  run  in  the 
xmcleared  portions,  this  system  of  fencing  was  inaugurated.  But  the  necessities  of  that 
remote  period  are  not  the  necessities  of  to-day,  and  the  customs  and  usages  of  that  generation 
are  not  essential  to  the  present. 

While  fences  on  a  farm  seem,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  be  a  necessity,  yet,  according  to  the 
former  custom  of  fencing,  they  are  far  more  extensive  than  is  essential,  except,  perhaps,  in 
the  prairie  regions;  and  that  which  is  spent  in  making  and  keeping  them  in  repair  might 
much  more  profitably  be  appropriated  to  other  purposes. 

Surplus  fences  are  not  only  expensive  and  vmprofitable,  but  they  are  an  incumbrance  to 
the  land.  Many  of  them  are  so  constructed  that  they  take  up  valuable  land  that  might 
otherwise  be  imder  cultivation,  such  as  the  stone  walls  common  in  many  portions  of  New 
England,  the  zigzag  or  Virginia  fence,  etc.  Besides,  the  general  appearance  of  a  farm  that 
is  not  divided  by  numerous  lines  of  fences  is  much  more  in  conformity  with  good  taste. 


FARM  FENCES.  561 

Fences  furnisli  a  place  for  weeds  to  grow  and  ripen  their  seed,  which  are  scattered  by 
the  wind  over  the  land ;  they  also  are  a  safe  harbor  for  mice,  rats,  and  other  pests. 

Unnecessary  fences  on  a  farm,  are,  therefore,  not  only  a  useless  expense,  and  an  obstruc- 
tion to  cultivation,  but  a  disfigurement  to  the  landscape,  and  a  harbor  for  weeds  and  vermin; 
and  if  the  amount  of  unproductive  labor  which  they  incur  were  reduced,  great  benefit  would 
be  derived,  since  by  so  doing,  the  productiveness  of  the  farm  would  be  practically  increased, 
without  any  increased  outlay  in  labor,  money,  or  draft  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  some 
parts  of  New  England,  the  old  division  and  highway  fences  have  been  removed,  which  has 
greatly  increased  the  general  attractiveness  of  such  farms,  as  well  as  the  towns  in  which  they 
are  located.  The  owners  have  by  this  means  improved  the  general  appearance  of  their 
farms,  and  reduced  the  expense  of  maintaining  them. 

In  almost  every  State  in  New  England  there  are  examples  of  such  improvements,  which 
are  gradually  extending.  Among  the  many  places  made  especially  attractive  by  this  means 
might  be  mentioned  Cheneyville,  in  South  Manchester,  Conn.;  also,  Amherst,  Mass.,  and 
vicinity.  Very  few  fences  are  also  seen  in  some  of  the  river  valleys,  where  the  annual  inun- 
dations would  sweep  them  away. 

To  what  extent  farm  fences  are  essential  will  depend  somewhat  upon  different 
conditions  and  circumstances.  The  crops  must,  of  course,  be  protected.  This  protection  may 
be  furnished  by  fencing  the  farm  animals  in,  appropriating  a  certain  portion  of  the  farm  to 
this  purpose,  or  by  enclosing  the  cultivated  fields  by  fences,  and  thus  fencing  them  out.  Where 
the  law  requires  every  owner  of  farm-stock  to  keep  his  animals  on  his  own  land,  or  to  be 
responsible  for  all  damage  done  by  them,  highway  fences  will  not  be  necessary,  since  the 
owners,  being  made  liable  for  such  damage,  will  be  careful  to  keep  them  confined  to  their 
own  premises.  The  fences  required  in  such  sections,  therefore,  are  those  that  will  keep  each 
owner's  animals  confined  on  his  own  premises,  and  not  such  as  shall  fence  out  those  of  his 
neighbors;  consequently,  pasture  fences,  and  fences  about  some  of  the  farm  buildings,  will 
be  all  the  permanent  ones  that  are  essential.  Where  soiling  is  commonly  practiced,  even 
pasture  fences  could  be  dispensed  with. 

In  those  sections  where  the  statute  law  and  custom  require  a  highway  and  division 
fence,  a  boundary  fence  will  be  essential,  but  the  law  and  custom  may  be  changed,  and  if 
farmers  use  their  influence  in  securing  the  enactment  and  enforcement  of  stringent  laws  in 
respect  to  restraining  stock,  this  may  be  accomplished,  and  highway  fences  be  rendered 
unnecessary. 

Farm  animals  that  are  not  under  the  direct  charge  of  a  keeper,  who  is  responsible  for 
the  injury  they  may  do,  should  never  be  tolerated  in  the  highway.  Such  toleration  would  be 
detrimental  to  the  best  agricultural  interests  of  the  country.  If  certain  portions  of  the  farm, 
aside  from  the  common  pastures,  are  desired  to  be  used  as  pasturage  at  any  time,  such  as 
mowing-lands  for  a  season  in  the  fall,  movable  fences  may  be  used,  similar  to  the  hurdle 
fences,  so  extensively  employed  in  England.  As  a  general  rule,  the  permanent  fences  nec- 
essary, except  where  boundary  and  division  fences  are  required,  will  be  those  for  the  pas- 
ture, and  around  farm  buildings,  such  as  barns  and  sheds.  A  temporary  fence  can  occasion- 
ally be  used  when  necessary,  which  will  secure  the  convenience  of  a  permanent  one  without 
its  disadvantages,  and  for  this  purpose  a  movable  fence,  as  previously  recommended,  is  the 
most  desirable. 

In  England  and  other  portions  of  Europe,  when  cattle  and  sheep  are  pastured  where 
there  are  no  fences,  a  shepherd  is  employed  to  take  charge  of  them,  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  well-trained  dog,  will  keep  large  flocks  and  herds  under  perfect  control,  and  as  strictly 
confined  to  prescribed  limits  as  though  there  were  fences  for  this  purpose.  This  practice  of 
employing  shepherds  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  it  is  less  expensive  to  take  care  of  the 
herds  than  to  keep  up  the  fences. 


562  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Removing  Fences. — We  would  recommend  to  all  farmers  the  maintaining  only  of 
such  fences  on  the  farm  as  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  crops,  and  the  con- 
finement of  the  stock,  and  the  removal  of  all  such  as  are  not  essential.  Unnecessary  fences 
on  a  farm  are  an  expensive  nuisance. 

In  England,  where  hedges  have  been  used  quite  extensively  during  the  past,  they  have 
to  a  certain  extent,  during  the  last  decade,  been  undergoing  a  process  of  extermination,  and 
there  are  at  present  thousands  of  miles  of  hedges  less  than  there  were  formerly.  In  this 
country,  as  previously  stated,  in  those  sections  where  needless  fences  have  been  removed,  a 
great  improvement  has  been  effected  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  farms,  as  well  as  the 
convenience  of  cultivation  and  the  reduction  of  the  expenses  of  the  farm.  In  the  removal  of 
useless  fences,  but  little  labor,  comparatively,  will  be  required  for  tliose  constructed  of  light 
materials,  such  as  rails  or  boards.  The  removal  of  the  stone-walls,  however,  that  are  found 
in  many  parts  of  New  England,  would  involve  much  labor  and  expense,  and  in  some  instances 
it  is  questionable  whether  their  removal  would  pay  for  all  the  expenditure  of  time  and  labor 
that  would  be  required  to  accomplish  the  object.  This  would  depend  upon  the  locality  of  the 
wall,  the  improvement  and  convenience  secured  by  its  removal,  and  the  use  to  which  the 
stones  could  be  appropriated,  or  the  facility  with  which  they  might  be  gotten  out  of  the  way. 
Many  of  these  waUs  have  been  built  for  a  century  or  more,  and  have  been  kept  in  repair 
from  generation  to  generation.  They  were  appropriated  to  this  use,  originally,  partly  because 
the  fences  were  considered  a  necessity,  and  partly  as  a  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  stones  by 
which  the  land  was  encumbered.  What  to  do  with  the  stones,  in  removing  such  fences,  would 
be  the  question  to  be  considered.  The  best  and  most  practical  way  of  disposing  of  them  is 
to  use  them  where  they  will  be  a  benefit  in  drainage.  On  nearly  every  farm  there  are  wet 
lands  that  require  drainage,  and  by  using  these  incumbra.nces  of  the  land  for  this  purpose, 
acres  of  new  or  virgin  soil  may  be  secured  for  cultivation  that  might  otherwise  be  nearly 
worthless  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Ravines  and  swales  may  also  be  filled  with  stones,  while  many  may  be  utiHzed  for  the 
foundation  of  farm  buildings,  and  thus  in  one  way  and  another  they  can  be  disposed  of  in 
a  manner  that  will  increase  the  value  of  the  farm. 

Mr.  Starr,  the  former  proprietor  of  the  famous  Echo  Farm,  settled  the  perplexing  ques- 
tion  of  what  to  do  with  the  stones  in  clearing  his  fields  of  them,  in  a  manner  that  may  be  of 
advantage  to  some  other  farmers  to  imitate  who  have  this  difficulty  to  meet. 

Selecting  an  untillable  spot  in  a  field  in  which  there  were  one  or  two  natural  mound-like 
hillocks,  a  large  pile  of  stones  was  made,  consisting  of  several  hundred  loads,  and,  as  an 
experiment,  this  pile  was  covered  with  tussocks  of  coarse  swamp-grass,  which  are  hard  of 
decomposition.  These  were  inverted,  covering  the  stones.  On  this  foundation,  a  light  dress- 
ing of  soil  was  placed,  and  grass-seed  sown. 

This  experiment  proved  a  success ;  the  grass  soon     _ —     —    =-.^^ -^_^, 

grew  over  this  artificial  mound,  which  appeared  to  ^ 
bear  the  protracted  droughts  even  better  than  tht 
natural  ones,  while  the  first  showers  made  them  con 
spicuously  green. 

Prom  time  to  time  these  mounds  have  been 
extended  and  multiplied,  and  in  all  cases  proved  a 
success.  The  object  was  not  to  form  new  land,  but 
to  dispose  of  the  stones.  "Whenever  practicable, 
natural  depressions  may  be  made  use  of  for  deposit-  -•    ■- 

„  ,  ^-i  ,  ,  STONE  HEAPS. 

mg  stones.     By  such  means  the  surplus  stones  may 

be  gotten  rid  of  without  being  an  encumbrance  to  the  land,  or  marring  its  appearance,  and 

also  without  being  a  place  in  which  noxious  weeds,  briars,  and  shrubs  will  find  refuge. 


FARM  FENCES.  563 

Rail  Fence. — The  kind  of  fences  used  on  a  farm  will  vary  according  to  circumstances, 
the  most  available  material  being  generally  employed  in  each  section.  As  the  country  becomes 
older,  and  the  material  for  fencing  purposes  becomes  more  scarce  and  expensive,  the  question 
as  to  the  most  economical  and  durable  fence  to  construct  becomes  a  more  important  one  to 
determine.  The  first  settlers  of  the  country,  finding  timber  and  stone  abundant,  made  use  of 
these  principally  in  the  construction  of  fences.  Hence,  the  rail-fence  and  stone- wall  became  the 
most  common  at  that  time.  In  newly-settled  portions,  where  timber  is  plenty,  the  common 
rail-fence,  or  what  is  termed  the  zigzag  or  Virginia  fence,  is  quite  extensively  employed, 
owing  to  the  material  being  cheap, — often  an  incumbrance  in  clearing  up  new  lands, — and 
the  rails  being  easily  split. 

This  style  of  fence  has  been  very  appropriately  termed  by  a  recent  writer,  "  the  relic  of 
a  lavish  era  of  imlimited  forestry,"  the  counterpart  of  which  is  seen  in  no  other  country,  it 
being  typical  of  Yankeeland.  Cedar  is  most  commonly  used  for  making  rails,  although 
hemlock,  chestnut,  and  other  kinds  of  timber  may  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 

In  making  a  rail-fence,  wooden  blocks  are  preferred  to  stones  for  supports  at  the  cor- 
ners, as  the  stones  will  soon  sink  into  the  ground  and  become  of  no  use  whatever.  Blocks 
will  decay  in  time,  but  they  may  be  replaced  by  others.  The  stakes  used  should  always  be 
large  enough  to  give  sufficient  strength  and  support  to  the  fence.  It  will  be  a  practice  of 
economy  also  to  make  them  long  enough  to  be  re-sharpened  and  used  again  when  the  ends 
decay.  Long  stakes  projecting  at  the  comers,  however,  give  a  fence  an  unsightly  appear- 
ance. A  more  symmetrical  and  neater-looking  fence,  besides  being  equally  strong,  can  be 
made  by  putting  two  upright  stakes,  one  on  either  side  of  the  angle  formed  in  crossing  the 
rails,  and  securing  them  by  a  plank  in  which  holes  are  made  of  sufBcient  size  and  distance 
apart  to  admit  of  being  slipped  over  these  posts  to  hold  them  securely  after  all  but  one  or 
two  of  the  top  rails  have  been  laid.  The  upper  rails  are  then  put  on  to  hold  the  plank  firmly 
in  place.  Annealed  wire  of  large  size  may  be  wound  around  the  stakes  to  hold  them  in  place, 
instead  of  the  use  of  the  plank,  Lf  desired.  The  objections  to  the  common  rail-fence  are,  the  large 
amount  of  timber  necessary  for  its  construction,  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  thrown  down 
by  stock,  or  blown  over  by  the  strong  winds,  and  the  amount  of  land  it  occupies.  Wliere 
timber  is  abundant,  land  plenty,  and  saw-mills  not  easily  accessible,  some  kind  of  a  rail-fence 
may  prove  the  most  profitable;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  with  ordinary  facilities  for  obtaining 
other  material,  and  where  land  is  valuable,  some  other  style  of  fence  is  to  be  preferred. 

Post  and  Kail-Fences. — Considerable  less  timber  will  be  required  for  this  than  the 
common  rail,  or  Virginia  fence,  and  it  also  occupies  only  about  one-third  the  land  required 
for  the  latter,  besides  being  more  substantial.  It  is,  however,  a  more  expensive  fence  to 
make,  since  considerable  labor  and  time  are  involved  in  digging  the  holes  for  the  posts,  and 
in  making  holes  in  the  posts  for  the  rails,  and  fitting  the  latter  to  them.  The  posts  are  liable 
to  be  thrown  out  by  the  frost,  and  also  to  decay,  requiring  to  be  occasionally  reset.  Some 
kinds  of  timber  will,  however,  last  much  longer  than  others,  and  if  the  most  durable  kinds 
are  used,  a  fence  of  this  style,  when  once  properly  built,  will  last  several  years  with  but  few 
repairs.  The  posts  should  be  pointed  at  the  end,  and  set  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet 
in  the  ground.  The  hole  should  be  made  quite  large,  and  the  post  placed  in  the  center  and 
surrounded  by  very  small  stones,  which  should  be  pounded  in  firmly  around  the  post,  as  the 
hole  is  filled  up.  This  will  prevent  heaving,  and  the  post  will  also  last  much  longer  than  if 
surrounded  with  earth. 

Nailing  a  piece  of  board  about  two  feet  long  to  one  side  of  the  post  near  the  bottom, 
and  another  piece  on  the  opposite  side  a  little  higher,  and  packing  the  earth  firmly  down,  is 
also  a  good  preventive  against  heaving.  A  post  set  in  this  manner  will  generally  rise  and 
fall  with  the  earth,  and  hence  will  not  be  liable  to  be  thrown  out.  Of  course,  the  hole  in 
such  cases  must  be  dug  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  extra  width  required  by  the  boards 
35 


564  THE  A3IERICAN  FAKVIER. 

ihat  are  nailed  to  the  post.  The  best  timber  for  posts,  with  respect  to  durability,  is  red 
3edar,  yellow  locust,  black  walnut,  white  oak,  and  chestnut.  The  bark  should  always  be 
vemoved  from  posts  before  setting. 

Preserving  Fence  Posts. — Various  methods  have  been  employed  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  posts,  some  of  which  have  proven  very  efficient  in  retarding  the  progress  of  decay. 
There  is  a  great  difference,  however,  not  only  in  the  durability  of  different  kinds  of  timber, 
but  in  the  manner  upon  which  different  soils  act  upon  wood,  it  generally  decaying  very 
slowly  in  a  compact  clay,  but  rapidly  in  silicious  sands  and  gravelly  soils.  Placing  the 
post  in  the  ground  in  a  position  which  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  its  natural  growth,  or  the 
upper  end  downward,  will  render  it  more  durable.  Charring  the  part  that  is  buried,  or  cov- 
ering it  with  coal  tar,  as  well  as  imbedding  it  in  ashes  or  clay,  is  thought  to  add  to  its 
durability. 

Soaking  the  posts  in  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  vitriol 
to  forty  pounds  of  water,  is  highly  recommended  by  some  as  a  means  of  preserving  all  kinds 
of  timber  that  is  exposed  to  the  weather  or  moisture.  If  the  timber  is  dry  it  should  be 
soaked  ten  days;  if  green,  six  days  will  be  sufficient. 

But  one  of  the  best  preservatives  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  to  completely  saturate 
that  part  of  the  post  to  be  placed  in  the  ground,  with  kerosene  or  common  coal  oU,  and  after- 
ward covering  it  with  tar. 

A  farmer  in  Mississippi  gives  the  following  statement  with  respect  to  this  method  of 
treatment: 

"  Ten  years  ago  I  built  a  grapery  at  the  end  of  the  house,  as  a  screen  against  the  western 
sun,  using  sawed  pine  posts.  Anticipating  the  difficulty  of  ever  replacing  these  posts  after 
they  became  covered  with  vines,  I  took  the  extra  precaution  of  completely  saturating  the 
lower  ends  with  kerosene — common  coal  oil — before  applying  the  tar.  These  posts  are  now 
perfectly  firm  and  almost  as  sound  as  they  were  when  put  in.  All  other  pine  posts  set  at 
that  date  have  entirely  rotted  and  perished.  The  result  of  this  experiment  so  thoroughly 
impressed  me  with  the  value  of  coal  oil  as  a  preservative  of  timber  under  ground,  that  I  now 
use  it  on  all  posts  in  building,  afterwards  covering  with  hot  coal  tar. 

"I  add  this,  however,  which  I  think  will  doubtless  prove  of  great  value:  I  bore  a  -i-  to 
5  inch  hole  in  the  post  near  the  ground,  slanting  downward  and  reaching  beyond  the  center; 
this  is  to  be  filled  with  kerosene  from  time  to  time — perhaps  once  in  three  or  four  years  will 
answer.  I  feel  sure  that  insects  very  greatly  hasten  the  decay  of  timber,  to  say  the  least; 
and  kerosene  being  repellant  to  them,  makes  it  a  valuable  application  at  any  point  where  they 
are  likely  to  do  mischief." 

Dr.  Z.  H.  Mason  of  Florida,  also  recommends  the  use  of  kerosene  oil  for  this  purpose, 
and  says  that  in  that  State  it  has  proved  a  very  effectual  preservative  of  wood  against  decay 
from  moisture  and  the  attacks  of  the  white  ant,  known  in  that  section  as  the  wood  louse, 
which  is  very  destructive  to  timber.  Timber  suitable  for  posts  becoming  scarce,  by  this 
means  almost  any  kind  may  be  used  for  the  purpose,  and  rendered  quite  durable,  thus  sav- 
ing a  large  amount  of  money,  time,  and  labor. 

Post  and  Board  Fence. — This  fence  presents  a  much  better  appearance  than  that 
made  of  posts  and  rails,  and  in  sections  where  timber  can  be  easily  converted  into  boards,  it 
is  cheaper  than  the  latter.  The  posts  should  be  placed  from  seven  to  nine  feet  apart.  The 
boards,  if  about  six  inches  wide,  should  be  placed  about  the  same  distance  apart  and  firmly 
nailed  to  the  posts.  If  substantially  made,  such  a  fence  always  looks  well,  and  will  last  a 
long  time  with  few  repairs.  Before  setting  the  posts  the  ends  to  be  placed  in  the  earth 
should  be  saturated  with  kerosene  oil  and  covered  with  coal  tar  to  increase  their  durability. 
Precaution  should  be  taken  also,  in  setting,  against  their  being  thrown  out  by  the  frost, 
according  to  directions  given  in  connection  with  the  post-and-rail  fence. 


FARM  FENCES.  565 

Stone  Walls. — The  stone  wall  is  very  common  in  New  England,  where  it  has  been 
used  to  subserve  a  double  purpose,  namely  that  of  a  fence,  and  as  a  place  of  deposit  for  the 
stones  that  have  been  taken  from  the  land.  When  well  bsilt,  they  form  a  very  permanent 
and  substantial  fence,  but  in  order  to  be  well  built  an  immense  amount  of  labor  is  required; 
hence  they  are  a  very  expensive  fence.  When  improperly  built,  they  are  anything  but  sub- 
stantial, and  an  old,  dilapidated  stone  wall  is  one  of  the  most  unsightly  objects  that  can  be 
found  on  a  farm,  being  an  index  of  negligence  and  shiftlessness  that  is  not  pleasant  to  look 
upon,  and  one  that  is  far  from  being  complimentary  to  the  owner. 

When  well  made,  a  stone  wall  forms  an  impassable  barrier  for  horses  and  cattle,  but 
will  not  confine  sheep  or  hogs  unless  it  is  surmounted  by  a  rail  or  similar  obstruction.  The 
frost  will  often  throw  it  down  by  upheaving  the  earth,  while  a  loose  stone,  being  displaced, 
will  often  result  in  a  wide  gap;  hence,  aside  from  the  expense  of  building,  stone  walls 
require  considerable  care  and  repairing. 

It  is  a  fence  that  also  takes  up  a  great  deal  of  land  that  might  otherwise  be  under  culti- 
vation, while  its  removal,  when  desired,  involves  a  vast  amount  of  labor  and  expense.  It 
would  be  far  better  for  the  farmer  to  dispose  of  the  surplus  stones  by  burying  them  where 
they  will  be  useful  in  under'draining  the  land,  or  in  filling  up  ravines,  and  construct  cheaper 
fences  of  a  lighter  material. 

The  following  method  of  building  a  stone  wall  is  taken  from  "  Facts  for  Farmers,"  and 
may  be  useful  to  such  as  are  not  skilled  in  this  respect,  and  wish  to  obtain  the  knowledge  of 
what  we  believe  is  destined  to  become,  before  many  generations,  one  of  the  "  lost  arts." 

"  Have  the  surface  soil  removed  so  that  the  foundation  stones  will  rest  on  firm  earth. 
Contiguous  foundation  stones  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  in  size,  and  large  enough 
to  extend  the  full  width  of  the  wall,  and  every  foundation  stone  firmly  bedded  in  the  ground. 
If  boulders,  or  stones  of  uneven  form  are  used,  always  plant  the  roughest  side  downward,  or  at 
least  so  as  to  have  a  flat  side  up  to  lay  the  next  course  upon.  If  your  wall  is  built  of  a 
double  line  of  stones,  whatever  their  shape,  it  should  frequently  be  bound  across  with  flat 
stones  or  wooden  ties  made  of  split  pieces  of  cedar,  chestnut,  white  oak,  ash,  or  any  durable 
tough  wood,  from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  thick,  two  to  four  inches  wide. 

'  Break  jointsl '  should  be  rung  in  the  ears  of  a  young  wall-builder  incessantly,  until 
he  would  do  it  instinctively  every  time  he  laid  a  stone  into  the  wall.  You  can  tell  at  a  glance 
as  you  ride  along  the  road,  whether  the  wall  was  built  by  a  workman,  by  the  way  the  stones 
break  joints.  You  may  sometimes  see  them  so  placed  that  a  joint  extends  from  top  to  bot- 
tom.    That  wall  was  built  by  a  cheat  or  bungler,  probably  both. 

Beware  of  a  jobber  who  is  continually  chinking  small  stones  into  the  joints  of  the  face 
of  his  wall  and  filling  up  the  interior  with  stones  thrown  in  as  carelessly  as  you  would  fill 
up  a  hole  in  the  ground.  If  you  find  your  jobber  working  this  way,  discharge  him  per- 
emptorily.    He  is  both  a  cheat  and  bungler. 

If  your  wall  is  built  double,  cap  it  with  a  course  of  even-sized  stones,  so  as  to  give  it  a 
uniform  appearance.  If  the  stones  are  generally  flat,  cap  your  wall  with  flat  stones  of  even 
thickness  and  of  a  width  greater  than  the  wall.  This  not  only  helps  the  appearance,  but 
sheds  off  water,  which  is  often  the  means  of  destroying  badly-buUt  walls,  by  running  down 
inside  and  freezing  so  as  to  bulge  out  the  two  lines  of  stones  with  which  the  sides  had  been 
faced  up  and  not  bound  together. 

Good  walls  are  sometimes  built  of  very  bad  stones  by  using  cross-binders  of  wood  in 
the  lower  courses,  and  then  near  the  top  laying  two  boards,  each  about  one  fourth  the  width 
of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  along  the  line,  and  upon  those  building  up  the  remaining  height. 
These  boards  will  last  many  years  and  serve  to  hold  cobble-stone  together  quite  firmly. 

It  is  a  better  plan,  however,  we  believe,  not  to  build  the  wall  as  high  by  a  foot,  and 
take  the  strips  of  board  designed  for  binders  in  the  wall,  and  nail  them  to  small  posts  built 
in  so  as  to  give  sufBcient  height  for  the  fence. 


566  THE  AMERICAN  PARMER. 

A  very  common  fence  in  some  sections  is  built  of  cobble-stone  about  two  feet  high, 
topped  with  two  bars  inserted  in  posts,  or  with  strips  of  boards  nailed  on." 

Hedges. — In  many  portions  of  Europe,  especially  in  Great  Britain,  hedges  have  been 
long  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  hedge-rows  having  formerly  been  a  characteristic  feature 
of  rural  life  in  England;  but  they  are  now  beginning  to  be  regarded  there  as  objectionable, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  being  exterminated  from  the  soil.  In  this  country 
hedges  have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent,  but  more  especially  in  sections  where  timber  is 
scarce.  For  lack  of  anything  better  for  fencing,  it  may  sometimes  be  well  to  make  use  of 
them  for  boundary  fences,  although  there  are  many  objections  to  introducing  them  generally. 
They  require  in  some  localities  considerable  care  to  secure  a  strong  and  uniform  growth,  and 
to  keep  them  well  pruned  and  trimmed,  and  also  occupy  a  great  deal  of  land,  and  harbor 
noxious  weeds,  furnishing  lurking  places  for  enemies  of  the  field-crop,  orchard,  or  garden. 
In  some  climates  their  growth  is  so  rapid  that  they  require  constant  care  in  pruning,  while 
their  overgrowth  is  a  serious  evil,  and  when  once  in  possession  of  the  soil  they  are  difBcult  to 
eradicate. 

Another  objection  to  hedges  is  that  when  the  land  is  cultivated,  the  roots  not  only  inter- 
fere with  tillage,  but  they  rob  the  cultivated  crop  of  plant-food.  There  are,  however,  many 
places  where  they  might  be  introduced  without  interfering  with  cultivation,  such  as  aroimd 
pastures,  orchards,  etc. 

For  making  hedges,  some  quick-growing,  hardy  shrub,  armed  with  thorns  or  spurs,  is 
generally  used,  although  other  shrubs  and  even  trees  are  employed  to  a  certain  extent.  The 
arbor-vitae,  cedar,  hemlock,  buckthorn,  pine,  yellow  willow,  osage  orange,  honey  locust, 
cotton-wood,  barberry,  and  privet  have  all  been  employed  to  a  certain  extent.  In  England, 
the  hawthorn  has  been  used  for  this  purpose  for  centuries.  At  the  South,  the  Cherokee  rose 
is  quite  extensively  employed  as  an  ornamental  hedge.  The  osage  orange  and  honey  locust 
ai-e  perhaps  used  more  than  any  other;  the  former  in  the  Middle,  Southern,  and  South- 
western States,  it  being  Hable  to  winter-kiU  in  the  extreme  Northern  section.  The  latter  will 
thrive  in  all  parts.  The  willow  is  well  adapted  to  wet  localities,  but  its  rapid  growth 
necessitates  frequent  trimming,  which  is  a  serious  objection.  Evergreen  hedges  are  liable  to 
injury  from  drouth  or  extreme  heat  and  cold,  but  are  very  attractive  in  appearance  when 
properly  cared  for  and  trimmed.  The  arbor-vitae  {Thuja  occidentalis)  makes  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  hedges  that  can  be  found  at  the  North.  It  is  hardy  and  flourishes  in  any  soil 
that  is  not  too  dry,  branches  out  thickly  from  the  ground,  and  is  of  comparatively  slow 
growth.  It  is  much  used  as  an  ornamental  hedge.  The  principal  objection  to  the  osage 
orange  is  its  vigorous,  rapid  growth,  and  the  exhaustion  it  occasions  to  the  soil  within  reach 
of  its  long  roots. 

Planting  and  Trimming  Hedges.  —  In  the  successful  use  of  hedges  for  fences, 
much  depends  upon  a  proper  selection  of  the  plant  for  the  purpose,  its  adaptation  to  the 
climate  and  locality,  as  well  as  the  subsequent  cultivation  and  pruning  it  receives.  The  best 
authorities  on  hedge-setting  advise  that,  on  soils  naturally  damp  or  retentive  of  moisture,  the 
j)lants  be  set  upon  a  slight  elevation  or  raised  surface  from  five  to  eight  feet  wide.  The 
reasons  given  for  this  practice  are,  that  the  hedge  will  be  more  liable  to  escape  winter-killing, 
from  the  fact  that  the  roots  will  then  be  above  the  level  of  saturation ;  that  the  setting  can 
"be  performed  earlier  in  the  season  than  where  the  ground  is  not  ridged;  that  tbe  roots  of  the 
young  plants  will  strike  down  obliquely,  instead  of  extending  horizontally,  as  on  level  land, 
and  will  also  attain  a  more  fibrous  growth ;  that  the  plants,  thus  having  a  more  uniform  con- 
dition of  soil  with  regard  to  moisture,  will  attain  a  more  uniform  growth,  and  will  generally 
be  'exempt  from  gaps  and  thin  places  made  by  partial  winter-killing,  and  which  reqmre 
^considerable  labor  and  care  in  replacing.     In  setting  the  hedge,  the  soil  may  be  thrown  up 


FARM  FENCES.  567 

by  repeated  plowings,  and  the  top  afterward  leveled  by  the  use  of  a  revolving  harrow  or  a 
roller. 

When  the  hedge  is  to  be  set  on  sod-land,  two  shallow  furrows  are  generally  opened, 
the  sod  removed,  and  the  soil  made  as  mellow  as  possible  to  quite  a  depth.  In  order  to  set 
the  hedge  in  a  straight  line,  a  cord  should  be  stretched  from  one  point  to  another,  and  be 
marked  with  red  or  some  contrasting  color,  to  show  the  place  where  the  plants  are  to  be  set. 
In  setting,  the  soil  should  be  firmly  pressed  about  the  roots.  The  osage  orange,  when  planted 
at  a  distance  of  five  or  six  feet  apart,  will  furnish  a  good,  substantial  fence  in  from 
three  to  five  years.  The  willow  is  very  hardy,  and  will  grow  readily  from  branches  of  the 
trees  cut  in  suitable  length  and  inserted  in  the  ground. 

During  the  first  year  the  hedge  should  be  cultivated  with  the  ordinary  corn-cultivator, 
to  keep  out  the  weeds  and  loosen  the  soU,  which  will  aid  much  in  establishing  a  good  growth. 
Subsequent  cultivation  may  be  performed  with  the  plow,  always  throwing  a  light  furrow 
towards  the  hedge.  When  the  hedge  has  become  strong  enough  to  restrain  stock,  and  it  is 
desirable  to  check,  in  a  measure,  its  growth,  this  can  be  accompKshed  by  running  a  priming- 
plow  or -similar  implement  along  the  sides  of  the  ridge,  or,  if  on  level  ground,  at  a  suitable 
distance  from  the  hedge,  and  thus  cutting  off  the  ends  of  the  roots,  which  will  check  the 
growth  of  the  plants  without  killing  them,  and  keep  the  roots  within  prescribed  limits. 
Otherwise  they  will  be  hable  to  occupy  too  large  a  portion  of  the  soil,  and  appropriate  to 
their  growth  the  nutriment  that  should  be  taken  by  the  growing  crops. 

When  hedges  become,  in  time,  thinned  at  the  bottom,  they  will  require  renewing  in  this 
part  to  remedy  the  evil.  This  is  done  in  different  ways,  sometimes  temporarily  by  inserting 
branches  cut  from  the  over-grown  or  thicker  portions  of  the  hedge,  and  by  layering.  This 
latter  method  reduces  the  height  of  the  fence  greatly,  causing  the  new  growth  to  be  made 
near  the  ground.  It  is  more  successfully  practiced  in  damp,  than  dry  soils.  Some  kinds  of 
hedge  require  more  frequent  trimming  than  others.  They  should  be  cut  when  the  sprouts 
are  green  and  soft,  as  it  requires  less  labor  at  this  period  of  growth.  The  osage  orange,  and 
hedges  of  equally  rapid  growth,  should  be  trimmed  at  least  twice  a  year,  and  many  think  it  a 
saving  of  labor  to  cut  them  even  three  times,  thus  preventing  the  wood  from  getting  hard  and 
of  large  growth.  For  the  cutting  of  the  green  or  annual  branches,  a  strong  and  sharp  grass- 
sickle  will  answer  every  purpose,  which,  with  a  little  practice,  can  be  readily  accomplished. 

Einbaukments,  with  ditches  on  one  or  both  sides,  are  used  for  fencing  in  some  parts 
of  England,  but  have  not  been  employed  to  any  extent  in  this  country.  A  large  open  ditch 
is  dug  on  the  division  Hne,  and  the  earth  taken  from  it  is  thrown  up,  forming  a  high  em- 
bankment. A  double  ditch,  one  on  either  side  of  the  ridge,  is  a  more  effectual  barrier. 
Sometimes  a  hedge  is  planted  on  the  top  of  the  embankment.  On  very  wet  lands,  such 
ditches  will  serve  for  drainage  purposes,  but  we  doubt  whether  they  could  be  profitably 
employed  as  a  fence. 

Portable  Fences.  —  Portable  fences  of  various  kinds  are  a  great  convenience  on  the 
farm,  since  they  furnish  all  the  advantages  of  a  permanent  fence,  without  the  disadvantages. 
They  can  also  be  made  during  the  winter,  when  other  farm  work  is  not  pressing.  In  Canada, 
where  timber  is  abundant  and  cheap,  a  portable  fence  much  in  use  is  constructed  with  sup- 
ports something  in  the  form  of  the  letter  A,  the  pieces  joined  at  the  top  forming  an  acute 
angle,  with  the  bar  near  the  bottom,  and  three  boards  nailed  at  equal  distances  on  one  side 
of  these  supports.  This  fence  requires  considerable  material,  but  it  is  cheap  and  durable,  is 
easily  constructed,  and  when  once  made  requires  no  extra  labor  in  putting  up.  Another 
very  convenient  portable  fence  may  be  made  as  follows  :  The  supports  are  made  of  inch 
boards,  crossing  near  the  top,  but  allowing  the  ends  to  project  a  sufficient  length  to  furnish 
a  support  for  the  upper  board  of  the  panels  forming  the  fence,  the  support  being  cut  out  at 


568 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


FARM  FENCES.  569 

the  upper  angle  thus  formed,  to  admit  of  the  top  board  of  the  panels  fitting  it  well.  A  board 
is  nailed  across  the  support  near  the  bottom  at  such  a  distance  that  it  may  be  inserted  in  the 
space  between  the  two  lower  boards  of  the  panel,  the  lower  side  of  which  is  cut  out  to  fit 
them  in  such  a  way  that  they  cannot  easily  be  pushed  out  of  place.  The  panels,  or  main 
part  of  the  fence,  may  be  made  of  inch  boards  about  sixteen  feet  in  length  and  of  any  width 
desired,  and  placed  nearer  together  towards  the  bottom  than  the  top,  if  designed  to  confine 
small  animals,  such  as  young  pigs  or  lambs.  These  panels  may  be  made  by  placing  the  six- 
teen-feet  boards  at  the  desired  distance  apart  (about  four  of  them  being  required  for  a  panel, 
if  the  boards  are  about  six  inches  in  width),  and  nailing  a  board  across  the  middle  and  near 
either  end,  to  hold  them  in  place,  leaving  the  ends  of  the  boards  to  project  from  six  to  eight 
inches.  This  forms  one  complete  panel.  When  properly  constructed  and  set  up,  the  bottom  of 
the  top  board  of  each  panel  rests  on  the  top  of  the  support,  and  the  bottom  board  of  the  panel 
goes  under  the  cross  piece  of  the  support.  By  digging  a  little  for  the  posts  of  the  supports, 
it  forms  a  very  secure  fence.  This  fence  can  be  opened  at  any  place,  simply  by  raising  up 
the  ends  of  two  panels. 

By  the  exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity,  various  kinds  of  portable  fences  may  be  constructed 
at  slight  expense  that  will  prove  of  great  utility  on  the  farm,  and  a  desirable  substitute  for 
many  of  the  permanent  fences  that  are  now  in  use.  They  are  especially  useful  where  it  is 
desired  to  feed  different  portions  of  a  field  crop,  such  as  clover,  turnips,  peas,  etc.,  in  succes- 
sive order  by  stock. 

Flood  Fence.  —  It  is  frequently  desirable  to  construct  a  fence  across  the  bed  of  a 
stream  that  is  subject  to  floods  after  heavy  rains,  or  to  put  across  sloughs  when  too  wide  for 
a  flood-gate.  The  following,  from  the  American  Agriculturist,  describes  two  methods  of 
making  a  very  convenient  and  easily-constructed  flood-fence:  "  Logs  on  which  the  fence  rests 
are  the  trunks  of  straight  trees  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  which  are  hewed  on  two 
sides;  posts  are  morticed  in  each  of  these  logs,  and  on  them  planks  are  firmly  nailed.  The 
logs  are  then  linked  together  with  inch  iron  rods,  and  the  first  one  connected  by  means  of  a 
long  link  to  a  tree,  or  post  firmly  set  in  the  ground  upon  the  banks  of  the  stream.  The  links 
must  all  work  freely.  When  high  water  occurs,  the  fence  is  washed  around  and  left  on  the 
bank ;  after  the  water  has  subsided  sufSciently,  the  logs  may  be  dragged  back  to  their  places 
by  means  of  a  horse  hitched  to  a  staple  in  the  end  of  the  log." 

Again:  "Posts  are  driven  or  otherwise  put  down  from  three  to  four  feet,  with  the  tops 
about  one  foot  above  ground.  The  other  posts,  that  the  planks  are  nailed  to,  are  bolted  to 
the  top  of  the  inserted  posts,  and  a  wire  is  placed  over  the  tops.  The  ends  of  the  panel  that 
connect  with  the  post  on  the  bank  are  slightly  nailed  with  cross  strips  near  tlie  top,  so  as  to 
be  easily  broken  loose  when  the  flood  comes.  There  are  also  temporary  braces  bearing  up- 
stream, put  in  to  prevent  the  fence  from  falling,  but  are  easily  washed  out  when  the  fence 
falls  down  stream,  and  logs  and  other  obstructions  pass  by  readily.  As  soon  as  the  flood 
goes  down,  the  fence  is  easily  raised,  a  panel  at  a  time,  to  its  proper  place." 

Wire  Fence. — The  post  and  wire  fence  is  quite  extensively  used  at  present,  and  seems 
likely  to  become  in  time  the  common  fence  of  the  country,  especially  in  those  sections  where 
timber  is  scarce.  At  first  the  plain  single  wire  was  employed  for  fencing  purposes,  but  failed 
tc  give  entire  satisfaction,  being  defective  in  some  important  respects.  The  single  wire  con- 
tracted in  cold  and  expanded  in  heat,  causing  the  fence  to  get  out  of  repair  easily,  while  it 
did  not  repel  unruly  animals.  Improvements  were  effected  which  have  resulted  in  the  use  of 
barbed  wire;  the  object  being  to  secure  durability,  strength,  and  a  protection  against  all 
intrusion  from  animals,  or  trespassers  of  any  kind.  That  most  commonly  employed  is  made 
by  the  Washburn  &  Moen  Co.,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  consists  of  two  twisted  steel  wires,  one 
of  them  having  inserted  at  short  intervals  of  space  a  firmly-twisted  barb. 


570 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


By  being  twisted,  greater  strength  is  secured,  and  the  wire  is  better  able  to  resist  the 
effects  of  changes  of  temperature.  The  barbs  in  such  fences  should,  as  nearly  as  possible,  be 
just  long  enough  to  repel  infringing  animals  without  being  capable  of  inflicting  a  serious 
injury.  In  erecting  a  fence  of  this  kind,  the  number  of  strands  to  be  used  must  depend 
upon  the  special  object  to  be  accomplished.  Two  strands,  about  twenty-one  inches  from  the 
ground  and  from  each  other,  will  turn  horses,  cattle,  cows,  and  young  stock.  Three  strands, 
the  lowest  being  placed  twelve  inches  from  the  ground,  the  second  twenty-three  inches,  and 
the  third  forty-two  inches  from  the  ground  will,  of  course,  be  better  and  make  a  more  sub- 
stantial fence. 

Four  strands  are  most  commonly  used,  while  even  five  are  frequently  employed  when 


BARB    WIRE. 


USE   OF   STRETCHER. 


some  special  object  is  desired,  such  as  excluding  dogs,  pigs,  poultry,  and  other  small  animals. 
In  such  cases  the  lower  strands  are  placed  nearer  the  ground  and  to  each  other  than  the 
upper  ones.  In  constructing  a  four-strand  fence,  the  strand  nearest  the  ground  might  be 
about  five  inches  from  it,  the  next  twelve  inches,  the  third  twenty-two  inches,  and  the  fourth 
forty-eight  inches  from  the  ground.  This  would  give  a  fence  four  feet  high.  In  erecting  a 
wire  fence,  the  main  posts  may  be  about  fifty  feet  from  the  corner  posts  and  from  each  other. 
They  should  be  firmly  set  in  the  ground,  so  as  to  prevent  being  thrown  out  by  the  frost. 
They  should  always  be  sharpened  at  the  top,  or  left  wedge-shaped,  better  protection  against 
intrusion  being  by  this  means  secured.  After  setting  the  posts,  they  should  be  marked  where 
each  line  of  wire  is  to  cross.  The  first  end  of  a  spool  of  the  wire  is  then  fastened  firmly  to 
the  first  comer  post  with  staples  and  carried  quite  a  distance,  allowing  it  to  unwind  as  the 


FARM  FENCES. 


571 


spool  proceeds.  Draw  the  line  from  the  starting-point  to  the  proposed  post  as  straight  as 
possible  with  the  hands,  and  then  apply  a  stretcher  and  strain  it  tightly  to  its  place.  "While 
the  line  is  thus  under  strain  staple  it  firmly  to  each  intermediate  post  between  the  point  of 
starting  and  the  stretcher.     Repeat  from  this  point  and  so  on.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  brace 

the  corner  posts  each 
way  with  joists  bev- 
eled to  fit  the  post  at 
I  the  place  of  contact, 
and  firmly  spiked  as 
high  on  the  post  as 
the  upper  line  of  fenc- 
ing, running  from 
this  point  at  an  angle 
of  45°  into  the  ground 
below  frost,  and  kept 
in  place  at  the  bottom 
by  a  flat  stone  or 
other  substantial  ma- 
terial. The  posts  on 
each  side  of  a  gate  or 
pair  of  bars  should 
be  of  the  same  size  as 
the  corner  posts,  and 
be  braced  in  the  same 
way.     It  is  important 

that  the  wire  be  strained  rigidly  in  place  when  being  put  up;  in  fact,  there  is  little  danger  of 
straining  it  too  tightly,  as  it  is  very  strong,  and  being  composed  of  two  strands  twisted 
together,  it  readily  adjusts  itself  to  different  temperatures. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  the  barbed  wire  fence  are  its  strength,  durability,  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  erected,  its  cheapness,  and  the  complete  protection  it  affords  from  all 
intrusion.  It  requires  fewer  posts  than  any  other  fence,  as  the  posts  can  be  placed  at  quit^  a 
distance  apart;  it  is  easily  kept  in  repair,  and  cannot  be  destroyed  by  fire.  It  is  also  valuable 
where  snow-drifts  are  an  incumbrance,  since  it  forms  no  barrier  to  the  strong  winter  winds; 
the  snow  cannot  accumulate  into  drifts,  as  it  does  where  fences  that  offer  obstructions  are  used. 
The  principal  argument  against  the  use  of  the  barbed  wire  fence  is  that  animals  are 
sometimes  injured  by  it,  and  it  has  for  this  reason  been  termed  by  some  "  a  cruel  fence."  We 
think  this  objection  could  readily  be  met  and  entirely  obviated  by  placing  a  narrow  board  or 
pole  above  the  top  wire  from  post  to  post,  which  wiU  render  the  fence  easily  seen  by  the 
animals,  and  thus  prevent  all  such  accidents.  Whatever  the  kind  of  fence  used,  when 
designed  to  be  of  a  permanent  character,  it  should  always  be  made  of  good  material  and  be 
substantially  built.  It  is  cheaper  in  the  end  to  biuld  a  good  fence  that  will  require  but  few 
repairs  in  a  long  time,  than  a  poor  one  that  requires  a  constant  rebuilding  by  way  of  repairs. 
When  posts  are  used,  the  timber  selected  should  be  of  the  most  durable  kind,  and  well  set. 
For  a  post-and-board  fence,  heavy  nails  should  always  be  employed,  and  enough  of  them  put 
in  to  render  the  work  strong  and  substantial. 


572  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

WASTES  AND  WANTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

How  to  make  business  pay,  or  in  other  words,  how  to  secure  the  largest  profits  from 
the  money,  labor,  and  time  invested,  is  the  study  and  aim  of  all  business  men.  This 
is  no  less  the  case  with  the  farmer,  than  with  those  engaged  in  other  avocations.  In 
fact,  we  beheve  farmers,  as  a  general  rule,  labor  harder  to  secure  their  profits  than  any  other 
class.  Many  of  them,  occupying  small  farms,  too  often  find  at  the  close  of  the  year  that  with 
all  their  toil,  working  early  and  late,  they  have  fallen  short  of  their  expectations  in  results, 
and  beyond  defraying  the  common  expenses  of  the  farm  and  household,  financially  they  are 
but  little,  if  any,  in  advance  of  the  previous  year.  Such  a  result,  we  believe,  is  not  the  fault 
of  the  biisiness,  but  of  the  one  who  manages  or  mismanages  it,  and  that  when  properly  con- 
ducted, farming  may  be  made  as  profitable  an  avocation  as  any  other. 

Such  failures  may  be  attributed  largely  to  the  wastes  and  wants  of  the  faiTn,  and  should 
this  subject  receive  the  consideration  which  its  importance  demands,  we  believe  much  larger 
profits  could  be  secured  with  less  labor,  by  the  majority  of  farmers,  than  are  now  realized  by 
the  present  common  practice. 

Waste  of  Manure,  etc.  —  Farmers  are  proverbially  economical  in  the  use  of  money. 
They  labor  hard  for  it,  and  hence  realize  its  value,  and  are  loth  to  part  with  it.  This  economy 
in  the  spending  of  money  is  often  carried  so  far  that  it  borders  upon  penuriousness,  and  we 
frequently  hear  it  remarked,  that  farmers,  as  a  class,  are  exacting  and  close-calculating  in 
their  dealings  with  others.  No  doubt  this  accusation  is  often  unjustly  founded,  but  however 
this  may  be,  there  are  many  things  in  respect  to  which  the  average  farmer  is  too  prodigal, 
the  saving  of  which  he  does  not  seem  to  realize  will  aid  very  materially  in  augmenting  the 
profits  of  the  farm,  and  which,  if  rightly  appropriated,  is  equivalent  to  money  earned;  since 
the  resources  of  the  farm  will  thereby  be  increased  without  additional  outlay. 

One  of  the  common  wastes  of  the  farm  is  that  of  manure.  The  great  need  of  the  farms 
in  the  older-settled  portions  of  the  country  is  more  manure,  and  the  problem  for  the  farmers 
of  those  sections  generally  to  solve,  is  how  to  obtain  an  adequate  supply. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  farm  manure,  many  farmers  are  obliged  to 
depend  upon  superphosphates  and  other  commercial  fertilizers  to  supplement  the  quantity 
required,  the  expense  of  which  reduces  largely  the  profits  resulting  from  the  crops.  Although 
this  lack  of  manure  is  generally  admitted,  yet,  inconsistent  as  it  may  seem,  there  are  very  few 
farmers  but  that  permit  a  large  proportion  of  the  manure  made  by  the  farm  stock  to  be 
wasted.  It  is  a  common  practice  with  farmers  to  permit  the  hquid  manure  to  be  lost.  How 
few  bams  in  the  country  are  provided  with  means  for  utilizing  this  valuable  fertilizer! 
And  yet  it  is  claimed  by  chemists,  that  the  liquid  manure  of  cattle  is  of  as  much  value  as 
the  solid. 

Prof.  Dana  states  that  "  The  quantity  of  liquid  manure  produced  by  one  cow  annually  is 
equal  to  fertilizing  one  and  a  quarter  acres  of  ground,  producing  effects  as  durable  as  do  the 
solid  evacuations.  A  cord  of  loam  saturated  with  urine  is  equal  to  a  cord  of  the  best  rotted 
man«re.  *  *  *  If  the  liquid  and  solid  evacuations,  including  the  Htter,  are  kept  separate,  and 
the  liquid  is  soaked  up  by  the  loam,  it  has  been  found  they  will  manure  land  in  proportion, 
by  bulk,  of  seven  liquid  to  six  solid,  while  their  actual  value  is  as  two  to  one." 

Other  noted  authorities  might  be  cited,  but  we  have  treated  of  this  subject  so  thoroughly 
in  connection  with  fertilizers,  that  a  repetition  is  not  necessary  here. 

The  fact  has  been  sufficiently  established  by  experiment  and  chemical  analysis,  from  the 
best  authorities,  that  the  farmer  who  makes  no  provision  for  saving  the  liquid  manure  made 
by  his  stock  loses  fully  one-half  the  value  of  the  manure  they  supply,  while  he  who  utilizes 
both  the  liquid  and  solid  excrement,  has,  therefore,  double  the  amount  of  manure  every  year 
than  he  otherwise  would  have. 


WASTES  AND  WANTS  OF  THE  FARM.  573 

To  permit  one-half  of  the  mamirial  resources  of  the  farm  to  be  wasted  is  certainly  not 
good  economy,  when  with  a  little  extra  care  it  might  easily  all  be  saved.  Furthermore,  to 
spend  money  in  buying  commercial  fertilizers  to  make  up  the  deficiency  of  this  waste,  is  not 
good  management,  when  the  expenditure  might  so  easily  be  obviated.  In  order  to  save  the 
liquid  manure,  various  methods  are  employed,  such  as  barn-ceUars,  etc.  These  are  very  con- 
venient, but  not  absolutely  essential  for  this  purpose.  By  the  use  of  proper  absorbents  for 
the  bedding  of  the  stock,  which  will  take  up  all  the  liquids,  they  may  thus  be  saved.  Suitable 
material  for  this  purpose  may  be  easily  procured,  such  as  dry  loam,  dry  swamp-muck,  fine 
sand,  road-dust,  chaff,  dry  leaves,  etc. 

Another  wasteful  practice  is  in  throwing  the  solid  manure  out  of  the  stable- windows  and 
permitting  it  to  Ue  exposed  to  the  rains  and  hot  sun  until  wanted  for  use  upon  the  land,  where 
the  most  valuable  fertilizing  elements  are  either  washed  out  or  evaporated.  Manure  thus 
exposed  loses  fully  one-half  its  value.  Thus  we  see  that  those  farmers  who  permit  the  liquid 
manure  of  their  stock  to  be  wasted, — which  as  previously  stated  is  computed  to  be  one-half 
ol  the  entire  quantity, — and  are  in  the  habit  of  allowing  the  solid  manure  to  be  exposed  to 
the  weather, — thus  permitting  one-half  or  more  of  that  to  be  wasted, — lose  fully  three-fourths 
of  the  entire  amount  of  manure  made  by  their  stock.  Dr.  Voelcker  found  by  careful  experi- 
ment, that  five  tons  of  fresh  manure,  after  having  been  spread  in  the  yard  and  exposed  to  the 
weather  from  November  3d  until  the  following  August  23d,  lost  nearly  two-thirds  of  its  actual 
value  as  a  fertihzer.  Now,  if  farmers  would  take  pains  to  prevent  this  waste  of  manure,  by 
the  use  of  absorbents  for  the  liquid,  and  shelter  for  the  solid  excrement,  either  in  barn-cellars 
or  sheds,  a  good  supply  of  manure  would  be  had  where  now  it  is  limited,  thus  requiring  less 
expense  for  the  purchase  of  commercial  manures,  and  an  increased  fertility  of  the  soil  with 
no  additional  expense,  together  with  better  crops,  and  consequently  larger  profits. 

Another  waste  common  on  the  farm  that  might  be  appropriately  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection, is  in  exhausting  the  resources  of  tlie  soil  by  constant  cropping,  without  a  sufficient 
supply  of  manure.  By  this  means  valuable  lands  in  some  sections  have  become  almost  worth- 
less, and  farms  that  once  were  very  productive,  yielding  for  a  time  large  profits,  have  become 
either  entirely  unproductive,  or  can  hardly  be  made  to  produce  sufficient  to  pay  the  expense 
of  tillage.  This  might  all  have  been  avoided  by  the  judicious  use  of  suppljang  a  sufficient 
amount  of  plant-food  adapted  to  the  crops  to  be  cultivated,  and  thus  valuable  lands  saved 
from  deterioration,  and  running  to  waste.  Very  few  farmers  would  think  of  spending  to  no 
pui-pose.  or  wasting  the  amount  of  money  which  such  injudicious  management  involves,  yet 
they  will  permit  such  wastes  to  go  on  upon  their  farms  year  after  year  with  the  utmost  indif- 
ference. 

Lack  of  Economy  iu  Labor.  —  While  farmers,  as  a  general  rule,  are  a  very  hard- 
laboring  class,  working  more  hours  to  the  day  than  those  engaged  in  almost  any  other  avoca- 
tion, yet  it  is  too  often  the  case  that  the  time  and  labor  expended  do  not  result  in  the  profits 
that  they  otherwise  would,  owing  to  the  various  ways  in  which  there  is  a  lack  of  economy  in 
utilizing  the  labor  thus  expended.  The  neglect  to  perform  work  at  the  proper  time  is  a 
source  of  waste  oh  the  farm,  as  well  as  in  every  other  business.  If  the  plowing  be  done  for 
the  crops  when  the  soil  is  dry  and  in  a  suitable  condition  for  tillage,  instead  of  being  saturated 
with  water,  much  needless  labor  will  be  saved  both  to  the  farmer  and  team. 

Planting  at  the  proper  season,  and  usin^  good  seed  for  that  purpose,  wiU  economize 
labor  and  bring  profits  that  cannot  be  obtained  by  planting  too  early  and  thus  permitting  the 
frost  to  kill  plants,  necessitating  a  second  planting,  or  planting  so  late  that  only  a  partial 
crop  can  be  procured  from  the  labor  expended.  The  planting  of  poor  seed  is  labor  wasted. 
The  farmer  who  takes  measures  to  kill  the  weeds  in  his  cultivated  fields  when  they  first 
make  their  appearance  and  can  easily  be  exterminated,  instead  of  permitting  them  to  grow 
until  they  have  secured  a  partial  or  complete  possession  of  the  soil,  will  save  not  only  much 


574  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

hard  labor  in  destroying  them  afterwards,  but  will  prevent  the  injury  and  loss  to  the  crop 
which  would  be  caused  by  negligence  in  this  respect. 

The  same  principle  holds  true  with  regard  to  harvesting  crops,  or  any  other  of  the  duties 
pertaining  to  farm  labor.  We  have  seen  farmers  neglect  to  provide  suitable  drainage  for 
lands  until  the  heavy  rains  came  and  saturated  the  soil  with  water,  and  when  in  this  condi- 
tion they  did,  with  twice  or  thrice  the  amount  of  labor  that  would  otherwise  be  required, 
what  should  have  been  done  in  a  dryer  season.  Carting  dirt  from  one  point  to  another  when 
the  amount  of  water  in  it  would  constitute  nearly,  if  not  quite,  one-half  its  weight,  instead  of 
doing  this  when  the  soil  was  dry,  is  another  of  the  many  methods  of  a  waste  of  labor.  Some 
persons  seem  to  possess  the  faculty  of  always  doing  things  in  the  hardest  possible  way, 
through  negligence  and  careless  management,  and  in  order  to  secure  certain  results  will 
perform  many  times  the  amount  of  labor  that  would  be  required  by  others  practicing  a 
thorough  and  systematic  method. 

Slovenly  Management. — The  slovenly  management  seen  on  some  farms  causes  one 
to  wonder  how,  under  such  a  system,  or,  rather,  with  such  a  lack  of  system,  any  profit  what- 
ever could  be  made,  and  yet  we  know  farmers  who  have  made  quite  large  profits  by  farm- 
ing  in  just  this  manner.  Their  work  would  be  done  at  nearly  all  times  out  of  season;  the 
repairing  of  fences  would  be  neglected,  and  much  time  be  spent  in  the  most  busy  and  im- 
portant part  of  the  season  in  looking  up  the  stock  that  had  for  this  reason  strayed  away. 
Dilapidated  farm  buildings  were  permitted  year  after  year  to  become  more  dilapidated ;  drains 
filled  up  and  were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Wood  necessary  for  the  household  would 
never  be  provided  in  large  quantities  beforehand,  but  be  picked  up  from  time  to  time  on  the 
farm,  as  the  supply  became  exhausted,  in  the  shape  of  broken  rails,  old  rotten  stumps,  or 
trimmings  from  the  apple  orchard,  which  would  have  to  be  burnt  in  a  green  state. 

The  poultry  would  have  no  warm  quarters  provided,  but  be  obliged  to  find  a  roosting- 
place  in  the  trees  or  other  out-of-the-way  places. 

Pigs  wallowed,  and  even  swam  in  the  accumulations  of  undrained  pens  and  yards.  The 
harvesting  of  some  of  the  crops  would  be  delayed  so  late  as  to  be  nearly  ruined  by  the  frost, 
and  every  thing  on  the  farm  would  seem  to  go  in  a  hap-hazard  way. 

Now,  if  any  profits  whatever  can  be  made  by  such  methods,  how  much  more  profitable 
will  farming  prove  under  a  thorough  and  perfect  system  of  management. 

Doing  Work  Over-Nicely. — In  striking  a  contrast  with  the  former,  might  be  men- 
tioned  those  who  spend  too  much  time  and  labor  in  performing  their  work.  They  do  not 
possess  what  is  called  in  hackneyed  phrase,  "the  knack  to  turn  off  work,"  and  much  time 
and  labor  is  spent  in  doing  unnecessary  things,  or  that  labor  which  will  prove  of  no  real  ben- 
efit to  themselves  or  any  one  else.  They  either  spend  much  time  in  doing  things  that  are  not 
at  all  essential,  and  thus  waste  time  and  labor,  or  they  are  over-nice  and  particular  in  the  per- 
formance of  necessary  work. 

They  perhaps  hoe  their  crops  with  the  utmost  precision,  by  hand,  when  a  horse-hoe  or 
cultivator  would  do  the  work  just  as  well,  and  with  the  expenditure  of  much  less  labor  and 
time.  Or  they  may  insist  on  carefully  mowing  their  fields  with  a  scythe,  instead  of  using  a 
mowing-machine,  because  they  regard  the  former  method  as  doing  the  work  better,  and  leav- 
ing the  surface  more  even  than  the  latter.  Such  persons  seem  to  fail  to  perceive  that  labor 
and  time  are  equivalent  to  money,  and  that  all  needless  waste  of  either  is  a  loss  in  money 
value.  Work  should  always  be  done  thoroughly  and  well,  but  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of 
time  and  labor  is  a  waste,  and  cannot  properly  come  under  the  system  of  good  management. 

Use  of  Poor  Tools. — Another  example  of  false  economy  is  seen  in  the  use  of  poor 

tools,  or  those  which  are  not  adapted  to  the  purpose  designed.     The  employment  of  heavy 
and  cumbersome  implements  when  hghtcr  ones  would  do  the  work  just  as  well,  and  perhaps 


WASTES  AND  WANTS  OF  THE  FARM.  575 

better,  is  the  wasting  of  a  certain  amount  of  labor  for  either  the  man  who  handles  them,  or 
the  team  that  draws  them.  It  is,  therefore,  poor  economy  to  furnish  implements  that  are 
ill  adapted  to  perform  tlie  work  with  facility  to  hired  help,  since  the  full  value  of  the  money 
expended  for  such  labor  is  not  realized  in  return. 

It  is  not  good  management  to  use  inefficient  tools,  when  by  a  little  extra  expenditure  for 
Buitable  ones,  from  a  third  to  a  fourth  more  labor  might  be  performed  in  the  same  time. 

The  farmer  who  persists  in  using  the  old-fashioned  cradle  in  harvesting  his  grain,  instead 
of  a  good  reaper,  involves  the  waste  of  both  labor  and  grain,  since  with  a  good  reaping- 
machine  that  implement  and  horses  could  easily  and  quickly  perform  what  would  require  a 
great  amount  of  labor  and  time  when  done  by  hand.  In  order  to  economize  labor  and  time, 
the  best  implements  and  methods  should  always  be  employed  in  every  department  of  farm 
labor. 

Boi'l'Owing  Tools. — The  practice  of  borrowing  farm  tools  is  one  that  is  quite  too  com- 
mon in  some  sections;  more  especially  in  those  localities  where  small  farms  are  cultivated. 
To  such  an  extent  is  this  practice  followed  by  some  farmers,  that  the  larger  portion  of  the 
work  performed  on  their  farms  is  done  with  borrowed  implements.  Such  borrowers  usually 
apply  to  their  neighbors  for  favors  with  some  such  remark  as,  "  Are  you  going  to  use  your 
cart  to-day?  "  or,  "Are  you  using  your  horserake?  "  seeming  to  take  it  for  granted  that  if  not 
in  use  by  the  rightful  owner,  it  is  their  right  to  appropriate  all  such  farm  implements  to  their 
own  benefit.  It  is  not  infrequent  that  farm  tools,  by  constant  lending,  are  worn  and  broken 
more  by  the  borrowers  than  by  the  owner.  The  impertinence  of  such  borrowers  is  often  truly 
astonishing.  "We  know  of  one  man  who  positively  refused  to  return  a  borrowed  tool  until  he 
was  through  with  it  himself,  when  it  was  sent  for  by  the  owner.  The  man  who  will  constantly 
depend  upon  his  neighbors  for  those  things  that  are  essential  upon  every  well-regulated  farm, 
must  indeed  possess  a  mean  and  selfish  disposition,  and  but  little  of  the  true  spirit  of  manliness. 
But  setting  aside  the  meanness  of  the  practice,  it  is  certainly  not  a  good  policy  to  spend  timo 
and  run  the  risk  of  disappointment  in  hunting  up  tools  on  neighboring  farms,  that  should  be 
always  at  hand  and  ready  for  use.  It  is  generally  the  case  that  those  who  have  so  little  self- 
respect  as  to  be  constantly  dependent  upon  others,  have  at  the  same  time  too  little  honor  and 
principle  to  return  the  articles  borrowed  in  proper  time;  hence,  those  who  are  frequently 
being  applied  to  for  such  favors  have  generally,  in  addition  to  the  annoyance  occasioned  by 
the  breakage  and  wearing  out  of  their  tools  by  others,  the  additional  one  of  looking  up  and 
bringing  back  the  borrowed  articles. 

Although  we  believe  in  acts  of  neighborly  kindness,  and  in  accommodating  others  to  a 
reasonable  extent,  yet  such  constant  borrowers  should  be  taught  the  lesson  of  honesty  and 
self-dependence  by  either  a  charge  of  a  stipulated  price  for  the  use  and  breakage  of  tools,  or 
by  a  prompt  refusal  to  loan. 

Lack  of  Care  of  Farm  Implements. — In  addition  to  slovenly  management  gen- 
erally on  the  farm,  might  be  mentioned  the  neglect  to  take  proper  care  of  farm  implements, 
such  neglect  often  causing  greater  injury  to  them  than  all  the  wear  in  performing  the  work 
for  which  they  are  adapted. 

There  are  some  farmers  who  are  very  careful  respecting  their  expenditures  of  money, 
talk  of  hard  times  and  tlie  necessity  of  practicing  economy,  never  purchasing  anything  except 
what  they  consider  absolutely  essential,  but  who  will  leave  valuable  farm  machines  out  in  the 
open  field,  exposed  to  the  weather  for  months,  without  a  thought  of  the  waste  thus  incurred. 
Plows,  harrows,  mowing-machines,  horse-rakes,  reapers,  carts,  wagons,  etc.,  are  left  where 
their  use  in  work  happens  to  stop  for  the  season,  and  there  they  remain  exposed  to  the  rains, 
snows,  and  hot  sun  until  they  are  wanted  the  following  season,  when  they  are  then  looked  up 
for  that  purpose.     It  is  unnecessary  to  state  that  such  negligence  will  cause  more  injury  to 


576  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

farm  implements  than  their  constant  use  would  during  that  period,  and  the  farmer  who  fails 
to  provide  a  place  of  shelter  for  his  tools,  has  a  very  poor  idea  of  the  proper  economies  con- 
nected with  his  business,  as  well  as  but  Httle  system  or  method  in  managing  it.  Western 
farmers  are  generally  more  negligent  in  this  respect  than  Eastern,  but  such  mismanagement 
is  quite  too  commonly  seen  in  all  sections  of  the  country. 

Kepairiug  Tools. — Failing  to  repair  tools  at  the  proper  time  is  also  a  great  waste. 
Tlie  old  ma.xim  with  regard  to  "  a  stitch  in  time,"  is  as  true  in  relation  to  farming  as  any 
other  business.  Some  farmers  never  think  of  repairing  a  wagon,  or  harness,  until  it  absolutely 
breaks  down  or  gives  out  altogether,  and  even  then  make  a  temporary  repair  in  a  bungling 
manner,  to  make  the  broken  parts  hold  together  for  the  time  being,  at  the  imminent  risk  to 
life  and  limb  thus  involved.  Neither  wagons  nor  harnesses  are  scarcely,  if  ever,  oiled,  the 
friction  thus  produced  on  the  axles  of  the  former  causing  them  to  wear  out  much  faster  than 
they  otherwise  would.  The  tire  of  the  wheels  gets  loose,  and  is  never  reset,  until  by  long 
rattling — which  would  be  sufficient  to  signal  the  approach  of  such  vehicles  at  a  long  distance 
— they  finally  come  off,  and  repairing  becomes  an  imperative  necessity.  Harnesses  get  dry 
and  stiff  for  lack  of  oil,  soon  break  in  consequence,  and  are  tied  together  with  tow  strings,  or 
leather  strips  made  after  the  manner  of  the  old-fashioned  cobbler's  shoe-strings,  and  are  thus 
used  untQ  they  can  be  used  no  longer,  and  a  new  one  is  bought,  to  receive  the  same  kind  of 
care.  It  seems  strange  that  fanners  who  are  often  economical,  and  even  penurious  with 
respect  to  spending  money  for  other  things,  should  permit  such  wastes,  when  with  a  little 
care  it  might  be  obviated. 

A  reaper  should  never  rattle  when  at  work,  and  if  by  taking  hold  of  a  shaft  it  can  be 
shaken,  it  shows  that  the  boxes  need  filling.  This  may  be  done  by  almost  any  farmer  him- 
self, or  it  will  cost  but  a  few  dollars  to  have  it  done  at  a  machine-shop.  A  few  pounds  of  old 
type  when  melted  will  serve  for  the  material.  In  the  use  of  all  farm  machines,  they  should 
be  kept  in  good  repair,  with  every  nut  and  rivet  tight.  They  should  also  be  kept  well  oiled 
where  the  latter  is  essential. 

A  few  moments  spent  in  replacing  a  lost  bolt,  tightening  a  loosened  screw,  or  making 
any  such  slight  repairs,  will  often  save  much  labor  and  expense  in  making  more  extensive 
ones  that  may  be  required  through  neglect  at  first.  Serious  accidents  to  rider  and  team  may 
also  not  unfrequently  be  avoided  by  attending  to  such  slight  repairs  in  season. 

IllSufflicient  Help.  —  The  number  of  laborers  on  the  farm  should  always  be  adapted 
to  the  amount  of  work  to  be  performed.  With  ideas  of  false  economy,  some  fanners  employ 
only  about  one-half  the  hired  help  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  perform  the  work  in  the 
proper  time  and  manner,  and  endeavor,  by  working  this  force  to  the  utmost,  early  and  late, 
to  be  able  to  secure  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  for  the  season,  at  a  much  less  expense 
than  would  ordinarily  be  involved  in  accomplishing  it.  By  this  course,  much  of  the  work  is 
delayed  beyond  the  proper  time  of  doing  it,  and  many  of  the  crops  become  seriously  injured. 
The  cultivation  and  harvesting  is  in  many  instances  delayed,  weeds  obtain  the  mastery  of  the 
soil,  on  account  of  other  duties  pressing,  that  there  are  not  sufficient  hands  to  perform  at  the 
proper  time,  crops  become  over-ripe,  the  grain  shells  out  in  the  field,  and  the  whole  machin- 
ery of  the  farming  system  seems  clogged.  The  loss  occasioned  by  such  management  will 
usually  far  exceed  the  expense  of  employing  a  suitable  number  of  hands;  while  hired  help 
who  feel  that  their  employer  is  endeavoring  to  over-reach  them  by  exacting  more  from  them 
in  service  than  is  just,  for  the  compensation  received,  will  not  take  that  interest  in  the  work, 
or  generally  perform  it  as  well,  as  when  they  feel  that  they  are  fairly  treated.  Besides,  aside 
from  motives  of  policy,  which  should  be  secondary,  any  course  that  is  based  upon  such  selfish 
motives  is  not  founded  upon  honor,  or  the  principle  of  right,  and  the  man  who  is  not  willing 
to  give  a  just  and  fair  equivalent  for  what  he  receives,  is  not  an  honest  man,  and  is  not 


WASTES  AND  WANTS  OF  THE  FARM.  577 

entitled  to  the  respect  of  others.     The  employer  who  treats  his  help  fairly  and  reasonably  in 
all  respects  is  the  one  who  will,  as  a  general  nile,  secure  the  best  results  from  their  service. 

Poor  Teams. — Labor  and  time  are  often  wasted  by  the  use  of  inefficient  teams  in  per- 
forming the  farm  work.  Perhaps  oxen  are  used  where  horses  would  be  more  serviceable,  or 
the  revei-se  —  teams  that  might  be  good  in  tliemselves,  but  not  adapted  to  the  kind  of  work 
or  the  place.  For  performing  certain  work,  such  as  plowing,  two  men  may,  perhaps,  be 
employed  where  one  man  with  the  proper  team  would  do  as  well,  and  the  labor  of  one  man 
appropriated  to  other  purposes,  thus  saving  the  labor  of  one  extra  hand. 

In  other  cases,  weak,  fractious,  lame,  or  otherwise  inefficient  animals,  may  be  employed, 
which  results  in  slow  progress  and  work  poorly  done,  when  a  good  team  of  the  right  kind 
would  have  performed  the  work  better  and  perhaps  in  one-half  the  time.  Besides,  it  costs  no 
more  to  maintain  a  good  team  than  a  poor  one,  and  the  labor  done  by  the  former  is  so  much 
more  satisfactory,  that  it  is  far  better  economy  to  always  keep  good  teams,  although  the  first 
cost  of  purchasing  such  would  be  more  than  that  of  an  inferior  one.  Good  teams  are  the 
cheapest  in  the  end. 

Inferior  Stock. — The  same  might  be  said  of  the  stock  bred  upon  the  farm,  or 
animals  selected  for  the  dairy,  as  of  poor  teams.  Under  a  mistaken  idea  of  economy,  the 
lowest-priced  animals  are  used,  when  the  product  of  the  best  cows  for  the  dairy  and  thorough- 
bred stock  for  breeding  purposes  would  more  than  double  the  profits,  besides  soon  paying 
for  the  extra  expense  in  purchasing.  Where  milk  is  the  principal  object,  a  milking  breed 
should  be  selected ;  if  beef  is  the  leading  consideration,  a  beef  breed  should  be  chosen.  The 
animals  should  be  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to  be  used.  False  economy, 
and  a  lack  of  the  proper  knowledge  in  selecting,  breeding,  and  feeding  animals,  is  one  great 
cause  why  this  department  of  farming  does  not  prove  as  remunerative  as  it  otherwise  would. 

Since  it  requires  as  much  labor  and  expense  to  maintain  inferior  stock  as  the  best,  it  is  a 
waste  of  labor  and  money  as  well  as  loss  to  the  farmer  to  maintain  and  breed  the  former,  when 
so  much  larger  profits  could  be  secured  by  keeping  the  latter.  There  is  too  much  indifference 
manifested  by  farmers  generally  with  respect  to  this  subject.  Great  improvement  could  be 
made  in  the  poorest  flocks  and  herds  in  a  few  years,  by  the  use  of  thoroughbred  sires  of 
suitable  breeds,  and  farmers  generally  who  have  not  previously  given  their  attention  to  the 
subject,  will  find  that  they  can  advance  their  interests  and  profits  very  materially  by  this  means. 
The  same  principle  holds  true  with  respect  to  feeding  and  handling  all  kinds  of  farm  animals. 
Generous  feeding,  good  care,  and  kind  treatment,  have  quite  as  much  influence,  if  not  more, 
in  regulating  the  profits  which  result,  as  the  breed.  A  poor  animal  or  farm  implement  is 
costly  at  any  price,  while  the  best  are  eventually  the  cheapest. 

Inconvenience  of  Farm  Buildings,  etc.  —  Another  cause  of  waste  of  time  and 
labor  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  farm  buildings  are  not  conveniently  arranged  or  the 
farms  properly  laid  out. 

On  some  farms  the  buildings  have  every  convenience  with  respect  to  construction  and 
location ;  there  are  suitable  places  for  the  storage  of  crops  and  tools,  and  the  shelter  of  stock. 
Hence  the  labor  is  all  utilized  to  some  purpose,  and  there  is  no  unnecessary  waste  in  this 
respect.  Where  soiling  is  practiced,  the  crops  grown  for  this  purpose  are  near  the  barn, 
where  they  may  easily  be  cut  as  wanted  and  fed  to  the  stock,  while  the  yards  and  sheds  are 
supplied  with  an  abundance  of  pure,  fresh  water  for  watering  all  the  farm  animals.  The 
cultivated  fields  are  conveniently  located  for  carting  manure  and  for  tillage,  and  everything 
seems  arranged  to  help  on  the  farm  work,  instead  of  hindering  it.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
farms  seem  so  arranged  as  to  require  double  the  amount  of  labor  and  time  in  accomplishing 
the  same  results.  The  buildings  are  not  convenient  in  location  or  arrangement,  and  there  is 
not  sufficient  room  for  the  storage  of  anything.     No  water  is  provided  in  the  yards,  and  the 


578  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

stock  must  be  driven  quite  a  distance  twice  a  day  in  winter  to  a  field,  and  the  ice  broken  in 
order  to  water  them.  This  involves  much  trouble  and  time,  with  a  liability  to  injui'y  to  some 
of  the  animals  from  slipping  on  the  ice,  or  hooking  each  other,  aside  from  the  exposure 
occasioned  on  severely  cold  or  stormy  days.  The  soiling  crops  are  grown  at  a  distance  from 
the  barn,  involving  the  necessity  of  the  use  of  a  team  every  time  anything  is  cut  for  feeding, 
while  all  the  arrangements  on  the  farm  seem  calculated  to  impede  rather  than  assist  the 
progress  of  the  farm-work.  Much  of  the  labor  expended  in  such  cases  would  have  been 
unnecessary  under  a  better  system  of  arrangement,  and  is  a  constant  expenditure  of  labor 
and  time  that  brings  no  real  compensation  in  return. 

Better  Knowledge  of  Farming,  and  Less  Drudgery.  —  Money,  time,  and 
Labor  are  often  wasted  by  farmers,  from  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  requirements 
of  the  soil  and  plants  cultivated. 

A  vast  amount  of  labor  is  frequently  expended  in  attempts  to  produce  crops  from  soils 
which  are  not  adapted  to  those  particular  kinds  of  plant-growths,  or  which  lack  some  of  the 
essential  elements  of  plant-food.  Failing  to  inform  themselves  with  respect  to  the  improved 
agricxiltural  methods  of  the  present  time,  many  farmers  do  not  profit  by  that  which  has  been 
gained  by  years  of  experience  and  observation;  hence,  they  are  a  generation  or  more  behind 
the  age  in  which  they  are  living.  Knowledge  is  power  in  every  branch  and  department  of 
business,  and  the  farmer  who  possesses  the  best  knowledge  of  his  business  is  the  best  capaci- 
tated to  make  that  business  a  success. 

The  hands  should  serve  the  head,  and  the  farmer  that  has  the  best  agricultural  knowl- 
edge, combined  with  the  mental  ability  to  successfully  plan  and  execute  the  most  thorough 
system,  will  not  be  obliged  to  make  his  life  a  mere  drudgery  of  toil  from  morning  till  night, 
day  after  day,  and  year  after  year.  The  devising  of  the  best  plans  and  methods  should  be 
the  first  consideration,  and  their  execution  secondary.  He  who  drudges  on,  without  any 
system  or  method,  will  never  be  anything  but  a-  mere  drudge,  or  attain  to  anything  but  a 
meager  success.  ■  Farmers,  as  a  class,  should  spend  more  time  in  informing  themselves  in 
their  business,  by  reading  the  best  agricultural  books  and  papers,  attending  farmers'  clubs, 
etc.,  and  also  more  time  in  devising  the  best  methods  for  all  kinds  of  farm-work,  based  upon 
the  knowledge  thus  obtained.  By  such  means,  more  head-work,  and  fewer  hours  of  labor 
with  the  hands,  will  secure  far  better  results  than  are  now  commonly  obtained. 

Farmers  should  also  acquaint  themselves  with  the  best  and  uniformly  cheapest  rates  of 
transporting  their  crops  to  market.  This  consideration  will  be  called  in  question  in  deciding 
what  crops  to  raise.  Farmers,  as  a  class,  also  need  a  better  understanding  of  business  prin- 
ciples to  enable  them  to  buy  and  sell  to  the  best  advantage, — the  time,  manner,  and  rates  for 
the  different  products  of  the  farm  all  having  due  consideration.  They  need,  in  this  connec- 
tion, to  deal  more  directly  with  the  consumer  and  manufacturer  in  disposing  of  their 
products,  and  in  purchasing  implements,  clothing,  etc.,  and  less  with  the  "middle-men,"  whose 
commissions  largely  modify  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  farmer  in  such  cases.  With 
better  information  on  agricultural  subjects,  there  will  be  better  tillage,  the  use  of  better  seed 
for  crops,  better  farm-stock,  better  planning  and  systematizing,  less  hard  labor,  and  better 
profits.  Constant  and  severe  toil  incapacitates  the  mind  for  the  best  thought  of  which  it  is 
capable ;  there  will  be  neither  the  energy  nor  time  for  it. 

A  certain  amount  of  rest  from  hard  labor  is,  therefore,  a  paying  investment,  as  the 
hands  will  then  be  made  to  serve  the  brain  to  the  best  advantage,  and  there  will  be  less 
drudgery  and  more  knowledge  and  skill  in  conducting  the  business,  while  larger  profits  — 
other  conditions  being  equal  —  will  be  the  result. 

Improved  Farm  Implements  Essential. — The  improvement  made  in  farm 
implements  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  is  truly  astonishing,  as  well  as  the  influence 


WASTES  AND  WANTS  OF  THE  FARM.  579 

of  their  use  upon  agriculture.  During  that  period  they  have  been  substituted  in  a  great 
measure  in  place  of  hand-labor  on  the  farm,  which  has  resulted  in  vastly  increasing  the  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  country,  since  by  their  use  labor  can  be  performed  much  cheaper, 
faster,  and  better  than  by  hand.  They  are  a  great  convenience  on  small  farms,  and  absolutely 
indispensable  on  large  ones,  where  extensive  crops  could  not  be  cultivated  without  them. 

Take  the  reaper,  for  instance,  the  introduction  of  which  into  the  grain-fields  has  added 
many  millions  of  dollars  to  the  annual  harvests,  by  rendering  it  possible  to  secure  the  entire 
product,  and  also  by  admitting  of  a  largely-increased  area  of  grain  culture.  The  same  might 
be  said  of  improvements  in  harrows,  cultivators,  plows,  and  all  other  farm  machinery. 

The  use  of  suitable  farm  implements  also  enables  a  farmer  of  small  means  to  conduct  a 
much  larger  business  than  he  otherwise  could  where  only  hand-labor  was  employed,  thus 
cheapening  the  cost  of  production. 

Since  labor  can  be  performed  so  much  more  easily  and  cheaply  by  the  use  of  improved 
machinery,  it  is  the  practice  of  economy  to  employ  them  whenever  practicable.  There  are, 
however,  many  farmers  who,  with  ideas  of  false  economy,  still  persist  in  depending  mainly 
upon  hand-labor,  while  the  few  implements  that  may  be  in  use  upon  their  farms  are  of  the 
most  inferior  kind. 

Where  the  amount  of  crops  cultivated  will  warrant  the  purchase  of  the  best  machines, 
they  will  soon  pay  for  themselves  many  times  over,  in  the  amount  of  labor  saved  and  the 
increased  facilities  thus  afforded  for  cultivating  larger  and  better  crops.  The  use  of  machines 
also  saves  time,  labor,  and  health.  By  their  aid  the  farmer  can  raise  larger  crops  with  less 
physical  labor,  and  consequently  less  risk  to  health.  As  a  general  rule,  farmers  look  older, 
according  to  their  years,  than  almost  any  other  class  of  individuals.  This  is  due  to  the 
severe  toil  to  which  they  subject  themselves,  and  the  constant  over-taxing  of  their  strength. 
"We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  to  convey  the  idea  that  we  do  not  consider  farming  a 
healthy  business.  On  the  contrary,  we  believe  it  the  most  healthful  of  all  occupations  when 
judiciously  followed.  But  every  good  is  liable  to  perversion,  and  we  believe  the  majority  of 
farmers  either  injure  their  health,  or  hasten  old  age,  and  break  down  in  the  latter  part  of  life 
quicker  than  they  ought,  through  the  excessive  hard  labor  that  they  impose  upon  themselves. 
If  machines  can  be  employed  to  perform  the  necessary  farm-work,  and  thus  prevent  a  waste 
of  strength  and  health,  how  much  better  to  make  use  of  this  means  than  to  make  life  a 
drudgery,  with  all  the  attendant  evil  effects. 

Instead  of  feeling  that  he  cannot  afford  such  aids,  the  farmer  who  has  a  correct  idea  of 
economy  will  feel  that  he  cannot  do  without  them.  In  connection  with  the  use  of  better  farm 
implements,  which,  by  admitting  of  better  tillage  and  increased  facilities  of  cultivation  and 
harvesting,  will  enable  the  farmer  to  produce  larger  crops,  might  be  mentioned  the  economy 
of  so  fertilizing  the  soil,  combined  with  improved  methods  of  tillage,  that  much  larger  crops 
may  be  produced  from  the  same  area.  By  this  means  labor  will  be  saved,  and  comparatively 
larger  profits  be  secured.  English  agriculture,  where  a  dense  population  requires  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  be  such  as  to  secure  the  highest  results  from  a  limited  area,  might  be 
mentioned  as  an  example  of  this  method.  Where  land  is  abundant  even,  this  principle  will 
hold  true  to  a  certain  extent,  since  about  the  same  amount  of  labor  will  be  required  for  the 
cultivation  and  harvesting  of  a  Hght  or  a  heavy  crop. 

The  land  must  be  plowed  and  harrowed,  the  grain  sowed  and  reaped,  and  if,  by  a  little 
extra  care  in  preparing  the  soil,  a  third  or  one-half  larger  crop  can  be  produced,  it  will  well 
repay  for  the  extra  labor  and  expense  bestowed. 

A  leading  aim  with  the  farmer  should  be  to  raise  the  largest  amount  of  farm  products 

with  the  least  expense.     To  half  till  a  field  of  ten  acres,  and  obtain  but  three  or  four  hundred 

bushels  of  com,  when  that  amount  could  be  raised  by  cultivating  properly  four  or  five  acres, 

would  be  poor  economy,  since  the  same  result  could  be  reached  with  half  the  amount  of 

36 


580  THE  AMERICAN  FARJIER. 

plowing  and  other  necessary  labor  in  cultivating  and  harvesting.  Besides,  the  well-ctdtivated 
four  or  five  acres  would  be  left  rich  and  mellow,  and  could  be  much  more  easily  worked  for 
subsequent  crops  than  the  hard,  poorly-tilled  soil  of  the  ten  acres. 

It  is  the  best  economy  for  the  farmer  never  to  cultivate  more  land  than  can  be  done  in 
the  most  thorough  manner.  Anything  beyond  this,  as  a  general  rule,  will  result  in  a  waste 
of  labor,  and  prove  unsatisfactory  in  the  end. 

Systematic  Management.— One  of  the  great  wants  pertaining  to  farming  generally 
is  a  more  perfect  system  of  management, — a  system  that  will  not  only  admit  of  the  various 
kinds  of  work  on  the  farm  being  done  in  the  proper  time,  but  in  the  most  profitable  manner. 
Time  and  attention  should  be  given  in  ascertaining  the  best  methods  of  conducting  the  busi- 
ness,  and  then,  having  decided  upon  and  adopted  a  certain  plan  or  system,  it  should  be  car- 
ried out  thoroughly. 

Experiments  in  this  tnanner  may  sometimes  result  in  changes  in  certain  respects,  and 
new  and  improved  methods  will  be  adopted,  from  time  to  time,  if  the  farmer  is  progressive — as 
he  should  be — in  order  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  and  the  age  in  which  he  lives;  still,  he 
should  conduct  his  farming  in  a  methodical  manner,  whatever  that  system  may  be,  and  never 
permit  the  business  to  manage  itself,  as  is  too  frequently  the  case. 

A  well-developed  system  will  enable  the  farmer  to  pursue  an  even,  uniform  plan  of  oper- 
ations, and  have  a  tendency  to  obviate  the  frequent  shifting  from  one  department  to  another, 
with  no  permanency  in  any  one  of  them,  which  practice  reduces  farming  to  a  continuous 
routine  of  profitless  experiments  and  ventures.  Not  that  we  would  condemn  experimenting 
in  a  judicious  way.  Every  progressive  farmer  will  not  only  experiment  for  himself,  but  will 
profit  by  the  intelligent  experiments  of  others;  but  experiments  should  be  the  exception  and 
not  the  rule  for  general  practice  in  farming,  and  should  always  be  made  judiciously,  and  with 
an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  things  to  be  experimented  with. 

A  lack  of  system  is  one  of  the  fruitful  causes  of  failure  in  all  kinds  of  employments,  and 
especially  so  in  farming.  To  be  a  successful  farmer  requires  a  wide  range  of  knowledge,  and 
methodical  practice.  He  must  not  only  know  when  and  how  to  cultivate  the  various  crops,  the 
soil  to  which  they  are  best  adapted,  but  how,  when,  and  where  to  dispose  of  them  in  the 
most  profitable  manner,  how  to  purchase  the  necessary  farm  supplies  to  the  best  advantage, 
what  crops  and  farm-stock  are  the  most  profitable  for  him  to  raise,  etc. 

In  order  to  ascertain  definitely  with  respect  to  the  comparative  profits  of  different 
branches  of  farm  industry,  and  the  real  state  of  his  business,  every  farmer  should  keep  a 
correct  account  of  all  the  receipts  and  expenditures.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  profits  or  losses  of  the  farm  can  be  obtained.  Such  an  account  is  also 
often  convenient  for  reference,  as  furnishing  important  data  that  can  be  obtained  in  no  other 
way.  Keeping  such  an  account  has  also  a  tendency  towards  systematic  practice  in  every 
department,  and  cannot  fail  of  much  profit  to  the  farmer  in  all  respects. 

More  Capital  in  Farming. — It  frequently  is  the  case  that  the  limited  success  of  the 
farmer  is  due  to  a  lack  of  suflBcient  capital.  It  may  be  the  young  farmer  just  starting  in  life, 
who  has  invested  nearly  all  of  his  money  in  purchasing  a  farm,  and  has  but  little  left  with 
which  to  supply  the  necessary  outfit.  Hence,  in  procuring  a  team,  farm  implements,  stock, 
etc.,  he  is  from  necessity  obliged  to  run  in  debt  or  purchase  those  that  are  inferior;  or,  if  of 
first  quality,  not  the  number  that  is  needed  on  the  farm  sufficient  to  make  the  business  as 
profitable  as  it  should  be.  To  be  limited  in  capital,  or  to  incur  a  heavy  debt,  are  both  a  great 
drawback  in  successful  farming,  and  many  a  young  man  has  to  contend  with  this  evil  year  after 
year  before  being  freed  from  it.  As  a  general  rule,  it  will  be  better  to  purchase  less  land  at 
first,  and  add  to  it  from  time  to  time  as  means  will  permit,  and  retain  a  sufficient  amount 
of  capital  to  furnish  and  stock  it  well,  rather  than  to  expend  nearly  all  in  land  and  be  embar- 
rassed in  managing  it  for  lack  of  means  to  render  the  labor  bestowed  profitable. 


WASTES  AND  WANTS  OF  THE  FARM.  581 

There  may,  however,  be  exceptions;  for  instance,  desirable  lands  that  can  be  purchased 
at  a  low  rate  may  be  so  located  as  to  soon  largely  increase  in  value,  which,  if  lying  even 
imimproved  for  a  few  years,  will  bring  in  selling  many  times  the  original  expenditure;  but 
w^e  refer  more  particularly  to  fanns  purchased  with  a  view  of  cultivating  the  whole,  or 
larger  portion  of  them. 

Again,  with  ideas  of  false  economy,  many  farmers  who  possess  an  abundance  of  means 
for  cultivating  their  lands  in  the  most  successful  manner,  will  limit  their  expenses  to  the 
lowest  possible  figure,  permitting  their  farm  buildings  to  run  down  for  lack  of  repairs  and 
improvements,  using  antiquated  and  unsuitable  machines  in  doing  the  work,  in  order  that 
they  may  put  the  receipts  of  the  farm  into  the  bank,  bonds,  or  other  securities.  By  investing 
such  receipts  in  the  improvement  of  lands,  farm  buildings,  farm  implements,  and  the  farm 
business  generally,  might  in  many  cases  perhaps  double  the  profits  resulting  from  the  former 
course.  Extravagance  and  waste  should  always  be  avoided,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  requires  capital  to  make  capital,  and  the  farmer  who  invests  a  sufficient  amount  of  money 
in  his  business  to  maintain  and  continue  all  laudable  improvements,  has  the  best  oppor- 
tunities, other  conditions  being  equal,  to  make  that  business  a  success. 


PART   II. 

FARMS  AND  FARM  BUILDINGS. 

CHOICE  OF  FARMS. 

THERE  is  something  in  the  ownership  of  land  that  gives  independence  to  a  man's 
character.  It  is  in  itself  an  honor,  and  has  connected  -with  it  a  kind  of  reflex  influ- 
ence that  does  not  seem  to  be  associated  with  other  possessions.  The  retention  of  the 
old  family  homestead  and  farm  by  a  long  line  of  ancestry  for  successive  generations,  is  one 
of  the  interesting  features  of  the  older-settled  portions  of  the  country,  and  is  in  many 
respects  a  desideratum,  whether  we  regard  it  in  the  practical  light  of  an  investment,  or  of  a 
pardonable  pride,  as  the  basis  of  a  sentiment  of  family  honor  and  respectability  that  is  to  be 
associated  with  the  name  and  inheritance.  Among  the  many  changes  of  ownership  of  lands, 
it  is  pleasant  to  see,  as  we  do  occasionally,  although  too  rarely,  an  instance  of  this  kind. 
While  the  few  among  the  multitude  of  farmers  have  this  privilege  of  retaining  the  old  home, 
the  majority,  in  establishing  themselves  in  business,  either  from  necessity  or  choice,  locate 
elsewhere. 

In  selecting  a  farm,  there  are  many  things  of  importance  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  advantages  and  disadvantages  are  to  be  carefuUy  weighed,  and  the  sum  of  each  taken 
into  the  account.  The  location,  quality  of  soil,  size,  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  to  be  appro- 
priated, etc.,  aU  are  to  be  judiciously  considered,  and  that  decision  given  which  seems  to  favor 
the  highest  possibilities  of  success.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  absolute  perfection,  either 
with  regard  to  mankind  or  locality,  will  never  be  found  on  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  We 
must  therefore  not  expect  it,  and  take  things  as  we  find  them,  making  a  choice  of  such  as 
seem  to  us,  by  the  use  of  our  best  judgment,  to  contain  the  most  good  and  the  fewest  e^als. 
No  location  can  be  found  but  what  will  have  its  disadvantages  as  well  as  its  peculiar  advan- 
tages, and,  according  to  the  great  natural  law  of  compensation,  the  sum  of  the  one  will  in  a 
measure  offset  that  of  the  other. 

Whether  mixed  agriculture  or  special  be  the  object,  the  facUities  for  transportation  and 
nearness  to  market  must  necessarily  be  considered  in  selecting  a  farm,  as  well  as  the  adaptabil- 
ity of  the  soil  and  climate  to  the  crops  to  be  produced.  If  tropical  products,  for  example,  are 
to  be  raised,  the  farmer  must  make  choice  of  lands  where  the  soil  and  climate  are  best 
adapted  to  such  crop.  If  grain  is  to  be  the  specialty,  some  of  the  Western  States  will  afford 
the  best  facilities.  If  the  object  be  sheep  husbandry  on  a  large  scale,  a  ranch  in  the  great 
West  is  most  assuredly  the  place  to  be  chosen.  If  it  be  the  care  of  large  herds  of  cattle,  it 
should  be  a  ranch  in  some  of  the  far  Western  States  or  Texas.  But  if  the  farmer  wishes  for 
himself  and  family  tlie  peculiar  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  home  in  the  older-settled 
portions  of  the  country,  some  State  in  the  Eastern  section  should  doubtless  be  his  choice. 

If  he  desires  a  locality  remote  from  other  inhabitants,  he  must  forego  the  educational, 
social,  and  other  privileges  that  a  nearness  to  a  city  or  largely -populated  section  will  furnish; 
while,  if  the  choice  be  in  a  densely-populated  region,  he  must  of  necessity  give  up  the  pecuHar 
advantages  of  retirement,  and  accept  the  objectionable  features  that  such  a  place  may  pos- 
sess.    In  making  a  selection  of  locahty,  the  farmer  should  never  overlook  the  health,  com- 

(582) 


CHOICE  OF  FARMS.  583 

fort,  happiness,  and  general  welfare  of  his  family.  These  should  always  be  primary,  and  the 
money-profits  of  the  business  a  secondary  consideration;  for,  while  money-making  is  one  of 
the  great  desideratums  with  most  men,  it  is  not  the  chief  good  in  life,  neither  does  it  consti- 
tute the  sum  total  of  earthly  happiness,  as  many,  by  their  lives,  seem  to  regard  it.  Success 
and  happiness  in  life  do  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  location  and  business,  as  the  character 
of  the  individual.  As  a  general  principle,  the  man  makes  the  business,  and  not  the  business 
the  man.  Success  is  what  we  make  it,  and  the  man  of  the  right  stamp,  who  is  honorable  in 
his  dealings,  energetic,  capable,  systematic,  practical,  and  thoroughly  business-like,  will  be 
successful  wherever  he  may  be  located,  or  in  whatever  laudable  business  he  undertakes.  And 
those  farmers  who  are  generally  dissatisfied  with  their  condition,  and  imagine  that  they  may 
be  greatly  benefited  by  a  change  of  place,  will  find,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  that  the  fault  is 
more  in  themselves  than  in  their  surroundings,  and  that  the  adoption  of  a  better  system  and 
improved  methods  will  produce  better  results  than  a  change  of  locality.  For  this  reason  a 
change  should  never  be  made  without  due  deliberation,  and  an  honest  endeavor  to  ascertain 
the  true  reason  for  a  lack  of  success  that  has  thus  far  characterized  their  business.  Of 
course,  there  are  exceptions  to  this,  as  to  all  rules,  but  we  think  it  will  prove  applicable  to 
most  cases. 

The  desertion  of  the  old  homestead  is  too  frequently  a  mistake  with  young  men.  If 
properly  managed,  money  can  be  made  there  as  well  as  elsewhere;  while  other  considerations 
of  importance  are  involved,  such  as  the  influence  of  the  association  connected  with  the  old 
home  on  successive  generations,  their  tendency  to  restrain  from  evil  and  promote  the  good  in 
a  desire  to  hand  down  the  family  name  with  honor  from  one  generation  to  another,  etc.  In 
many  of  the  sparsely-settled  portions  of  New  England  the  old  homesteads  are  passing  into 
the  hands  of  foreigners,  and  the  state  of  society,  as  well  as  the  lands  in  those  sections,  is 
deteriorating.  For  the  sake  of  the  general  good  of  the  community  in  such  localities,  enough 
of  the  native  population  should  remain  to  sustain  our  institutions  and  maintain  that  intelh- 
gent  enterprise  and  progress  which  is  characteristic  of  American  people,  and  which  shall  be 
a  credit  to  the  country  at  large. 

Advantages  of  Large  Farms. — The  size  of  a  farm  should  always  be  adapted  to  the 
purposes  to  which  it  is  to  be  devoted,  but  it  will  also  be  largely  influenced  by  the  location. 
In  the  Eastern  section,  where  there  is  a  dense  population,  where  taxes  are  high,  and  land  sells 
for  a  comparatively  large  price,  smaller  farms  will  be  found  more  profitable  than  at  the  "West 
and  South,  where  land  is  plenty  and  can  be  bought  at  much  lower  rates,  and  also  where 
extensive  use  can  be  made  of  improved  agricultural  implements.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
number  of  men  who  are  capacitated  to  successfully  manage  extensive  farms  is  small  com- 
pared with  the  nimiber  represented  by  those  who  can  make  profitable  the  management  of 
farms  of  small  or  mediimi  size.  Some  men  have  special  talents  for  successfully  engaging  in 
large  enterprises. 

They  possess  the  ability  not  only  to  originate  the  most  perfect  and  systematic  plans,  but 
to  successfully  execute  them  as  well.  But  these  are  in  the  minority,  and  it  will  be  found  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  that  the  management  of  small  farms,  or  those  of  moderate  size,  will  in 
the  aggregate,  prove  most  successful.  Large  farms,  however,  possess  many  advantages  over 
small  ones.  While  the  former  will,  as  a  general  rule,  cost  less  in  proportion  to  their  size  than 
small  ones,  they  furnish  a  larger  proportionate  area  of  tillable  soil  from  which  an  income  can 
be  obtained.  The  insurance,  taxes,  repairs,  and  other  expenses  will  also  be  larger  in  propor- 
tion to  the  investment  on  a  small  than  large  farm;  hence,  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of 
unproductive  property  in  the  former  than  the  latter. 

Large  farms  require  a  smaller  proportionate  amount  of  capital  to  be  invested  in  build- 
ings.    The  same  principle  holds  true  with  respect  to  fencing. 

The  expense  of  furnishing  farming  implements  on  a  small  farm  is  very  much  higher  in 


584  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

proportion  to  the  amount  produced,  than  on  a  large  one,  while  the  cultivation,  being  per- 
formed on  a  larger  scale  of  operation,  can  be  done  with  much  more  facility,  and  under  a 
more  perfect  system  of  management  on  the  latter. 

A  farm  of  seventy-five  or  a  hundred  acres  will  require  nearly  as  many  kinds  of  farm 
implements  for  performing  the  work,  as  one  of  five  hundred  acres,  and  they  will  cost  about 
as  much  when  pui'chased,  as  those  for  the  larger  farm.  The  principal  difierence  will  be,  that 
the  owner  of  the  five  hundred  acres  will  have  several  times  as  much  profit  from  their  more 
extensive  use,  as  the  owner  of  the  one  hundred  acres;  hence,  a  much  larger  per  cent,  of 
profit  on  the  investment.  In  fact,  on  very  extensive  farms,  where  a  number  of  the  same 
kind  of  machines  are  required,  such  as  sulky  or  gang  plows,  harrows,  reapers,  etc., 
these  implements  can  be  purchased  at  a  large  discount,  making  the  expense  for  this 
purpose  on  the  large  farms  very  much  less  in  proportion  to  small  ones.  The  same  is  true  to 
a  certain  extent  with  respect  to  teams  for  the  farm.  In  disposing  of  produce  where  mixed 
farming  is  practiced,  the  time  and  labor  spent  in  taking  to  market  the  surplus  products  of  a 
small  farm  are  about  the  same  as  for  a  large  one,  with  the  exception  of  a  difference  in 
handling  in  loading  and  unloading,  and  the  heavier  cartage. 

While  the  business  of  a  large  farm  can  be  managed  to  better  advantage,  and  those  who 
are  adapted  to  it  can  make  it  more  profitable  than  that  of  a  small  farm,  still  there  is  always 
more  risk  attending  it.  The  losses  are  greater  in  cases  of  failure.  On  cheap  lands,  and 
until  a  section  becomes  densely  settled,  larger  profits  wiU  be  found  generally  in  cultivating 
large  areas  devoted  more  particularly  to  special  crops.  "When  well  populated,  the  land 
becomes  more  uniformly  divided,  the  farms,  as  a  consequence,  are  reduced  in  size,  and  a  more 
thorough  cultivation  is  given.  The  natural  result  of  continued  cultivation  of  large  areas 
devoted  to  special  crops,  is  to  produce  exhaustion,  while  smaller  farms  under  a  more  thorough 
system,  combined  with  proper  rotation,  wiU  not  only  retain,  but  increase  their  fertiUty. 

Advantages  of  Small  Farms,  etc.  —  While  large  farms  possess  many  advantages 
over  small  ones,  yet  the  latter  also  admit  of  some  especial  advantages  over  the  former.  In 
the  Western  sections,  where  bonanza  farms  are  under  cultivation,  corn  and  other  grains 
bring  a  much  less  price  than  in  the  East,  where  its  cultivation  is  necessarily  limited ;  hence, 
the  Eastern  farmer  receives  comparatively  much  larger  returns  for  his  crops,  and  therefore 
it  is  essential  that  the  Western  farmer  should  cultivate  more  land  and  secure  larger  products 
in  order  to  make  even  the  same  profits  that  result  from  the  crops  raised  by  the  Eastern 
fanner. 

Small  farms  always  require  less  capital  invested,  and  a  man  of  moderate  means  can  estab- 
lish himself  on  such  a  farm  without  incurring  a  hea\^'  debt,  the  interest  of  which  would  be  con- 
stantly  consuming  his  profits,  while  the  m  ortgages  would  prove  the  source  of  a  continuous  ■  'night- 
mare "  if  he  were  a  man  of  energy  and  business  capacity.  They  also  requii-e  less  hired  help, 
less  expenditure  in  supphang  with  suitable  teams,  etc.,  while  there  is  less  care  and  anxiety, 
as  well  as  less  risk  attending  their  management. 

A  small  farm  admits  of  more  thorough  culture,  and,  if  properly  tilled,  can  be  kept  in  a 
higher  state  of  fertihty  than  a  large  one,  and  be  made  to  produce  a  larger  crop  in  proportion 
to  the  area  cultivated.  While  there  are  some  farmers  who  could  increase  the  size  of  their  farms 
with  profit,  yet  by  far  too  many  own  more  land  than  they  can  properly  manage,  or  their 
capital  will  warrant,  and  are  what  might  be  called  "land-poor."  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  not 
profitable  for  the  farmer  to  hold  unproductive  property.  He  should  own  no  more  tillable 
land  than  he  can  properly  cultivate,  and  should  add  to  his  farm  from  time  to  time  as 
his  resources  will  admit.  An  authoritative  writer  on  agriculture  says,  respecting  capital 
in  farming: —  "  Were  I  asked  to  point  out  the  best-paying  farms  of  this  country,  I  should 
seek  them  not  where  land  is  cheap  and  agriculture  conducted  on  a  vast  scale,  but  upon 
the  outskirts  of  some  metropolis,  among  the  market-gardens,  the  secrets  of  whose  success  is 
hidden  only  by  the  shades  of  night,  when  cart-load  upon  cart-load,  the  waste  of  city  consump- 


CHOICE  OF  FARMS.  585 

tion,  is  conveyed  back  to  the  outlying  farms;  and  thus  while  the  world  is  sleeping,  is  supplied 
as  to  a  growing  school-boy,  such  vitalizing  gain  as  more  than  balances  the  daily  loss. 
Nowhere  better  than  such  sections  of  city-surrounding  country,  can  the  system  of  high  farm- 
ing be  carried  to  perfection.  The  nearness  of  the  consumer  furnishes  a  ready  market  for 
vegetable  products  which,  from  their  perishable  nature,  demand  immediate  consumption, 
while  unrivalled  facilities  for  obtaining  fertilizers  leave  a  margin  for  profits  which  can 
scarcely  be  equalled  in  places  more  remote." 

As  a  general  rule,  the  money- value  of  land,  the  size  of  the  farm,  and  the  kind  of  products 
to  be  raised,  are  determined  by  the  distance  and  importance  of  the  nearest  markets.  As  an 
instance  showing  the  profitable  revenue  derived  from  a  small  farm,  we  cite  that  given  at  a 
recent  farmer's  meeting  in  New  England,  by  Richard  Van  Deusen  of  Shaker  Village,  who 
stated  that  he  cultivated  twenty  four  acres,  and  was  not  satisfied  unless  he  made  each  acre 
return  him  a  hundred  dollars  of  clean  profit.  He  raised  a  variety  of  products,  in  order  that 
the  harvesting  could  extend  over  a  longer  period.  He  read  from  his  diary  a  hst  of  the  crops 
raised  and  sold  the  previous  year,  as  follows:  —  "4,300  pounds  of  red  strap-leaf  turnip-seed, 
$1,032;  915  pounds  of  onion-seed,  $2,297;  potato  onions,  one-fourth  of  an  acre,  $175;  early 
potatoes,  $125;  40  rods  of  sage,  $80;  7  acres  of  golden  wax-beans  (blasted),  $117;  three- 
fourths  of  an  acre  of  cabbage  for  seed,  $180;  4^  acres  of  cucumber  seed  (20  cents  a  pound), 
$1,725;  1  acre  of  peaches,  $304;  4  acres  of  pears  (with  two  crops  of  hay  on  the  same  land), 
$100;  one-fourth  of  an  acre  of  asparagus,  $75.  Of  the  last  from  three  to  five  bushels  were 
cut  a  day  and  freely  used  by  the  Shaker  family.  In  all,  $5,282  worth  of  produce  was  sold 
from  twenty-four  acres,  or  at  the  rate  of  $520  an  acre.  His  expenses  were  $1,212,  and  the 
chief  items  were  $841  for  labor,  and  $317  for  manure." 

The  fifty-acre  farm  of  Artemus  Fisher,  near  Keota,  Iowa,  is  described,  together  with  its 
management  and  success,  by  the  Keota  Eagle,  as  follows :  — 

"  He  keeps  one  team  of  horses,  three  first-class  cows,  and  a  nice  little  drove  of  the  best 
hogs.  He  milks  his  cows  for  the  creamery,  and  they  made  him  nearly  $200  last  year.  Will, 
perhaps,  do  better  this  year.  He  will  sell  $500  worth  of  hogs  this  year,  and  have  30  stockers 
to  keep  over.  He  has  $200  worth  of  flax-seed  to  sell;  has  an  abundance  of  hay  and  grain 
to  keep  his  stock  in  first-class  condition  during  the  coming  winter.  He  keeps  everything  in 
the  best  order  about  his  farm;  his  cows  revel  in  clover  up  to  their  eyes;  he  attends  to  feed- 
ing, watering,  and  milking  as  regularly  as  the  clock  strikes;  hence  he  gets  the  best  results 
with  the  least  possible  feed.  He  keeps  his  stock  under  cover  in  the  winter,  and  never  allows 
any  animal  to  shiver  in  the  fence-corners.  He  has  a  barn  that  is  a  model  of  convenience  and 
economy.  It  is  snow-proof,  and  as  warm  as  the  old-style  kitchen.  He  has  a  first-class  selec- 
tion of  fruit — not  a  large  orchard,  but  a  choice  selection  of  the  varieties  that  thrive  and  bear 
the  best  in  this  locality.  Everything  about  the  farm  bears  marks  of  intelligence,  thrift,  and 
economy.  Besides  making  a  living  for  himself  and  wife,  he  will  sell  at  least  $800  worth  of 
stuff  off  his  fifty  acres  this  year,  and  not  be  exceeding  that  of  former  years.  There  is  no  rush 
or  hurrah  about  the  work  on  this  model  farm.  Everything  goes  off  quietly  and  regularly. 
The  expenses  are  very  small,  and  the  gains  sure." 

Thus  we  see,  that  rightly-managed,  and  their  highest  possibilities  tested,  even  very  small 
farms  may  be  made  quite  profitable. 

In  those  sections  where  the  farms  are  generally  small,  it  is  a  good  practice  for  a  few  of 
the  proprietors  to  cooperate  in  the  purchase  of  expensive  farm- machines  or  choice  stock, 
thus  largely  reducing  the  outlay  to  each,  and  increasing  proportionately  the  profits,  while  it 
permits  each  individual  interested  in  the  ownership  to  obtain  the  benefits  resulting,  at  a  com- 
paratively slight  expense.  "Whatever  the  size  of  the  farm,  the  capital  should  never  be  all 
invested  in  land.  Th'^re  should  always  be  a  sufficient  amount  of  working  capital  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  owner  and  manager  of  the  farm  to  thoroughly  till  it,  and  no  land  that  is  capable 
of  being  tilled  should  be  permitted  to  remain  unproductive. 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


MODEL  FARMS.  587 

MODEL  FARMS. 

THERE  are  many  farmers  who  are  strongly  prejudiced  against  scientific  farming,  or, 
what  they  term  "book-farming,"  regarding  it  as  pertaining  more  to  a  mere  theory 
than  utihty  in  practice.  They  consider  all  who  favor  it  as  visionaries, — the  old 
methods  as  supreme,  and  all  attempts  towards  an  innovation  as  fanciful  and  unprofitable 
schemes.  It  will  invariably  be  found  that  those  who  are  the  most  strongly  opposed  to  scien- 
tific  agriculture  are  the  most  ignorant  concerning  it.  To  be  sure,  mere  scientific  knowledge 
is  not  by  any  means  all  that  is  necessary  in  successful  farming.  Theory  is  important  as  far 
as  it  goes,  but  the  art  is  fully  as  essential;  and  when  we  have  the  two  combined,  viz.,  the 
science  and  art  of  agriculture,  or,  in  other  words,  when  we  have  the  skill  to  put  in  most  suc- 
cessful practice  the  knowledge  that  science  bestows,  it  is  then  that  we  have  a  complete  imion, 
and  the  highest  standard  attained  in  agricultural  achievements. 

But  what  is  scientific  agriculture  of  which  we  hear  so  much,  and — unfortunately — see 
so  little?  Science,  literally,  means  knowledge,  and  when  used  in  connection  with  agriculture, 
it  means  no  less. 

Scientific  agriculture,  therefore,  means  the  employment  of  that  knowledge  obtained  from 
Nature's  vast  laboratory, — of  her  forces,  and  her  laws, — in  the  practical  art  of  farming. 

But  why  should  we  not  make  use  of  the  aid  which  science  gives?  Why  refuse  any 
assistance  that  will  give  us  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  the  elements  with  which  we  have  to 
deal?  It  is  a  fact  that  there  is  no  business  whatever  that  requires  such  a  varied  and  accu- 
rate knowledge  and  observation  of  Nature's  laws,  as  farming;  neither  is  there  any  business 
that  calls  into  exercise  more  frequently  that  faculty  that  is  usually  denominated  "practical 
common  sense." 

No  one  can  deny  but  that  the  manufacturer  is  enabled  to  make  vastly  larger  profits  by 
the  aid  of  science,  and  conforming  his  labors  to  scientific  principles,  and  why  not  the  farmer 
as  well? 

We  do  not  claim  that  farming  can  be  reduced  to  a  science  as  exact  as  that  of  mathe- 
matics or  mechanics,  for  there  are  too  many  varying  influences  over  which  the  farmer  has  no 
control,  to  admit  of  it, — such  as  the  heat  and  cold,  rain  and  sunshine,  etc., — but  we  do  claim 
that  the  highest  attainments  in  this  direction  are  reached  only  through  the  knowledge  imparted 
by  science.  Those  farmers,  therefore,  who  reduce  their  practice  to  the  most  intelligent  sys- 
tem, will,  other  conditions  being  equal,  be  the  most  successful.  The  best  methods,  when 
properly  put  in  practice,  will  always  be  found  the  most  profitable.  To  show  some  of  the 
improved  methods  of  scientific  farming,  and  the  results  of  such  practice,  we  give  a  descrip. 
tion  of  what  might  be  called  a  few  of  the  model  farms  of  the  country.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  in  every  instance  of  improved  farming,  the  most  careful  attention  is  paid  to  cleanliness 
in  every  respect,  including  pure  air,  pure  water,  clean  food  of  proper  quality  and  quantity, 
etc. ;  the  health  of  the  animals  being  taken  into  consideration,  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the 
breed. 

Echo  Farm. — This  noted  farm,  formerly  the  property  of  P.  R.  Starr,  but  more 
recently  that  of  the  Echo  Farm  Company,  is  located  about  a  mile  eastward  of  Litchfield.  The 
description  given  of  it  by  a  visitor  is  as  follows:  "This  farm,  with  its  group  of  neat  build- 
ings and  patriotic  flagstaff,  crowns  a  hill  some  sixty  feet  higher  than  the  ridge  upon  which 
the  village  is  situated,  making  it  nearly  1,300  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Mr.  Starr,  having 
impaired  his  health  by  too  close  confinement  to  business,  after  spending  some  time  in  trav- 
eling both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  was  attracted  to  this  spot  on  account  of  its  salubri- 
ousness  and  its  proximity  to  the  pleasant  village  of  Litchfield.  His  original  purchase  of 
sixty-six  acres  was  made  merely  with  a  view  of  securing  a  summer  residence,  and  without 


688 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


the  most  remote  idea  of  ever  engaging  in  farming  or  stock-raising.  The  land  around  the 
house  needed  to  be  cleared  and  laid  out,  natural  features  of  beauty  and  interest  were  to  be 
preserved  and  improved,  and  this  gave  him  pleasant  employment.  The  work  grew  in  inter- 
est and  importance  under  his  hands,  and  finally  so  absorbed  his  attention  tliat  he  may  almost 
be  said  to  have  become  infatuated  with  the  love  of  it. 

It  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  an  active  business  man,  having  both  capital  arid  enthu- 
siasm to  apply  to  farming,  could  find  employment  for  his  faculties  on  a  grass  farm  of  sixty 
six  acres.  Field  after  field  was  cleared  of  stone,  new  walls  were  laid,  old  ones  removed,  and 
very  soon  the  work  done  made  it  obvious  that  soon  there  would  be  httle  more  to  do.  There- 
fore adjoining  properties  were  purchased  and  added  to  the  farm,  so  that  now  '  Echo  Farm ' 
contains  nearly  400  acres,  which  lie  mostly  in  one  compact  body.  A  great  part  of  this  is  under 
thorough  tillage,  and  that  which  is  not  even  now  laid  down  to  grass,  both  for  mowing  and 
for  pasture,  is  rapidly  being  prepared  for  these  uses.  Miles  of  massive  stone  walls  enclosing 
lawn-like  meadows,  pastures  thoroughly  cleared  of  stones,  and  laid  off  in  great  regularity, 


ETHEL   STODDAKD.  DAISY   ROBINSON. 

raENE   STODDARD.  EDITH  PERKINS. 

GROUP    OF    YEARLING    JERSEY    HEIFERS. 

define  its  boundaries,  while  its  rolling  and  cultivated  surface  is  diversified  by  patches  of 
woodland. 

The  introduction  of  an  improved  system  of  agriculture,  and  the  application  of  the  famil- 
iar principles  of  business  to  farming,  necessitated  new  buildings  in  addition  to  those  bought 
with  the  several  farms  now  united.  In  1873,  therefore,  Mr.  Starr  erected  a  barn  66x25  feet; 
in  1874,  a  barn  100x40,  and  in  1875,  a  barn  191x35;  and  in  1876,  these  were  not  only  all  in 
use,  but  full. 

In  the  perspective  view  of  the  buildings,  the  conspicuous  building  is  what  is  called  '  the 
'74  barn,'  entered  by  the  double  approach  or  driveway,  and  adjoining  this,  upon  the  left,  is 
'  the  '75  barn,'  while  'the  '73  barn '  occupies  a  similar  position  upon  the  right  of  the  main, 
or  '74  barn,  but  is  not  attached  to  it.  These  three  buildings  form  three  sides  of  the  barn, 
yard.  They  are  of  pine,  upon  massive  granite  foundations,  for  the  most  part  two  feet  wide, 
laid  in  cement,  rising  from  a  base  three  feet  wide  laid  in  grouting,  while  under-drains  carry  o3 
any  water  which  might  otherwise  reach  the  foundations.  In  fact,  the  masonry  of  the  founda- 
tion-walls, and  of  the  massive  30-foot  approach,  is  like  that  of  a  fortification.     The  latter 


MODEL  FARMS. 


589 


curves  around  a  quarter  of  a  circle,  the  granite  walls  being  three  feet  thick,  laid  in  cement, 
and  some  of  the  stones  not  less  than  eight  feet  in  length.  A  height  of  twelve  feet  is  gained, 
and  the  space  between  the  walls  (thirty  feet)  being  filled  in  with  stones  solidly  packed  and 
topped  with  gravel,  a  solid  roadway  of  uniform  ascent  is  secured. 

The  principal  storage-room  for  hay  is  the  main  floor  of  the  '74:  barn.  Through  the  cen- 
ter of  this  the  double  threshing-floor  crosses,  so  that  several  teams  and  wagons  bringing  in 
hay  may  enter  and  discharge  their  loads  independently  of  one  another.  "Wlien  the  mows  are 
nearly  full,  one  of  the  floors  is  closed,  and  forms  a  big  bay,  which  may  itself  be  filled  to  the 
ridge-pole. 

I  have  never  before  met  with  this  contrivance  of  a  double  floor,  and  like  it  very  much. 
There  is  storage-room  in  this  loft  for  over  150  tons  of  hay. 

The  cow-stable  is  immediately  beneath,  occupying  the  full  size  of  the  building,  100x40 
feet,  11  feet  high.  It  is  lighted  by  18  large  double  sashed  windows,  the  sashes  being  hung 
by  weights,  open  at  top  and  bottom.     Having  the  object  in  view,  which  has  since  been  so 


SIR  samueij  canard.  uncle  BrLL. 

JIM   FENTON.  HIGHLAND   CHIEF. 

YOUNG   JERSEY   BULLS    OF    ECHO    FAEM. 

successfully  accomplished,  namely,  the  production,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  of  as  perfect 
butter  as  possible,  the  accommodations  for  the  cows  are  absolutely  luxurious  as  regards  free- 
dom, purity  of  air,  comfortable  warmth  and  abundant  Kght,  while  for  ease  of  attendance  and 
convenience  of  inspection — that  the  foreman  and  the  proj)rietor  may  at  a  glance  see  if  every 
man  has  done  his  duty — they  could  not  be  surpassed.  There  are  stalls  here  for  forty-eight 
cows,  and  a  simple  calculation  (100x40x11  —  44,000-^48^917)  shows  that  each  cow  has, 
making  a  liberal  allowance  for  fixtures,  posts,  etc.,  not  less  than  900  cubic  feet  of  air  space, 
which  is  more  than  twice  as  much  as  is  ordinarily  considered  ample.  Through  the  center 
lengthwise  there  is  a  ten-foot  passage-way  between  the  two  rows  of  stalls,  and,  crossing  at  the 
center  of  the  floor,  another  passage-way  of  eight  feet  in  width.  These  separate  the  floor  into 
four  divisions  of  twelve  stalls  each,  and  by  a  very  convenient  arrangement,  by  means  of  a 
few  bars  which  are  kept  hanging  upon  wooden  pins  against  the  posts,  and  which,  when  in 
use,  fit  into  sockets  and  slots,  the  cows  of  each  section  are  turned  loose  to  go  at  will  into  the 
yard  for  water  and  exercise,  through  a  door  at  the  south  end  of  the  cross  passage,  or  through 
the  main  entrance  at  west  end,  to  pasture.     There  is,  besides,  a  broad  passage  behind  the 


590  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

cows,  and  conveniently  wide  ones  across  each  end,  so  that  each  section  is  surrounded  by  a 
passage-way. 

The  stalls  are  nearly  five  feet  wide — too  wide,  1  think ;  the  mangers  or  feeding-troughs 
about  two  feet  wide,  and  the  slightly  sloping  platform  upon  which  the  cows  stand,  5i  feet. 
At  the  rear  is  a  gutter  which  holds  the  manure  and  conducts  the  liquid  to  traps  placed  at 
convenient  intervals  in  the  gutter,  through  which  traps  the  manure  is  dropped  into  the  capa- 
cious, nine-foot  cellar,  135  feet  in  length  by  40  in  width. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  double  drive- way,  before  alluded  to,  does  not  extend  up  to  the 
bam  proper,  but  stops  some  1 2  feet  short,  which  space  is  bridged  over  by  what  is  called  the 
'dormer,'  and  forms  a  room  below  12x30  feet,  which  is  used  as  a  wardrobe  and  dressing- 
room.  The  men  call  it  the  '  Parlor,'  not  because  they  meet  here  to  talk,  but,  I  take  it,  because 
it  is  the  culminating  point  of  the  aUpervading  neatness  and  cleanliness  which  distinguishes 
this  estabhshment.  Here  are  closets  for  the  men's  clothes,  and  for  the  brushes,  brooms, 
cards,  and  other  tools;  wash-basin,  towels,  a  looking-glass  and  toilet  articles;  and  here,  morn- 
ing and  evening,  before  going  to  milk,  the  milkers  wash  their  hands  and  faces,  comb  and 
brush  their  hair,  and  make  such  changes  of  apparel  as  may  be  necessary.  I  am  free  to  say 
that  the  majority  of  farmers  in  this  country,  which  may  indeed  be  justly  proud  of  the  civ- 
ilized cleanliness  which  prevails  among  its  rural  popxilation,  come  to  the  table  with  less  atten- 
tion to  personal  tidiness,  than  is  here  both  the  rule  and  the  practice. 

At  milking-time,  though  the  barns  are  often,  one  may  say,  full  of  visitors,  all  are 
excluded,  and  the  milkers  have  the  floor  to  themselves.  Spring  balances  hang  at  convenient 
points,  and  the  milk  of  each  cow  is  weighed  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn,  the  weight  set  down  by 
each  milker  upon  his  own  slate,  and  when  he  has  done,  the  slate  is  delivered  to  the  dairy- 
maid. 

At  the  eastern  end  of  this  stable  is  a  room  35  x  40  —  the  corner  room,  and  part  of  the 
"'75  bani"ia  which  there  are  eight  large  box-stalls  on  two  sides,  with  space  for  several 
more.  This  is  used  as  a  lying-in  ward,  or  for  cows  which  may  be  injured  in  any  way.  The 
long  loft  in  this  building,  which  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  same  floor,  is  filled  with  hay, 
straw,  and  bedding,  suflicient  for  the  stock  beneath.  A  portion  is  used  for  storing  duplicate 
implements  and  machines,  which,  consisting  of  churns,  butter-workers,  a  hay-cutter,  and  sun- 
dry others,  are  kept  ready  for  use  in  case  of  an  accident,  that  no  delay  may  occur  —  an 
admirable  provision.  Another  portion,  opening  out  of  the  lying-in  room,  is  occupied  as  a 
grain  and  meal  room.  A  passage-way,  four  feet  in  width,  extends  through  to  the  southern 
end  of  this  floor  upon  the  western  side.  The  manure-cellar,  before  referred  to,  is  continued 
under  the  room  in  which  the  box-stalls  are,  but  the  rest  of  the  basement  is  otherwise  occu- 
pied. An  inclined  plane,  well  cleated,  makes  a  passage-way  for  animals  up  and  down 
when  it  is  necessary  to  transfer  them.  The  ox-stable  is  at  the  left  of  this,  on  the  ground 
floor;  while  on  the  right  are  the  bull-stables. 

Every  farmer,  and  not  less  every  householder,  can  appreciate  the  inestimable  comfort  to 
man  and  beast  of  a  never-failing  supply  of  pure  water.  Without  it  the  barns  would  have 
been  ill-placed  and  iU-planned.  So  important  a  matter,  of  course,  received  its  due  considera- 
tion. TTpon  the  hill,  above  the  barn,  not  far  from  the  position  chosen  by  the  artist  for  his 
sketch,  and  at  a  distance  of  some  500  feet  from  the  barns,  several  springs  are  collected  into 
a  reservoir.  This  is  stoned  about,  roofed  over,  and  connected  by  iron  pipes  with  the  dairy, 
and  with  the  barns,  throughout  which  it  is  distributed  by  pipes  There  are  troughs,  or 
sinks,  with  discharge-pipes  leading  to  the  drains,  located  in  convenient  places,  in  the  stables 
and  other  rooms,  and  spacious  drinking  troughs  in  the  yards. 

!Mr.  Starr  dwells  with  force  upon  the  importance  of  giving  the  animals  the  regular 
exercise  of  a  walk  for  their  drink,  and  of  their  being  watered  twice  a  day,  and,  in  carrying 
out  his  view,  the  cows  of  each  section  of  the  main  floor  are  turned  out  for  an  hour  or  more 


MODEL  FARMS. 


591 


every  day.     They  get  this  exercise  and  fresh  air  regularly,  even  in  the  coldest  weather, 
except  during  severe  storms. 

An  abundance  of  pure  air  has  been  provided  for  in  every  apartment  in  which  live-stock 
of  any  kind  is  kept.  The  high  ceilings  (11  feet)  of  the  cow-stable,  and  of  the  stables  in  the 
basement  of  the  ''75  bam,' 
have  already  been  mentioned. 
Two  large  ventilating  trunks 
go  from  the  cellar  to  the  ven- 
tilators in  the  roof;  others, 
with  slides  at  floor  and  ceiling, 
pass  up  independently  from  the 
stables  and  cow-floor,  but  ad- 
joining those  from  the  cellar; 
besides,  everywhere  there  are 
windows  hung  by  weights, 
which  not  only  admit  Ught  and 
sunshine,  making  the  stables 
light  even  to  the  innermost 
comers,  but  giving  in  summer, 
or  sultry  weather,  all  the  fresh 
air  any  cow  can  need.  The 
result  is,  that  no  temporary 
neglect  or  carelessness  can 
cause  bad  odors,  or  vitiated  air 
to  prevail.  And  what  is  even 
of  greater  importance, — if  in- 
fectious disease  should  occur, 
the  rapid  change  of  air  which 
is  obtained  night  and  day  offers 
the  greatest  security  against  its 
spread.  The  system  of  feeding 
that  is  followed  is  very  simple: 
mixed  bran  and  meal  are  fed 
upon  cut  feed  twice  a  day. 
One  good  meal  of  roots  is  given 
by  themselves.  Mangels  and 
sugar-beets  are  the  only  roots 
used,  and  the  cows  have  besides 
all  the  dry  hay  they  will  eat. 

Everytliing  is  of  the  sweet- 
est and  purest  character  —  the 
hay,  fragrant;  the  few  corn- 
stalks used,  thoroughly  cured 
and  free  from  mustiaess;  the 
corn-meal,  com  and  oats,  and 
bran  (50-pound  stuff),  of  the 
best  quality.  Thus,  nothing 
can  be  eaten  by  the  cows  in  the  stable  which  can  affect  the  milk  unfavorably,  and  everything 
contributes  to  its  high  flavor  and  excellence.  The  proportions  between  mangels  and  meal, 
vary  according  to  the  abundance  of  the  former.  When  a  full  crop  of  roots  is  harvested,  the 
quantity  fed  is  profitably  increased. 


592 


THE  A3IEIUCAN  rAR3IER. 


MODEL  FARMS. 


593 


stable  Management.  —  It  is  some  one's  duty  to  look  to  every  individual  cow,  calf, 
and  bull  every  hour  through,  the  night,  from  dark  to  dawn,  and  at  stated  intervals  during 
the  day.  This  gives  regular  employment  to  one  night-watchman,  and  to  three  regular  day- 
hands.  The  stable-men  clean  out  the  stalls,  cut,  mix,  and  give  the  feed,  clean  the  cows, 
sweep  out  the  stables,  turn  the  cows  out  to  water,  feed  the  calves,  etc.,  under  the  supervision 
of  an  efficient  foreman,  who,  indeed,  supervises  all  the  work  of  the  farm,  working  with  the 
men  wherever  his  labor  will  do  the  most  good,  but  in  all  things  following  the  directions  of 
the  proprietor,  who  takes  the  responsibility  of  ordering  everything  of  importance.  It  is  an 
inflexible  rule,  that  all  the  animals  shall  be  treated  kindly  and  gently.  No  shouting,  halloo- 
ing, or  alarming  demonstrations  are  made;  hence  they  grow  up  docile  and  gentle,  and  the 
bulls,  old  and  young,  have  so  far  proved  no  exception. 

All  the  animals  are  kept  clean;  the  cows  brushed  or  carded  daily;  their  stalls  not  only 
cleaned  out,  but  swept  out  and  sanded.  The  temperature  of  the  stables  is  regulated  by  the 
ventilation  in  cold  weather,  and  thermometers  are  hung  where  they  may  be  conveniently 
inspected.  During  the  winter  it  is  intended  not  to  allow  the  temperature  to  sink  below  the 
freezing  point;  but  a  temperature  of  40°  is  considered  desirable. 

Regularity  is  a  marked  feature  of  the  management.  Every  important  daily  duty  in  and 
about  the  farm,  barns,  and  dairy  has  its  appointed  time.  A  large  clock  is  centrally  placed, 
and  all  hands  are  held  responsible  for  accurate  punctuality.  Not  only  are  things  done  like 
clock-work,  but  if  anything  goes  wrong  by  day  or  night,  the  proprietor,  if  at  home,  may  be 
at  once  communicated  with  by  telephone.  A  signal  given  at  the  lower  stable,  the  upper 
stable,  or  at  the  foreman's  dwelhng,  notifies  the  proprietor  at  once  that  his  presence  or  that 
of  the  foreman  is  needed.  From  his  office  the  proprietor  can  also  summon  the  foreman, 
gardener,  coachman,  or  others,  at  any  moment.  This  is  an  arrangement  which  is  not  only  a 
great  security  against  accidents  of  many  kinds,  but  a  great  convenience  For  instance,  if 
anything  seems  to  the  night  watchman  to  be  going  on  wrong  in  the  lying-in  stalls,  in  the 
horse-stable,  or  elsewhere  —  anything  that  he  cannot  himself  manage  —  he  has  only  to  leave 
the  animal  long  enough  to  give  the  signal,  and  he  is  sure  of  help  within  a  few  minutes. 

The  Dairy,  etc.  —  Each  milkman  has  his  slate  to  record  the  weight  of  the  milk  given 
by  each  cow.  With  the  last  pails  of  milk,  these  slates  are  brought  to  the  dairy  and  delivered 
to  the  tidy  dairy-woman. 

The  milk  is  set  in  deep  cans  in  summer,  which  stand  in  running  water,  and  are  thus 
kept  at  an  equable  temperature;  but  in  winter  the  o.ld-fashioned  shal- 
low pans  are  used;  no  seamed  ones,  however  —  but  those  struck  or 
stamped  from  a  single  sheet.     It  is  noured  from  the  strainer  milk- 
pails,  having  the  tisual  form,  and  a  fine  brass  wire-cloth  strainer  at 

the  spout,  into  a  large  pail,  which  is  a  triple 

strainer  —  an  Echo  Farm  invention,  and  one 

worthy  of  being  extensively  copied.     The 

spout  of  this  pail  is  a  four  inch  cylinder. 

There  is  a  fine  brass  wire-gauge   strainer 

placed  over  the  spout  inside  the  pail.     Over 

the  outer  end  of  the  spout  a  hoop  of  tin  is 

fitted  loosely;  and  by  means  of  this,   two 

thicknesses  of  muslin  are  fastened  like  a 

drum-head  over  the  end.    The  milk  is  poured 

into  the  pans,  or  deep  cans,  from  the  pail, 
and  I  must  say  it  seemed  as  though  it  was  carrying  the  cleanly  hobby  rather  far,  to  strain  the 
milk  virtually  four  times;  but  after  seeing  the  milk  of  some  fifty  cows  strained,  and  making 
a  thorough  personal  examination,  I  was  fully  convinced  of  the  wisdom  of  the  course  adopted, 
and  that  it  was  in  keeping  with  the  other  rigid  and  excellent  rules  of  the  farm. 


TRIPLE    STKAINER-PAIL. 


CREAM-STRAINER. 


594 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


After  the  evening's  milk  is  received,  the  dairy-woman  fills  out  her  return  for  the  day. 
To  do  this,  she  has  blanks  which  give  the  names  of  the  cows,  just  as  they  stand  in  the  bam, 
numbered  as  the  stalls  are,  from  1  to  48,  with  those  in  other  stables  under  a  and  b.  There 
are  two  columns  ruled  for  the  morning's  and  evening's  milkings,  and  the  weight  of  milk 
given  by  each  cow  is  recorded,  and  the  whole  footed  up ;  then  the  disposition  of  the  whole  is 
noted  on  the  same  paper.  The  dairy  is  charged  its  quota,  after  whatever  is  necessary  is  taken 
out  for  the  house,  for  the  families  of  the  men,  and  for  the  young  calves.  This  report  is  filed 
daily,  and  at  the  end  of  the  month  each  cow  is  credited  with  all  she  has  given,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  the  grand  totals  are  footed  up.  So  complete  is  this  system,  and  so  thoroughly 
adhered  to,  that  it  takes  but  a  few  hours  of  simple  figuring,  on  the  31st  of  December,  to 
exhibit  a  full  statement  for  the  365  previous  days. 

The  advantage,  in  large  dairies,  of  straining  or  filtering  the  cream  is  well  understood. 
A  thorough  homogeneousness  is  secured,  whereby  the  butter  '  comes '  quicker  and  is  more 


thoroughly  removed  at  one  operation.  If  the  cream  lacks  this  quality,  only  a  part  of  the 
butter  sometimes,  will  come,  while  a  second  or  continued  churning  will  be  needed  to  secure 
the  remainder;  besides,  specks  from  the  windows,  or  open  doors,  are  liable  to  fall  in,  which 
ought  10  be  removed.  For  these  reasons  the  cream  is  strained,  and  it  is  no  easy  operation  to 
strain  thick  cream  from  flat  pans.  On  this  farm  an  apparatus  is  used,  which  is  found  in 
some  of  the  best  dairies  of  Pennsylvania,  and  which  is  represented  on  the  previous  page.  Two 
vessels  are  here  shown — one,  a  simple  receiver ol  the  strained  cream;  the  other,  the  strainer. 
Tills  is  a  cylinder  like  a  large  can,  of  heavy  tin,  having  above  a  heavy,  fixed,  rigid  iron  bail, 
with  a  socket  in  the  middle  for  a  pump-handle  to  work  in  at  right  angles  to  the  bail,  while 
below,  in  the  bottom,  are  two  tubes  about  six  inches  long,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  in 
aiameter.     These  have  their  sides  perforated  with  small  holes. 

The  bottoms  are  solid  and  locked  on,  so  that  they  may  be  removed  for  cleansing  the 
apparatus.     The  mouths  of  the  tubes  are  conical,  that  the  cream  may  run  in  quickly,  and 


MODEL  FARMS.  595 

not  only  for  that,  but  so  that  the  pluggers,  which  are  worked  by  the  pump-handle,  and  alter- 
nately lifted  out  and  plugged  in,  forcing  the  cream  through,  may,  without  other  guide,  drop 
directly  into  their  proper  places.  The  cream,  thus  rapidly  and  thoroughly  strained,  and  all 
parts  mingled,  is  then  ready  for  churning. 

The  churning  is  performed  by  horse-power.  After  being  carefully  worked,  the  butter  is 
put  up  in  half-pound  prints  for  shipment.  These  are  of  the  usual  circular  form  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  high,  each  having  a  neat  device  upon  the  top  which  consists  of  the  monogram 
'  Echo  '  in  the  center,  surrounded  by  twelve  stars,  each  star  indicating  a  month  of  the  year ; 
and  as  they  are  represented  in  a  circle,  and  of  equal  magnitude  and  brilliancy,  the  indication 
is  obvious  that  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  butter  do  not  vary  the  year  round. 

As  soon  as  the  butter  is  moulded,  each  print  is  wrapped  in  clean  muslin  and  placed  in  a 
neat,  white  paste-board  box. 

For  final  packing  for  shipment,  the  prints,  each  held  in  the  little  paper  box,  to  keep  them 
from  being  defaced  or  otherwise  injured,  are  packed  in  a  wooden  box,  and  sent  from  the  dairy 
every  Tuesday  and  Friday  morning  by  express,  and  are  delivered  at  the  residences  of  custo- 
mers on  the  evenings  of  those  days  without  the  butter  being  handled." 

"We  have  thus  given  in  detail  some  of  the  main  features  of  the  methods  practiced  on 
this  noted  farm,  simply  to  show  the  perfect  system  to  which  such  a  business  may  be  reduced. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  benefits  derived  from  keeping  thoroughbred  stock,  and  giving 
them  good  care  and  kind  treatment,  we  will  briefly  state  that  Filbert,  the  cow  represented 
standing  at  the  left  in  the  illustration  of  the  centennial  group,  was  sold  by  the  proprietor  in 
1879  for  fifteen  hundred  dollars.  She  gave  in  July  of  that  year,  809  lbs.  of  rich  milk,  and 
in  August  949^  lbs.  The  records  of  many  of  the  others  of  the  herd  are  very  high,  although 
not  quite  as  good  as  that  given.  The  Jersey  Bull  Litchfield  was  also  winner  of  the  Centen. 
nial  award,  and  of  the  special  prize  of  $250  offered  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club. 

That  such  a  system  "pays,"  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in  the  same  connection 
new  dairy  buildings  have  recently  been  completed  about  three  miles  from  the  original  farm, 
with  apparatus  for  bottling  five  thousand  quarts  of  milk  daily,  which,  with  the  facilities 
afforded  by  Echo  Farm  of  2,500  quarts,  enables  the  entire  establishment  to  send  7,500  quart 
bottles  of  pure  milk  to  New  York  each  day. 

Deer  foot  Farm. — This  farm  is  located  in  Southborough,  Mass.,  and  is  the  property  of 
Mr.  Edward  Burnett.  The  description  of  it  given  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant  in  a  recent  Depart- 
ment Report,  being  the  best  we  have  seen,  we  take  extracts  from  that  authority  for  our  pres- 
ent purpose: 

'•  Perhaps  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  no  farm  in  America  which  can  present  so  much 
that  is  novel  and  useful  to  the  observer,  as  Deerfoot  Farm. 

It  is  not  amateur  farming  that  is  to  be  seen  here,  but  real  '  fancy '  farming,  the  use  of 
intensive  conditions,  the  employment  of  abundance  of  labor,  and  the  avaiUng  practically  of 
every  new  idea  adapted  to  the  conditions  that  promise  improved  profits. 

This  farm  covers  about  300  acres,  of  which  some  100  are  tillable.  Its  specialties  are 
fancy  pork,  gilt-edged  butter  and  cream,  family  milk,  skim-milk,  and  buttermilk. 

To  meet  these  requirements,  much  money  has  been  expended  for  conveniences,  and  the 
farm  partakes  in  its  management  of  the  character  of  a  factory.  The  swine  are  grown  on  the 
place,  or  to  order,  are  slaughtered  as  pig-pork,  and  are  presented  for  sale  in  small,  neat,  and 
attractive  packages,  which  include  'Deerfoot  family  pork,'  'Deerfoot  hams,'  'Deerfoot  bacon,' 
'  Deerfoot  jowls,'  '  Deerfoot  pigs'  feet,' '  Deerfoot  sausages,'  '  Deerfoot  lard,'  etc.  From  the  pens 
in  the  piggery,  through  the  slaughter-room  and  packing-rooms  to  the  market,  there  is  the 
most  precise  cleanliness,  and  the  wise  use  of  all  the  advantages  that  well-constructed  machin- 
ery, moved  by  steam-power,  can  offer.  In  1879  the  number  of  pigs  slaughtered  was  about 
1,500,  of  an  average  weight  of  175  pounds,  the  extreme  weights  of  carcass  being  140  and 
250  poimds.  37 


596  tHE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

We,  however,  do  not  propose  to  describe  this  farm  and  this  farming  in  detail,  but  to 
confine  ourselves  M  the  presentation  of  the  dairy  branch,  which  in  like  manner  is  worthy  of 
attention  from  its  development  and  from  the  novelty  of  its  processes,  for  here  are  in  use  the 
only  centrifugal  milk  machines,  on  other  than  an  experimental  scale,  in  America,  and  the 
skilled  thought  of  the  experimenter  and  the  machinist  have  combined  to  produce  the  results 
best  fitted  for  the  handling,  care,  and  manufacture  of  the  milk. 

The  foundation  idea  which  underlies  this  kind  of  farming  is,  that  there  is  a  large  dis- 
criminating  pubhc,  who  desire  to  purchase  the  best  articles  of  the  class,  and  who  are  willing 
to  pay  an  increased  price  in  order  to  secure  perfection  and  uniformity  of  supply  on  their 
tables.  Hence  an  expenditure  may  be  justified  in  order  to  secure  purity  and  cleanliness  of 
product,  attractiveness  of  packages,  and  such  a  sameness  of  quality  that  the  brand  stamped 
thereon  shall  justify  confidence. 

There  are  two  sources  of  supply  for  the  milk,  the  home  herd,  and  that  furnished  by  the 
neighboring  farms.  The  milk  of  the  morning  and  the  evening  is  kept  separate.  The 
morning's  milk  from  the  home  herd  is  poured  from  the  milk  cans  into  a  large  cooler,  and  is 
thence,  after  being  cooled,  bottled  for  market  as  new  milk.  In  summer  it  is  shipped  at  7 
p.  M.  The  cooler  which  receives  this  portion  is  a  large  metal  cylindrical  vat  of  the  capacity 
of  150  gallons.  "Within  this  is  suspended  a  box  containing  ice,  and  attached  to  a  lever,  so 
that  motion  can  be  communicated  to  it  in  case  the  coohng  is  desired  to  be  hastened,  or  a  sort 
of  propeller  which  keeps  the  milk  in  movement.  As  soon  as  the  temperature  is  reduced 
to  50°  the  milk  is  drawn  in  successive  portions  into  a  pail,  and  thence  poured  into  the  bottles, 
which,  after  being  corked  securely,  are  transferred  in  the  frames  to  the  water  refrigerator,  as 
it  may  be  called,  where  they  remain  imtil  shipment. 

The  mOk-tank,  with  its  cooler,  which  receives  the  milk  from  the  upper  floor,  is  suspended 
at  a  convenient  height  on  the  elevator,  and  by  means  of  a  faucet  deHvers  the  milk  into  the 
pail  which  is  used  to  fill  the  bottles.  The  bottles  are  handled  in  wire  frames  which  hold 
twenty,  and  these  frames  are  transferred  to  the  water-refrigerator,  where  they  rest  on  a  wire 
grating,  which  is  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  machinery,  thus  conveniently  lowering  the 
filled  and  tightly-corked  bottles  under  the  ice-water,  and  raising  them  again  to  the  surface 
for  handling. 

These  bottles  are  of  the  Cohansey  pattern,  and  are  of  the  capacity  of  one  quart.  The 
cover  is  secured  by  wire*  clamps,  which,  by  compressing  against  an  intervening  rubber,  form 
a  tight  joint.  These  bottles  are  delivered  to  the  customer  each  morning,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  empty  ones  are  returned  to  the  farm,  where,  after  a  thorough  cleansing,  they  are 
again  filled  for  use. 

The  upper  story  is  on  a  level  with  the  ground  in  the  rear.  Under  a  shed  is  the  delivery, 
each  can  of  milk  being  weighed  at  the  scales,  and  the  weights  charged  off.  The  cans  are 
then  moved  into  the  delivery-room,  and  the  milk  is  emptied  into  the  tank  within  the  refriger- 
ator-room, thence  to  pass  by  a  pipe  into  the  centrifugal  machine  below,  or  is  poured  into  the 
tank  for  fresh  milk  delivery,  as  described. 

The  empty  cans,  after  being  cleansed  over  steam  jets  in  the  shed,  are  stored  in  the  de- 
livery-room until  again  put  into  requisition. 

The  cans  used  are  of  the  capacity  of  20,  30,  and  40  quarts,  and  have  large  covers,  which 
spring  into  place,  and  strong  handles. 

The  next  room  is  the  wash-room.  The  tanks  are  furnished  with  cold  water  through 
faucets,  and  also  with  steam-pipes,  through  which  steam  is  admitted  to  the  water  in  the  tanks 
to  warm  it.  Movable  draining-trays,  or  slatted  tables  on  casters,  receive  the  bottles  after  the 
cleansing  in  the  hot-water  tanks.  Into  this  room  opens  the  stairs  from  the  lower  floor,  and 
other  doors  lead  to  the  storage-refrigerators,  and  the  chuming-refrigerator-room. 

In  the  storage-refrigerator-room  are  kept  the  cream,  the  butter  awaiting  delivery,  and  the 


MODEL  FARMS.  597 

milk  in  the  tank,  which  supplies  the  centrifugal  machines  below.  In  the  churning-refrig- 
erator,  the  cream  is  churned  by  power  in  a  barrel-churn,  and  the  butter  is  worked  and  pressed 
into  form  for  the  market. 

Passing  into  the  centrifugal-room  on  the  lower  floor,  we  find  three  centrifugal  machines, 
over  each  of  which  is  a  pipe  connecting  with  the  milk-tank  in  the  refrigerator- room  overhead, 
and  three  tanks  in  the  floor  which  receive  the  skim-milk  in  cans,  and  where  the  cans  remain 
until  shipped.     In  these  tanks  of  water  a  block  of  ice  is  kept  floating. 

Centrifugal  Machines. — Two  styles  of  centrifugal  machines  are  in  use,  one  a  self- 
delivery,  the  others  intermittent  deliveries.  We  shall  describe  the  first  as  machine  No.  1, 
and  the  second  as  machine  No.  2.  The  machines  being  put  into  motion,  the  faucet  of  the 
pipe  connecting  with  the  milk-tank  is  opened,  and  each  machine  receives  its  charge.  After 
running  about  fifteen  minutes,  the  cream  has  collected  on  the  interior  wall  of  the  milk,  and 
then,  in  No.  1,  the  faucet  is  again  turned,  and  the  admitted  milk  displaces  a  thin 
stratum  of  cream,  which  is  collected.  At  the  same  time  the  skim-mUk  escapes  through  small 
valvular  openings  in  the  bottom.  A  small  cup  occupies  the  axis,  and  from  which  a  pipe 
extends  towards  the  circumference.  This  receives  the  milk  as  it  falls  from  the  pipe  and  con- 
veys it  toward  the  circumference  and  away  from  the  cream  wall.  Collected  in  this  apparatus, 
the  mOk  is  carried  to  the  pipe  or  outflow.  The  skim-milk,  passing  into  the  surrounding 
frame,  is  likewise  conveyed  by  a  pipe  into  the  receptacle  placed  to  receive  it. 

Machine  No.  2  is  of  a  different  construction.  After  the  cream  has  collected  to  form  the 
interior  wall,  a  pipe-scoop  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  revolving  surface,  and  the  cream 
is  forced  along  the  pipe  and  conveyed  to  a  pail  placed  near  for  its  reception.  After  the  cream 
is  removed,  a  like  quantity  of  milk  is  added  from  the  faucet,  and  this  displaces  the  cream 
which  has  escaped  removal  on  account  of  its  position  to  the  point  where  the  scoop  works.  In 
a  few  moments  the  cream  is  thrown  off  through  the  scoop-pipe,  and  then  the  skim-milk  is 
removed  in  the  same  way,  when  a  new  charge  of  milk  is  admitted.  Tliis  process  takes  place 
about  three  times  an  hour.  The  pails  of  cream  are  now  removed  to  the  refrigerator-room, 
upper  floor,  while  the  cans  of  skim-milk  are  transferred  to  the  ice-water  tanks  on  the  lower 
floor.  In  one  experiment,  watched  by  myself,  so  as  to  secure  the  ordinary  conditions,  172 
pounds  of  milk,  in  machine  No.  2,  yielded  2 1  pounds  of  cream,  such  as  is  bottled  for  market, 
or  12  per  cent,  of  its  weight.  Machine  No.  3  is  similar,  except  being  slightly  larger  than 
machine  No.  2,  and  requires  no  separate  description." 

Care  of  the  Cows. — The  cows  on  this  farm  are  milked  with  great  regularity  at  5 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  5  p.m.,  eight  or  nine  cows  being  considered  sufiBcient  for  one 
milker.  They  are  driven  to  their  stalls  to  be  milked  and  for  passing  the  night,  but  are  pas- 
tured during  the  day  in  summer.  Sand  is  used  for  bedding,  and  the  stables  are  kept  very 
clean,  being  frequently  whitewashed.     The  cows  are  regularly  carded  each  day. 

The  method  of  feeding  is  thus  given  by  Mr.  Burnett: — "The  essentials  to  produce  good 
results  are  good  cows,  good  feed,  regularity,  cleanliness  about  the  stables  and  dairy,  and  a 
thermometer.  I  will  give  my  own  method  of  feeding,  and  in  so  doing  those  dairymen  who 
aim  at  quantity  will  realize  that  we  are  shooting  at  different  targets,  for  with  me  quantity  is 
secondary,  quality  being  the  greatest  desideratum.  Our  finest  butter  is  obtained  in  early 
summer,  when  the  pastures  are  sending  forth  their  early,  sweet,  succulent  grasses,  and  we 
depend  entirely  upon  them;  but  when  these  begin  to  fail,  about  mid-summer,  I  begin  to  feed 
wilted  clover  and  a  small  quantity  of  grain,  increasing  as  the  season  advances,  unless  the 
pastures  are  unusually  good.  I  cut  all  my  grass  early,  beginning  by  the  31st  of  June,  and 
generally  get  a  good  second  crop,  thus  trying  to  have  an  abundance  of  rowen  hay.  When  in 
winter  quarters,  I  begin  feeding  at  about  5.30  in  the  morning  with  hay,  a  little  jag  or  wisp 
at  a  time,  not  so  much  but  what  the  cows  will  eat  up  clean.     Then,  after  milking,  they  are 


598  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

given  grain,  from  three  to  six  quarts,  according  to  the  cow,  consisting  of  two  parts  of  Indian 
meal  and  one  of  shorts  or  bran;  or  feeding  entirely  on  ordinary  cobbage  (corn  and  cob 
ground  together).  After  this,  more  hay,  which  lasts  until  about  9  a.m.  I  begin  again  at  3  p.m 
with  a  little  hay,  followed  by  roots  (mangolds)  cut  fine,  a  bushel  being  divided  between  three 
cows;    then  more  hay  again,  which  lasts  them  until  about  6.30  p.m. 

1  maintain  that  if  more  shorts  are  fed  than  are  necessary  to  counteract  the  heating 
quality  and  condensed  richness  of  the  corn  meal,  it  deteriorates  the  butter.  During  last 
March  I  saw  this  illustrated,  being  called  upon  in  Boston  to  examine  some  butter  from  one  of 
the  first  dairies  in  the  State,  and  which  was  troubling  the  dealer  who  sold  it.  He  said  it  wa? 
negatively  good,  nothing  could  be  said  against  it,  yet  little  could  be  said  in  its  favor.  It 
seemed  to  lack  that  fine  nutty  flavor  so  necessary  to  fresh  butter  that  commands  over  forty 
cents  per  pound.  I  said  at  once,  on  tasting  it,  '  Too  much  shorts  and  not  enough  corn  meal. 
He  answered,  'Just  what  I  thought,  but  didn't  dare  say  so  until  it  was  confirmed.'  In  less 
than  ten  days  the  butter  from  that  diary  was  improved." 

"  Mountain-Side  Farm." — This  noted  farm  is  the  property  of  one  of  New  York's 
leading  merchants  and  citizens,  Mr.  T.  A.  Havemeyer,  and  lies  in  Bergen  County,  Northern 
New  Jersey,  at  the  base  of  the  Ramapo  Mountains.  In  a  very  elaborate  article  in  the  Journal 
of  The  American  Agricultural  Association,  Mr.  Francis  D.  Moulton,  President  of  the  Inter- 
national Dairy  Fair  Association,  has  given  a  detailed  description  of  this  farm  and  its  admirable 
system  of  management,  a  few  extracts  only  of  which  we  shall  find  space  for  insertion,  and 
which  will  ser\-e  to  give  the  reader  some  general  idea  of  the  completeness  and  perfection  to 
which  this  system  is  carried: — 

"The  mountain  range,  curving  in  broken  lines  on  either  side,  presents  a  grand  and 
striking  setting  to  a  charming  pictui'e,  the  whole  afllording  a  most  picturesque  and  beautiful 
view.  Through  the  farm  from  North  to  South  flows  the  Ramapo  River,  an  attractive  feature 
of  the  landscape,  and  an  eminently  valuable  and  practical  adjunct  to  the  farm. 

'  Mountain-Side '  comprises  six  hundred  acres,  three  hundred  of  which  lie  in  the  valley 
and  are  under  cultivation,  and  the  remainder  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  which  at  this 
point  rise  to  the  height  of  about  six  hundred  feet.  The  natural  herbage  of  this  latter  por- 
tion afiords  excellent  pasturage  for  sheep  and  cattle.  The  soil  of  the  bottom-land  is  a  gravelly 
loam,  and  under  the  advanced  system  applied  and  the  admirable  methods  adopted,  it  is  Iseing 
brought  to  a  high  condition  of  fertility.  Of  the  cultivated  land,  this  year,  about  one  hundred 
acres  are  in  pasturage,  ninety  acres  in  hay,  fifty  acres  in  fodder-corn,  and  fifteen  in  rye. 
Three  acres  are  in  peas,  three  in  vetches  and  barley  together,  and  three  acres  in  potatoes. 

Mr.  Havemeyer's  private  stable  is  fitted  up  with  box-stalls,  and  contains  room  for  a  large 
number  of  carriages.  Extending  from  it  is  a  wing  fifty  feet  long,  from  which  reaches  out 
another  wing  at  right  angles,  150  feet  long,  containing  in  all  ten  stalls,  forming  a  parallelo- 
gram, and  leaving  an  open  airy  court-yard  in  the  center,  by  which  means  the  ventilation  is 
made  perfect.  The  stable  has  constant  attention,  and  is  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  barn, 
dairy,  and  silos  are  comprised  in  one  building  forming  the  letter  T.  The  barn  proper  stands 
East  and  "West,  and  contains  the  cattle-floor,  hay-loft,  feed-bins,  and  manure-cellars.  The 
south  wing  contains  the  icehouse,  dairy,  engine-room,  and  quarters  for  the  dairyman.  In  the 
north  wing  are  the  silos.  The  length  of  the  barn-floor  from  East  to  West  is  263  feet;  its 
width  44  feet;  the  length  from  North  to  South,  including  the  dairy  and  silos,  is  263  feet,  the 
south  end  being  31  feet  wide,  and  the  north  end,  or  silos,  40  feet  wide. 

Beneath  the  bam,  on  each  side,  and  directly  under  the  cattle,  are  the  manure-cellars, 
each  14  feet  in  width  and  180  in  length.  All  the  droppings  from  the  animals  pass  into 
these,  and  earth  is  carted  in  daily  to  absorb  the  moisture.  Horse  or  ox-carts  can  be  driven 
to  all  parts  of  these  cellars  to  haul  out  the  manure.  Under  the  center  of  the  barn,  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  manure-beds,  is  a  room  for  keeping  roots,  150  feet  long  and  15  feet  wide, 


MODEL  FARMS.  601 

■with,  stone  walls  and  cemented  sides  and  bottom.  This  root-cellar  is  thoroughly  ventilated 
by  flues  of  its  own,  quite  disconnected  from  that  of  the  manure-cellar,  and  for  the  cattle-floor 
above.  At  the  extreme  west  end  of  the  barn-cellar,  between  the  two  cartways,  is  built  a 
cistern  of  cemented  work,  53  feet  long,  15  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  deep,  having  a  capacity  of 
35,000  gallons  of  water,  which  is  supplied  from  the  river.  From  this  great  cistern,  into 
which  also  the  water  from  the  barn-roofs  can  be  carried  at  will,  a  steam-pump  raises  water  to 
two  large  tanks  high  up  in  each  end  of  the  main  barn,  and  from  these  tanks,  giving  an  excel- 
lent head,  water  is  supplied  by  a  system  of  pipes  to  all  parts  of  the  various  fa-m  buildings. 
Back  of  this  cistern  stands  the  gas-machine,  which  supplies  the  house  and  all  the  buildings 
with  light.  Entering  the  main  floor  of  the  barn,  one  is  struck  with  the  immensity  of  its  size, 
its  cleanliness,  absence  of  odors,  and  its  exact  adaptation  to  the  purposes  it  is  designed  to 
subserve. 

Besides  the  main  entrance  at  either  end,  the  barn  is  entered  by  seven  doors  on  each  side, 
six  feet  by  nine.  It  has  eighty-four  windows,  five  by  two  and  a  half  feet,  and,  together  with 
title  distance  from  the  barn-floor  to  the  peak  of  the  roof,  and  the  passage  through  the  main 
doors  from  East  to  West,  has  the  best  system  of  ventilation  and  lighting  that  could  be 
devised.  Both  in  winter  and  summer  the  air  here  is  pure  and  almost  free  from  odor;  a  fact 
which  affords  the  best  assurance  that  the  condition  of  health  of  the  animals  and  the  purity  of 
their  products  are  sedulously  maintained.        ********* 

Among  the  hogs  are  seventy-six  of  the  Yorkshire  breed  and  some  Chester  Whites. 
One  hundred  head  of  Southdown  sheep  are  also  kept  on  the  farm,  which  shear  about  five 
pounds  per  fleece.  There  are  twenty  working-horses,  comprising  as  fine  a  lot  of  agricultural 
and  draft  horses  as  can  be  found.  They  are  kept  for  the  work  of  the  farm,  besides  one  yoke 
of  Hereford  oxen.  The  work-horses  are  kept  in  box-stalls,  untied.  Mr.  Mayer  (the  superin- 
tendent) says  that  he  wants  his  horses  to  sleep  as  comfortably  as  his  men,  and  finds  that  it 
pays  to  afford  them  such  rest  as  a  box-stall,  well-littered,  gives  them.  They  do  more  work 
and  keep  easier.  Whilst  all  the  horses  are  high-spirited  and  well-bred,  they  are  made  kind 
and  docile  by  care  and  gentle  treatment." 

The  dairy  herd  on  this  farm  are  all  of  the  best  Jersey  breed,  and  the  stable-room  accom- 
modates two  hundred  head. 

Care  of  Cattle,  etc.  —  The  same  writer  describes  the  management  of  the  dairy  ani- 
mals as  follows:  — 

'•  In  the  care  of  his  cattle,  the  same  thoughtful  attention  and  judgment  are  exhib'ted  on 
Mr.  Havemeyer's  farm  which  are  noticeable  in  the  details  of  every  other  department.  The 
feeding-place  in  front  of  the  cows  is  upon  the  floor,  without  any  other  arrangement,  in  order 
that  the  cattle  can  obtain  their  feed  clean,  and  that  no  particles  shall  get  into  corners  to  sour 
and  injure  it.  Here  there  is  noticeable  an  entire  absence  of  feed-boxes,  and  all  fixtures.  The 
cattle  are  watered  by  means  of  a  trough,  which  can  be  raised  and  lowered  at  will,  and  is  sup- 
plied from  the  tanks  above.  When  it  is  desired  to  water  them,  the  troughs  are  lowered,  and 
when  not  in  use  they  are  raised  to  the  top  of  the  stall.  This  is  quite  the  best  system  which  I 
have  ever  examined  for  this  purpose.  Every  cow  is  cleaned  daily  with  a  curry-comb  and 
brush,  the  same  as  a  horse.     They  are  treated  with  absolute  kindness  and  gentleness. 

A  daily  record  is  kept  of  the  milk-yield  of  every  cow.  The  calf  is  taken  from  the 
cow  when  three  days  old,  the  cow  being  tied  up  in  her  place  in  the  stall.  The  milk,  per- 
fectly sweet,  is  heated  up  to  90  degrees  and  fed  at  this  heat,  which  is  the  same  as  the  origi- 
nal temperature  when  taken  from  the  cow.  The  calf  is  given  milk,  at  first  four  quarts  every 
day  in  three  feedings,  morning,  noon,  and  night,  increasing  the  quantity  as  the  calf  grows. 
It  is  kept  in  a  stall  until  ten  days  old,  and  then  turned  out  in  the  morning  to  obtain  the 
benefit  of  the  sun.  At  a  month  old  it  is  turned  into  the  pasture.  Until  four  months  old  it 
is  fed  with  milk,  at  the  end  of  that  period  being  given  some  ground  oats.     Each  calf  is  kept 


602 


THE  AilERICAN  FARMER. 


'MOUNTAIN  SIDE"  FARM. 
Interior  of  Barn  (Looking  West). 


MODEL  FARMS.  603 

separate,  to  prevent  it  from  sucking  the  others,  untU  it  is  three  or  four  months  old.  After 
the  cow  has  calved,  she  is  fed  with  meal,  ground  oats,  and  corn,  four  quarts  per  day,  with  all 
the  hay  or  grass  she  will  eat.  The  milk  is  used  after  the  third  day,  if  the  cow  is  in  perfect 
health.  Cows  are  allowed  to  go  into  the  yard  every  day,  winter  or  summer,  two  or  three 
hours  for  exercise.  They  are  kept  in  separate  stalls  in  the  winter.  Each  animal  gets  half  a 
bushel  of  feed. 

A  month  before  calving,  all  meal  is  taken  away  from  the  cows,  and  they  are  fed  on  three 
quarts  of  ground  oats  per  day  in  two  feeds,  with  all  the  hay  or  ground  feed  they  want.  They 
are  put  in  box-stalls  ten  days  before  calving,  in  order  to  get  accustomed  to  the  place  and  that 
they  may  feel  perfectly  at  home.  This  system  is  found  to  prevent  milk-fever.  Mr.  Mayer, 
who  has  had  the  care  of  cattle  for  many  years,  has  never  had  a  case  of  milk-fever.  This 
system  also  enables  the  cow  to  clean  herself  in  six  hours,  her  bowels  being  kept  open.  The 
stalls  are  cleaned  immediately  after  the  birth  of  the  calf,  and  the  cow  removed  at  once  to 
another  stall,  the  first  one  being  purified  by  using  chloride  of  lime. 

"  Lorillard  Stock  Farm."  —  The  committee  of  the  Burlington  County,  New 
Jersey,  Agricultural  Society  on  farms,  farm  buildings,  crops,  and  reclaimed  land,  recently 
submitted  their  report,  which  concludes  as  follows:  — 

"The  next  and  last  farm  visited  was  that  of  Pierre  Lorillard's  stock  farm,  near  Jobs- 
town,  about  1,100  acres  of  land,  and  comprising  every  convenience  and  requirement  of  a 
complete  farm.  The  mansion  is  a  handsome  three-storied  semi-gothic  building;  near  by  is 
the  coach-house,  with  accommodations  for  24  horses,  and  the  farm-stables,  with  accommoda- 
tions for  40  horses.  In  the  center  of  the  yard  belonging  to  this  establishment  is  an  enor- 
mous food-bin  capable  of  holding  9,000  bushels  of  grain  at  a  time,  and  from  which  the  food 
is  drawn  by  shoots  near  the  bottom.  A  broad  and  well-kept  road  leads  from  the  mansion  to 
the  farm -buildings,  cattle-yards,  and  a  bam  holding  400  tons  of  hay.  The  stock  kept  here 
numbers  about  1,200  heads,  as  follows,  viz.:  300  horses,  300  cattle,  400  hogs,  and  200  sheep. 
To  prepare  food  for  this  large  number  requires  a  steam-engine  of  twenty-horse  power,  which 
runs  five  mills  for  grinding  feed,  shelling  corn,  cutting  stalks  and  coarse  fodder,  and  steam, 
ing  the  food  in  several  large  vats,  from  which  the  cooked  food  is  taken  in  box-cars  which 
nm  on  railways  between  the  long  range  of  cattle-stalls  where  the  Ayrshires,  Jerseys,  and 
Durhams  are  fed,  each  animal  being  marked  through  the  ear  with  a  strip  of  tin  stamped 
with  its  number  to  correspond  with  the  number  in  the  herd-record  made  at  the  time  of  its 
birth,  so  that  the  pedigree  can  readily  be  traced  through  sire  and  dam  to  its  proper  source; 
another  railway  leads  through  the  front  of  a  long  range  of  hog-pens  320  feet  long  by  18  feet 
wide,  each  pen  having  a  yard  paved  with  brick  11  by  14  feet  between  the  eating  department 
and  the  open  yard,  leading  to  a  trough  of  water  running  through  the  lower  end  of  each  yard, 
and  in  all  340  feet  in  length. 

The  system  of  ventilation  and  drainage  is  so  perfect  and  complete  that  there  is  no 
unpleasant  smell  or  offensive  odor  to  be  detected,  and  the  whole  family  of  Suffolks,  Essex, 
Berksliires,  and  Jersey  Eeds  seemed  to  enjoy  their  situation  in  perfect  health  and  comfort. 
There  are  four  horse-bams,  100  feet  square,  on  the  outside,  located  distant  from  each  other; 
the  stalls  open  to  the  yard  inside,  which  is  lowest  in  the  middle  where  the  sewer  is  placed  to 
carry  off  the  drainage  under  the  ground. 

In  the  brood-mare  stables  there  are  comfortable  stables  for  100  horses;  the  colt-stables 
surround  a  circular  track  where  the  colts  can  be  exercised  under  shelter,  one-eighth  of  a  mile 
in  circumference.  A  much  larger  bam  is  now  being  constructed  than  any  yet  completed, 
requiring  560,000  feet  of  lumber.  The  building  is  343  by  100  feet,  eaves-posts  20  feet,  inner 
box  28  feet,  two  wings  100  by  123  feet  each;  in  the  center  there  is  98  by  95  feet  supported 
by  truss- work,  nearly  all  to  be  covered  with  glass.  Three  cisterns,  25  feet  in  diameter  by  16 
feet  deep,  three  apartments  in  each,  the  middle  filled  with  charcoal,  through  which  the  water 


604  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

is  filtered  before  being  drawn  for  use.  But  it  is  in  vain  to  attempt  tO  describe  the  grandeur 
of  these  magnificent  edifices  in  the  few  moments  devoted  to  them. 

For  the  best-arranged  and  most  convenient  set  of  farm  buildings  the  premium  is  awarded 
to  Pierre  Lorillard. 

There  have  been  laid  on  this  farm,  fifty -one  miles  of  underdraining  and  nine  miles  of  open 
ditches,  mostly  discharging  into  the  Ananicken  creek,  a  branch  of  the  Assiscunk,  which 
passes  through  the  farm,  which  have  reclaimed  what  was,  a  few  years  since,  worthless  swamp 
and  bog,  but  is  now  beautiful  meadow,  thickly  set  with  fine  grass  and  rich  pasture,  and  is  the 
most  successful  experiment  in  reclaiming  marshy  land  shown  to  the  committee,  and  for  which 
they  award  the  premium. 

For  the  most  profitably-cultivated  crop,  the  profits  of  which  shall  exceed  one  hundred 
dollars  per  acre,  they  award  the  premium  to  D.  E.  Howatt,  farmer  for  P.  Lorillard,  for  6f 
acres  of  carrots,  yielding  by  estimate  ^fter  pulling  a  few)  400  bushels  per  acre,  making 
2,700  bushels,  which  at  40  cents  per  bushel  is  $1,080;  expense  of  seed,  driUing,  hoeing,  cul- 
tivating, thinning,  and  six  per  cent,  interest  on  the  land,  rated  at  $150  per  acre,  $212;  leaving 
net  profit  on  6|  acres,  $868. 

The  attention  of  the  committee  was  called  to  a  field  of  35  acres  of  good  corn  recently  cut 
and  stacked  up,  and  the  ground  (a  sandy  loam)  was  then  being  seeded  with  wheat.  They 
estimated  the  crop  at  50  bushels  per  acre,  making  1,750  bushels,  which  at  50  cents  per  bushel 
gives  $875;  the  whole  cost  of  plowing,  planting,  and  cultivating  (rating  the  teams  at  $2.50 
per  day,  laboring  men  $1.13  per  day,  boys  75  cents),  amounting  in  all  to  $242,  which,  taken 
from  the  value  of  the  crop,  leaves  a  profit  of  $633  on  35  acres;  being  an  average  of  $18 
per  acre. 

They  thought  the  above  crop  worthy  of  notice,  as  showing  that  farming  when  properly 
managed  wiU  pay,  even  in  these  dull,  hard  times. 

Beautiful  driveways,  arched,  gravelled,  smooth  and  firm  as  a  good  turnpike-road,  lead 
to  the  different  departments,  buildings,  and  enclosures,  and  are  lined  with  elegant  fences 
made  of  the  best  material;  pickets  and  slats  are  largely  of  locust,  posts  six  to  seven  feet  high, 
all  painted,  or  coated  with  tar;  they  are  clean,  straight,  erect,  and  free  from  any  foul  growth, 
and  for  which  the  premium  is  awarded  to  P.  LoriUard  for  the  best  and  cleanest-kept  fences 
on  a  farm  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  acres. 

The  premium  offered  by  the  society  for  the  best  and  most  profitably-cultivated  farm  of 
not  less  than  fifty  acres  is  not  disposed  of,  as  the  committee  are  not  able  to  arrive  at  the 
immense  value  of  the  hundreds  of  thoroughbreds  annually  produced  here,  the  records  of  some 
of  which  are  of  world-wide  fame;  but  as  far  as  their  knowledge  extends,  they  can  say  that 
this  establishment  is  the  largest,  best,  and  most  conveniently  arranged  in  all  its  departments 
for  the  purposes  intended,  to  be  found  anywhere." 

*' Hillhurst."  —  The  proprietor  of  this  farm,  Mr.  H.  Cochrane,  of  Compton,  Canada, 
has  gained  an  enviable  reputation  both  in  this  country  and  England  for  the  breeding  of 
choice  stock,  principally  short-horns.  The  farm  contains  1,100  acres,  300  of  which  are  in 
constant  cultivation,  and  300  in  permanent  pasture.  The  rotation  followed  is:  first  oats, 
second  roots,  third  wheat  or  barley  sown  down  with  timothy  and  clover,  then  grass ;  the  first 
two  years  being  always  cut  for  hay,  of  which  the  second  season  produces  invariably  the  most. 
The  soil  is  a  dry  loam,  considerably  stony,  but  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  stones  in 
building  substantial  stone-walls  and  in  constructing  dikes  along  the  road  which  intersects  the 
farm.  The  surface  is  undulating,  somewhat  hilly,  the  buildings  extensive  and  commodious, 
providing  ample  accommodations  for  a  large  stud  of  horses,  a  fine  herd  of  short-horns,  and 
a  magnificent  flock  of  Shropshire  sheep.  The  produce  of  one  cow  has  brought  Mr.  Cochrane 
£27,000.  Mr.  J.  Sparrow,  of  ^Voodlands  Farm,  Bath,  England,  one  of  the  Tenant  Farmers 
Delegates  for  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  reports  the  following  concerning  "Hillhurst:" 


MODEL    FARMS.  605 


About  a  mile  farther  and  we  came  to  Mr.  Cochrane's  farm,  situated  on  one  of  the  i 
of  lulls  that  abound  in  this  part  of  the  country;  the  hills  seem  as  fertile  as  the  plains — indeed, 
the  apple  trees  thrive  much  better  on  the  hills  than  in  the  plains.  We  drove  in  through  a 
fine  "■ateway.  He  has  a  pretty  villa-shaped  house,  the  lawn  being  on  our  left-hand  and  the 
conservatory  and  garden  on  our  right;  then  through  another  gate  and  we  came  upon  the 
barns,  stables,  cattle  sheds,  and  other  buildings,  around  a  large  yard.  The  farm  is  called 
'  HiUhurst,'  and  some  of  the  cattle  take  their  name  from  it.  It  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Coch- 
rane about  15  years  ago,  and  contains  about  1,100  acres.  Mr.  Cochrane  received  us,  and  we 
inspected  his  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  etc.  The  cattle  need  no  comment  from  me.  They  are  well 
known,  and  show  what  can  be  done  in  this  country.  I  took  a  note  of  some  of  the  animals. 
A  dark  roan  short-horn  cow,  10th  Duchess  of  Airdrie,  is  a  magnificent  creature,  and  was 
purchased  by  Mr.  Cochrane  from  England,  at  a  cost  of  2,300  guineas,  but  has  given  him 
good  returns.  In  the  autumn  of  1877  he  sent  a  consignment  of  32  head  of  cattle  to  England, 
where  they  were  sold  by  Mr.  Thornton  for  £16,325  8s.  Two  realized  respectively  4,100 
guineas  and  4,300  guineas,  the  latter  price  being  paid  by  the  Earl  of  Bective  for  the  5th 
Duchess  of  BQllhurst,  and  the  former  by  Mr.  Loder  for  the  3d  Duchess  of  HiUhurst.  These 
two  cows  were  descended  from  the  celebrated  cow,  10th  Duchess  of  Airdrie.  Her  last  calf, 
a  splendid  creature,  dark  roan,  calved  April  6,  1880 — weight,  500  lbs.;  sire,  3d  Duke  of 
Oneida.  He  has  many  other  fine  animals,  particularly  two  bulls,  one  a  dark  roan,  Duke  of 
Oneida,  nine  years,  and  a  dark  red,  Duke  of  O.'vford,  five  years. 

Mr.  Cochrane  is  about  to  start  breeding  in  the  Northwest  Territories,  and  is  importing  a 
stock  of  Herefords  as  a  foundation  for  his  herd.  I  was  surprised  to  find  this  valuable  herd 
grazing  on  the  pastures,  and  but  little  high  feeding  indulged  in.  The  most  remarkable  feat- 
ure of  the  herd  is  the  good  health  maintained.  The  Swedes  and  mangel  on  the  farm  are 
very  good.  He  said  he  had  just  thi-eshed  some  of  his  wheat,  which  yielded  nearly  30  bushels 
per  acre." 

'*  Long  Yiew  Farm  "  is  the  name  applied  to  the  farm  of  Mr.  T.  S.  Grant  of  Enfield, 
Conn.,  and  shows  what  may  be  accomplished  under  adverse  conditions. 

The  New  England  Homestead  gives  an  interesting  account  of  this  farm,  from  which  we 
give  a  few  extracts:  "Here  is  a  farm  of  120  acres,  nearly  all  of  which  are  under  cultiva- 
tion. In  1872  it  kept  16  cows  and  two  heifei-s;  two  years  later  it  cut  only  40  tons  of  hay, 
and  only  about  40  acres  were  under  cultivation.  Since  then  more  than  half  of  the  farm  has 
been  reclaimed  and  brought  up  so  that  the  hay  crop  this  year,  without  counting  the  rowen 
crop,  will  exceed  140  tons,  and  will  winter  over  100  head  of  neat  stock  and  horses.  This 
enormous  increase  in  the  yield  of  the  farm  has  been  caused  by  the  reclamation  of  worn- 
out  pastures  and  inaccessible  swamps,  and  now  the  whole  farm,  in  a  magnificent  stretch,  has 
been  brought  into  two  adjoining  fields  by  the  removal  of  all  the  division  fences,  and  it  is  the 
aim  of  the  proprietor  to  make  the  whole  farm  produce  just  as  much  grass  as  possible,  this 
being  the  crop  that  he  is  striving  after.  Other  crops,  like  oats,  corn,  and  tobacco,  are  raised, 
but  only  as  a  means  of  stocking  down  to  grass. 

System  of  Management.— As  all  the  pasture  lands  (except  a  few  acres  for  young 
stock)  have  been  improved,  the  question  naturally  arises,  "What  does  Mr.  Grant  do  with  his 
50  and  more  cows  in  the  summer?  They  are  all  kept  in  the  bam  the  year  round,  except  for 
about  six  weeks  or  so,  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  28th  of  September,  during  which 
time  they  are  turned  out  on  fall  feed,  of  which  there  is  an  abundance.  During  the  soiling 
season,  they  are  fed  on  green  feed  and  hay,  commencing  with  rye  in  May,  and  following  this 
with  clover  and  fodder  corn.  This  can  be  made  to  last  as  long  as  desired  by  different  plant- 
ings, but  by  the  time  the  first  planting  is  gone  the  fall  feed  is  ready  to  turn  into,  and  this 
continues  tiU  the  last  of  September.     Sometimes  after  this  there  will  be  green  feed  in  the 


006  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

shape  of  late  fodder  com  or  rowen  clover,  but  usually  the  winter  feed  commences  about  tliis 
time,  and  is  kept  up  according  to  a  regular  system.  The  constant  soiling  of  so  many  cows 
produces  an  abundance  of  stable  manure,  and  this  is  disposed  of  every  spring  and  fall.  In- 
deed, it  is  to  the  soUing  system  that  is  due  in  a  large  measure  the  great  improvement  which 
has  taken  place  on  the  farm.  Six  years  ago  only  about  400  loads  of  manure  were  made. 
Two  years  later  the  soiling  system  was  adopted  entirely,  and  last  year  the  stock  made  1,500 
loads  of  strong  manure.  It  is  perhaps  needless  to  add,  that  with  this  amount  of  stable  manure 
but  little  use  is  made  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

The  system  of  feeding  is  a  most  reasonable  one,  and  one  that  shows  up  well  in  practice. 
The  herd,  nearly  all  thoroughbred  or  high-grade  Jerseys,  occupy  the  whole  of  the  first  floor 
of  the  barn,  in  several  parallel  rows  of  stalls.  Each  cow  has  her  herd  number,  which  is 
marked  on  a  metallic  tag  in  her  right  ear.  Over  each  stall  is  a  corresponding  number, 
together  with  the  animal's  name.  A  record  is  kept  of  each  cow  in  a  book  for  the  purpose, 
which  gives  the  amount  of  milk  for  every  milking  during  the  year,  the  percentage  of  cream, 
the  time  of  service,  and  calving,  together  with  the  herd  number  of  the  progeny  at  each  calv- 
ing. Knowing  from  this  each  cow's  capacity  for  milk,  she  is  fed  accordingly,  with  the  idea 
always  in  view  of  making  each  cow  produce  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  milk.  Mr. 
Grant  believes  in  steaming  certain  kinds  of  fodder,  having  found  that  corn  fodder,  and  oat 
straw,  when  steamed  with  one-quarter  hay,  makes  a  most  excellent  feed,  which  the  cows  will  eat 
up  clean.  Meal  is  fed  in  winter,  but  in  summer  green  feed  takes  its  place.  The  grain  fed  is 
corn  meal  and  wheat  bran,  the  latter  being  scalded  before  feeding.  The  advantage  of  feed- 
ing the  corn  meal  and  bran  together  is  that,  while  the  former  is  necessary  to  give  richness  to 
the  milk,  if  fed  beyond  a  certain  amount  it  goes  to  fat  rather  than  to  milk,  while  if  bran  is 
fed  with  the  meal  the  feed  will  go  to  milk;  and  in  this  way  every  cow  can  be  fed  according 
to  her  capacity  for  producing  milk. 

The  feed  is,  in  winter,  as  follows:  One  man  gives  each  cow  a  feed  of  steamed  fodder, 
another  follows  with  a  feed  of  bran,  giving  to  each  cow  such  an  amount  as  is  required.  A 
feed  of  meal  follows  on  the  same  plan.  This  feeding  is  all  under  the  supervision  of  one  man, 
who  keeps  each  cow's  record,  and  knows  just  what  each  cow  will  bear.  The  stables,  mean- 
while, are  cleared,  and  clean  sand  put  under  the  cows;  the  cows  are  cleaned,  their  udders 
washed  if  necessary,  and  everything  made  ready  for  milking.  And  here  it  is  in  order  to 
remark  that  the  same  scrupulous  care  with  regard  to  cleanliness  is  observed  in  every  opera- 
tion, from  the  milk-pail  to  the  butter  package.  Before  milking,  every  milker  must  go  to  the 
wash-room  adjoining  the  stable  and  wash  and  comb.  While  milking,  each  one  is  provided  with 
a  sponge,  and  if  his  hands  become  soiled  or  wet,  they  must  be  wiped  dry  on  the  sponge.  Cov- 
ered milking-pails  are  used,  in  which  the  mUk  is  strained  as  it  passes  in,  the  strainer  being 
cleaned  several  times  during  a  milking.  Each  cow's  milk  is  measured  separately  by  a  very 
simple  means.  A  largo  tin  pail  is  fitted  with  a  glass  in  one  side,  across  which,  at  regular 
intervals,  short  horizontal  wires  are  soldered,  which  indicate,  in  quarts  and  pints,  the  con- 
tents. As  soon  as  the  milk  of  any  cow  is  measured,  the  amount  is  set  down  opposite  her 
number,  on  a  blackboard  hung  in  the  stable  for  the  purpose,  from  which  the  figures  are  trans- 
ferred daily  to  the  record  book.  From  this  the  milk  is  again  strained  and  carried  to  the 
dairy,  where  it  is  strained  a  third  time  into  the  pail  in  which  it  is  set.  After  milking,  the 
cows  are  fed  with  dry  hay,  and  again  at  night  the  same  process  is  repeated. 

At  the  dairy  the  milk  is  set  in  deep  pails,  eight  inches  in  diameter,  ten  quarts  to  a  pail. 
Adjoining  is  a  'spring-house,'  in  which  a  large  well  about  12  or  15  feet  in  diameter  is  sunk, 
and  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  water  from  living  springs  at  no  great  depth  below  the 
surface.  A  curb  surrounds  the  well,  and  over  this  the  setting  pails  are  hung  in  the  water, 
which  is  always  kept  at  about  50°,  this  being  about  the  natural  temperature  in  summer,  and 
in  winter  the  temperature  is  brought  up  to  this  point  by  steam  pipes  which  run  into  the  well. 


Ill,  l>^ 


LARGE  FARMS  OF  THE  COLNTRY.  609 

The  milk  is  set  thus  for  24  hours,  and  the  cream  taken  off  with  a  deep  skimmer  shaped  like 
an  inverted  cone,  which  can  be  sunk  in  the  milk  without  displacing  the  cream.  About  two 
quarts  of  cream  are  taken  from  each  pail.  The  cream  is  churned  at  the  temperature  of  59° 
in  smnmer  and  62°  in  winter.  The  churn  used  is  of  the  old-fashioned  dasher  pattern,  and  is 
made  of  a  barrel,  the  dasher  being  worked  by  steam.  The  buttermilk  is  drawn  off  as  soon 
as  the  butter  comes,  while  it  is  yet  in  the  granular  form,  and  worked  in  fresh,  cold  water. 
The  salt  is  then  added,  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  of  salt  to  the  pound,  and  by  the  time  the 
salt  is  worked  in  thoroughly  the  butter  is  all  'gathered.'  It  is  then  set  away  to  cool,  after 
which  it  is  worked  in  an  old-fashioned  lever  butter-worker,  weighed,  molded  and  printed  in 
a  common  mold,  with  the  Long  View  Dairy  imprint,  and  after  being  wrapped  in  muslin, 
each  print  is  packed  in  a  neat  box  of  white  pasteboard." 

It  is  surprising  that  so  few  farmers  among  the  many,  adopt  the  improved  methods,  and 
with  a  weU-defined  system,  rigidly  enforced,  endeavor  to  rise  above  the  drudgery  that  char- 
acterizes farm  life  as  generally  practiced.  Capital  is  not  the  only  essential.  A  man  with  a 
small  capital  and  few  acres  of  land  can  practice  as  complete  a  system,  as  far  as  it  goes,  as  one 
with  immense  wealth,  like  the  proprietors  of  some  of  the  farms  previously  described.  Small 
farms,  properly  managed,  can  be  made  very  profitable,  as  we  have  already  seen,  and  with  bet- 
ter planning,  involving  more  brain-work  and  less  physical  labor,  the  average  farmer  can 
make  the  results  of  his  labors  bring  him  by  far  more  profitable  returns  than  have  ever  been 
secured  by  following  the  old  way  of  no  system  in  particular,  and  letting  things  manage 
themselves. 


LARGE  FARMS  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

THE  people  of  the  United  States  naturally  take  a  considerable  interest  in  the  bonanza 
farms  of  the  country,  which  contain  the  great  wheat-fields  of  the  world,  as  it  were, 
whose  thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  of  waving  grain  seem  to  beckon  to  the 
destitute  and  starving  millions  of  the  old  countries  to  come  and  find  plenty;  and  it  is  not  at 
all  surprising  if  a  degree  of  pardonable  pride,  together  with  a  feeling  akin  to  that  of  pro- 
prietary right,  were  entertained  personally,  concerning  them,  for  is  it  not  "  our  "  country,  and 
are  not  all  of  the  products  "our"  harvests,  and  "our"  crops? 

The  following  interview  is  said  to  have  taken  place  between  a  Western  farmer,  who 
owned  a  large  farm  in  Dakota,  and  some  of  his  Eastern  acquaintances,  whom  he  wished  to 
impress  with  the  idea  of  the  immensity  of  the  farms  in  his  section: — 

"  We  own  some  big  farms  up  there,  gentlemen.  A  friend  of  mine  owns  one  which  he 
had  to  give  a  mortgage  on,  and  I  give  you  my  word,  the  mortgage  was  due  on  one  end 
before  they  could  get  it  recorded  on  the  othei'.     You  see,  it  was  laid  off  in  counties." 

There  was  a  murmur  of  astonishment,  and  the  Dakota  man  continued: — 

"  The  worst  of  it  is,  it  breaks  up  families  so.  Two  years  ago  I  saw  a  whole  family 
prostrated  with  grief;  women  crying,  children  wailing,  and  dogs  barking.  One  of  my  men 
had  his  camp-trunk  packed  on  seven  four-mule  teams,  and  he  was  bidding  everybody  good- 
bye." 

"Wliere  was  he  going?"  inquired  a  listener. 

"  He*  was  going  half-way  across  the  farm  to  feed  the  pigs,"  replied  the  Dakota  man. 

"  Did  he  ever  get  back  to  his  family?  " 

"  It  isn't  time  yet,"  replied  the  Dakota  gentleman.  "  Up  there  we  send  young  married 
couples  to  milk  the  cows,  and  their  children  bring  home  the  milk.  We  don't  count  by  acres; 
we  count  by  townships  and  counties.  My  yield  was  $68,000,000  on  wheat  alone,  and  I  am 
thinking  of  breaking  up  a  little  patch  of  eighty  to  one  hundred  more  counties  this  season." 


610  THE  AMERICAN   FARMER. 

A  Texas  man,  happening  to  be  in  the  group,  and  not  wishing  to  be  outdone  in  statement, 
replied:  "That's  purty  good  as  to  siae,  but  'way  down  South,  where  I  come  from,  we  can't 
raise  pumpkins  at  all." 

"  Why  not?  "  was  asked. 

"Because  the  vines  grow  so  fast  that  the  pumpkins  wear  out  dragging  along  the 
ground!  "  was  the  reply. 

The  description  of  some  of  the  famous  large  farms  of  the  country  might  seem  to  those 
who  were  not  acquainted  with  the  real  facts,  as  being  almost  equal  in  extravagance  of  state- 
ment to  the  above;  and,  indeed,  when  we  consider  the  almost  unhmited  resources  of  the 
country  for  production,  and  the  possibilities  of  those  yet  imdeveloped,  we  are  lost  in  the 
computation  of  the  immensity  of  the  prospect. 

The  Dalrymple  Farm.  —  This  ngted  farm  —  the  largest  in  the  world  —  consists  of 
from  seventy  thousand  to  a  hundred  thousand  acres,  all  of  which  are  under  the  supervision 
of  Mr.  Oliver  Dalrymple,  the  celebrated  wheat-grower  of  the  Red  River  Valley.  It  now 
embraces  the  Case,  Cheney,  Alton,  and  Grandin  farms  —  the  latter  alone  containing  40,000 
acres,  and  is  located  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Red  River,  about  25  miles  north-west  of  Fargo, 
Dakota.  This  immense  farm  is  managed  on  strictly  business  principles  —  as,  indeed,  all 
successful  farming  must  be,  whether  on  a  large  or  small  scale  —  and  is  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  Mr.  Dalrymple,  who,  from  his  oflBce,  can  communicate  by  telephone  at  any  moment 
with  each  of  his  agents  in  charge  of  the  different  sections.  It  is  said  to  contain  nearly  40,000 
acres  under  cultivation,  more  than  two-thirds  of  which  are  in  wheat,  the  remainder  being  in 
oats  and  barley,  while  new  land  is  being  constantly  broken  to  increase  the  acreage  under  cul- 
tivation. 

The  reapers  employed  are  the  self -binding  harvesters,  of  which  there  are  125  used  in 
the  harvesting  of  the  entire  crop,  each  requiring  three  horses  or  mules,  and  reaping  twelve 
acres  or  more  per  day.  The  grain  is  threshed  in  the  field,  the  threshers  being  operated  by 
steam,  and,  Hke  all  the  other  kinds  of  work,  is  done  with  the  utmost  system.  The  estimated 
yield  is  about  1 8  bushels  per  acre  of  wheat  and  90  of  oats,  the  wheat  crop  alone  averaging 
about  432,000  bushels,  which  is  about  900  car-loads,  or  45  train-loads  of  20  cars  per  train. 
This  immense  crop  is  generally  expected  to  net  60  cents  or  more  per  bushel  at  the  farm. 

Mr.  James  Biggar  of  England,  one  of  the  delegates  sent  to  Canada  recently  to  report  on 
that  countiy  as  a  field  for  the  settlement  of  agriculturists,  paid  a  visit  to  a  department  of  this 
farm,  of  which  he  writes  as  follows:  — 

"  Next  day  we  drove  over  the  Dalrymple  farm.  On  this  division  they  had  about  12,000 
acres  in  crop  last  year,  yielding  on  an  average  about  19  bushels  per  acre.  We  first  saw  on 
the  horizon  a  dark  Une  which,  as  we  approached,  proved  to  be  a  gang  of  thirteen  double 
plows,  each  drawn  by  four  horses,  and  turning  2  furrows,  1 5  inches  each  in  width,  and  3  to  4 
inches  deep,  going  after  each  other  on  a  furrow  a  mile  long.  On  another  section,  seven 
double  and  six  single  plows  were  at  work,  and  on  another  eleven  double  plows  drawn  by  four 
mules  each.  The  horses  were  similar  to  second-class  'bus  horses  and  showed  signs  of  work ; 
but  the  mules  were  in  fine  condition,  and  seemed  to  stand  the  work  much  better  than  horses. 
The  sight  was  one  not  easy  to  be  forgotten.  In  surveying  the  vast,  unbroken  prairie  there 
was  a  sense  of  lonehness  and  a  doubt  of  its  value  as  an  agricultural  subject,  but  the  rich, 
black  soil  being  turned  up,  the  strong,  clean  stubble  of  the  former  crop,  and  the  fact  of  its 
suitability  for  cropping  being  thus  practically  demonstrated,  dispelled  the  idea  of  wildness, 
and  brought  back  a  feehng  of  admiration  for  the  enterprise  and  system  of  that  style  of 
farming. 

There  are  four  or  five  steadings  on  the  farm,  with  excellent  accommodation  for  men  and 
horses.  The  implements  were  also  put  past  in  capital  order.  In  one  shed  we  saw  fourteen 
self-binders  and  four  or  five  steam  threshers.     In  another,  nineteen  seed-drills  and  a  pile  of 


LARGE  FARMS  OF  THE  COUNTRY.  611 

harrows;  in  others,  spare  parts  for  reapers,  plows,  etc.;  and  a  row  of  wagons  outside.  Each 
of  these  double  plows  travels  from  18  to  20  miles  a  day,  and  turns  over  about  5  acres  daily. 
The  crop  is  cut  down  by  self -binding  reapers,  cutting  down  1 2  acres  a  day,  and  attended  by 
a  driver  and  two  stokers.  It  is  threshed  out  in  the  field,  the  straw  burned,  and  the  wheat 
taken  straight  to  the  cars  on  a  special  siding.  Each  machine  threshes  about  1000  bushels 
daily.  Wages  for  ploughmen  are  $18  to  §20  a  month  and  board.  "We  were  told  that 
analyses  of  the  sub- soil  showed  that  it  contained  all  the  elements  necessary  for  growing 
wheat,  should  the  surface  soil  become  exhausted,  but  the  latter  is  expected  to  last  many  years. 
In  returning  to  the  station  we  saw  the  train  approach  quite  half  an  hour  before  it  reached  us, 
as  the  track  is  perfectly  straight  for  50  miles  west.  On  our  way  back  to  Glyndon  we  saw 
extensive  prairie  fires  raging  to  the  northwards,  but  they  were  fortunately  extinguished  by 
heavy  rains  during  the  night.  We  met  the  rest  of  the  party  at  the  station  next  morning, 
and  proceeded  by  rail  to  Winnipeg,  which  we  reached  in  18  hours." 

Another  section  of  the  Dalr3nuple  farm,  known  as  the  Grandin  Farm,  is  thus  described 
by  another  writer:  — 

"The  lands  were  purchased  from  the  railroad  company  in  1875  and  1876,  the  first- 
mentioned  tract  to  be  devoted  to  wheat-raising,  and  the  second  to  stock.  With  the  exception 
of  the  small  belt  of  timber-lands  along  the  Red  and  Goose  rivers,  both  tracts  are  beautiful 
expanses  of  the  richest  lands  in  this  noted  valley,  the  surface  a  gently  undulating  prairie, 
soil  a  rich  alluvial  deposit,  with  clay  sub-soil  of  unlimited  capacity  for  production  of  grass 
and  grain.  The  first  breaking  on  the  wheat  farm  was  in  1876,  2600  acres,  and  the  season  of 
1878  was  the  second  year  of  its  operation.  The  writer  was  on  the  place,  and  from  its  efficient 
agent,  J.  R.  Hogan,  got  the  following  facts. 

There  was  under  cultivation  in  1878  as  follows:  In  wheat,  4,000  acres;  yield,  80,000 
bushels  (not  having  been  all  shipped  at  the  time,  part  of  the  yield  was  estimated  by  measure- 
ment in  the  bins,  but  the  quality  of  the  grain  being  extra  No.  1,  it  will  overrun  this  amount 
by  weight).  Oats,  330  acres,  14,025  bushels;  average,  42|  per  acre.  Barley,  79  acres, 
5,701  bushels;  average,  72^  per  acre.  Turnips,  3,000  bushels  from  53  acres.  Potatoes, 
13|  acres,  2,000  bushels;  average,  149^-  per  acre.  There  were  8^  acres  of  beans  not  then 
threshed.  Hay  to  the  amount  of  2,000  tons  had  been  cut  and  stacked.  New  breaking,  1,750 
acres,  making  for  cultivation  in  1879  some  6,265  acres.  Of  implements  to  carry  on  the  oper- 
ations, we  counted  79  plows,  55  harrows,  24  seeders,  28  self -binding  harvesters,  6  steam 
threshers,  40  wagons,  with  full  supply  of  all  other  necessary  articles.  During  harvest  and 
threshing  time  the  roll  exhibited  235  men,  with  some  25  hired  teams  in  addition  to  the  109 
head  of  horses  and  mules  owned  on  the  farm.  The  farm  is  divided  into  three  parts,  and  the 
buildings  for  each  subdivision,  so  far  as  erected,  are  as  follows: 

Division  Xo.  1.  —  Headquarters;  has  a  dwelling  32  by  32  feet,  one  and  one-half  stories; 
oflBce  and  store-house,  25  by  50  feet,  one  story;  granary  No.  1,  56  by  60  feet;  two  and  one- 
half  stories;  blacksmith  shop,  16  by  26  feet;  pig-pen,  14  by  60  feet;  lodging-house,  16  by  32 
feet,  two  stories;  stable,  50  by  60  feet,  20  feet  posts,  with  one-story  wing,  28  by  60  feet; 
steam  feed-mill,  16  by  40  feet,  two  stories,  with  wing  18  by  26  feet;  wheat  elevator,  18  by 
40  feet,  two  stories,  with  fine  shed  for  storing  engines  and  threshers,  some  75  feet  long. 

Division  No.  2. — Dwelling,  32  by  32  feet,  one  and  one-half  stories;  stable,  56  by  60 
feet,  two  stories;  granary  No.  2,  56  by  60  feet,  two  and  one-half  stories;  wheat  elevator,  20 
by  40  feet,  two  stories. 

Division  No.  3. — Dwelling,  32  by  32  feet,  one  and  one-half  stories;  stable,  30  by  60 
feet,  two  stories;  total  stabling  capacity  now,  190  horses;  granary  capacity,  65,000  bushels. 

These  buildings  are  of  the  most  substantial  character,  plain  but  symmetrical,  and  of 
pleasing  style  of  architecture,  built  with  reference  to  all  the  conveniences  necessary  to  make 
them  of  the  greatest  possible  benefit  in  their  various  uses.     All  the  buildings  are  supplied 


612  THE  AJSIERICAN  FARMER 

with  water-pipes,  all  fumisLed  from  three  windmills  at  the  river,  pumping  into  250  and 
1200-barrel  tanks,  through  one  and  one-half  miles  of  pipe.  Among  other  modem,  and,  on 
such  an  immense  farm,  necessary  conveniences,  we  find  four  miles  of  telegraph  (telephone) 
wire,  leading  from  the  headquarters  office  to  the  oflBces  of  the  different  superintendents  on 
the  three  sub-divisions. 

The  railroad  station,  Fargo,  from  which  the  products  of  the  farm  are  shipped,  being  on 
the  Red  River,  this  river  is  used  as  the  channel  of  commimication,  and,  with  a  \new  to  cheap 
carriage  for  the  present,  as  well  as  future  products,  the  proprietors  have  built,  and  now  run 
their  own  steamboat,  with  four  barges,  and  at  Fargo  have  their  own  elevator,  with  50,000 
bushels  capacity,  upon  a  plan  that  can  be  enlarged  to  any  needed  wants,  besides  their  own 
freight  warehouse.  By  the  aid  of  the  facihties  thus  made  use  of,  wheat  from  the  farm  is 
landed  in  the  Duluth  elevators  at  eighteen  cents  per  bushel.  The  steamboat  proved  a  good 
investment,  independent  of  the  benefits  arising  from  the  cheapness  of  transportation  of  the 
farm  crop,  for  when  not  engaged  in  their  own  work,  it  was  employed  to  a  profit  in  regular 
river  trade  between  Fargo  and  Winnipeg,  Manitoba. 

The  first  crop,  in  1S77,  from  2,600  acres  of  wheat,  was  62,660  bushels;  in  1878,  as 
before  stated,  from  4,000  acres,  was  80,000  bushels,  the  first  an  average  of  24^  bushels  per 
acre,  the  second  20  bushels  per  acre.  Prices  realized,  net,  1877,  95  cents;  from  1878  crop  not 
less  than  85  cents.  Shipment  is  made  direct  to  the  Buffalo  or  New  York  markets,  saving 
all  the  cost  of  middle-men  in  handling,  which  in  these  quantities  is  in  itself  a  good  profit. 

The  superintendent  adds — 'From  the  above  you  can  draw  ycur  own  conclusions;  we  are 
well  satisfied  with  lesults  so  far,  and  will  push  enlargement  as  rapidly  as  we  can.  VTe  neither 
know  nor  care  what  other  people  expect  to  realize  from  wheat-farming;  at  the  figures  given 
you,  the  percentage  of  gain  is  so  far  better  than  any  income  we  can  expect  from  Eastern 
investment,  that  we  will  not  be  discouraged  even  if  we  occasionally  meet  with  loss  of  an  entire 
crop;  the  margins  on  ordinary  average,  to  say  nothing  of  good  years,  is  large  enough  to 
carry  a  good  many  losses.'  " 

The  net  profits,  as  estimated  by  the  superintendent  of  this  section  was,  according  to  the 
above  authority,  $2.50  per  acre,  and  the  cost  of  producing  the  crop  about  $8.50  per  acre. 

Good  business  management  must,  of  course,  be  one  of  the  principal  factors  in  the  suc- 
cess of  such  extensive  farming,  while  it  is  equally  dependent  upon  the  soil  and  climate  being 
peculiarly  adapted  to  wheat  culture.  Our  space  will  not  admit  of  an  equally  extended 
description  of  the  Case,  Cheney,  and  Alton  farms,  which,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  form 
different  portions  of  the  famous  Dalrymple  farm;  but  sufiBcient  data  has  already  been  given 
to  illustrate  the  perfect  system  and  magnitude  of  the  enterprise. 

Quinn  Farm,  Glenn  Farm,  etc. — Dr.  Quinn,  of  California,  is  reputed  to  own  fifty- 
five  thousand  acres  of  rich  grain  land,  forty-five  thousand  of  which  are  in  cultivation.  A 
leading  California  paper  states  that  the  proprietor,  who  is  one  of  California's  mUhonaires, 
keeps  twenty  ships  busy  transporting  his  wheat  to  England,  and  that  one  continuous  furrow 
on  this  farm  is  seventeen  miles  in  length. 

A  San  Francisco  correspondent  of  a  leading  Philadelphia  journal  writes  as  follows 
respecting  the  Glenn  farm,  etc. : — ''  The  largest  wheat-producer  in  California  is  Dr.  H.  J. 
Glenn.  He  was  formerly  from  Monroe  County,  Missouri.  He  is  a  man  of  great  enterprise 
and  energy.  His  ranch  lies  in  Colusa  County,  and  comprises  60,000  acres,  nearly  all  arable 
land.  He  has  this  year  45,000  acres  in  wheat,  which,  at  a  low  calculation,  will  produce 
900,000  bushels.     His  wheat  will  sell  for  85  cents  per  bushel  or  $765,000. 

Another  farm  in  California,  owned  by  ^Ir.  F.  A.  SchaefEer,  of  Hamilton,  Butt  County,  is 
described  as  containing  several  ranches,  one  ranch  numbering  2,223  acres  of  choice  land,  240 
acres  of  which  are  devoted  to  barley,  and  1,700  acres  to  wheat.  The  average  height  of  the 
barley  in  one  season  is  given  as  four  feet  and  three  inches,  the  heads  being  remarkably  heavy, 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  613 

and  the  kernels  larger  than  usual;  the  estimate  of  yield  being  sixty  bushels  per  acre.  The 
average  estimate  yield  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  was  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre,  while  600 
acres  of  it  produced,  on  the  average,  thirty-five  bushels  per  acre. 

Three  other  ranches  are  also  owned  by  this  gentleman,  one  located  three  miles  from  the 
former,  and  containing  455  acres,  200  of  which  were  in  wheat,  and  another  of  1,250  acres, 
on  Butte  creek,  550  acres  of  which  were  in  wheat,  and  700  acres  in  grass,  which  would  aver- 
age two  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  The  third,  known  as  the  Feather  River  Ranch,  contains  a  tract 
of  700  acres  of  wheat.     The  same  authority  continues: — 

"  Mr.  SchaefEer  is  one  of  our  pioneer  ranchers,  having  settled  upon  his  home-place  in 
1855.  At  that  time  he  was  poor,  but  by  dint  of  great  perseverance  he  has  accumulated  a 
competency,  and  to-day  possesses  one  of  the  best  farms  in  Northern  California.  Farming 
upon  the  scale  that  he  does  necessarily  requires  the  use  of  numerous  horses,  to  accommodate 
which  he  has  upon  the  several  places  eight  large  barns,  as  follows:  At  the  home,  three  barns, 
withacap  a  city  for  100  head;  Butte  Creek,  two,  with  stalls  for  40  head;  Feather  River,  three, 
capable  of  accommodating  60  head.  At  this  season  of  the  year  he  has  only  20  men  employed; 
during  plowing-time  he  works  from  35  to  40  men,  and  when  harvesting  begins  from  50  to  65 
hands  are  numbered  in  the  force.  Parks  Bros.,  of  Marysville,  are  interested  with  Mr. 
Schaeffer  in  Feather  River  Ranch,  but  aside  from  that  he  is  alone.  His  system  of  farming  is 
to  plow  deep,  sow  plenteously,  drain  low  lands,  keep  everything  moving,  have  machinery  in 
good  order,  take  good  care  of  stock,  and  prevent  the  little  leaks  so  common  among  the  Cali- 
fornia ranchers. " 

Some  of  the  other  large  farms  that  might  be  mentioned,  and  which  serve  as  samples  of 
their  kind,  are  the  following: 

G.  R.  Scofield  &  Bro.,  Cass  Co., 

J.  B.  Raymond,  " 

W.  H.  TTright, 

J.  B.  Cliapin,  Cass,  Traill,  and  Barnes, 

Clapp  &  McCraw,  Cass  and  Traill,     . 

J.  W.  Slorrow,  Cass  Co., 

A.  C.  Batchelor,       " 

Col.  Huntington,      " 

George  C.  Howe,     " 

A.  Leech  &  Sons,     " 

When  we  consider  the  gigantic  scale  on  which  farming  may  be  carried  on  in  the  United 
States,  and  that  this  is  due  mainly  to  the  use  of  improved  agricultural  implements,  we  are 
enabled  to  realize  more  fully  the  great  advancement  made  in  agriculture  during  the  past  half 
century,  and  the  possibilities  of  this  country  in  this  aU-important  industry  for  the  future. 


Acres  in  Farm. 

Acres  in  Wheat 

3,840 

1,280 

6,000 

2,400 

3,500 

2,300 

9,600 

1,300 

2,500 

1,100 

5,500 

1,635 

2,569 

1,350 

2,500 

1,250 

2,600 

2,.500 

3,800 

3,500 

FARM  BUILDINGS. 

As  the  degree  of  civilization  attained  by  a  people  can  be  very  accurately  determined  by 
the  manner  in  which  they  tiU  the  soil,  and  the  implements  used  for  that  purpose,  so 
in  like  manner  can  the  standard  of  civilization  be  measured  by  the  kind  of  houses 
they  construct  for  themselves  and  their  domestic  animals.  The  lowest  types  of  the  human 
family  live  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground,  burrowing  like  some  kinds  of  animals,  whOe  savages 
of  a  little  higher  order  than  these  construct  rude  huts,  that  are  a  slight  improvement  upon 
the  former  habitations.  As  intelligence  and  civilization  increases,  the  style  of  architecture 
improves  in  a  proportionate  degree,  imtil  the  habitations  of  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  the 
earth  are  characterized  by  thrift,  refinement,  and  taste;  wealth,  intelligence,  and  culture 
being  as  unmistakably  evidenced  by  the  style  of  architecture  of  such  a  nation,  as  by  the  cus- 
toms and  manners  of  the  inhabitants  themselves. 


614 


THE  A3HERICAN  FARMER. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  615 

What  is  true  of  nations,  is  equally  true  of  individuals,  and  the  condition  of  the  farm  and 
farm  buildings  will,  as  a  general  rule,  be  an  index  of  the  thrift,  enterprise,  and  refinement  of 
the  owner.  Although  there  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  the  construction  of  farm 
buildings  of  all  kinds  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  not  only  in  the  number  adapted 
to  the  various  purposes  of  farm  use,  but  in  tl'ie  convenience  and  style  of  their  construction, 
still,  there  is  in  many  sections  a  great  deficiency  in  these  respects,  which  occasions  much  incon- 
venience and  loss. 

Buildings  Necessary  on  the  Farm,  etc. — The  number  of  buildings  requii-ed  on 
the  farm  will  depend  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances,  such  as  the  size  of  the  farm,  the  pur- 
poses to  which  it  is  best  adapted,  the  special  departments  of  business  to  be  conducted,  the 
productiveness  of  the  land,  etc.  A  large  farm  will  require  more  and  larger  buildings  than  a 
small  one.  Inasmuch  as  the  family  should  have  the  first  consideration  above  that  of  the 
domestic  animals,  of  course  the  house  should  receive  the  first  attention,  and  be  considered  the 
most  important  of  all  the  farm  buildings.  It  should  have  the  most  care  and  money  spent 
upon  it  in  rendering  it  healthful,  pleasant,  and  attractive,  while  the  barn  should  be  secondary 
in  this  respect,  although  we  know  of  some  farmers  who  seem  to  regard  their  horses  as  first  in 
importance,  and  wife  and  children  as  secondary,  and  who  will  be  at  great  expense  of  money, 
time,  and  labor  for  the  welfare  of  their  stock,  providing  fine,  comfortable  bams,  in  which 
they  seem  to  take  much  pride,  while  they  are  at  the  same  time  careless  and  indiSerent  with 
respects  to  the  wants  of  the  family,  and  provide  for  them  a  home  comparatively  much  inferior 
in  convenience,  comfort,  and  general  architectural  construction  to  the  barn.  We  are  glad  to 
know  that  this  class  of  farmers  is  in  a  small  minority,  and  yet  such  are  by  far  too  numerous, 
and  wherever  found  will  always  be  characterized  by  a  lack  of  the  essentials  of  true  manline.ss 
and  intelligence  that  are  characteristic  of  farmers  generally. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  it  is  necessary  to  provide  shelter  for  the  stock  during  a 
portion  of  the  year,  hence  a  barn  is  essential  for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  for  the  storage  of 
their  food.  Where  large  numbers  and  a  variety  of  animals  are  kept,  a  stock-barn  will  be 
necessary  for  this  purpose,  aside  from  that  for  the  crops  constituting  their  food.  In  those 
parts  of  the  country  where  cereals  are  cultivated  to  any  extent,  a  granary  will  be  essential 
for  the  safe  storage  of  such  crops.  A  hog-house  will  be  indispensable  on  a  farm  where  swine 
are  kept,  while  the  poultry-house,  wagon-house,  wood-house,  or  place  of  storage  for  fuel  of 
any  kind,  store-iiouse,  tool-house,  and  repair-shop  will  be  found  equally  necessary.  Some- 
times one  building  may  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  two  or  three  combined,  on  small 
farms,  such  as  the  wagon-house,  tool-house,  wood-house,  etc.,  being  different  departments  of 
the  same  building. 

Aside  from  those  already  mentioned,  the  ice-house  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  on 
every  farm,  and  the  source  of  supplying  a  luxury  which,  when  once  enjoyed  for  a  season,  wiU 
be  regarded  as  a  necessity.  The  expense  and  labor  attending  it  is  slight,  compared  with  the 
benefits  that  may  be  received.  On  a  dairy  farm  an  ice-house  is  very  necessary,  as  is  also  a 
milk-house,  in  those  sections  where  there  are  no  creameries  or  cheese-factories  in  the  vicinity. 
These  will  not  only  prove  a  great  convenience,  but  will  contribute  largely  to  the  profits  of 
such  farms  by  improving  the  quality  of  the  dairy  products.  Where  tobacco  or  other  special 
crops  are  exclusively  cultivated,  buildings  adapted  to  the  purpose  will  also  be  required. 

If  to  the  above,  the  farmer  is  so  circumstanced  that  he  can  add  a  small  conservatory,  not 
as  a  necessity,  hut  as  a  luxury,  and  a  means  of  increasing  the  educating  and  refining  influ- 
ences of  the  home,  as  well  as  adding  to  its  attractions,  the  money  and  labor  thus  expended 
would  be  found,  wherever  such  a  course  is  practicable,  to  be  a  profitable  investment. 

In  the  construction  of  all  farm  buildings,  convenience  and  good  taste  should  have  due 
consideration.  It  costs  but  httle  more,  at  first,  to  construct  a  building  that  is  convenient  and 
tasty,  than  one  that  is  lacking  in  these  respects,  while  convenient  buildings  will  prove  the 
38 


616  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

cheapest  in  the  end,  by  the  vast  amount  of  labor  saved,  that  is  always  involved  where  build- 
ings are  wanting  in  this  essential.  Of  course,  good  judgment  and  taste  are  necessary  in 
securing  such  results,  and  while  the  one  who  plans  the  structure  may  possess  the  former,  he  may 
not  the  latter,  for  it  is  not  every  one  who  is  endowed  with  sufficient  taste  to  plan  the  artistic 
arrangement  of  a  building,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  attempts  in  this  kind  of  art,  exemplified  by 
many  of  the  buildings  commonly  seen  upon  the  farm.  In  the  construction  of  farm  buildings, 
health,  comfort,  and  convenience  should  have  the  first  consideration,  being  of  primary 
importance,  while  beauty  of  design  and  ornamentation,  though  of  secondary  importance, 
should  not  be  entirely  overlooked. 

Repairing  and  Painting  Buildings,  etc.  —  In  the  architectural  study  of  farm 
buildings,  a  recent  writer  has  divided  them  into  two  classes,  viz.  :  —  "  Those  already  built,  and 
those  which  are  to  be  built " ;  in  other  words,  the  old,  and  the  prospective  new.  As  the 
former  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  we  will  consider  them  first. 

The  importance  of  keeping  farm  buildings  in  good  repair  should  not  be  overlooked  by 
any  farmer  who  has  regard  not  only  to  the  general  thrifty  and  orderly  appearance  of  his 
surroimdings,  but  to  economy  as  well.  On  every  well-regulated  farm,  Sequent  repairs  in 
buildings  become  a  necessity  in  securing  their  preservation,  and  unless  these  necessary  repairs 
are  made  in  season,  and  thoroughly  performed,  the  expense  of  repairing  will  be  largely 
increased,  and  permanent  injury  to  the  buildings  often  be  the  result.  If  a  leak  in  the  roof 
of  a  building,  or  elsewhere,  is  promptly  stopped,  no  injury  is  occasioned  by  it;  but  if  neg- 
lected month  after  month  the  frame-work  of  the  building  will  be  liable  to  decay,  and  become 
after  a  little  time  so  seriously  injured  as  to  be  worthless.  When  buildings  need  painting, 
the  sooner  the  new  coat  of  paint  is  applied,  the  better.  If  too  long  neglected,  the  surface 
becomes  rough  by  exposure  to  the  weather,  which  will  render  the  painting  more  difficult  to 
perform,  and  also  require  much  more  paint  to  cover  the  surface  well;  hence,  promptness  in 
such  cases  is  an  economy  in  both  the  expense  of  labor  and  material. 

Besides  the  economy  of  keeping  buildings  in  good  repair,  their  neat  and  orderly  appear 
ance  is  no  small  argument  in  favor  of  such  management.  Good  work,  promptly  performed, 
IS  m  all  respects  the  cheapest.  In  painting  buildings,  two  objects  are  secured,  viz. :  orna^ 
mentation  and  durability.  Paint  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  buildings,  and  also  tends  to  pre 
serve  the  wood  to  which  it  is  applied.  Buildings  that  are  kept  well  painted  have  a  neat 
attractive  appearance,  are  an  indication  of  the  culture,  refinement,  and  prosperity  of  the 
owner,  and  render  home  more  pleasant  to  the  family  circle.  Unpainted  buildings  have  a 
dingy,  neglected  appearance,  and  will  require  a  new  covering  of  wood-work  much  sooner  than 
those  that  are  kept  well  painted. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  whether  it  will  pay  for  the  farmer  of  small  means,  and  many 
expenses,  to  incur  the  additional  expense  of  keeping  his  buildings  well  painted,  we  would 
say,  that  it  depends  upon  various  circumstances;  if  mere  money  value  in  benefits  resulting 
from  having  weU-painted  buildings  is  considered,  it  will  depend  upon  whether  it  will  cost 
more  to  procure  the  paint  necessary  to  preserve  the  wood-work  than  to  newly  cover  the 
buildings  when  they  need  it. 

In  some  sections,  where  lumber  is  cheap,  the  paint  would  be  the  most  expensive;  in 
others,  where  timber  is  scarce,  the  cost  of  timber  and  labor  of  re-covering  would  prove  the 
most  expensive.  But  the  money  value  of  things  is  not  the  only  consideration  to  be  involved. 
The  attractions  that  may  be  added  to  the  home  by  the  outlay  of  keeping  the  farm  buildings 
well  painted,  and  in  good  repair,  and  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction  afforded  the  family,  besides 
the  refining  and  educating  influence  of  pleasant  surroundings,  are  considerations  which  it 
would  be  difficult  to  weigh  by  a  money  standard. 

If  farmers  would  take  more  pains  to  make  their  homes  attractive  and  pleasant,  and  farm- 
hfe  something  better  than  the  hard  drudgery  that  it  too  commonly  is,  there  would  be  more 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  61T 

respect  and  love  entertained  for  farming,  as  an  occupation,  by  farmers'  children,  and  less  com- 
plaint by  farmers  generally  of  being  left  to  till  the  farm  alone,  in  their  old  age.  If  farmers 
wish  their  sons  to  be  attached  to  the  farm-home,  and  farm-life,  they  must  make  that  farm-home 
and  farm-Hf e  sufficiently  attractive  to  induce  some  of  their  boys  to  stay ;  and  how  can  they  make 
a  better  beginning  than  to  commence  right  at  home  and  first  make  the  farm  buildings  neat 
and  attractive?  We  are  sorry  for  the  farmer's  son  or  daughter  who  feels  ashamed  to  say  to 
a  stranger  friend,  "This  is  my  home";  whUe  it  is  refreshing  to  see  a  kind  of  pardonable 
pride  manifested  by  children  for  their  home.  Home  should  be  the  dearest  and  most  attrac- 
tive spot  on  earth  to  husband,  wife,  and  children,  —  attractive  to  both  heart  and  eye,  and  in 
order  to  make  it  such,  there  is  more  responsibility  involved  individually  in  connection  with 
each  member  of  the  household,  than  mere  sentimentaHsm  might  include. 

The  home  should  be  made  attractive, — beautified.  Money  thus  spent  is  capital  well 
invested,  and  wiU  bring  larger  returns  to  the  farmer  and  his  descendants,  in  real  happiness, 
comfort,  and  elevating  influences  generally,  than  almost  any  other  investment  that  could  be 
made;  and  to  those  farmers  who  can  make  such  a  course  practicable,  we  would  say,  spare  no 
pains  or  reasonable  expense  in  making  your  homes  as  attractive  as  possible. 

Tlie  expense  of  painting  may  be  greatly  reduced  by  the  farmer  being  able  to  perform 
the  labor  of  applying  the  paint  himself,  instead  of  paying  a  professional  painter  to  do  the 
work  for  him.  This  was  formerly  in  a  great  measure  impracticable,  on  account  of  the  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  proper  method  of  mixing  paint;  but  the  difficulty  is  now  obviated  by  the 
use  of  what  are  called  "mixed  paints,"  which  have  for  several  years  been  in  general  use. 
These  may  be  found  in  the  market  mixed  in  the  proper  proportions,  ready  for  use. 

Like  white  lead,  and  nearly  everything  else  that  is  marketable,  and  capable  of  being 
adulterated,  unadulterated  paints  maybe  difficult  to  find;  still,  there  are  some  brands  that  are 
such,  and  are  also  cheap  and  durable,  and  when  they  can  be  procured,  it  will  be  quite  a 
saving  of  expense  for  the  farmer  of  limited  means  to  purchase  them,  and  do  the  painting 
himself. 

Procuring  a  well-known  brand  that  has  previously  given  perfect  satisfaction  will  always 
be  the  safer  way.  In  order  to  do  the  work  of  painting  well  and  rapidly,  a  certain  amount  of 
practice  will  be  essential. 

The  surface  to  be  painted  should  be  clean;  hence,  when  it  has  become  soiled,  like  some 
portions  of  the  interior  wood-work  of  the  house,  for  instance,  it  should  first  be  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried.  If  the  surface  is  rough,  it  should  be  smoothed  before  applying  the  paint. 
Sandpaper  is  frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  For  the  outside  of  buildings,  which  do  not 
ordinarily  require  such  nice  work  as  the  inside,  less  preparation  of  this  kind  will  be  neces- 
sary. The  nail-holes  and  large  cracks  should,  however,  all  be  filled  before  applying  the 
paint,  and  the  dust  brushed  off.  Where  the  outside  of  the  building  has  become  weather- 
worn from  long  neglect,  it  will  be  well  to  apply  one  or  two  coats  of  cheap  oil  before  painting; 
since,  if  the  paint  were  put  on  without  this  previous  preparation,  the  oil  of  the  paint  would 
be  Uable  to  penetrate  the  wood,  causing  it  and  the  lead  to  separate,  and  the  latter  to  fall  oS 
in  scales.  The  best  time  for  painting  is  in  the  spring  or  fall,  when  the  weather  is  dry  and 
sunny,  and  neither  very  warm  nor  very  cold. 

The  implements  for  painting  are  a  good  brush,  a  tin  pail  to  hold  the  paint,  and  a  good 
strong  ladder  to  which  the  pail  is  attached  by  a  hook.  We  might  also  add  that  a  small 
brush-broom  for  bnishing  off  dust,  etc.,  will  be  very  convenient  where  the  surface  requires 
it.  In  painting,  the  brush  should  be  made  to  work  in  the  direction  in  which  the  grain  of  the 
wood  runs,  covering  the  entire  surface  well,  and  working  the  paint  into  the  small  cracks. 
Special  pains  should  also  be  taken  to  brush  over  the  laps  in  the  wood- work  smoothly;  care- 
lessness  in  this  respect  failing  to  give  the  work  a  uniform  and  neat  appearance.  Care  should 
be  used  not  to  put  on  too  much  paint  at  a  time,  but  just  sufficient  to  cover  the  surface  well. 


618  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Two  coats  of  properly -prepared  paint  will  generally  be  sufficient  where  the  work  is  well  done; 
but  on  buildings  long  neglected,  sometimes  a  third  coat  will  be  necessary. 

The  choice  of  color  in  respect  to  farm  buildings  has  much  to  do  with  their  general 
appearance.  This  is  a  matter  of  taste,  since  one  color  of  paint  would  prove  as  good  a  pro- 
tection to  the  wood  as  another,  where  durability  is  the  principal  object  sought  in  painting. 
Formerly,  white  was  the  prevailing  color  for  farm-houses,  and  a  country  %allage,  except 
houses  entirely  "innocent  "  of  paint,  presented  an  unpleasant  glare  of  light  in  a  bright,  sunny 
day.  This  practice  also  gave  a  similarity  to  the  buildings  that  is  not  in  conformity  with 
good  taste.  At  present  there  is  a  desirable  change  in  this  respect,  and  we  now  frequently 
see  the  variety  of  colors  that  are  more  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  less  offensive  to  the  taste. 

In  the  choice  of  colore  and  shades  suited  to  the  purpose,  there  is  much  latitude,  and  the 
opportunity  for  the  display  of  a  cultivated  taste  and  skill  in  producing  a  harmony  of  colors, 
together  with  an  agreeable  and  striking  contrast.  The  most  pleasing  effect  is  generally  pro- 
duced by  painting  the  body  of  the  house  one  color,  and  the  cornices,  comer-boards,  casings, 
and  ornamental  work  another,  considerably  darker.  The  farm-house  and  ether  fcidldings  may  be 
painted  the  same  as  the  house,  or  other  colore  may  be  chosen  for  the  other  farm  biiildings. 
We  prefer  the  former  style  ;  but  it  is  merely  a  matter  of  taste.  Where  different  colors  are 
chosen  for  the  out  buildings,  they  should  always  be  such  as  will  harmonize  wi:h  that  of  the  house. 

The  Fai'ill-House. — The  location  of  the  farm-house  should  never  be  chosen  without 
due  deliberation,  as  it  has  much  to  do  with  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  household,  as  well 
as  the  pleasantness  of  the  home  surroundings.  The  site  chosen  for  the  new  house  should 
always  be  on  dry  soil.  A  damp  cellar  is  one  of  the  most  objectionable  features  of  a  house, 
and  the  fruitful  cause  of  various  ills.  Many  incurable  diseases,  besides  deaths  that  may 
have  been  regarded  by  the  members  of  the  family  as  the  dispensation  of  an  overrulmg  provi- 
dence, might  be  directly  traceable  to  this  source.  Unless  the  site  chosen  be  on  a  naturally 
dry  soil,  it  should  be  made  perfectly  dry  by  carefully  and  thoroughly  underdraining.  A  low, 
marshy  locality  should  be  avoided  by  all  means,  the  air  of  such  places  being  filled  with 
dampness  and  malarial  disease. 

Hon.  Alex.  Hyde,  Mass.,  says  with  reference  to  this  subject: — "  A  prairie  farmer  once  said 
to  us,  'I  would  give  a  thousand  dollars  for  one  of  your  New  England  gravel  knolls  on 
which  to  build  my  house' ;  but  here,  where  dry  knolls  abound,  they  are  too  often  neglected 
in  selecting  a  building  site.  The  excuse  for  locating  farm  buildings  in  low,  damp  places 
is  a  desire  to  avoid  bleak  winds;  but  the  pure,  dry  air,  cold  though  it  may  be,  which  plays 
about  the  summit  of  a  hill  is  not  half  so  much  to  be  dreaded  as  the  damp,  malarious 
atmosphere  of  the  more  sheltered  valley.  The  fogs  which  infest  the  low  lands  are  more 
chilling  and  pernicious  in  their  influence  than  the  dry  winds  of  the  hill.  We  have  often 
noticed  in  riding  over  our  hills  and  through  our  valleys  on  a  summer  or  autumn  evening, 
that  while  the  air  on  the  high  lands  might  be  brisk,  it  was  warm  and  dry  compared  to 
that  in  the  valley.  As  we  have  descended  into  the  latter,  the  transition  was  as  marked  as 
on  going  from  an  airy  chamber  into  a  damp  cellar.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  valley  should 
be  marshy  in  order  to  perceive  this  difference  in  the  dryness  of  the  air.  We  have  often 
noticed  it  in  descending  from  the  hills  into  the  valleys  of  the  Connecticut  and  Housatonic, 
where  the  land  of  the  valley  was  a  dry  alluvial. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  hill  is  colder  than  the  valley.  Every  farmer  must 
have  noticed  that  the  late  frosts  of  spring  and  the  early  frosts  of  autumn  do  more  damage 
on  the  lowlands  than  the  highlands,  and  the  thermometer  of  a  cold,  still  night  shows  a  lower 
degree  of  temperature  in  the  lowlands.  The  valley  may  furnish  a  shelter  from  the  winds, 
but  not  from  the  cold.  Cultivate,  therefore,  the  valleys,  but  place  your  farm  buildings  on 
the  hills,  where  an  equally  good  shelter  from  the  winds  can  be  secured  by  clusters  of  white 
pines  or  other  evergreen  trees  planted  on  the  windward  side  of  the  buildings. 


FARM  BVILDING8.  619 

As  a  second  suggestion,  we  say,  locate  farm  buildings  where  the  sun  will  shine  the  most 
hours  of  the  day  and  the  most  days  of  the  year.  The  value  of  sunlight,  both  for  man  and 
beast,  has  never  been  fully  approciated.  There  are  life,  health,  and  elasticity  of  spirits  in  sun- 
shine. Show  me  a  woman  that  has  worked  for  years  in  a  dark,  gloomy  cellar-kitchen,  and 
in  all  probability  you'll  show  me  one,  the  corners  of  whose  mouth  are  turned  down,  whose 
constitution  is  impaired,  and  who  has  lost  all  buoyancy  of  feeling.  Show  me  an  ox  that  is 
stalled  in  a  dark  cellar-stable,  and  yarded  on  the  north  side  of  a  barn,  and  I  will  show  you 
one  whose  eye  is  dull,  hide  inelastic,  hair  bristling,  and  step  heavy.  Physicians  tell  us  that 
patients  located  on  the  south  or  sunny  side  of  hospitals  are  more  likely  to  be  cured  than 
those  on  the  north  side,  and  heliopathy  is  as  much  in  fashion  as  hydropathy  once  was.  What 
the  exhilarating  and  invigorating  effects  of  a  sun-bath  are  we  can  conceive  from  the  change 
that  comes  over  our  feelings  and  powers  when  the  sun  shines  out  clearly  after  having  been 
hidden  for  a  long  time  behind  the  clouds. 

Very  nearly  allied  to  the  location  of  the  house  where  the  family  may  enjoy  the  full 
benefit  of  the  sun's  rays  is  our  next  suggestion,  that  the  house  be  not  surrounded  by  too 
many  shade  trees.  A  tree  is  '  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever,'  and  we  would  by  no  means 
discard  all  trees  around  the  farmer's  premises;  but  it  is  possible  to  have  too  much  of  a  good 
thing.  A  house  without  any  shade  trees  looks  naked,  and  is  naked.  A  few  well-located 
elms,  maples,  mountain  ashes,  and  white  pines,  add  much  to  the  beauty  and  comfort  of  home, 
bat  no  one  should  live  in  a  forest.  Musquitoes  may  live  and  thrive  in  such  a  dense  shade, 
but  man  finds  his  true  development  where  air  and  light  find  free  access.  We  never  desire  to 
see  so  many  trees  aroimd  a  house  that  the  grass  will  not  make  a  velvety  turf  on  the  lawn. 
Beautiful  as  are  trees,  and  exquisite  as  are  the  forms  and  colorings  of  flowers,  there  is  no- 
thing that  pleases  the  eye  more,  day  after  day,  than  a  well-kept  lawn.  A  stately  elm  here, 
and  a  cluster  of  evergreens  there,  adorn  and  protect  a  rural  home  far  better  than  a  perfect 
swamp  of  trees. 

We  cannot  dismiss  the  trees  without  alluding  to  the  protection  from  winds  and  the 
healthful  influences  which  evergreens  rightly  planted  furnish  in  this  cold  climate.  Clusters 
of  balsams  and  white  pines  placed  between  the  house  and  barn,  and  pig-pen,  ward  off  all 
noxious  effluvia  from  the  latter,  and  if  there  is  any  swamp  near  the  premises,  the  same 
trees,  with  their  millions  of  leaflets,  will  absorb  or  turn  aside  the  spores  of  disease  which 
are  constantly  exhaling  from  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Planted  on  the  north  of  the 
house  and  garden,  which  is  generally  the  windward  side,  evergreens  not  only  protect  from 
the  cold  winds,  but  they  fill  the  air  with  a  most  healthful  balsam." 

The  southern  slope  of  a  hillside  is  a  desirable  site  for  a  house,  as  it  furnishes  the  op- 
portunity for  the  enjoyment  of  the  full  sunlight  during  most  of  the  day.  The  northern 
side  of  the  road  should  also  be  chosen  if  practicable.  The  house  should  also  be  located 
near  the  highway.  We  have  seen  houses  in  the  country  located  in  such  a  manner, 
and  so  far  from  the  road,  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for  the  inmates  to  catch  a 
glimpse  of  what  was  passing  on  the  highway,  and  with  the  exception  of  going  from  the 
premises,  or  the  receiving  of  visits  from  friends,  they  would  seem  almost  as  much  isolated 
from  the  outer  world  as  though  they  were  behind  prison  bars.  The  farmer  and  his  sons 
would  not  be  as  much  affected  by  the  unpleasant  location  of  the  farm-house  as  the  wife  and 
daughters,  since  their  business  calls  them  away  into  the  fields  and  broad  simlight  so  large  a 
portion  of  the  time;  but  it  does  veiy  materially  affect  the  health  and  happiness  of  those  com- 
pelled to  spend  the  most  part  of  their  time  in  such  a  location. 

The  house  should  be  so  located  and  planned  that  the  rooms  most  occupied  in  the  daily 
tasks  of  the  home  duties  should  be  upon  the  sunny  and  most  pleasant  side  of  the  building, 
commanding  the  best  view  of  the  highway  and  neighboring  farm-houses.  To  persons  pos- 
sessing  certain  temperaments,  the  isolation    and   retirement  which  some  localities  in  the 


620  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

country  impose,  is  a  serious  cause  of  nervousness  and  morbidness,  and  it  has  been  stated  by 
some  of  tlie  highest  medical  authorities,  that  much  of  the  insanity  among  farmers'  wives — 
which  is  more  frequent,  in  proportion,  than  among  almost  any  other  class  of  persons — may 
be  directly  traceable  to  excessive  hard  labor  and  this  isolation  and  monotony  in  life.  "With 
nothing  to  divert  from  the  dull  and  monotonous  routine  of  labor,  day  after  day,  and  year 
after  year,  the  mind  is  apt  to  prey  upon  itself  with  the  consequent  evil  eSects. 

Our  surroundings  have  much  to  do  in  making  up  the  sum  of  happiness  in  life,  and  no- 
thing that  contributes  to  it,  even  in  the  least,  should  be  overlooked. 

Country  life  is,  of  necessity,  devoid  of  much  of  the  variety  which  the  village  or  city 
afford,  but  it  need  not  be  rendered  doubly  isolated  and  the  home  a  lonely  hermitage  for  that 
reason.  The  most  pleasant  location  possible  should  be  chosen  for  the  liome,  at  a  convenient 
and  desirable  proximity  to  the  public  road,  on  a  slight  elevation  if  practicable.  In  sections 
where  the  land  is  low  and  nearly  level,  a  sHght  elevation  can  be  made  artificially  by  carting 
earth  and  building  up  the  surface.  This  involves  considerable  labor,  but  will  well  repay  in 
some  locations  by  the  better  drainage  thus  secured,  as  well  as  improving  the  appearance  of 
the  grounds. 

Influence  of  the  Dwelling  upon  Character. — In  the  construction  of  all  farm 

buildings,  they  should  be  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended.  As  the  house 
is  designed  for  the  protection,  comfort,  health,  and  happiness  of  the  household,  it  should  be 
constructed  in  a  manner  suited  to  subserve  these  purposes;  hence,  it  should  be  convenient, 
roomy,  and  of  sufficient  size  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  family.  It  should  be  well  lighted  and 
ventilated,  pleasant  and  tasty  in  arrangement  and  design. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  "  home "  is  not  merely  a  place  of  shelter  from  the 
storms  and  cold  of  winter,  and  the  heat  of  summer  —  a  place  in  which  to  sleep  securely  at 
night,  and  labor  by  day ;  it  is  all  this,  and  something  vastly  more.  It  is  a  place  where  the 
children  receive  their  first  and  most  lasting  impressions,  those  that  go  far  in  molding  and 
forming  the  character  of  the  man  and  woman  in  after  life.  A  tasty,  .orderly  home  has  a 
refining,  educating  influence  upon  its  inmates,  while  an  unattractive,  gloomy-looking,  and 
poorly-furnished  house  has  an  influence  which  is  the  reverse  from  elevating.  Where  there  is 
nothing  to  cultivate  a  refined  taste,  and  there  is  necessitated  a  constant  association  with 
things  that  are  meager  and  mean,  the  mind  naturally  is  warped  in  the  same  direction.  A 
pleasant  home  will  not  only  prove  an  attraction  to  the  children  of  the  owner,  keeping  them 
from  places  that  are  debasing  in  their  influences,  but  will  also  attract  better  associates  for 
them,  who  wUl  come  and  visit  where  they  find  the  same  refining  and  pleasant  surroundings 
to  which  they  are  accustomed  in  their  own  homes. 

Things  that  may  seem  small  in  themselves  are  often  vastly  large  in  their  influence,  and 
determine  the  whole  course  of  many  a  human  life.  "We  are  apt  to  speak  of  "  destiny  "  in 
life,  and  regard  it  as  something  mysterious  and  inevitable  —  an  indefinable  power  that 
determines  the  fate  of  mortals,  and  over  which  they  have  no  control.  But  the  fact  is,  our 
destiny  is  in  our  own  hands,  and  is  what  we  make  it;  consequently,  our  own  lives,  and  the 
lives  of  those  depending  upon  us,  are,  in  a  great  measure,  what  we  make  them. 

"We  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  our  surroundings,  and  too  little  attention  and  im- 
portance is  generally  given  to  this  fact  in  the  construction  and  furnishing  of  our  houses. 
But  some  farmers  will  say:  "Such  talk  is  all  very  well  for  tliose  that  have  plenty  of  money 
and  can  afford  to  have  nice  homes,  but  we  are  not  able  to  make  our  homes  tasty  and  attract- 
ive; we  are  poor,  and  we  and  our  children  must  wurk  for  a  living.  We  have  neither  the 
means  nor  time  to  bestow  in  beautifying  our  homes,  and  the  idea  of  farmers  of  such  limited 
means,  that  they  can  scarcely  make  a  living  from  their  farms,  embellishing  their  homes,  is  all 
nonsense!  " 

To  be  sure,  '-bread"  is,  indeed,  the  "staff  of  life,"  and  the  material  wants  must  receive 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  621 

the  first  attention;  it  is  better,  if  we  cannot  have  but  one,  to  have  the  body  properly  fed  and 
clothed,  than  to  have  a  beautiful  home.  But  without  pleasant  surroundings,  life  is  but  half 
a  Life,  and  how  few  realize  at  what  slight  expense  a  home  may  be  made  tasty  and  attractive! 
How  few  understand  how  pleasant  and  enjoyable  life  on  the  farm  in  the  country  can  be 
.  made,  and  at  what  small  expenditures  the  rural  home  may  be  rendered  convenient,  tasteful, 
and  really  beautiful!  For  the  exercise  of  good  taste  and  ingenuity  does  not  necessarily  imply 
extravagance.  We  have  seen  houses  in  the  city  furnished  with  the  most  wanton  extrava- 
gance, where  money  was  lavished  almost  without  limit,  and  yet  they  were  not  beautiful, 
because  there  was  no  taste  displayed  in  the  selection  and  arrangement.  To  be  sure,  every- 
thing was  expensive  and  rich,  but  there  was  a  lack  of  harmony  and  good  taste  that  offended 
the  eye,  as  a  discordant  note  in  a  strain  of  music  offends  the  ear. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  entered  many  a  rural  country  home  —  a  small,  bird's-nest 
kind  of  cottage,  perhaps  —  where  everything  seemed  so  neat,  tasteful,  and  perfectly  adapted 
to  the  place  and  surroundings,  that  it  possessed  a  charm  and  attraction  that  rendered  the 
term  "  beautiful "  not  an  inappropriate  one  to  apply  to  it;  and  yet,  perhaps,  many  of  the 
furnishings  and  ornamentations  were  rustic  carvings,  or  other  work  performed  by  the  father 
or  boys  of  the  household,  on  winter  evenings  or  rainy  days,  when  not  employed  on  the  farm, 
while  the  wife  and  daughters  had  beautified  each  niche  and  nook  within,  with  specimens  of 
their  decorative  art  and  handiwork,  and  without,  with  trailing  vines,  blooming  shrubs,  and 
flowers,  in  a  manner  that  only  a  certain  quality  of  feminine  taste  and  ingenuity  can  devise 
and  execute. 

Wealth  does  not  always  furnish  a  tasty,  or  a  happy  home,  although  it  may  possess  the 
means  of  doing  this,  while  the  lack  of  a  competence  need  not  necessarily  prevent  the  posses- 
sion of  a  home  that  is  tasteful  and  attractive,  the  abode  of  contentment  and  happiness. 

Height  of  Buildings. — In  the  construction  of  all  buildings,  adaptation  to  the  pur- 
poses designed,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  should  be  an  important  consideration.  The 
area  of  surface  covered  by  a  building  is  not  the  only  standard  by  which  to  judge  of  the 
capacity.  It  requires  no  extensive  knowledge  of  mathematics  to  perceive  —  and  it  may  be 
needless  to  state  —  that  a  building  two  stories  high  will  contain  twice  the  capacity  of  one 
covering  the  same  area  that  is  only  one  story  in  height,  and  that  although  the  two-story 
building  will  cost  more  to  erect  than  that  of  one  story,  the  former  is  comparatively  cheaper, 
since  twice  the  capacity  is  secured,  with  but  a  comparatively  small  proportionate  increase  in 
cost.  It  costs  no  more  to  cover  or  lay  the  foundation  of  a  high  building  than  a  low  one, 
other  conditions  being  equal,  whUe  the  increase  in  cost  of  the  extra  height  is  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  benefits  derived  from  the  increased  capacity;  therefore,  high  buildings  are 
proportionately  cheaper  than  low  ones.  It  will  be  well  to  bear  this  in  mind  in  the  building 
of  barns  for  storage,  granaries,  etc. 

In  the  construction  of  farm-houses,  the  height  should  be  proportionate  to  the  surface  of 
ground  covered  by  the  building,  in  order  to  look  well,  while  the  convenience  and  other 
benefits  derived  from  having  plenty  of  room  should  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  A 
small,  narrow  house,  built  so  high  that  it  seems  in  danger  of  being  blown  over  by  the  first 
strong  wind,  represents  anything  but  taste  in  its  style  of  architecture,  while  a  house  covering 
a  large  area,  and  so  low  that  it  gives  the  impression  to  the  beholder  that  the  builder  was 
obhged  to  cut  short  his  work  for  lack  of  means  or  material,  is  nearly  as  objectionable, 
although  not  quite  as  much  so  as  the  former.  A  farm-house  should,  at  least,  be  two  stories 
high.  Sleeping-rooms,  on  the  second  or  third  floor  even,  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  those 
on  the  first  floor.  Such  rooms  are  more  healthy,  as  well  as  pleasant,  since  they  are  more 
airy  and  farther  removed  from  the  exhalations  of  the  cellar  and  dampness  of  the  ground. 
They  also  afford  a  finer  view  of  the  surrounding  scenery. 

In  some  of  the  newly-settled   sections  of   the  country,  where  building  materials  are 


622  THE  AMERICAN  FARSIER. 

scarce,  small,  low  farm-houses  of  a  single  story  are  very  common,  but  as  the  owners  become 
more  prosperous  and  population  increases,  these  give  place  to  the  more  convenient  and  roomy 
structures  found  in  the  older-settled  portions.  Too  much  room  is  not  desired  in  a  house,  but 
there  should  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  entire  household,  and  a  surplus  is  to  be 
preferred  to  a  lack  in  this  respect,  if  we  were  to  make  a  choice  of  two  evils.  A  house  that  is 
a  story  and  a  half  high  is  but  little  better  than  that  of  a  single  story,  while  it  will  cost  nearly 
as  much  as  a  two-story  house.  The  rooms  of  a  dwelling-house  should  be  sufficiently  high  to 
be  airy,  and  admit  of  good  ventilation.     Low  rooms  are  unhealthy,  and  should  be  avoided. 

Extra  room  in  buildings  for  storage,  etc.,  can  often  be  secured  at  sliglit  expense,  by 
making  the  building  a  little  higher  than  the  original  purpose  requires;  as,  for  instance,  the 
wagon-house,  tool-house,  or  wood -house,  may  be  made,  by  this  means,  to  furnish  room  over- 
head for  the  storage  of  small  crops,  or  the  spreading  of  those  that  require  drying. 

Plans  for  Farm-Houses.  —  Before  erecting  a  new  house,  it  will  be  very  essential 
for  the  farmer  not  only  to  have  a  well-defined  plan,  which  will  secure  for  himself  and  family 
all  the  conveniences  and  comforts  practicable,  but  also  to  carefully  estimate  the  expense  that 
will  be  incurred,  and  whether  he  can  safely  and  without  injury  to  his  financial  prosperity  with- 
draw from  his  business  the  amount  of  money  necessary  for  the  purpose.  In  some  cases  it 
may  be  found  better  to  occupy  the  old  house  two  or  three  years  longer,  until  the  financial 
status  of  the  farmer  is  such  that  he  can  safely  invest  in  the  enterprise  of  building  the  new; 
for  while  a  neat  and  attractive  house  to  live  in  is  a  very  desirable  thing,  still  it  is  better  to 
occupy  one  that  may  be  old  and  time-worn,  and  even  shabby  in  appearance,  than  to  be  driven 
into  bankruptcy  by  the  erection  of  a  new  one  before  being  really  able  to  do  so.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  question,  farmers,  as  a  general  rule,  are  very  cautious  and  quite  too  apt  to 
go  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  delaying  the  enjoyment  of  the  new  beyond  their  means,  instead 
of  taking  them  in  advance.  And  too  many  of  them  subject  themselves  and  families  to  the 
deprivation  of  many  things  that  might  and  should  be  enjoyed. 

Life  is  short  at  the  longest,  and  if  a  few  years  of  it  may  be  made  brighter  for  the  house- 
hold by  occup3dng  a  neat  and  commodious  house,  why  not  brighten  these  few  years  for  such 
members  as  soon  as  may  be,  instead  of  delaying  it  and  involving  a  loss  to  all,  and,  perhaps, 
until  it  shall  be  too  late  for  some  loved  one  ever  to  enjoy  it  ? 

A  house,  in  order  to  be  comfortable  and  pleasant,  need  not  necessarily  be  very  expen- 
sive. A  neat  and  tasty  cottage,  relieved  by  slight  ornamentation  of  the  severe  plainness  so 
frequently  characterizing  country  homes,  would  be  very  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The 
few  plans  which  are  here  presented  will  be  found  to  come  within  the  range  of  most  farm- 
houses, both  as  to  size  and  expense,  and  also  valuable,  as  suggesting  improvements  in  design 
in  the  general  style  of  architecture,  as  well  as  convenience  of  arrangement,  and  will  prove  of 
practical  value  to  those  contemplating  building  or  remodeling.  For  the  first  four  designs 
represented  in  this  department  we  are  indebted  to  "W.  T.  Comstock,  publisher  and  successor 
to  Bicknell  &;  Comstock,  of  New  York  city,  being  copied  by  permission  from  the  specimen- 
book  of  One  Hundred  Architectural  Designs. 

The  first — a  design  for  a  country  house — represents  a  large  handsome  building  of  six- 
teen rooms  of  superior  accommodations.  It  was  remodeled  two  or  three  years  after  being 
built,  to  its  present  style.  The  materials  are  of  wood,  the  frame  sheathed  and  felted,  the 
roof  slated,  and  the  interior  finished  in  a  tasteful  and  appropriate  manner.  At  the  time  of 
being  remodeled,  a  gas-house  was  built,  with  fixtures  for  lighting  the  house.  This  design  rep- 
resents the  most  expensive  dwelling  which  we  insei-t— the  estimated  cost  of  erecting  being 
about  $10,000.  The  archway  over  the  carriage  drive-way  adds  very  much  to  the  appearance 
of  the  house,  besides  being  a  great  convenience.  The  lower  floor  contains  a  parlor,  dining- 
room,  library,  hall,  sitting-room,  two  pantries,  laundry,  kitchen,  and  a  dinner-service  room. 
As  a  country-seat  for  a  city  gentleman,  or  a  house  for  the  fanner  of  ample  means,  such  a 
building  is  admirably  adapted. 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


623 


The  Yeysey  Homestead  Cottage  was  recently  erected  in  the  village  of  Tenafiy,  N.  J.,  at  a 
cost  of  about  $2,000.     This  sum  includes  a  large  school-room  which  communicates  with  the 


THE   VEYSEY   HOMESTEAD    COTTAGE. 


A  PICTURESQUE   COUNTRY  VILLA. 


dining-room,  and  four  finished  attic  rooms.  It  is  a  very  commodious,  tasty  house  and  one 
that  would  be  an  ornament  to  any  country  town  or  village.  The  owner  of  this  house  used 
the  very  best  material  of  their  several  kinds.  By  using  material  less  expensive  such  a  cottage 
could,  of  course,  be  built  at  considerably  less  expense.     The  above  is  an  illustration  of  a 


624 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


somewhat  more  elaborate  and  expensive  house,  which  contains  a  conservatory  in  front  of  the 
first  landing  of  the  stairway  in  the  octagon  end  at  the  right,  and  a  dressing-room  below.  The 
library  is  in  the  rear  of  the  main  hall,  and  at  the  right  of  the  back  hall,  which  includes  the 
back  stairway.  The  parlor  occupies  the  front  of  the  house  at  the  left  of  the  hall,  with  the 
dining-room,  pantry,  store-room,  china-closet,  and  dumb  waiter  in  the  rear.  The  plan  is 
designed  for  a  kitchen  in  the  basement,  although  it  can  be  included  on  the  principal  floor,  if 
desired.  The  second  floor  contains  three  bed-rooms,  a  bath-room,  and  five  closets.  Three 
rooms  may  also  be  included  in  the  attic.  The  estimated  cost  of  such  a  building  will  vary 
according  to  the  price  of  material  at  the  time  of  building,  but  may  be  estimated  at  from 
about  $3,000  to  $3,500. 

The  following  represents  a  small  cottage  suited  to  a  family  of  two  or  three  persons. 
Such  a  building  could  be  erected  at  a  cost  of  from  $800  to  $1,000,  according  to  the  locahty 
and  style  of  finish. 


AN    ORNAMEMAL    COTTAGE 


The  ground  and  chamber  floor  plan  of  the  English  cottage  that  follows,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  rural  cottage  on  page  627,  will  be  readily  understood  by  a  careful  examination;  hence 
they  require  no  extended  explanation 

Although  designs  are  a  great  assistance  in  suggesting  a  plan  for  a  house,  still  if  a  person 
contemplating  building  could  examine  several  houses  which  seem  to  be  well-suited  to  his 
purpose,  he  could  obtain  more  real  information  and  satisfactory  knowledge  respecting  a  plan 
than  from  any  diagram  on  paper  that  could  be  given.  Combining  the  best  things  contained  in 
several  designs  will  often  prove  very  satisfactory.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  some  of  the 
plans  given,  provision  for  a  dairy-farm  has  been  made  by  including  a  milk  or  cheese  room. 

In  those  sections  where  there  are  no  creameries  or  cheese  factories  at  which  to  dispose 
of  the  milk,  a  milk-house,  located  a  short  distance  in  the  rear  of  the  dwelling-house,  could 
be  erected  for  that  purpose,  or  a  suitable  room  in  the  house  appropriated  to  that  use  ;  but 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


625 


tlio  former  is  the  better  method.     Every  plan  that  might  be  proposed  would  of  course  be 
subject  to  modifications,  according  to  the  location  and  wants  of  the  family. 


ENGLISH   COTTAGE. 


Asa  general  rule,  however,  there  are  certain  things  that  will  apply  equally  well  to  all 
farm-houses — large  or  small.  They  should  be  in  structure,  types  of  stability,  and  complete- 
ness, adapted  to  their  surroundings,  not  excessively  ornamental,  but  sufficiently  so  to  be 


C26  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

tasteful  and  attractive,  and  to  avoid  that  severity  of  plainness  that  characterizes  country 
houses  generally. 

Every  farm-house  should  have  a  bright,  sunny  and  pleasant  kitchen.  "We  mention  this 
room  first,  because  it  is  where  the  majority  of  farmers'  wives  spend  much  of  their  life  in. 
performing  the  daily  tasks  for  their  household.  Therefore  this  room  should  be  located  m 
the  most  pleasant  and  cheerful  part  of  the  house.  Next  in  importance  should  be  the  sitting- 
room,  where  the  family  spend  their  evenings,  and  the  wife  and  daughters  perform  the  sewing 
for  the  family  in  the  afternoons,  when  the  general  housework  for  the  day  is  done,  and  where, 
in  the  long,  winter  evenings,  the  hours  should  be  diversified  with  reading  aloud  by  some  member 
of  the  family,  or  enlivened  by  music,  while  old  garments  are  being  rejuvenated,  or  new  ones 
made  by  skillful  hands.  This  room  can  also  be  used  as  a  hbrary  if  necessary,  for  all 
farmers  should  have  something  of  a  library — the  more  books  the  better,  if  of  the  right  kind. 

In  many  country  houses  the  kitchen  is  large,  and  serves  the  purpose  of  both  cook  and 
dining-room.  A  better  arrangement  than  this  would  be,  to  have  the  kitchen  made  just  large 
enough  to  serve  the  purpose  of  cook-room  and  general  house-work,  with  a  good-sized  dining- 
room  leading  from  it. 

Opening  into  the  sitting-room  there  should  be  a  good-sized  bedroom,  which  may  serve, 
when  occasion  requires,  for  a  "sick-room."  This  room  should  be  well  lighted,  and  located 
on  a  sunny  side  of  the  house;  it  should  contain  an  open  fire-place  or  grate  for  heating  m  cold 
weather,  and  also  for  purposes  of  better  ventilation.  A  parlor  is  a  great  convenience,  since 
it  is  not  always  desirable  to  introduce  callers  into  the  sitting-room.  But  we  do  not 
approve  of  a  parlor,  as  such,  or  as  is  generally  found  in  most  dwellings,  which  is  a 
room  set  apart  for  the  "best  things" — things  regarded  too  choice  and  sacred  for  the  common 
use  of  the  family — the  best  carpet,  furniture,  pictures,  books,  &c.  and  into  which  the  family 
rarely  enter,  except  to  entertain  visitors.  Nothing  should  be  too  good  or  choice  for  the  en- 
joyment of  the  family  circle  every  day,  and  nothing  should  be  used  by  the  family  too  ignoble 
and  poor  to  be  seen  by  visitors.  The  parlor  should  be  a  place  to  be  freely  enjoyed,  when 
desired,  by  the  entire  household,  a  kind  of  second  family  room,  to  be  appropriated  as  con- 
■venience  requires. 

In  every  farm-house  there  should  always  be  one  room  set  apart  for  the  children,  to  be 
used  as  a  play-room  by  them  at  will.  It  should  be  large  and  airy,  and  located  on  a  sunny 
side  of  the  house.  The  pantry  should  be  of  good  size,  and  conveniently  arranged  adjacent 
to  the  kitchen,  in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  steps  in  doing  the  work. 

The  cellar-door  and  door  leading  to  the  wood-house  should  also  open  into  the  kitchen. 
A  wash-room  or  laundry  and  a  room  for  the  storage  of  groceries,  should  also  be  on  this  floor, 
unless  such  arrangements  are  made  in  the  basement. 

If  cheese  and  butter  are  made  on  the  farm,  separate  rooms  will  be  required  for  the  milk 
and  the  storage  of  cheese,  either  in  the  dwelhng-house  or  in  a  small  dairy-house  suited  to 
the  purpose.  The  dining-room  should  contain  a  china-closet.  Another  closet  in  this  room 
for  the  storage  of  other  things  would  also  be  a  great  convenience. 

Every  bedroom  and  chamber  should  also  contain  a  good-sized  closet.  Closets  are  of 
great  utility  in  a  dwelling,  and  there  can  scarcely  be  too  many  of  them. 

In  planning  such  conveniences  for  a  house,  a  woman's  judgment  and  ingenuity  will 
generally  be  more  suggestive  and  reUable  than  a  man's,  as  her  business  pertains  more  to  such 
matters  ;  hence  the  farmer  should  always  consult  his  wife  and  daughter  in  this  respect. 

Perhaps  the  reader  may  hav3  heard  of  the  wealthy  gentleman  who  established  and 
liberally  endowed  a  now  popular  institution  for  the  education  of  young  ladies,  and  that  in 
the  large  and  costly  edifice  erected  for  the  purpose,  and  planned  by  the  donor,  the  yoimg 
ladies  who  became  pupils  found,  to  their  utter  consternation,  not  a  single  closet  from  attic  to 
basement ! 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


627 


GROUND   PLAN. 


CHAIIBER-FLOOB    PLAN. 


628  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

On  being  consulted  on  the  subject,  the  liberal  donor  replied  that  the  young  ladies  would 
find  two  hooks  on  the  back  of  the  door  of  each  room,  one  for  the  "  every-day  dress,"  and  the 
other  for  the  "best  dress,"  and  that  he  did  not  consider  a  closet  necessary  !  Had  a  woman's 
advice  been  consulted  and  followed  in  this  respect,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  above  plan, 
which  seemed  so  admirable  to  the  designer,  would  have  been  considerably  modified.  The 
sleeping-rooms  of  a  dwelling  should  be  large  and  airy,  with  ample  means  provided  for  good 
ventilation — the  latter  is  very  essential. 

In  constructing  a  house  the  aim  should  be  to  render  it  healthful,  comfortable,  and  con- 
venient. These  are  the  first  essentials  ;  but  since  so  much  time  is  to  be  spent  in  it  by  the 
family,  it  should  also  be  in  good  taste,  with  pleasant  surroundings.  We  have  seen  dwellings 
so  unskiUfully  planned,  that  it  would  require  three  or  four  times  the  number  of  steps  in  doing 
the  work  that  another  would,  which  was  designed  with  a  view  to  convenience.  Farmers' 
wives,  as  a  general  rule,  are  over-worked,  and  suffer  in  health  and  spirits  from  the  excessive 
labor  they  perfonn  ;  hence  they  show  age  earlier  and  break  down  sooner  than  almost  any 
other  class.  But  to  take  unnecessary  steps  and  perform  labor  that  might  just  as  well  have 
been  avoided  is  a  great  waste  of  time  and  strength — a  loss  that  brings  no  recompense  in 
return.  Life  and  health  are  too  sacred  and  precious  to  be  thus  wasted,  and  too  much  pains 
cannot  be  taken  to  secure  convenience  and  labor-saving  in  planning  a  house. 

Warmth  of  Dwellings. — In  those  sections  of  the  country  where  the  climate  is  uni. 
formly  warm,  a  protection  against  cold  in  the  erection  of  buildings  would  not  seem  important, 
but  it  becomes  a  very  essential  consideration  in  this  connection  in  the  Northern  States,  where, 
during  nearly  half  of  the  j'ear,  the  temperature  is  low,  and  strong  winds  force  the  wintry  air 
into  every  crack  and  crevice,  thus  causing  the  cold  to  seem  doubly  intense. 

A  cold  house  is  not  only  exceedingly  uncomfortable  to  hve  in,  but  is  also  equally 
xmhealthy,  and  we  believe  many  of  the  numerous  cases  of  consumption  to  be  found  in  the 
country  towns  of  the  Northern  States  might  be  traceable  to  this  source.  Unless  the  utmost 
care  is  taken  in  building  a  home  to  render  it  perfectly  tight  and  secure,  it  cannot  be  made 
comfortable  for  the  inmates  in  severe  weather  by  any  method  of  heating.  We  have  been  in 
houses  where  in  extremely  cold  weather  the  temperature  of  the  rooms  would  be  much  too 
warm,  while  it  would  be  impossible  to  keep  the  feet  comfortably  warm,  on  account  of  the 
cold  current  of  air  that  was  constantly  finding  entrance  through  the  cracks  of  the  floor  or 
about  the  casing.  Ventilation  is  a  good  thing  for  a  dwelling,  but  health  and  comfort  require 
certain  prescribed  methods  and  rules  for  accomplishing  it,  and  we  venture  to  say  that  a  coun- 
try house  was  never  yet  built  so  tight  and  warm  as  to  render  it  unhealthful  on  this  account, 
although  they  are  generally  unhealthful  through  lack  of  suitable  ventilation.  In  building, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  used  to  render  the  walls  impenetrable  to  the  cold  i^-inds. 

Brick  or  stone  houses  are  generally  warmer  tlian  wood,  as  the  walls  are  uniformly 
tighter,  but  wood  houses  are  pleasanter,  and  can  be  rendered  warm  by  being  suitably  con- 
structed. A  suiEcient  amount  of  the  proper  kind  of  material  should  be  used  for  the  covering, 
and  it  should  be  well  put  on.  Brick  is  commonly  recommended  for  filHng  the  spaces  between 
the  inner  and  outer  walls,  except  the  places  required  for  the  posts,  studs,  and  braces.  .  These 
serve  the  double  purpose  of  warmth  and  that  of  excluding  the  entrance  of  rats  and  mice 
between  the  walls.  Old  bricks  are  as  good  as  new  for  this  use.  The  more  recent  practice  in 
architecture  of  adding  an  inner  hning  of  felt  or  heavy  paper  in  covering  the  walls,  aids  very 
materially  in  securing  warmth. 

All  the  work  about  the  building  should  be  well  done.  The  walls  should  be  nicely  plas- 
tered, and  the  casings  and  all  the  wood-work  well  fitted.  The  lumber  employed  for  the 
inside  finishing  should  all  of  it  be  well  seasoned,  and  kiln-dried  before  being  used.  Unless 
this  precaution  is  taken,  the  wood-work  will  be  liable  to  shrink  and  crack,  making  it  look 
very  badly.     Very  nice  houses  are  frequently  greatly  marred  from  this  cause.     One  of  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  629 

luxuries  found  in  the  majority  of  city  dwellings,  and  but  rarely  in  the  country,  is  the  facility 
for  warming  the  building  throughout.  A  good  furnace  for  this  purpose  costs  less  than  steam 
apparatus,  besides,  we  think  it  more  desirable,  if  at  the  same  cost,  and  although  attended  with 
some  expense  in  procuring  and  supplying  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  coal  for  the  purpose, 
we  believe  many  farmei-s  would  find  that  the  comfort  thus  afforded  the  household  would 
amply  repay  for  the  additional  outlay. 

Windows. — The  importance  of  an  abundance  of  sunlight  in  a  house  can  scarcely  be 
over-eatimated.  Light  is  a  promoter  of  health,  comfort,  and  cheerfulness.  Plants  will  not 
attain  a  healthy  growtli  in  a  darkened  room,  neither  will  individuals  that  are  deprived  of  the 
sunlight  be  strong  and  healthy.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  as  has  been  previously  stated,  and 
the  testimony  of  prominent  physicians  that  invalids  occupying  the  simny  side  of  a  hospital 
are  more  liable  to  recover  than  those  occupying  the  side  where  the  sunHght  scarcely  ever  enters. 
Everyone  feels  more  or  less  the  depressing  influence  of  a  succession  of  cloudy  days,  an  influence 
that  is  only  dispelled  when  the  bright  simlight  again  floods  the  earth  with  beauty.  There  is 
too  much  indifference  or  carelessness  with  respect  to  admitting  the  sunUght  into  our  dwell- 
ings, or  rather  it  is  the  common  custom  to  carefully  exclude  the  sunlight;  and  for  fear  of  its 
fading  the  "  best "  carpets  or  the  upholstering  of  the  furniture,  shades  are  carefully  pulled 
down,  blinds  tightly  closed,  until  scarcely  a  ray  of  Light  is  permitted  to  enter.  The  result  is 
that  such  rooms  become  damp,  musty,  and  unhealthy,  and  were  a  perfectly  healthy  person 
compelled  to  be  confined  witiiin  them  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  they  would  deteriorate 
both  in  health  and  spirits.  For  seme  diseases,  sun-baths  have  been  found  to  be  one  of  the 
most  successful  remedies. 

Every  dweUing,  as  well  as  building  for  sheltering  animals,  shoifld  be  constructed  with  a 
view  to  admitting  the  sunlight,  and  those  parts  of  the  house  most  occupied  by  the  family 
should  be  located  on  the  sunniest  side  of  the  house.  Ample  provision  should  be  made  for 
windows,  both  in  number  and  size,  in  planning  a  house.  "When  glass  was  first  introduced  into 
use  for  windows,  it  was  very  expensive,  consequently  small  windows  were  a  necessity;  but  at 
the  present  period  glass  has  become  one  of  the  cheapest  of  building  materials. 

Very  small  windows  do  not  look  well  in  any  house,  whether  large  or  small,  while  win- 
dows that  are  too  large  for  the  size  of  the  building  look  almost  as  badly.  We  think  windows 
should  be  made  as  large  as  may  be  without  being  disproportionate  to  the  size  of  the  house, 
and  as  many  of  them  be  used  as  the  dimensions  of  the  house  will  admit,  and  at  the  same 
time  keep  within  the  limits  of  good  taste.  If  it  is  found  that  a  nimiber  of  large-sized  win- 
dows in  a  house  furnish  the  opportunity  for  the  cold  to  enter  about  the  casings  during  wintry 
weather,  this  evil  can  be  easily  remedied  by  the  use  of  double  windows  on  the  north  and 
west  sides  of  the  building,  or  throughout  during  the  cold  weather.  This  might  be  done  at  a 
compai'atively  small  expense,  and  a  home  once  supplied,  is  permanently  furnished  in  this 
respect.  Such  windows  could  be  taken  out  in  summer  and  be  easily  replaced  for  winter  use; 
by  this  means,  other  conditions  being  favorable,  a  house  can  be  made  very  warm  and 
comfortable. 

SmaU-sized  panes  look  cheap,  and  are  not  in  good  taste;  they  are  now  seldom  seen, 
except  in  very  old  buildings.  Very  large  panes  are  more  expensive  than  those  of  medium 
size,  and  if  broken  are  not  as  easily  replaced.  For  a  farm-house,  medium-sized  panes  seem 
most  appropriate.  A  good  quality  of  glass  should  be  procured,  and  the  sashes  should  be 
made  of  suitable  material,  well  put  together,  and  painted  on  both  sides.  The  windows  should 
be  made  to  lower  at  the  top,  as  well  as  raise  at  the  bottom,  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation, 
and  rendering  the  rooms  cooler  in  summer.  They  can  also  be  washed  easier.  The  best 
arrangement  for  this  purpose  is  a  cord,  weight,  and  puUey,  by  which  means  the  window  may 
be  lowered  at  the  top  or  raised  at  the  bottom  at  any  distance,  and  held  in  place  without  any 
kind  of  fastening. 


(3?,0  THE  ^VMERICAN  FAnMER. 

Each  window  should  be  supplied  with  a  good  patent  spring  fastener  to  keep  out 
intruders.  The  btst  for  this  p-di-pose  are  those  that  are  furnished  with  a  little  spring,  which 
holds  the  catch  and  prevents  its  being  pushed  back  from  the  outside  by  any  means,  such  as 
running  a  knife-blade  or  thin  piece  of  steel  or  iron  tietween  the  upper  and  lower  eash.  Bay- 
windows,  properly  located,  add  much  to  the  exterior  and  interior  appearance  of  a  dwelling, 
and  are  just  as  much  in  conformity  with  good  taste  on  a  farm-house,  as  tliat  of  a  village  or 
city  dwelling. 

Doors. — The  arrangement  of  the  doors  of  a  dwelling  should  be  such  as  to  secure  com- 
fort and  convenience,  and  save  unnecessary  steps  in  the  household  work.  Their  location 
should  be  so  planned  as  to  give  ready  access  to  all  parts  of  the  house,  and  at  the  Eame  time 
not  interfere  with  each  other.  They  should  also  be  of  sufficient  size.  Nan-ow  doors  are  a 
great  inconvenience,  and  should  never  be  used  in  any  building.  In  mo\ing  large  articles, 
such  as  furniture,  from  one  room  to  another,  a  narrow  door  involves  the  risk  of  injury  to 
both  the  wood-work  of  the  house  as  well  as  the  furniture,  as  the  battered  condition  of  many 
doorways  fully  prove.  In  farmhouses  generally  the  doors  are  much  too  few  in  mmiber  and 
too  narrow. 

Double  sliding  doors  for  certain  rooms  are  a  great  convenience,  since  they  admit  of 
throwing  two  apartments  into  one  when  desired,  furnishing  a  large,  cool,  airy  room  in  hot 
weather,  or  ample  accommodations  for  a  large  gathering  oi  friends  on  social  occasions.  A 
sitting-room  and  parlor,  or  diniug-room  and  sitting-room,  can  thus  be  easily  converted  into  one 
large  apartment,  rendering  the  interior  of  the  house  more  pleasant,  convenient,  and  comfort- 
able at  certain  seasons. 

The  most  common  and  convenient  door-fastenings  are  those  of  the  combined  catch  and 
lock  style,  mth  a  knob  on  each  side  of  the  door.  For  perfect  security,  the  outside  doors 
should  be  provided  ■with  a  peculiar  spring-lock  which  cannot  be  easily  tampered  with.  The 
common  lock  can  easily  be  fitted  with  an  ordinary  key,  or  the  bolt  readily  forced  back  by 
other  means,  hence,  it  is  not  a  very  good  protection.  Strong  inside  bolts  for  the  entrance- 
doors  of  a  house  are  also  a  good  security  against  intruders. 

Floors.  —  The  supports  for  the  floors  of  a  house  should  be  strong  and  durable,  and  the 
floors  of  good  material,  well  seasoned  and  carefully  put  down.  It  would  not  probably  be  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  that  the  strength  of  a  floor  of  a  farm-house  would  be  fuUy  tested,  but  there 
are  occasions,  such  as  social  gatherings,  etc.,  when  a  large  company  might  be  collected  in  a 
single  apartment,  and  we  have  personal  knowledge  of  serious  accidents  being  occasioned  by 
the  floor  giving  way  in  old  or  improperly-constructed  buildings,  at  such  times.  A  great 
strain  might  be  brought  upon  a  floor  in  this  way,  and  it  is  well  to  pro\"ide  beforehand  for 
any  such  contingency,  by  having  the  floors  well  supported  in  constructing  a  house,  or,  if  the 
house  is  already  erected,  extra  supports  can  easily  and  at  slight  expense  be  placed  under  the 
floor,  and  thus  additional  strength  imparted. 

In  laying  the  floor,  if  the  timber  is  not  well  seasoned,  it  will  shrink,  leaving  large  cracks 
between  the  boards,  which  will  furnish  a  safe  harbor  for  moths  and  bugs  under  the  carpet; 
or,  if  uncarpeted,  a  place  for  the  dust  to  collect,  besides  giving  a  room  an  unsightly  appear- 
ance. In  rooms  that  are  not  carpeted,  a  floor  of  alternate  strips  of  hght  and  dark  wood  looks 
very  nicely.  The  boards  should  all  be  of  uniform  width,  not  exceeding  four  inches,  although 
for  a  small  room  three  inches  is  to  be  preferred.  Black  walnut  and  ash  are  the  best  materials, 
but  chestnut  or  yellow  pine  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  ash  for  this  purpose.  Such  floors 
should  be  thoroughly  oiled  before  being  used.  Finishing  the  interior  of  such  rooms  with  the 
same  kinds  of  wood  is  also  in  very  good  taste ;  for  instance,  ha^'ing  the  doors  of  black  wal- 
nut, and  the  wood-work  about  them  of  ash  and  black  walnut,  the  lighter  wood  coming 
between  the  door  and  the  outer  casing,  etc.,  and  the  light  and  dark  alternating  in  the  other 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  C31 

portions  of  the  wood-work.  As  black  walnut  is  somewhat  expensive,  other  wood  stained  to 
imitate  that  color  might  be  used  for  the  doors  and  casings  at  much  less  expense,  and  would 
answer  the  purpose  very  well;  but  for  the  floor,  the  walnut  sho\ild  be  used. 

Stairs.  —  The  steep,  naiTow  stairways  that  are  so  commonly  seen  in  old  country  houses 
the  not  only  a  great  inconvenience,  but  positively  dangerous,  especially  for  children,  while 
they  are  also  a  very  difBciilt  means  of  transit  from  one  floor  to  another,  for  the  older  members 
of  the  household. 

The  stairs  of  a  building  should  always  be  located  where  they  will  be  convenient  of  access, 
sirice  in  domg  the  work  of  the  household  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  frequently  used. 
They  should  be  made  broad,  of  slow  elevation,  and  easy  of  ascent  in  every  respect.  They 
siiould  also  be  furnished  with  a  good  stout  railing  on  the  side  opposite  the  wall.  Whatever 
means  may  be  used  in  economizing  room  in  a  house,  it  should  never  be  employed  in  respect 
to  the  stairs.  Such  a  course  will  always  be  found  to  be  very  poor  economy  in  the  end.  To 
be  obliged  to  carry  furniture  or  anything  heavy  or  cumbersome  up  or  down  a  steep,  narrow 
stairway,  or  to  be  obliged  to  go  up  or  down  such  stairs  many  times  a  day,  is  no  easy  task. 
It  is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that  so  many  farmers'  wives  grow  old  so  early,  or  become 
broken  down  in  health,  when  we  consider  the  vast  amount  of  hard  labor  they  perform,  together 
■ndth  the  cxti-a  labor  to  which  they  are  so  often  obliged  to  submit,  through  the  inconvenient 
an-angement  of  the  homes  they  occupy.  Straight,  broad  stairs  of  slow  elevation  are  the 
most  desirable,  but  winding  stairs  economize  room,  and  are  to  be  preferred  to  the  steep,  nar- 
row ones  so  commonly  seen  in  fann-houses. 

Roofs.  —  The  style  of  the  roof  will  depend  mainly  upon  the  general  architectural  plan 
of  the  building,  although  some  styles  of  architecture  are  not  as  arbitrary  in  this  respect  as 
others,  and  the  taste  of  tlie  owner  can  be  brought  into  exercise  as  to  choice  between  a  steep 
or  moderately  sloping  roof.  A  fiat  roof  is  objectionable,  especially  in  those  latitudes  where 
a  large  amoimt  of  snow  falls.  On  such  roofs  the  snow  is  liable  to  accumiilate,  and  requires 
a  considerable  amount  of  care  and  labor  in  removing  during  the  winter.  Various  materials 
are  used  for  covering  roofs,  wood,  slate,  and  tin  being  the  most  common.  The  preparations 
in  which  tar  is  used  are  considered  objectionable,  since  they  are  more  liable  to  take  fire,  and 
communicate  it  more  rapidly  than  others. 

Slate  and  tin  are  durable  and  the  best  preservatives  against  iire,  although  there  are  cer- 
tain prepar.ations  and  paints  that  are  very  good  in  this  respect,  which  are  used  to  some  extent 
for  covei-ing  shingles.  Tlie  best  paints  for  this  purpose  are  such  as  will  be  fire-proof  and  at 
the  same  time  preserve  the  shingles.  Shingles  have  been  in  use  for  roof  coverings  for  a 
long  time,  and  are  still  extensively  employed,  although  in  some  sections  slate  and  tin  have 
taken  their  place  in  a  gre;.t  measure.  The  principal  kinds  of  wood  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  shingles  are  cedar,  spruce,  and  pine.  Many  others  are,  however,  employed  to  a  certain 
extent.  In  order  to  make  a  diu-able  roof  of  shingles,  they  should  be  perfectly  dry  when  put 
on.  If  tho.se  containing  the  least  amomit  of  sap  are  used,  the  roof  will  soon  be  liable  to  leak, 
since  they  will  v^'arp  and  shrmk  in  tlie  hot  sun,  thus  furnishing  abundant  opportunity  for  the 
rain  to  find  an  entrance. 

Tin  roots  are  durable,  but  require  considerable  care  in  making,  in  order  to  obviate  leak- 
er. They  should  always  be  kept  well  painted  to  prevent  msting.  Slate,  when  well  laid, 
makes  a  very  durable  roof.  Such  a  roof  must  first  be  covered  with  boards  so  tight  as  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  rain  and  snow  in  a  strong  wind ;  besides,  the  rafters  must  be  so  very 
strong  that  any  amount  of  snow  that  may  accumulate  on  the  roof  shall  not  by  its  weight  cause 
it  to  settle  in  the  least.  If  it  does  settle,  the  slates,  being  very  brittle,  will  break  and  come 
o£L     Steep  roofs,  on  which  the  snow  cannot  lodge,  axe  to  be  preferred  where  slate  is  used. 

39 


(J32  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

ChiuilieyS. — The  liearth-stone,  around  whicli  our  forefathers  gathered,  is  now  only 
known  in  poetry  and  song;  and  the  mammoth  chimney  up  which  the  bright  flames  leaped  and 
roared,  while  the  hours  were  beguiled  with  pleasant  household  chats  or  neighborly  sociabiUty. 
interspersed  with  such  refreshments  as  corn  popped  in  the  ashes,  rosy-cheeked  apples,  and 
sweet  cider,  is  among  the  obsolete  things. 

Instead  of  the  old-fashioned  fire-place,  we  now  have  the  steam  radiator,  the  furnace- 
register,  the  air-tight  stove,  and  kitchen-range,  while  the  only  suggestion  that  is  furnished  us 
of  the  cheerineas  of  that  old  time-honored  institution  is  the  open  grate,  at  present  too  rarely 
seen,  and  typical  of  the  past.  Instead  of  one  large  chimney  for  the  house,  as  was  formerly  the 
custom,  we  now  have  smaller  ones  and  more  of  them  in  number.  These  should  always  be 
conveniently  located,  of  small  size,  and  well  built.  By  such  arrangement,  a  better  draught  is 
secured,  much  less  stove-pipe  is  required,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  house  improved, 
while  there  is  also  much  less  danger  from  fire,  owing  to  less  pipe  being  required.  In  build- 
ing, the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  chimneys  properly  constructed,  and  the 
foundations  substantial.  Defective  flues  are  the  frequent  cause  of  destructive  fires,  and  only 
the  most  skilled  workmen  should  be  employed  on  this  part  of  the  building.  The  danger  from 
falling  sparks  is  diminished,  and  a  better  draught  secured,  by  having  the  chimneys  built  to  a 
good  height  above  the  roof. 

Mantels.  —  Mantels  add  much  to  the  appearance  and  convenience  of  the  interior 
arrangement  of  a  house.  They  impart  a  more  cozy  and  better  finished  look  to  a  room, 
while  they  are  very  useful  for  arranging  the  ornamental,  as  well  as  some  of  the  more 
useful  things  pertaining  to  the  house.  Marble  is,  of  course,  the  nicest  material  for  tbis 
purpose,  but  it  is  quite  expensive  in  some  sections.  Very  pretty  mantels  may  be  made  of 
wood,  and,  when  tasteful  in  design  and  neatly  finished,  look  quite  as  suitable  for  a  farm-house 
as  those  of  more  expensive  material. 

Closets. — In  building  a  house,  we  would  recommend  by  all  means  that  there  be  plenty  of 
closet-room.  Closets  and  cupboards  can  scarcely  be  too  numerous,  and  only  those  housekeepers 
who  have  been  hinited  in  such  conveniences  can  realize  the  great  inconvenience  caused  by  a 
lack  in  this  respect.  Places  of  storage  for  small  things,  such  as  closets,  cupboards,  and 
drawers,  will  always  be  found  useful,  and  save  many  needless  steps  daily,  in  the  performance 
of  the  house-work,  that  would  otherwise  have  to  be  taken.  In  planning  a  house,  there  should 
be  a  closet  or  clothes-press  in  every  chamber,  and  at  least  one  on  the  lower  floor  for  general 
use  in  hanging  coats,  hats,  etc.  Besides  these,  there  should  be  a  china-closet  in  the  dining- 
room,  with  drawers  underneath  the  shelves  for  the  table-linen,  and  another  closet  for  the 
storage  of  various  things  for  table  use.  If,  in  completing  the  plan  for  a  house,  any  little  nooks 
or  space  can  be  found,  aside  from  the  closets  already  planned,  finish  them  into  a  closet  or 
cupboard;  they  will  never  come  amiss,  but  will  all  be  utilized. 

Piazzas. — Porcbes  and  piazzas  add  much  to  the  attractive  appearance  of  dwellings 
externally,  and  render  them  more  pleasant  to  live  in.  A  good  piazza  will  make  the  rooms  of 
a  house  that  adjoin  it  more  oool  in  smnmer  by  its  shade,  while  it  will  be  a  comfortable  and 
pleasant  place  in  whicli  to  spend  leisure  hours,  such  as  the  noon  time  and  evenings,  in  warm 
and  pleasant  weather.  There  is  an  objection  to  their  being  so  bmlt  as  to  exclude  the  sunlight 
from  the  house  too  much;  stiU,  a  narrow  piazza  is  not  as  convenient,  neither  docs  it  look  as 
well  as  a  wide  one.  To  avoid  this  difficulty,  an  awning  is  frequently  used  instead  of  a  roof 
for  covering  or  extending  a  piazza  located  on  the  south  side  of  a  building.  By  this  means 
shade  may  Ije  had  when  needed,  and.  by  its  removal,  the  sunlight  admitted  at  other  times. 
A  veranda  located  on  the  north  side  of  the  house  furnishes  a  most  cool  and  comfortable  place 
in  hot  weather,  while  the  objection  that  might  be  raised  respecting  a  southern  location,  of 
excluding  the  sunlight  in  cooler  weather,  would  be  obviated. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  633 

Eave  Troughs. — No  house  is  complete  without  being  supplied  with  eave-troughs  for 
conducting  the  water  from  the  roof.  By  their  use,  rain-water  may  be  secured,  if  desired, 
for  various  purposes,  such  as  for  cisterns,  or  watering-troughs.  In  sections  where  the  well  water 
is  hard,  this  is  a  very  easy  means  of  securing  soft  water  for  washing  and  other  household  pur- 
poses. "Where  barn-roofs  are  sufficiently  large,  cisterns  may  in  this  manner  often  be  kept 
well  supplied  with  water  for  watering  stock. 

Wherever  eave-troughs  are  used,  the  water  should  either  be  conducted  into  cisterns,  or 
some  other  place  away  from  the  house,  to  permit  its  reaching  the  cellar.  "Without  them,  the 
constant  dripping  from  the  eaves  in  a  rain-storm  washes  the  soil  and  spoils  the  turf  close  to 
the  building,  while  the  water  is  very  apt  to  find  its  way  into  the  cellar,  making  it  very  damp 
and  unhealthy.  It  is  rare  to  find  a  dry  cellar  where  they  are  not  employed.  It  is  also  very 
unpleasant  to  go  in  and  out  of  a  house  when  it  rains,  and  have  the  surplus  water  caught  by 
the  roof  come  flooding  down  upon  one,  as  it  will  from  buildings  that  are  not  supplied  with 
them. 

Blillds. — These  add  much  to  the  pleasant  appearance  of  a  house,  both  externally  and 
internally.  While  they  are  not  absolutely  a  necessity,  still  a  dwelling  seems  bare  and  unfin- 
ished without  them.  They  make  the  house  much  cooler  in  summer,  warmer  in  winter;  are 
a  protection  to  the  windows,  admit  of  regulating  the  intensity  of  light  in  a  room  better  than 
could  be  accomplished  by  any  other  means,  and  also  aid  in  keeping  out  flies  and  other  insects 
in  summer. 

A  house  seems  much  better  furnished  and  more  home-like  with  them,  and  they  add  a 
kind  of  completeness  and  finish  to  a  building  that  is  not  secured  in  any  other  way.  The  best 
blinds  are  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  and  should  always  be  procured.  They  should  be  well 
fitted  and  hung,  and  provided  with  strong  and  suitable  fastenings  to  make  them  secure,  whether 
open  or  shut. 

Lightllillg-Rods. — A  good  lightning-rod,  well  put  up,  is  a  great  protection  to  a  build- 
ing against  lightning,  while  a  poor  one,  or  a  good  one  that  is  improperly  put  up,  is  a  source 
of  danger.  In  procuring  a  rod,  only  the  very  best  should  be  selected,  and  a  person  who 
thoroughly  understands  the  business  be  employed  to  put  it  up. 

The  size  of  the  rod  should  be  nearly  uniform  throughout,  and  not  less  than  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A  larger  size  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  smaller.  The  number  of  points, 
and  the  height  to  which  they  should  rise,  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  building.  In 
case  of  a  small  house,  a  single  point  may  be  suf&cient,  providing  it  be  raised  sufficiently  high 
above  the  roof.  The  usual  rule  to  be  observed  in  such  cases  is,  that  the  point  should  at  least 
be  elevated  half  the  distance  to  which  its  protection  is  intended  to  extend,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  protection  secured  will  be  extended  over  the  area  of  a  circle  of  which  twice  the  elevation 
of  tho  point  is  one-half  the  diameter.  Thus,  if  the  ridge  of  the  roof  be  forty  feet  in  length, 
the  point  should  have  an  elevation  of  ten  feet,  which  is  one-half  the  radius  of  the  cLrcle  of 
protection ;  if  the  ridge  be  fifty  feet  in  length,  the  elevation  of  the  point  should  be  twelve  and 
a  half  feet,  and  so  on.  Where  there  are  several  points  on  the  same  building,  it  would  be 
safer  to  have  tliem  a  little  nearer  each  other  than  this  distance,  and  they  must  always  have  a 
perfect  connection  with  each  other.  The  more  direct  the  course  of  the  rod  is  to  the  earth,  the 
better,  and  acute  angles  by  bending  it  in  its  course  to  the  ground  should  be  avoided. 

The  lower  end  of  the  rod  should  be  placed  sufiiciently  deep  in  the  earth  to  always  be  in 
contact  with  moist  soil.  This  is  very  essential,  and  if  it  could  terminate  in  an  underground 
spring  of  water,  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  of  an  old  well  located  at  a  sufficient  dis- 
tance from  the  house,  so  much  the  better.  But  it  should  never  terminate  in  a  cistern.  This 
would  be  a  serious  mistake,  because  the  water  contained  in  it  is  insulated  from  the  earth  by 
the  lining  of  cement.     When  the  building  is  covered  with  a  metallic  roof,  it  should  be  con- 


634  THE  AMERICAN  PARMER. 

nected  with  the  lightning-rod,  or  the  Ughtning  might  take  the  course  of  the  pipes  which  con- 
vey the  water  of  the  eave-trcughs  to  the  ground,  instead  of  the  rod.  Worthless  rods  have 
been  extensively  sold  by  unprincipled  agents  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  hence  a 
prejudice  has  been  created  in  many  instances  against  the  use  of  lightning-rods;  but  a  counter- 
feit article  does  not  necessarily  prove  the  genuine  to  be  of  no  value.  Many  worthless  rods 
have  also  been  devised,  and  patented  by  persons  entirely  ignorant  of  the  principles  of 
electricity. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  recommends  that  the  rod  be  round, 
or  rather  cylindrical,  because  electricity  repels  itself,  and  tends  to  escape  into  neighboring 
bodies  from  points  or  sharp  edges;  hence,  flat  or  twisted  rods  are  for  this  reason  imperfect 
conductors,  as  they  tend  to  give  off  lateral  sparks  from  the  sharp  edges  during  the  passage 
of  the  discharge,  which  might  in  some  cases  set  fire  to  very  combustible  materials. 

Safest  Position  During  a  Thnnder-Storni. — "With  respect  to  the  safest  position 
during  a  thunder-storm,  especially  in  a  house  not  well  protected  by  a  lightning-rod,  the  best 
locality  is  generally  conceded  to  be  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  a  horizontal,  rather  than 
a  vertical  position. 

Windows,  whether  open  or  shut,  should  be  avoided,  also  chimneys,  but  in  a  house  not 
properly  protected  by  rods,  no  place  can  be  considered  as  entirely  safe.  Trees  in  the  open 
air  should  also  be  avoided,  as,  the  trunk  of  a  tree  being  a  bad  conductor  of  the  electrical 
fluid,  the  discharge  will  leave  it  and  pass  through  the  body  of  a  man  or  animal  that  might  be 
near  it. 

Yentilation. — The  neceesity  of  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  air  in  maintaining  a 
healthy  physical  condition,  is  too  little  understood,  or,  if  understood,  too  commonly  disre- 
garded by  the  great  majority  of  people. 

Even  the  most  highly  educated  classes,  who  are  perfectly  familiar  with  the  laws  which 
regulate  sanitary  conditions,  are  frequently  careless  and  indifferent  with  respect  to  ventila- 
tion. Hence,  we  have  dwellings,  churches,  public  halls,  school  buildings,  factories,  steam- 
boats, cars,  etc.,  so  constructed  that  it  is  impossible  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of  pure  air 
for  those  occupying  them,  and  they  consequently  become  places  where  the  blood  is  poisoned 
by  the  inhalation  of  vitiated  air,  and  various  forms  of  disease  are  thereby  engendered.  We 
believe  the  majority  of  diseases  to  which  human  life  is  subject  (and  we  might  also  add  that 
of  many  of  the  domestic  animals)  are  due  to  improper  ventilation.  This  seems  strange,  when 
pure  air  is  so  free  and  abundant,  and  we  have  but  to  permit  this  gift  of  heaven  to  reach  us 
with  its  life  and  health-giving  influences.  But  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  instead  of 
admitting  this  necessary  element,  we  shut  it  out  of  our  houses,  exclude  it  from  our  presence, 
and  breathe  in  its  place  poisonous  gases  freighted  with  the  elements  of  disease  and  death. 

Tlie  majority  of  persons  would  refuse  to  eat  food  or  drink  water  that  they  knew  to  be 
unclean,  or  to  wear  clothing  that  was  soiled  and  untidy,  and  yet  they  will  breathe  over  and 
over  again  air  that  has  been  rendered  impure,  either  by  its  having  been  exhaled  from  their 
own  or  other  persons'  limgs,  without  the  least  thought  of  its  uncleanliness,  or  the  evils  that 
may  result. 

Consumption,  typhoid  fever,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  and  many  other  diseases  are  fre- 
quently caHsed  by  breathing  impure  air.  When  there  is  such  gross  carelessness  and  indiffer- 
ence with  respect  to  these  sanitary  conditions,  it  is  no  wonder  that  such  diseases  are  so  prev- 
alent, and  their  victims  so  numerous. 

It  is  stated  by  no  less  an  authority  than  Dr.  Leeds,  that  it  is  as  easy  to  prevent  consump- 
tion by  the  use  of  pure  air,  as  it  is  to  prevent  drunkenness  by  the  use  of  water.  We  have 
known  of  many  cases  of  incipient  consumption,  or  consumption  in  its  first  stages,  as  well  as 
fevers  and  other  diseases,  having  been  cured  by  the  patients  being  constantly  supphed  with 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  635 

an  abundance  of  pure  air.  It  is  often  astonisliing  to  see  how  rapidly  a  person  ■will  recover  as 
soon  as  his  strength  will  admit  of  his  getting  out  to  spend  a  considerable  time  in  the  open  air. 
It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  an  adult  man  gives  off,  in  breathing,  from  six  to  seven- 
tenths  of  a  cubic  foot  of  carbonic  acid  in  an  hour  while  awake,  and  from  five  to  six-tenths  of 
a  cubic  foot  when  asleep.  Also  that  he  inhales  at  least  twenty  cubic  inches  of  air  at  each 
breath,  which,  allowing  twenty  respirations  per  minute,  is  equal  to  fourteen  cubic  feet  of  air 
passing  through  the  lungs  per  hour. 

The  air  that  is  expelled  from  the  lungs  in  breathing  contains  from  4  to  5  per  cent,  or 
more  of  carbonic  acid,  and  is  saturated  with  moisture  from  the  lungs.  Besides  the  vapor 
given  o£E  by  the  lungs,  there  is  also  that  which  escapes  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  which 
is  estimated  to  be  in  an  adult  person  equal  to  from  -^^  to  J  of  a  pound  per  hour,  which  also 
escapes  into  the  suiTounding  air.  These  vapors,  thus  escaping  from  the  body  through  breath- 
ing and  perspiration,  contain  substances  which  are  injurious,  if  taken  into  the  system  again, 
and  which  are  necessary  to  be  removed  at  first,  in  order  to  maintain  a  healthy  condition.  One 
of  the  functions  or  uses  of  breathing  and  perspiration  is  to  remove  them  from  the  body.  "We 
can,  therefore,  easily  perceive  how  soon  the  air  of  a  small  and  perfectly  tight  room  would 
become  vitiated  by  even  the  presence  of  one  individual,  and  also  how  important  it  is  that  the 
effete  waste  matter  once  thrown  off  from  the  system,  should  not  be  taken  into  it  again.  This 
can  only  be  prevented  by  proper  ventilation,  w-hich  shall  provide  a  sufBcient  supply  of  pure 
air  to  be  inhaled,  instead  of  that  which  has  been  thus  poisoned. 

In  the  construction  of  a  house,  one  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  considered  is 
providing  suitable  means  for  its  proper  ventilation.  To  permit  of  a  suitable  amount  of  fresh 
air  being  introduced  into  a  room,  and  thoroughly  distributed  without  producing  draughts 
upon  the  occupants,  should  be  the  object  in  planning  for  this  purpose.  Volumes  might  be 
written  on  the  different  methods  that  might  be  employed  in  ventilating  buildings  and  the 
arguments  given  to  maintain  them,  but  our  space  will  admit  of  only  a  few  general  sugges- 
tions with  respect  to  the  subject. 

No  change  of  air  can  be  obtained  in  an  apartment  except  when  the  inside  air  is  either 
warmer  or  colder  than  the  air  outside,  or  in  other  words,  except  there  is  a  difference  of  tem- 
perature between  the  indoor  and  outdoor  air.  For  this  reason  open  windows  will  not  prove 
an  effectual  means  of  ventilation  unless  the  air  in  the  room  is  warmer  or  colder  than  the 
atmosphere  without.  The  old-fashioned  fire-place  furnished  to  our  ancestors  an  admirable 
means  of  ventilation,  since  it  permitted  the  impure  air  to  pass  up  the  chimney,  while  pure  air 
could  be  admitted  by  windows  or  doors,  or  what  would  be  better,  through  a  tube  or  pipe 
suitably  arranged  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  it  into  the  apartment.  For  this  reason  open 
grates  and  stoves  similarly  constructed  furnish  better  facilities  for  ventilating  a  room  than 
close,  air-tight  stoves.  A  considerable  portion  of  warm  air  will,  of  course,  also  by  this  means 
escape  up  the  chimney,  but  the  benefits  to  be  secured  by  the  improved  condition  of  air  in  the 
room  will  more  than  repay  the  extra  expense  of  heating. 

The  windows  of  a  house  should  all  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  lowered  at  the  top,  as 
well  as  raised  at  the  bottom.  Doors  and  windows  should  be  freely  opened  in  a  house  during 
the  summer,  in  order  to  permit  the  pure  air  from  without  to  have  free  circulation  through 
the  building.  This  cannot  be  well  secured  unless  the  windows  or  doors  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  room  be  opened,  thus  furnishing  the  means  for  the  impure  air  to  escape  and  the  pure  air 
to  enter.  If  no  means  are  provided  for  the  escape  of  the  air  already  in  the  apartment  the 
outside  air  cannot  be  admitted,  for  nothing  can  ever  be  more  than  full,  and  we  cannot  force 
air  into  a  room  already  full.  Windows  should  also  be  opened  every  few  hours  during  the 
winter,  if  no  other  means  of  ventilation  are  provided. 

The  fire  in  every  ordinary  stove  furnishes  the  means  for  the  escape  of  some  of  the  air  of 
the  room  by  the  draught  produced,  while  fresh  air  from  without  finds  entrance  from  about 


636  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

the  windows  and  doors;  but  this  is  far  from  being  sufiBcient  for  ventilating  purposes.  Chim- 
ney-fiues  or  other  means  of  ventilating  should  be  employed.  Chimney-flues,  in  order  to  be 
effectual  as  ventilators,  must  have  the  air  within  them  warmer  than  that  in  the  apartment,  . 
otherwise  they  cease  to  act.  In  arranging  for  ventilation,  whatever  the  system  practiced, 
two  things  are  essential,  viz.,  the  providing  of  suitable  inlets  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air, 
and  equally  capacious  outlets  for  the  escape  of  the  impure  air. 

The  opening  for  the  introduction  of  fresh  air  for  ventilating  purposes  may  be  either 
above  or  below  the  place  of  outlet  for  the  foul  air.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  build  a  ventilating- 
flue  close  to  the  chimney,  by  which  means  the  air  within  the  flue  will  be  warmed,  causing  a 
good  draught.  It  is  important  that  tlie  air  admitted  for  ventilation  should  always  be  pure. 
The  custom  that  is  frequently  followed,  of  supplying  the  air  to  a  furnace  or  other  heater 
directly  from  the  cellar  of  a  house  is  very  dangerous,  since  the  bad  air  of  the  cellar  is  thus 
diffused  throughout  the  house.  Even  cemented  cellars  are  not  an  exception  to  this  rule.  The 
air  for  such  purposes  should  be  obtained  from  outside,  and  always  be  pure  and  fresh. 

As  a  general  practice,  people  suffer  more  from  bad  ventilation  in  their  sleeping-rooms 
than  elsewhere.  Too  much  fear  is  entertained  from  breathing  what  is  called  "night  air," 
hence,  windows  are  closed,  or  only  slight  openings  made  for  ventilating  purposes,  and  the  air 
of  the  room  breathed  over  and  over  again,  and  the  blood  poisoned  by  the  process.  During 
the  day  there  is  no  air  for  us  to  breathe  but  day  air,  and  there  is  just  as  certainly  no  other 
air  for  us  to  breathe  during  the  night  but  "night  air,"  consequently  there  is  no  other  alter- 
native for  us  but  either  to  cease  breathing  at  all  during  the  night  or  breathe  "night  air." 
We  must  therefore  take  that  which  is  already  in  the  house,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  degree 
impure,  or  that  which  is  pure  from  without ;  and  how  much  better  to  have  the  pure  air  from 
without. 

The  air  of  a  sleeping-room  should  be  just  as  pure  in  the  morning,  after  the  room  has 
been  occupied  all  night,  as  the  outdoor  air,  and  yet  how  few  sleeping- apartments  could  be 
found  under  such  sanitary  conditions.  Some  writer  has  called  sleeping-apartments,  as  gen- 
erally managed,  "charnel-houses,"  suitable  only  to  die  in,  which,  unfortunately,  is  quite  true 
in  a  majority  of  cases. 

The  farmer  and  his  sons,  being  out  in  the  field  during  the  day,  suffer  less  from  poor  ven- 
tilation than  the  wife  and  daughters,  who  are  confined  more  within  doors.  If  farmers  gen- 
erally, either  in  constructing  new  dwellings  or  repairing  old  ones,  would  pay  more  attention 
to  securing  the  means  of  proper  ventilation,  and  the  best  use  of  such  facilities  were  employed 
by  their  families,  there  would  be  less  need  of  doctors  and  their  potions,  and  the  figures  of  the 
mortuary  records  of  the  country  would  be  greatly  reduced. 

Cellars. — A  dry,  well-ventilated  cellar  is  essential  to  the  best  sanitary  condition  of  a 
dwelling.  In  selecting  a  site  for  a  farm-house,  therefore,  dry  land  on  a  slight  elevation, 
which  will  admit  of  suitable  drainage,  sliould  be  chosen,  if  practicable.  But  there  are  many 
sections  where  the  land  is  wet,  and  unless  some  means  are  employed  for  under-draining  it, 
the  cellars  will  either  contain  standing  water  a  large  portion  of  the  time,  or  be  dripping  with 
moisture.  Such  cellars  are  very  unhealthy,  and  should  never  be  permitted  to  remain  in  such 
a  condition  while  the  buildings  above  them  are  used  as  habitations.  They  are  also  not  fit  for 
the  storage  of  family  supplies. 

Even  dry  soils  are  damp  after  heavy  rain-storms,  consequently  some  means  of  drainage 
should  be  provided  in  every  cellar.  But  where  the  land  is  naturally  wet  or  retentive  of 
moisture,  a  thorough  under-draining  is  highly  essential.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  laying 
drain-tile  a  foot  or  more  below  the  bottom  of  the  cellar,  both  inside  and  outside  the  cellar- 
walls,  which  shall  go  around  the  cellar,  thus  securing  a  drainage  on  every  side.  These  tiles 
should  communicate  with  a  receiving-drain,  which  shall  take  the  water  quite  a  distance  from 
the  premises.     The  bottom  of  the  cellar  should  then  be  covered  with  stones  or  brick  (stones 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  637 

to  be  preferred  when  they  can  be  obtained),  and  well  cemented.  Boards  should  never  be 
used  for  flooring  a  cellar,  as  they  soon  become  damp  and  moldy,  making  such  houses  very 
unhealthy  to  live  in.  Mr.  Gardner,  in  his  treatise  on  Farm  Architecture,  expresses  the 
following  opinion  on  this  subject: — 

"By  careful  draining,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  soil  naturally  wet  fit  to  hve  upon. 

Where  any  doubt  exists,  the  entire  site  should  be  thoroughly  xmder-drained.  The 
foundation-waUs  should  be  solid ;  that  is,  laid  in  cement  and  mortar. 

An  enterprising  rat  with  a  large  family  on  his  hands  will  destroy  more  in  a  single  winter 
than  the  whole  extra  cost  of  the  mortar. 

'Pointing'  the  face  wiU  not  answer;  it  wiU  stop  'nearly  all'  the  holes,  but  add  nothing 
whatever  to  the  strength  of  the  masonry. 

There  are  several  good  reasons  why  the  first  or  principal  floor  of  a  house  should  not  be 
too  high  up  in  the  world.  From  the  picturesque  stand-point  the  lowly  estate  is  decidedly 
preferable,  especially  as  the  underpinning  is  usually  treated.  But  other  reasons  for  keeping 
the  living-rooms  well  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  too  important  to  be  disregarded. 

A  free  circulation  of  air  and  plenty  of  light  underneath  the  first  floor  are  indispensable 
to  the  best  sanitary  condition.  These  can  be  most  easUy  secured  when  at  least  half  the  cellar 
or  basement  story  is  above  the  ground. 

The  porch  and  the  main  entrance-hall  may  perhaps  be  upon  a  lower  level. 

For  warmth  and  dryness,  the  cellar-wall  above  the  ground,  commonly  called  the  under- 
pinning, should  be  hoUow — two  thin  walls  of  stone  or  brick,  or  one  of  each." 

With  respect  to  improving  cellars  of  old  buildings  that  are  dark,  damp,  and  moldy, 
the  same  writers  says: — 

"  Dig  a  trench  around  outside  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  or  at  least  until  the 
stratum  of  earth  is  reached  that  holds  the  water,  and  girdle  the  foundation  with  a  drain  of 
horseshoe-tiles,ha\'ing  one  or  more  free  outlets.  RefiU  the  trench  with  sand,  gravel,  or  cin- 
ders, and  cover  the  top  with  several  inches  in  depth  of  clay  and  loam  pitching  sharply  away 
from  the  house,  and  lay  a  shallow,  open  gutter  of  concrete  or  cobble-stones  to  catch  the 
water  from  the  roof,  if  there  are  no  eave-spouts. 

If  the  cellar  is  not  deep  enough  for  the  modem  furnace  or  steam-heater,  and  the  walls 
do  not  extend  below  the  cellar -bottom,  build  a  new  wall  of  bricks  or  stones  two  or  three  feet 
inside  of  the  old,  and  below  the  cellar-bottom,  leaving  a  sort  of  platform  for  bins,  barrels, 
and  boxes  around  the  edges,  and  dig  the  rest  two  feet  deeper.  By  this  means  the  old 
foundations  are  not  disturbed,  and  the  whole  can  be  done  in  cold  or  wet  weather. 

When  the  old  house  rests  so  closely  upon  the  earth  that  no  sunlight  enters  the  cellar 
through  the  narrow  windows,  and  the  cellar  cannot  be  raised  witliout  great  expense,  nor  the 
earth  be  removed  around  it,  then  build  semicircular  areas  of  bricks  about  the  windows,  and 
make  the  windows  themselves  large  enough  to  admit  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  simlight  under 
the  house.  Darkness  is  the  first  station  on  the  road  that  leads  to  dampness,  decay,  disease, 
and  death.     This  is  true  of  the  new  house,  as  well  as  of  the  old." 

The  present  custom  of  constructing  cellars  smaller  than  the  area  covered  by  the  house, 
and  also  of  placing  the  building  higher  up  from  the  ground,  is  a  great  improvement  upon 
the  old-time  method  of  extending  large,  deep  cellars  underneath  the  entire  building,  and  set- 
ting the  house  so  low  that  it  was  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  soil.  Very  large  cellars,  which 
are  unnecessary,  are  thus  prevented  from  becoming  the  storage  of  waste  materials,  which,  by 
a  slow  process  of  decay,  would  render  the  buildings  above  them  exceedingly  imhealthy  ;  but 
by  being  elevated  higher  from  the  ground,  more  Ught  and  better  ventilation  are  secured. 
The  cellar  shotdd,  however,  be  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  house  in  one  direction  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  a  good  ventilation. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  remove  the  turf  from  that  portion  of  the  earth  which  is  to  be  covered 


638  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

by  the  building  where  the  cellar  does  not  extend,  fill  in  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  with 
gravel,  afterwards  covering  with  cement.  This  prevents,  in  a  great  measure,  the  gases  that 
arise  from  the  earth  from  making  their  way  into  the  building.  Arrangements  should  also  be 
made  in  the  underpinning,  in  such  places,  for  permitting  a  free  circulation  of  air,  by  leaving 
spaces  or  openings,  or  the  unhealthy  gases  that  are  carried  underneath  the  building  will 
surely  find  an  entrance.  The  timbers  will  also  soon  be  affected  with  dry  rot,  if  such  places 
are  not  properly  ventilated. 

The  cellar-walls  should  be  well  cemented,  and  the  ceiling  lathed  and  plastered.  This 
latter  will  render  the  rooms  above  warmer  in  cold  weather,  and  the  floor  less  liable  to  admit 
the  gases  from  the  cellar,  while  a  well-built  and  carefully-cemented  wall  will  exclude  rats, 
mice,  and  other  vermin. 

There  should  be  several  windows  in  every  cellar  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  light,  and 
a  free  circulation  of  air.  Additional  ventilation  can  also  be  secured  by  means  of  an  aperture 
connected  with  the  chimney.  A  wire  netting  should  be  placed  over  the  windows  to  exclude 
rats,  mice,  and  insects  when  the  windows  are  opened.  There  should  be  broad,  weU-hghted 
stairs  leading  from  the  kitchen,  or  near  it,  to  the  cellar,  also  stairs  leading  from  the  cellar  out 
of  the  building. 

Darkness  and  dampness  should  be  excluded  from  cellars,  and  they  should  also  be  kept 
free  from  any  decaying  substance,  such  as  rotten  wood,  decaying  vegetables,  &c.  It  is  not 
well  to  use  the  home-cellar  as  a  place  of  storage  for  very  large  quantities  of  root  crops,  such 
as  for  feeding  stock.  It  renders  a  house  unhealthy.  A  barn,  or  root-cellar  should  be  used 
for  this  purpose. 

Water-Closets  and  Vaults. — "When  properly  constructed,  water-closets  are  the  most 
complete  arrangements  for  their  intended  purpose  that  can  be  found.  But  few  farm-houses 
are,  however,  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of  their  use.  In  such  as  have  the  facilities,  they  are 
not  only  a  .great  convenience,  but  also  conduce  to  sanitary  measures  as  well.  They  should 
always  be  fui-nished  with  a  good  supply  of  water.  When  a  tank  is  used  for  supphdng  water 
for  this  purpose,  it  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  gallons, 
and  should  be,  at  least,  from  seven  to  eight  feet  from  the  floor. 

In  order  to  be  arranged,  on  good  sanitary  principles,  water-closets  should  always  be  sup- 
plied with  strong  lead  traps  underneath,  which  shall  prevent  the  escape  of  gases.  These 
should  run  into  large  cast-iron  pipes  which  should  communicate  with  the  sewer.  Unless  the 
utmost  care  is  used  in  providing  a  sufficient  number  of  suitable  traps,  such  closets  become 
the  source  of  serious  annoyance,  and  unsanitary  conditions  in  a  house,  being  the  means  of 
conducting  the  poisonous  gases  from  the  sewage  directly  into  the  building.  In  constructing 
them  the  most  competent  workmen,  those  perfectly  familiar  with  their  business,  should  be 
employed,  and  the  work  thoroughly  performed. 

It  is  easy  to  have  it  well  done  at  first,  but  generally  a  difficult  and  expensive  task  to 
have  any  mistakes  corrected,  or  repairs  made  afterward.  Care  should  be  used  to  prevent  the 
water  in  the  pipes  from  freezing  in  the  winter. 

Earth  closets  are  also  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  many  localities.  These  are  most 
of  them  provided  with  an  automatic  arrangement  for  throwing  down  a  quantity  of  sifted 
earth.  But  on  the  farm,  and  in  connection  with  farm  buildings,  such  conveniences  are  very 
rarely  seen  ;  the  most  indifierent  arrangements  for  the  family  use  in  this  respect  being  im- 
fortimately  commonly  provided. 

As  a  general  rule,  such  conveniences  in  the  country  consist  of  an  old  dilapidated  bmld- 
mg,  located  at  a  distance  from  the  house,  and  in  an  exposed  locality,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
reached  in  stormy  weather,  or  at  any  time  without  exposure  to  health  or  observation. 

No  means  are  provided  for  deodorizing,  hence  such  places  are  a  source  from  which 
poison  to  the  air  and  water  in  their  vicinity  emanates,  thus  becoming  the  means  of  sowing 
the  seeds  of  disease  and  death. 


=«s«^. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  641 

An  immense  amount  of  evil  is  wrought,  year  after  year,  simply  through  indifference 
and  carelessness  in  this  respect  on  the  part  of  those  having  charge  of  the  farm  management. 
Typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  and  the  many  diseases  and  ills  arising  from  blood-poisoning  are 
often  directly  traceable  to  this  source.  Ignorant  of  the  origin  of  the  evil,  no  effort  is  made 
to  remedy  it  by  the  family,  but  that  only  resort,  the  doctor,  is  usually  sent  for,  who  may 
himself  be  equally  ignorant  of  sanitary  laws,  or,  if  not,  may  perhaps  be  too  ambitious  to 
secure  a  patient  to  point  out  the  real  difficulty;  consequently  pills  and  powders  are  administered 
until  the  unfortunate  victim  either  dies  or  eventually  recovers,  owing  to  his  good  fortune  in 
possessing  a  constitution  sufficiently  strong  to  counteract  all  the  unfavorable  conditions.  In- 
telligent and  honest  -physicians,  of  which  there  are  many,  wiU  investigate  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  real  and  true  cause  of  the  evil  in  such  cases,  and  then  point  them  out,  and 
advise  the  remedy. 

Those  who  drink  water  that  has  been  contaminated  or  poisoned  in  any  way  cannot  fail 
of  being  injured  by  it,  although  there  may  be  cases,  and  probably  are,  where  persons  may 
live  to  old  age,  and  continue  to  use  such  water  without  any  apparent  injury.  There  are 
exceptions  to  every  rule.  Tliere  are  persons  who  may  be  exposed  to  the  small-pox,  or  other 
dangerous  and  contagious  diseases,  who  may  chance  to  escape  taking  the  infection,  but  such 
cases  are  very  rare,  and  are  the  exception,  rather  than  the  rule.  Because  one  person  in  a 
hundred  might  do  it,  is  no  reason  why  the  other  ninety -nine  should  run  the  risk  of  exposure. 

It  is  the  positive  testimony  of  the  best  medical  authorities,  that  many  deaths,  and  a  large 
percentage  of  sickness,  are  caused  by  unsanitary  conditions.  When  vaults  are  located  near 
wells,  the  soil  may  for  a  time  prevent  the,  evil,  by  filtering  the  drainage  from  such  sources  ; 
but  after  the  soil  has  itself  become  saturated  with  the  poison  to  a  great  extent,  it  cannot  purify 
the  water  passing  through  it,  hence  is  the  means  of  conducting  it  directly  into  wells  that 
may  be  located  near.  By  a  little  care  and  skill,  the  evils  attending  the  use  of  such  closets 
can  be  avoided. 

They  should  be  so  located  as  to  be  accessible  without  going  out  of  doors,  if  practicable, 
also  hidden  from  the  road.  If  this  is  not  possible,  a  high  tight  fence,  thick  hedge  of  ever- 
greens, or  grape-vine  arbor  should  Tje  made  a  shield  for  the  walk,  while  a  rustic  frame  of 
lattice-work  would  screen  the  entrance,  over  which  some  kind  of  climbling  vine  might  be 
trained.  Such  unsightly  places  can  thus  easily  be  rendered  other  than  a  blemish  to  the  prem- 
ises at  a  slight  expense,  and  but  little  care  and  labor. 

The  best  vaults  are  those  that  are  cemented  at  the  bottom  and  sides.  A  vault  should  be 
closed  by  a  door  made  of  heavy  plank,  and  so  hung  on  hinges  that  it  can  be  readily  opened 
and  hooked  up  out  of  the  way  when  it  is  being  cleaned  out.  Gas-tar,  or  a  similar  substance, 
should  be  used  for  coating  the  inside  of  the  door,  while  the  outside  should  be  painted,  by 
which  means  it  is  rendered  more  impervious  to  moisture.  A  little  dry  road  dust,  muck,  or 
coal  ashes  thrown  in  every  two  or  three  times  a  day,  will  prove  a  good  deodorizer  and 
absorbent. 

A  barrel  or  cask  containing  this  material  might  stand  in  the  closet,  and  when  farther 
provided  with  a  long-handled  dipper  or  a  small  shovel  for  the  purpose,  such  material  could 
be  conveniently  thrown  into  the  vault,  which  would  certainly  be  a  cheap  and  easy  way  of 
rendering  it  inoffensive,  and  of  avoiding  the  evils  that  now  so  commonly  attend  such  places. 
In  this  way  the  liquids  are  absorbed  and  prevented  from  filtering  into  the  soil,  while  the 
entire  contents  are  deodorized.  No  soap-suds  or  other  slops  should  ever  be  turned  into  the 
vamt,  but  it  should  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible,  with  the  absorbents  used. 

The  Barn.  —  As  commonly  appropriated,  farm  barns  are  used  for  the  protection  of 
stock  against  inclement  weather,  the  storage  of  their  food,  the  manufacture  and  preservation 
of  fertilizing  materials,  and  the  storage  of  farm  machinery.  Aside  from  these  considerations, 
the  convenience  in  performing  the  barn  work  should  also  be  taken  into  account  in  construct- 


642  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

ing  a  hum.  On  very  large  farms  necessitating  the  extensive  use  of  farm  implements,  a  sep- 
arate building  is  sometimes  required  for  their  storage. 

A  good  barn  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  on  a  farm.  In  newly-settled  sections,  they 
are  sometimes  dispensed  with  for  a  time,  until  the  land  can  be  put  under  cultivation,  and  the 
owner  is  able  to  erect  the  necessary  farm  buildings.  This  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  far 
West,  but  even  imder  such  circumstances  the  most  thrifty  and  enterprising  farmers  will  not 
be  long  without  a  bam,  and  those  which  are  the  most  enterprising  and  prosperous  will  gener- 
ally erect  the  best  farm  buildings  and  keep  them  in  the  best  repair.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
barns  of  the  Western  and  Southern  portions  of  the  country  are  not  equal  in  architectural 
structure  and  convenience  to  those  of  New  England  and  the  Jliddle  States,  although  many 
portions  of  the  older-settled  sections  of  the  "West  are  fully  equal  in  this  respect  to  either  of 
the  latter  mentioned.  Next  to  a  good  farm  house,  a  good  bam  is  essential,  and  no  farmer 
can  afford  to  be  without  one  which  should  be  of  sufBcient  size  for  all  the  purposes  to  which 
it  is  to  be  appropriated. 

While  large  bams  are  more  expensive  than  small  ones,  and  a  surplus  of  room  in  this 
respect  is  therefore  a  lack  of  economy,  yet  it  more  frequently  happens  that  barns  are  too 
small,  rather  than  too  large,  and  the  owners  are  obliged  to  be  subjected  to  great  inconvenience 
for  this  reason,  or  be  at  the  expense  of  buUding  others,  or  enlarging  the  original.  A 
large  number  of  small  buildings  on  a  farm  are  a  blemish  and  an  unnecessary  expense,  and  it 
is  better  in  every  respect  for  the  farmer  to  build  one  bam  of  sufficient  dimensions  for  all  the 
practical  uses  on  the  farm,  than  to  be  obliged  to  build  two  or  three  small  ones. 

The  size  of  the  bam  must,  of  course,  be  proportionate  to  the  size  and  productiveness  of 
the  farm,  and  the  number  of  animals  to  he  furnished  comfortable  quarters.  Even  in  latitudes 
that  do  not  essentially  require  the  housing  of  stock  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  animals  that 
are  kept  stabled  a  part  of  the  time  are  more  valuable,  as  they  have  better  care,  and  are  more 
gentle  and  therefore  easily  managed,  while  they  can  also  be  fed  with  less  waste  of  material, 
and  the  fertiUzere  they  produce  can  all  be  saved  with  little  care,  which  is  no  small  considera- 
tion when  we  take  into  account  the  value  of  well-composted  manure  to  the  farmer.  In  those 
latitudes  in  which  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  a  portion  of  the  year,  the  barn  should  be 
large  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  stock  on  the  fann,  and  their  fodder.  Animals  that  are 
not  protected  from  the  cold  require  more  food  than  those  that  are,  since  much  of  the  food 
which  they  consume  goes  towards  the  production  of  animal  heat,  and  unless  enough  food  is 
given  them  to  satisfy  their  hxmger,  this  extra  demand  reduces  the  supply  for  repairing  the 
waste  of  the  system;  consequently  such  animals  wiU  not  only  consume  larger  quantities  of 
food,  but  will  grow  thin  in  flesh  and  present  an  emaciated  condition  in  the  spring.  Young 
horses  and  cattle  are  frequently  stunted  in  their  growth  by  this  means. 

On  the  other  hand,  stock  that  are  provided  with  warm,  comfortable  quarters,  wUl  con- 
sume less  food,  and  be  kept  in  a  thriving  condition  during  the  winter.  Diseases  are  also 
more  frequently  prevented,  and  more  easily  cured  under  such  conditions.  Cows  that  are 
kept  in  warm  stables  will  give  more  milk  and  of  better  quality  than  those  that  are  not  com- 
fortably housed.  This  truth  is  so  apparent,  that  it  requires  no  argument  to  substantiate  it. 
It  is  therefore  a  practice  of  economy,  as  well  as  humanity,  for  the  farmer  to  fumish  food  and 
good  shelter  for  his  stock. 

Where  ensilage  is  used  extensively  for  feeding  animals,  less  room  will  be  required  in  the 
bam  for  the  storage  of  hay.  Hay  may  be  stacked  in  the  field,  thus  rendering  less  room  nec- 
essary in  the  barn;  but  hay  that  is  thus  exposed  to  the  weather,  is  greatly  inferior  to  that 
which  is  stored;  besides,  stacking  involves  much  waste.  A  great  advantage  in  this  respect 
will  be  found  in  baling  hay,  as  it  will  then  occupy  much  less  room  than  otherwise.  In  build- 
ing a  barn  the  fanner  should  have  as  definite  an  idea  of  its  use,  and  the  necessities  for  its 
convenience,  as  in  building  a  house,  and  in  many  respects  what  will  apply  to  the  one  -n-ill, 
with  sUght  modifications,  apply  to  the  other. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  643 

In  a  large  portion  of  the  country  it  will  he  necessary  to  build  barns  in  a  manner  to  secure 
warmth;  hence,  they  must  be  tightly  covered  and  the  floors  well  laid,  that  the  cold  air  may 
not  blow  in  upon  the  animals.  At  the  same  time,  good  ventilation  must  be  maintained. 
While  warmth  is  essential  in  a  bam  for  the  comfort  and  thrift  of  the  animals,  it  is  better 
that  the  barn  be  cold,  and  good  ventOation  secured  by  air  blowing  through  the  cracks  and 
about  windows,  rather  than  that  the  animals  be  made  to  constantly  breathe  the  offensive '  and 
tainted  atmosphere  of  an  ill- ventilated  building.  Many  of  the  diseases  to  which  cattle  and 
horses,  as  well  as  other  domestic  animals,  are  subject,  are  due  to  overcrowding  and  the  breath- 
ing of  the  poisoned  atmosphere  of  badly-ventilated  stables.  Cattle  kept  in  such  enclosures 
cannot  be  healthy,  and  are  totally  unfit  to  become  food  for  mankind. 

Location  of  Barns.  —  The  bam  should  be  located  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the 
farm-house,  but  suflSciently  removed  to  prevent  all  contamination  of  air  and  water.  It  should 
never  be  placed  upon  ground  higher  than  the  house,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  drainage  from 
it,  either  on  the  surface  or  in  the  soil,  will  be  able  to  reach  the  cellar,  well,  or  the  surround- 
ings. Unless  on  a  level,  with  the  house,  the  bam  should  be  placed  on  a  lower  level,  if  prac- 
ticable. The  location  should  also  be  so  chosen  that  the  drainage  from  the  barn-yard  shall 
flow  upon  the  farm  lands,  that  they  may  receive  and  absorb  all  the  fertilizing  elements  that 
may  be  washed  from  the  yards  in  heavy  storms,  etc.  We  have  frequently  seen  barns  built 
upon  a  road  side,  with  a  slope  towards  the  highway  into  which  all  the  wash  from  the  yard 
is  carried,  year  after  year.  By  this  means  much  of  the  fertility  that  might  be  derived  from  this 
source  is  lost  to  the  farm.  This  may  seem  a  small  matter  to  those  farmers  who  till  the 
prairie  soil,  possessing  such  a  wealth  of  fertility  that  it  requires  no  fertilizer  in  addition,  for 
the  production  of  vast  crops;  but  to  the  farmer  whose  soil  is  of  such  quality  that  it  necessi- 
tates such  a  large  supply  of  plant-food  applied  every  year  to  render  it  prodiictive,  that  it  is 
dilBcult  to  preserve,  or  secure  the  requisite  amount,  it  means  considerable. 

Other  important  considerations  are  involved  in  the  location  of  a  barn,  such  as  the  health 
and  comfort  of  the  animals  to  be  stabled  in  it;  consequently  dry  land  should  be  chosen,  and 
damp  localities  avoided;  also  cold,  bleak  sites,  or  those  that  are  inconvenient  of  access  in 
hauling  loads  to  and  from  it.  The  old-fashioned  custom  of  building  a  house  on  one  side  of 
the  highway  and  the  barn  on  the  other,  nearly  opposite,  should  also  be  regarded  as  obsolete, 
and  a  better  one  substituted  in  its  place.  Frequently  a  locality  will  be  formd  admitting  of  a 
basement  partly  under  ground,  which  will  furnish  the  best  facilities  for  a  root-cellar,  as  well 
as  for  other  purposes. 

Plans  for  Barns.  —  We  shall  not  attempt  to  furnish  plans  that  will  meet  in  aU 
respects  the  wants  of  the  builder,  as  this  would  be  an  impossibility,  since  the  ideas,  wants, 
and  tastes  of  each  individual  farmer  differs  so  materially  in  this  respect;  but  rather  to  give  a 
few  general  plans  that  may  serve  as  suggestions  and  hints  to  the  farmer  in  better  determin- 
ing his  own  wants,  and  in  carrying  out  such  ideas  in  practice  as  shall  subserve  to  fully  meet 
those  wants  in  the  most  convenient  and  economic  manner.  While  some  of  the  plans  of 
model  barns  that  have  been  inserted  may  prove  quite  too  expensive  for  the  ordinary  farmer 
to  follow  in  detail,  they  may  serve  to  suggest  in  certain  respects  what  might  be  done  on  a 
smaller  scale,  and  but  little  or  no  more  expense  involved,  than  in  the  construction  of  many 
of  the  inconvenient,  uncomfortable,  and  uncouth  structures  called  bams,  that  we  so  fre- 
quently see. 

Utility  is  one  of  the  main  considerations  in  constructing  a  building,  and  those  are  the 
best  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  the)'  are  to  be  appropriated,  whether 
they  cost  much  or  little.  Expense  does  not  necessarily  imply  utility.  We  have  seen  bams 
costing  several  thousand  dollars  that  would  not  afford  room  enough  for  more  than  half  a 
dozen  cows  and  three  or  four  horses.     These  barns  were  highly  ornamental  in  finish,  with 


644 


THE  AJyiERICAN  FARMER. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  645 

artistic  gables,  ciipolas,  etc.,  and  with  an  abundance  of  room  for  the  non-essentials,  but  with 
little  room  for  the  special  purposes  for  which  the  bam  was  to  be  used.  Ornamentation  is 
desirable  to  a  certain  extent,  but  it  should  be  of  minor  consideration  when  compared  with 
subserving  in  the  best  manner  the  purposes  of  a  building. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  know  of  barns  very  convenient  in  every  respect,  with  ample  room 
for  the  stabling  of  a  large  number  of  farm  animals  and  the  storage  of  fodder  and  roots,  cost- 
ing but  a  small  portion  of  the  former  structure  referred  to,  but  which,  for  utility  and  con- 
venience, was  worth  more  than  ten  times  the  former.  Good  judgment  and  skill  are  highly 
essential  in  planning  a  barn  that  will  subserve  the  best  purpose.  The  old  system  of  placing 
small  buildings  in  a  hollow  square,  has  been  gradually  succeeded  by  that  of  placing  as  much 
as  practicable  under  one  roof.  This  is  not  only  more  economic  but  more  convenient.  The 
advantages  thus  gained  are,  greater  height  or  depth  of  bays  tmder  the  roof  for  the  storage  of 
hay  or  other  fodder,  increase  of  storage,  economy  in  constructing,  and  economy  in  labor  by 
having  the  anmials  and  feed  so  nearly  arranged  together.  Greater  warmth  in  winter  is  also 
secured  in  this  manner.  One  good,  large  barn  conveniently-arranged,  is  far  more  con\>enient, 
besides  being  much  more  economical  in  labor  and  money,  than  two  or  three  small  ones,  the 
combined  capacity  of  which  might  exceed  somewhat  that  of  the  former. 

The  three  accompanying  plates  are  representations  of  different  views  of  a  barn  located 
in  Connecticut,  and  which  in  many  respects  might  very  properly  be  teiTtied  a  model  barn, 
with  reference  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed,  although  subject  to  improvements, 
perhaps,  in  some  of  the  minor  details.  This  barn  is  adapted  to  all  sections — cast,  west,  or 
south,  and  shows  how  space  may  be  economized  in  planning  a  building  for  the  various  pur- 
poses to  which  a  barn  maj'  be  appropriated ;  also  how  the  health  and  comfort  of  stock  should 
be  considered.  It  is  probably  a  larger  and  more  pretentious  structure  than  many  farmers 
would  require;  however,  it  may  furnish  a  model  for  a  smaller  and  less  expensive  building,  or 
may  suggest  improvements  upon  other  plans.  The  barn  stands  upon  a  side-hill  which  slopes 
to  the  east.  It  has  three  distinct  floors,  the  structure  consisting  of  a  main  building  and  two 
wings.  The  main  building  is  55  by  80  feet;  the  east  wing,  56  feet  long  and  3H  feet  wide; 
the  south  wing,  56  feet  Ifflig  and  35  feet  wide, — the  total  length  from  north  to  south  being 
136  feet.  J 

In  constructing  any  building,  it  is  well  to  see  many  models  and  study  various  plans,  and 
then  select  the  best  they  contain  for  the  desired  purpose,  and  combine  them  into  one,  unless 
a  better  combination  can  be  originated. 

The  southeast  view  of  this  building  shows  the  cattle-yards,  both  wings,  the  cellar,  etc. 
Each  yard  is  supplied  with  iron  tanks,  which  are  kept  filled  with  constantly-flowing  water 
for  the  stock. 

The  fence  and  gates  which  shut  off  the  cellar  from  tjie  yat-d  are  movable,  the  posts  at 
either  end  being  stepped  into  sockets.  By  this  means,  they  may  be  quickly  and  easily 
removed,  and  the  cellar  and  yard  thrown  together,  thus  giving  the  cattle  while  in  the  yard 
shelter  from  the  cold  in  winter  and  heat  in  summer.  Any  portion  of  the  cellar  may  in  the 
same  manner  be  fenced  off  or  opened  into  the  yard. 

The  northeast  view  shows  the  east  wing  and  the  cellar  or  basement  wall,  with  the  dwors 
and  windows  connecting  with  the  pig-pen,  etc.  The  doors  (D)  are  suspended  on  rollers  upon 
which  they  slide.  The  windows  are  suspended  on  hinges  from  the  top,  and  swing  open 
inside. 

The  northwest  side  of  this  building  contains  the  principal  embankment,  which  furnishes 
facilities  for  reaching  the.  second  floor,  with  room  for  power  for  raising  and  carrying  hay  and 
other  feed;  also,  the  horse-stable  and  entrances  to  two  floors.  The  drive-ways  to  the  hay  or 
storage  floors  rise  gradually  to  the  required  height,  and  are  walled  up  by  substantial  masonry. 
The  hay  and  grain  lofts  are  furnished  throughout  with  facilities  for  raising  and  carrying 
loads,  there  being  no  less  than  six  railways  for  the  travelers  carrying  the  forks  to  run  upon. 


646 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


The  following  represents  the  ground  plan  of  the  same  building.  The  heavy  black  lines 
indicate  the  stone  wall  which  supports,  in  part,  the  bank  of  earth  on  the  up-hill  side.  At  the 
ends,  where  the  cellar-floor  is  about  on  a  level  with  the  surface,  the  wall  is  laid  two  and  a 
half  feet  lower.  Under  the  outer  edge  of  the  walls  the  drains  are  laid  with  a  grouting  of 
stones  and  cement  over  them,  which  prevent  any  undesirable  effects  of  frost. 

The  entire  floor  is  grouted  three  inches  deep  with  stones,  covered  with  gravel,  which  has 
a  coating  of  cement. 

A  root-cellar  18  by  50  feet  on  this  floor  affords  storage  for  about  6,400  bushels  of  roots, 
secure  from  frost,  yet  sufiBciently  cool  to  preserve  them  well.  The  arrangements  are  such 
that  the  roots  may  be  put  in  by  chutes.  This  cellar  may  be  sub-divided  into  three  or  more 
bins,  as  desired. 


GROUND    PLAN. 

The  following  diagram  represents  the  plan  of  the  stock  or  feeding-floor  and  yards.  On  the 
right  of  the  western  entrance  of  the  building  is  a  carriage-room  with  capacious  sliding  doors. 
On  the  left  is  a  harness-room,  in  which  is  a  stove  for  making  it  comfortable  in  cold  weather. 
Directly  in  front  are  the  horse-stalls,  and  space  where  horses  may  be  cleaned,  and  horses 
harnessed  to  vehicles  may  be  tied. 

There  is  a  clear  passage  from  the  north  to  the  south  end,  through  the  building,  the 
stairs  being  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  lifted  and  fastened  up  out  of  the  way. 

The  wings  are  occupied  by  cattle -stalls,  those  in  the  south  wing  being  wide,  and  calcu- 
lated for  fattening  oxen;  those  in  the  east  being  intended  for  cows  and  young  stock.  There 
are  also  three  loose  boxes  on  this  floor, — one  of  which  is  12  feet  square,  and  two  somewhat 
smaller, — which  may  be  used  for  horses,  or  as  lying-in  stalls  for  cows. 

In  the  rear  of  the  cattle-stalls,  a  double  line  indicates  the  channel  for  collecting  liquid 
manure.  The  points  marked  C  are  openings  through  which  the  manure  is  dropped  into  cel- 
lars. The  letter  W  shows  the  location  of  the  water-trough,  and  F  the  trough  for  mixing  the 
feed.  D  represents  a  door  through  which  the  cattle  have  access  to  the  yard.  Under  the 
drive-way  is  an  arched  vault,  which  is  well  lighted,  and  fire-proof,  which  forms  a  very  con- 
venient boiler  and  engine-room,  with  space  for  the  storage  of  fuel. 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


647 


The  steam-pipes  for  cooking  the  feed  for  the  stock  pass  through  holes  in  the  wall  upon 
the  feeding  floor.  _Steam  power  is  employed  for  threshing,  sawing,  fodder -cutting,  etc.  the 
waste  steam  being  used  for  steaming  hay,  roots,  etc.,  the  engine-room  being  contigaous  to,  and 
below  the  threshing  floor. 

The  storage-floor  contains  the  hay,  grain,  straw,  and  stalks.  Two  threshing-floors,  16 
feet  wide,  cross  the  building,  being  entered  from  the  west.  Here  are  hay-scales,  and  hay- 
cutters.  Each  grain  and  meal-bin  communicates  by  a  chute  with  the  feeding-floor,  where  its 
contents  may  be  drawn  off.     From  this  floor  there  are  stairs  that  ascend  to  the  cupola. 

The  stables  for  stock  are  airy  and  roomy.  The  horse-stalls  are  ten  feet  from  front  to  rear,  a 
little  more  than  5  feet  wide,  and  9  feet  and  4  inches  high.  They  are  separated  by  plank 
partitions  ii  feet  high,  surmounted  by  wire  netting,  which  extends  2  feet  higher.  The  same 
kind  of  partition  also  forms  the  front  of  the  stalls. 

An  iron  hay-rack  is  located  in  one  corner,  and  an  iron  feed-box  in  the  opposite  corner, 
which  is  accessible  from  the  passage-way  in  front  of  the  stalls,  by  a  small  door  in  the  wire 
netting. 


□ 


R  Jo4  ^h^  i  1  FT 


■■-,„_AREA,,-" 


GROUND   PLAN   OF   FEEDING-FLOOR   AND   YARDS. 


The  stalls  contain  two  floors,  the  lower  one  being  laid  of  two-inch  chestnut  plank, 
with  cleats  half  an  inch  thick  covering  the  cracks  between  the  planks.  Upon  this  water- 
tight floor  is  another  made  of  three  parts  ;  two  feet  of  the  upper  end  is  made  of  white  oak 
plank  nailed  fast.  The  remainder  of  the  floor  is  formed  of  narrow  oak  plank,  fastened  to- 
gether by  strong  oak  cleats  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  what  is  similar  to  two  doors  hinged 
at  either  side,  so  as  to  be  Ufted  and  set  up  as  shown  in  the  cut.  This  arrangement  is  designed 
for  the  more  perfect  cleansing  of  the  lower  floor.  A  channel  at  the  rear  carries  off  the 
liquid  manure,  and  the  solid  manure  is  thrown  into  the  cellar,  through  the  trap-door  seen 
open  in  the  illustration  of  the  horse-stalls,  and  indicated  by  C  in  the  diagram  of  the  feeding- 
flooi-s. 

Between  the  cattle-stalls,  in  the  south  wing,  is  a  passage-way  ten  feet  wide,  through  which 
carts  with  green  food,  roots,  &;c.,  may  be  driven.  This  arrangement  favors  a  system  of 
soiling  in  summer  when  desired.  There  is  also  a  similar  passage-way  through  the  east  wing, 
all  the  cattle-stalls  being  made  upon  the  same  principle,  although  of  different  sizes,  being 


G48 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


designed  for  fattening  cattle,  milch  cows,  and  young  stock.  The  feeding-boxes  are  2^  feet 
wide,  the  floors  5i  feet  from  the  feeding-trough  to  the  gutter  (which  is  14  inches  wide),  and 
the  rear  passage  is  3  feet,  making  about  1 2  feet  in  all  for  the  stalls. 

These  stalls  are  6^  feet  wide,  and  designed  for  two  animals,  which  are  fastened  by  a 
neck-strap  or  chain,  which  is  attached  to  a  short  chain  and  ring  playing  up  and  down  upon  a 
rod  bolted  to  the  partition  between  the  stalls,  thus  permitting  a  free  movement  of  the  head. 

The  rack  in  front  of  the  manger  is  perpendicular.  A  shutter  is  hinged  below  it  which, 
when  open,  is  held  in  an  incUned  position  by  a  chain.  By  this  means  space  is  given  for  hay 
baing  passed  between  the  shutter  and  rack. 

This  building  is  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  Ventilating  trimks,  four  feet  square,  exterd 
from  the  feeding-floor  to  the  roof,  where  they  each  terminate  in  a  large  ventilator.     The 


H0BSE-STALL8. 


windows  on  the  stock  floor  are  numerous,  and  are  each  pro\'ided  with  two  glazed  sashes 
hung  by  weights,  so  that  they  may  be  opened  and  held  in  position  as  desired,  making  it  very 
cool  and  airy  in  hot  weather.     The  yards  extend  to  the  south  and  east. 

Tlie  water  from  the  eaves  is  all  conducted  off,  so  that  none  comes  into  the  yard.  The 
water  for  the  stock  is  supplied  from  an  unfailing  source,  and  is  brought  in  pipes  to  the  yards 
and  stock  department  of  the  bam. 

Whether  a  barn  be  large,  or  small,  much  may  be  gained  by  way  of  convenience,  and  the 
economy  of  room  and  expense,  by  having  a  good  plan  for  its  construction. 

A  recent  writer  gives  his  method  of  building  a  bank-barn  as  follows:  •'!  would  say 
first,  that  3C  or  40  feet  is  ordinarly  as  wide  as  it  is  practicable  to  buUd  a  barn.  Additional 
room  can  be  made  up  in  length,  if  desired.     If   there  is  much   of   a  bank,   more   depth 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


649 


of  basement  might  be  desired,  which  would  be  good  economy  up  to  10  or  12  feet,  if  it  is 
found  that  the  grade  will  permit.  This  will  allow  better  ventilation,  more  security  from 
frost,  and  room  to  allow  2  or  3  feet  of  manure  to  accumulate  under  foot,  if  desired.  It 
will  keep  in  good  condition  if  trodden  down  as  made,  but  will  not  freeze  to  hinder  its  being 
drawn  out  at  any  time.  After  digging  the  cellar,  and  it  is  ready  for  the  wall,  dig  a  trench 
as  broad  as  the  wall  is  to  be,  and  18  inches  deep.  Fill  this  with  small,  loose,  broken  stones. 
Boulders  broken  up  somewhat  as  they  are  put  in  are  best,  but  chips  from  the  stone-yard  will 
do.  FUl  the  trench  even  full,  and  on  this  commence  the  wall.  In  case  a  drain  is  needed,  it 
should  go  from  the  bottom  of  this  trench,  but  the  principal  use  of  this  trench  is  to  make  the 
cellar  rat-proof.     The  idea  is  that  rats,  after  digging  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  solid  wall, 


cow   STALLS. 

find  they  cannot  then  get  under  it  through  the  broken  stone,  and  so  abandon  it.  In  practice 
this  has  proved  effectual.  Have  the  cross  sills  so  heavy  and  strong  as  not  to  require  many 
supports,  which  would  obstruct  the  free  driving  of  teams  around  in  the  basement. 

In  getting  the  frame  timber,  much  care  should  be  used  to  get  very  stiff,  strong  beams 
for  the  gable  ends  of  the  barn,  as  in  barns  of  such  breadth  there  is  great  danger  of  the  ends 
bulging  out  too  much  after  the  bays  are  filled.  Tlie  best  timbers  for  the  girts  are  obtained 
by  taking  larch  or  tamarack,  from  8  to  10  inches  through,  and  having  them  sawed  through 
the  middle  at  the  saw-mill.  Shave  off  the  bark,  and  use  the  straight  side  to  nail  the  siding 
to.  The  rounding  side  next  to  the  mow  makes  it  better  and  stiffer  than  common  square 
timber.  For  sleepers,  take  elm  logs  of  the  proper  length,  and  12  to  18  inches  in  size,  sawed 
like  the  girts,  t^nd  always  peel  before  using. 
4J 


650 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


This  is  the  most  practical  and  economical  way  of  furnishing  timbers  for  this  purpose.  I 
would  advise  to  have  the  roof  steep  ;  it  gives  many  feet  more  space  without  much  more  cost; 
is  not  so  apt  to  leak,  and  will  last  better,  because  it  dries  oS  quicker  after  a  rain.  Instead 
of  ridge-boards  at  the  top,  I  would  always  use  tin.  Use  a  strip  10  to  12  or  14  inches  wide, 
made  as  long  as  the  barn,  put  in  a  roll ;  then,  after  the  barn  is  shingled  and  ready,  nail  the 
tin  as  a  cap  over  the  ridge.     It  will  answer  a  much  better  purpose  than  boards. 

The  use  of  well-seasoned  lumber  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  about  building,  and 
too  important  to  neglect,  even  in  making  a  bam.  When  building  a  bam  a  few  years  ago, 
36  by  100  feet,  and  24-foot  posts,  I  selected  old,  weU-seasoned,  sized  lumber,  1  by  12  inches, 
and  had  it  dressed  to  order.  The  thickness  was  so  good  that  I  had  it  dressed  a  full  inch, 
instead  of  seven-eighths,  as  it  always  is  in  market,  and  the  width  overran  nearly  enough  to 
make  up  the  waste  in  matching,  so  that  37  boards  would  cover  the  36-foot  end  of  the  bam. 


'^i3mc4jwsaiirs* 


FARM    BARN. 


These  wide  boards  have  not  warped,  and  their  joints  have  not  opened  as  much,  as  siding  of 
half  its  width  often  does. 

The  arrangements  about  such  a  bam  will  not  be  complete  without  a  good  cistern,  unless 
it  has  a  better  natural  water  supply  than  one  bam  in  twenty  can  have.  To  insure  a  good 
supply  of  water,  build  a  large  cistern  in  the  bank  on  the  upper  side  of  the  barn,  and  have 
a  pipe  go  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  cistern  through  into  the  basement  of  the  bam,  .so  that 
water  can  be  drawn  by  a  faucet.  Tlien  a  pump  over  the  cistern  wUl  furnish  water  for  use 
above.     This  I  have  found  to  give  an  almost  unfailing  supply." 

It  has  been  estimated  by  those  who  have  given  the  subject  of  economical  farm  buOdings 
considerable  attention,  that  a  basis  upon  which  the  lowest  possible  cost  of  building  a  bam 
may  be  calculated  is  about  $10  per  head  for  each  horse  or  cow  that  it  will  accommodate  with 
comfortable  quarters,  and  about  the  same  per  ton  for  the  safe  storage  of  all  crops  grown 
upon  the  farm.     This  wUl,  of  course,  be  subject  to  variation,  and  admit  of  considerable 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


651 


latitude,  but  may  answer  as  a  basis  upon  wMch  to  calculate  the  lowest  expense  of  building  a 
cheap  and  convenient  bam  suited  for  common  farm  purposes. 

Tlie  expense  of  buildiii^    i  it      u  \   i     n.,   as  it  does,  in  different  localities  and  at  differ- 


CHEAP    DAIEY    BAEN. 


ent  periods,  as  well  as  that  of  labor,  only  an  approximate  estimate  can  be  reached.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  a  wide  and  soKd  stone  foundation  in  building  a  barn,  and  especially  so  at 
the  lower  side  when  a  banl:-barn  is  built,  in  order  that  the  sills  may  lie  solid  and  firm. 

Barns  and  sheds  should  be  well  raised  on  substantial  underpinnings,  in  order  to  prevent 


652 


THE  A^rERICAN  FARMER. 


the  rotting  of  the  sills,  and  admit  of  the  escape  of  moisture  underneath,  which  would  canse 
the  timbers  to  decay,  and  also  render  the  stables  damp  and  unhealthy  for  stock. 

"While  a  barn  that  is  externally  unattractive  may  be  made  internally  comfortable  for  the 
stock  that  it  shelters,  and  also  to  furnish  good  storage  for  crops,  still  there  are  many  reasons 
why  the  farmer  should  endeavor  to  give  his  barns  and  other  farm  buildings  a  neat  and 
attractive  appearance.  A  symmetrical  barn  that  is  an  ornament  to  the  premises  will  go  far 
towards  making  the  surroundings  of  a  home  attractive.  It  also  indicates  enterprise  and 
good  taste  in  the  owner,  and  will  exert  an  influence  for  good  on  the  younger  members  of  the 
household,  causing  farm-life  and  home  to  be  more  attractive  to  them;  besides,  the  same  enter- 
prising taste  will  be  very  likely 
to  be  exhibited  on  all  the  other 
portions  of  the  farm,  and  better 
fences  and  improved  farming  will 
be  the  result. 

All  farm  buildings  should  be 
constructed  in  such  good  taste 
that  they  will  harmonize  with  the 
surrounding  landscape,  and  not 
prove  a  blemish  to  it.  A  tasty 
barn  need  not  necessarily  be  an 
expensive  one.  A  symmetrical 
and  attractive  form,  though  covered  with  rough  boards,  will  be  far  more  pleasing  and  attrac- 
tive than  the  most  highly-finished  building  with  a  disproportioned  and  awkward  outline. 
Rough,  unplaned  boards  may  be  made  to  look  very  well  by  appljong  iirst  a  heavy  coat  of 
crude  petroleum,  and  afterwards  a  coat  of  some  of  the  many  kinds  of  paint  that  will  adhere 
well.  Shade  trees  around  a  barn  add  to  the  appearance  of  the  surroundings,  and  will  furnish 
shade  to  the  cattle  in  the  yards  during  the  summer,  but  they  should  not  be  so  near  the  build- 
ing as  to  shade  it  and  intercept  the  sunlight.  All  buildings  should  have  the  sunlight  admitted 
freely  for  the  sake  of  health,  and  also  for  the  warmth  afforded  by  this  means  in  colder 
latitudes,  in  winter. 


no.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


Shade-trees  are  an  ornament  to  any  building,  but  they  must  be  sufficiently  removed  to 
prevent  the  obstruction  of  the  sun's  rays.  "Wlien  trees  near  a  barn  or  other  buildings  are 
interspersed  with  evergreens,  a  great  protection  is  thus  afforded  against  the  fierce  winds  of 
winter.  The  expense  of  building  a  tasty  and  somewhat  ornamental  structure  will  not  much 
exceed  that  of  an  excessively  plain  and  unattractive  building.  Projecting  eaves  are  a  benefit 
as  well  as  an  ornament  to  a  building,  while  ventilators  at  the  top, — which  are  highly  essential 
where  animals  are  kept, — can  be  made  to  subserve  an  ornamental  as  well  as  useful  purpose, 
and  will  cost  but  a  trifle.  The  above  cut, — Fig.  1, — representing  an  attractive,  two-story 
barn,  is  given  in  striking  contrast  with  Fig.  2,  which  illustrates  the  perfectly  plain  buildings 
so  commonly  seen  on  the    farm.     Such  a  building  as  this  represents  does  not  add  to  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  653 

attractive  appearance  of  any  farm,  and  yet,  with  a  slight  additional  expense  in  constructing, 
it  might  have  been  made  quite  the  reverse.  Fig.  3  is  a  very  good  illustration  of  the  same 
building  after  the  lapse  of  years,  without  repairs  having  been  made.  Too  many  such  old, 
dilapidated  buildings  are  to  be  seen  ia  all  sections,  and,  wherever  located,  are  a  standing 
testimony  of  the  negligence  and  general  shiftlessness  of  the  owner. 

If  any  farmer  sees  in  this  latter  cut  a  good  representation  of  any  of  his  own  buildings,  we 
hope  he  will  consider  carefully  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  better  index  of  an  improved 
style  of  farming,  and  soon  proceed  to  complete  the  work  of  demolishing  what  time  has  so 
nearly  demolished,  and  substitute  a  more  commodious,  useful,  and  attractive  barn  in  its 
place. 

Horse  Barns. — The  illustration  of  farm  buildings  on  the  next  page,  representing  the  very 
extensive  horse  bams  of  one  of  the  largest  importers  of  horses  in  this  country,  will  be  found 
to  be  quite  beyond  the  requirements  of  most  horsemen;  yet  the  plans  they  present  are  the 
result  of  long  experience  and  careful  investigation.  As  such,  they  may  prove  valuable  in 
suggesting  plans  and  improvements  that  may  be  modeled  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  which,  with 
slight  modifications,  may  be  adapted  to  any  kind  of  stock.  The  description  of  this  barn  is 
by  the  owner,  Mr.  Dunham,  as  follows:  — 

Barn  No.  1  is  160  feet  long  by  52  feet  wide,  with  an  awning  adjustable  10  feet  wide,  to 
raise  and  lower.  The  foundation  is  of  stone,  laid  below  frost;  bottom  of  wall  16  inches,  top 
one  foot  in  thickness.  The  wall  is  laid  on  the  east,  north,  and  west  sides,  and  one  wall  of 
the  same  dimensions  is  laid  16  feet  from  the  north  wall  and  parallel  to  it.  Cross  walls,  10 
inches  thick,  support  the  partitions  of  the  box-stalls.  The  south  outside  foundation  consists 
of  piers  20  feet  apart,  4  feet  square  on  the  bottom  and  20  inches  square  on  top,  with  cap  of 
cut  stone,  20  inches  square  on  bottom  and  12  inches  square  on  top,  to  receive  the  post. 
Sixteen  feet  north,  and  parallel  to  this  line  of  piers,  is  another  hne  built  in  the  same  manner. 
The  building  is  constructed,  as  will  be  seen  (by  position  of  wall),  with  four  rows  of  posts — 
the  two  center  rows  standing  16  feet  from  the  outside,  and  20  feet  from  each  other  both 
ways,  extending  to  the  purlin  plate,  and  support  the  same.  The  outside  posts  are  20  feet 
long,  and  on  the  north  side  are  16  feet  apart.  All  the  posts  are  8  by  8  inches,  and  are  con- 
nected by  beams  8  by  10  inches,  and  10  feet  from  the  bottom,  upon  which  are  laid  2  by 
12-inch  joists.  The  two  center  lines  of  beams  running  lengthwise  of  the  building  are 
additionally  supported  by  a  cast-iron  angle,  bolted  on  the  post  under  the  end  of  each  beam, 
and  running  down  the  post  and  out  on  the  under  side  of  the  beam  12  inches.  The  beams 
are  also  trussed  on  the  top,  making  a  solid  and  safe  support  for  the  joists  which  run  crosswise 
of  the  building.  The  roof  is  one-third  pitch,  and  formed  with  gables  (dormers),  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  cupola,  as  shown  in  the  perspective  view.  The  outside  is  girted  with  6  by 
6-inch  girts,  4  feet  apart,  and  boarded  with  matched  and  dressed  lumber.  The  positions  of 
the  windows  can  be  seen  in  the  engraving.  In  the  second  story  there  are  four  doors  on  the 
north  side,  with  transoms,  and  on  the  south  side  eight  of  the  same  kind.  In  each  end,  as 
high  as  can  be  made  in  the  gable,  is  a  door  12  feet  high  and  10  feet  wide,  through  which 
the  biiilding  is  filled  with  hay. 

From  each  door  to  the  center  is  erected  a  hay-carrier,  as  near  the  ridge  as  possible. 
The  building  is  supported  by  the  usual  cross-beams  and  braces.  The  roof  is  covered  with 
the  very  best  dry  pine  shingles  boiled  in  "West  Virginia  oil.  To  prepare  the  shingles  a  vat 
is  used  of  sheet-iron,  20  inches  deep,  2i  feet  wide,  and  from  2  to  4  feet  long,  according  to 
the  extent  of  the  job.  Set  the  bunches  in  and  have  oil  enough  to  come  up  to  the  bands;  let 
it  boil  five  minutes,  take  out,  place  on  an  incline  with  tight  bottom  and  drip  back  to  the 
vat.  In  half  an  hour  the  other  end  of  the  bunch  can  be  dipped,  and  returned  on  incline, 
and  in  one  hour  they  will  be  dry.  The  cost  is  less  than  $1  per  1000.  I  believe  shingles 
prepared  in  this  way  will,  with  an  occasional  coating  of  oO,  last  indefinitely,  as  the  water 
wiU  not  penetrate  them  in  the  least. 


654 


THE  AMERICAN  FAR5IER. 


The  squares  indicated  in  the  plans  are  box-stalls  16  by  1 6  feet  square,  with  one  door 

double-thick,  4  feet  sis  inches  wide, 
and  8  feet  high.  Latch,  a  straight 
piece  f  by  :^uich  iron,  1  foot  long, 
mortised  into  the  center  edge  of  the 
door,  end  protruding  1  inch,  to  catch 
latch  hook;  an  iron  plate  with  slot 
for  latch  to  play  in  is  screwed  on  the 
edge;  an  inch  hole  is  bored  under 
the  latch,  to  raise  with.  One  window, 
12  Ughts,  12  by  16  on  outside,  and 
one  9  light  window,  from  stall  to  alley, 
covered  with  No.  9  wire  screening. 
The  outside  window  is  grated  with 
inch  refuse  gas  pipe,  set  three  inches 
apart  (cost  about  $35  per  ton);  win- 
I  dows  hang  on  weights.  The  north 
and  south  sides  of  stalls  are  ceiled 
with  2-inch  matched  plank,  5  feet 
~  high,  and  from  there  to  top  with 
1-inch  matched  stuff. 

The  hay-shoot  is  built  in  the  out- 

1    side  corner,  with  2-fect  runs,  and  ex- 

;    tends  6  feet  above  the  upper  floor, 

1    and  has  a  slide-door  on  the  long  side, 

that   can   be   raised,    and    leaves   an 

I    opening  in  the  shoot  on  a  level  with 

.    the  floor  when  desired.     The  bottom 

.    of   the  shoot  is   grated   gas   pipe   3 

;    feet  6  inches  long,  set  on  an  incline 

i    from  the  corner  to  the  outside  of  the 

1    bottom  of  shoot,  which  is  6  feet  from 

I    the  floor  of   stall.     These  pipes  are 

j    set  6  inches  from  centers  at  the  top, 

and  one  of  them  moves  in  a  slot,  so  as 

to  double  the  distance  when  required. 

Under   the  shoot  is   a   manger, 

made  of  oak,  with  a  side-run  of  3  feet 

6  inches.     Its  height  is  3  feet  6  inches, 

and  ceiled  in  front  to  the  bottom  of 

stall.     In  the  opposite  corner  is  the 

grain  feed-box,  opening  into  an  alley 

by  a  slide-door   1  foot  8  inches  by  2 

feet  6  inches,  hung  on  weights.     The 

feed-box   is   made   the   same   as  the 

manger,  only  smaller. 

The  partitions  between  the  stalls 
are  made  by  setting  2  by  4-inch  stud- 
ding 6  inches  apart  on  sill,  and  ex- 
Both  sides  are  then  ceiled  with  common  matched  and  dressed  flooring, 


tending  5  feet  high. 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


655 


The  top  of  this 


r 


even  with  the  top  of  studding,  and  an  oak  cap  2  feet  6  inches  spiked  on  top. 
cap  has  ^-inch  holes  four  inch- 
es from  center  to  center  and 
one  inch  deep,  in  which  inch 
gas-pipes  3  feet  long  are  in- 
serted, and  capped  with  an- 
other oak  cap  firmly  set  at 
both  ends.  The  floors  are 
made  of  clay  and  gravel.  An 
alley  6  feet  wide  runs  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  barn,  with 
manger  on  the  opposite  side 
from  stalls. 

The  large  space  with  posts 
in  center  is  divided  by  movable 
plank  partitions  5  feet  high, 
the  end  bars  of  which  run  as 
high  as  the  beam,  and  are 
hung  to  same  with  a .  hinge 
These  partitions  can  all  be 
raised  to  the  ceiling,  and  are 
held  there  by  feur  wooden  j_ 
hooks,  with  the  lower  parts 
beveled.  When  the  partition 
(or  door)  is  raised,  the  hook  is 
thrown  back  until  the  door 
enters  the  notch  (or  hook), 
which  falls  over  it  and  holds 
it.  In  this  way  the  whole 
south  portion  of  the  building 
can  be  thrown  into  one  great 
shed,  or  divided  into  small 
stalls,  and  when  the  awning  is 
do^\fn  everything  is  perfectly 
protected.  The  yard  fences 
are  also  made  movable  by 
sockets  being  tamped  in  the 
ground  to  receive  the  posts, 
which  are  tapered,  and  can  be 
taken  out  with  perfect  ease, 
and  the  hole  plugged. 

The  bins  for  feed  are 
made  in  the  second  story,  and 
are  located  directly  over  the 
hydrant,  at  which  point  a  box 
is  located  for  mixing  feed. 

Bam  No.  2  consists  en- 
tirely of  box-stalls,  made  on 
same  plan  as  those  described, 
and  open  into  the  yards  to  the  south;  it  is  16  feet  high  at  eaves,  with  loft  for  fodder.     Barn 


656  TIIE  AHIERICAN  PARMER. 

No.  3  is  40  by  80  feet,  26-feet  posts,  with  96  feet  extension  to  the  south,  all  boxes,  the  same  as 
described.  The  single  stalls  are  5  feet  wide,  and  made  on  the  usual  plan,  with  plank  floors; 
hay  being  fed  in  shoots  from  above.  The  upper  part  is  reached  by  an  embankment  and 
bridge.  A  hay-carrier  is  also  rigged  in  it,  door  opening  to  the  north.  Large  feed-bins  are 
located  over  north  end  of  the  alley,  where  water  is  marked;  a  mixing-box,  filled  from  spouts 
from  bins,  is  placed  beside  the  hydrant.  No.  4  is  an  open  shed  facing  south,  with  yard  in 
front. 

No.  5  is  50  by  100  feet;  stone  basement;  the  walls  26  inches  on  the  bottom  and  16 
inches  on  top.  The  building  rests  entirely  on  the  outside  walls.  The  sUls  are  8  by  10  inches; 
the  posts  20  feet  long,  and  about  14  feet  apart.  The  girts  are  6  by  6  inches,  and  4  feet  apart. 
The  roof  is  a  truss-roof  of  the  strongest  kind.  (See  perspective  view  for  location  of  win- 
dows, cupola,  etc.)  The  boarding  is  of  the  best  dressed  and  matched  flooring.  On  the  north 
side  and  center  is  a  cutting-room,  20  by  24  feet,  the  cutter  standing  on  a  level  with  the 
second  floor  (see  view).  The  basement  is  divided  by  three  6-foot  alleys,  running  north  and 
south,  connected  by  one  4-foot  alley  running  east  and  west  along  the  north  side.  On  each 
side  of  each  alley  are  four  box-stalls,  about  12  by  14  feet,  with  plank  partitions  5  feet  high, 
and  doors  opening  from  one  to  the  other,  to  the  outside.  Hay  comes  from  the  third  story 
through  shoots  opening  into  the  alley,  and  is  fed  in  mangers. 

The  second  floor  is  divided  entirely  into  single  stalls,  as  will  be  seen  on  the  plans;  an 
alley  in  front  of  each  row  for  feeding  grain  and  watering.  Hay  comes  from  above  in  shoots, 
as  in  the  other  stalls.  The  floors  are  2  inch  matched  planks,  tarred,  and  then  covered  with 
paper  (two  thicknesses) ;  on  top  of  this  are  laid  3-inch  planks  boiled  in  oil,  tad  keyed  together 
every  five  feet.  Between  the  two  floors  is  an  iron  gutter,  just  at  the  back  end  of  the  stalls, 
with  iron  outlets  running  down  the  basement  into  the  ground  for  drainage.  The  stalls  are 
5^  feet  in  the  clear,  and  the  partitions  are  3-inch  planks,  doweled  together,  4^  feet  high,  and 
the  front  rises  in  an  oval  shape  and  is  barred.  The  stall -posts  are  6  by  6-inch  oak;  3  by  12- 
inch  joists  run  from  the  stall-posts  to  the  outside  of  the  building,  and  2-inch  matched  planks 
are  used  for  the  floor  above,  so  that  the  space  over  the  horses'  heads  is  perfectly  smooth.  The 
ceiling  over  the  floor  back  of  the  horses  is  12  feet  high  and  20  feet  wide,  with  a  14-foot  sUde 
door  at  each  end.  Over  each  stall  is  a  finished  panel,  set  with  pictures  of  Percheron  horses. 
The  stalls  and  ceiling  are  painted  in  nicely-contrasting  colors. 

The  entire  water  system  is  supplied  from  a  2,000-barrel  reservoir  or  cistern,  constructed 
on  a  hill  60  feet  higher  than  the  bams,  and  100  rods  away,  built  of  stone  laid  in  cement,  and 
completely  covered  from  the  frost.  The  water  is  forced  into  this  reservoir  by  wind-power, 
and  is  drawn  by  a  2^-inch  main  to  the  buildings,  and  distributed  through  them  by  1^  and 
and  1-inch  pipes,  laid  5  feet  under  ground. 

The  wagon-house  has  a  self-supporting  roof,  and  the  entire  front  is  composed  of  sliding 
doors.  Carriage-houses  and  straw-sheds  are  ordinary  frames.  All  the  yards  are  graded  and 
graveled  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  perfectly  free  from  mud  at  all  times  of  the  year. 

The  arrangement  of  the  yards  can  be  seen  from  the  diagram.  All  the  manure,  except 
from  barn  No.  1 ,  goes  to  the  elevated  track  indicated,  and  in  winter  is  dumped  into  wagons 
and  hauled  out.     The  total  length  of  front  shown  in  the  diagram  is  600  feet. 

Cattle  Barn. — The  following  is  a  description  by  Prof.  Beal  of  the  cattle  barn  on  the 
grounds  of  the  State  Agricultural  College,  at  Lansing,  Michigan:  It  is  a  side-hill  barn,  40  by 
60  feet,  with  the  end  to  the  south,  at  which  are  double  doors,  and  on  each  side  of  these,  near 
the  corners,  are  4-foot  doors  for  the  passage  of  the  cattle.  The  central  alley  is  12  feet  wide, 
the  floor  of  which,  and  that  of  the  stalls  on  each  side,  are  all  tarred  and  placed  upon  a  grout 
bottom,  so  that  there  can  be  no  rat-holes  beneath.  The  stalls  for  the  cattle  extend  along  on 
each  side  of  this  central  alley.  The  earth  being  banked  against  the  outer  walls  of  the  apart- 
ment for  roots,  prevents  freezing;  and  the  room  for  mixing  the  feed  is  partly  protected  in 
the  same  way. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  657 

The  planks  forming  the  mangers  next  the  cattle  are  movable,  so  that  by  taking  them  out 
and  dropping  them  into  grooves  for  the  purpose,  the  space  between  the  mangers  and  the 
manure-gutters  may  be  increased  or  diminished  according  to  the  size  of  the  cattle.  The 
planks  forming  the  sides  of  the  manger  next  the  alley  should  be  slanting  or  wider  at  the  top, 
to  make  it  easier  to  put  in  the  feed,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  cattle  from  scattering  the  food 
over  into  the  alley.  The  cattle  are  fastened  with  a  chain  about  the  neck,  witb  the  other  end 
attached  to  a  vertical  rod  at  the  side  of  each  stall.  As  the  ring  moves  freely  up  and  down, 
ample  room  is  given  to  the  animals.  In  the  rear  are  low  windows.  Over  the  passage  at  the 
rear  are  two  ventilators,  3  feet  square,  reaching  the  roof.  The  roots  are  conveyed  through 
side  windows  into  the  root-room.  Here  is  a  root-pulping  machine,  driven  by  a  tread-power 
above. 

The  stalls  vary  in  width  from  3^  to  4  feet.  From  the  edge  of  the  manure-trough  to  the 
end  of  the  stall  next  the  alley  is  7|-  feet  for  large  cows,  and  6  feet  7  inches  for  small  ones, 
with  intermediate  dimensions  as  required.  The  slanting  planks  dividing  the  stalls  and  alley 
are  movable,  and  drop  into  grooves  at  different  distances,  so  that  the  stalls  may  be  made  long 
or  short  at  pleasure,  with  similar  ones  for  mangers.  The  mangers  are  2  feet  wide  inside. 
The  manure-gutters  are  20  inches  wide,  and  about  5  inches  deep.  The  manure  is  wheeled 
out  with  a  wheelbarrow.  The  passage  at  the  rear  of  the  stalls  is  3|-  feet  wide.  The  base- 
ment walls  are  2  feet  9  inches  thick  at  bottom,  tapering  upwards  on  the  inside  to  15  inches 
at  the  top. 

On  the  floor  above  is  a  cutting  machine,  and  stalks,  straw,  etc.,  are  cut  by  horse-power, 
and  run  down  a  spout,  after  cutting,  into  the  feed-room.  This  cut  feed  is  then  placed  in  thin 
alternating  layers  with  the  pulped  turnips.  A  car  or  large  wheelbarrow  is  loaded  with  feed 
from  the  feed-room,  and  run  out  in  front  of  the  stalls. 

The  granaries  are  made  mouse-tight.  The  number  of  bushels  held  by  each  is  marked 
by  figures  on  the  back  side  of  the  bin,  at  a  black  perpendicular  mark.  Over  the  granary  is 
Storage.  The  barn  is  vertically  boarded,  with  boards  a  foot  wide  and  3 -inch  battens.  The 
granaries  or  bins  are  lined  with  hard  wood.  The  best  way  to  exclude  rats  and  mice  is  to 
pack  a  space  with  small  fragments  of  tin — they  will  not  work  in  it. 

Sheep  Barn.  — The  sheep  barn  at  the  State  Agricultural  College  of  Michigan — which 
is  in  many  respects  a  good  model  for  this  kind  of  farm  building, — is  described  as  follows: 
This  barn  is  40  by  90  feet,  and  runs  north  and  south.  An  alley  7  feet  wide  runs  lengthwise 
through  the  center.  It  has  a  good  floor  2^  feet  higher  than  the  pens  on  each  side.  At  each 
end  of  this  alley  is  a  sort  of  step-ladder  to  go  to  the  hay-loft  above.  The  Joists  over  the 
alleys  are  about  7  feet  above  it.  At  one  corner  of  the  chamber  is  a  wool-room ;  and  at  the 
other  a  grain-bin.  The  breadth  given  to  the  alley  makes  it  convenient  for  feeding,  and  no  hay 
gets  on  the  sheep.     In  late  spring  this  barn  is  found  a  convenient  place  for  young  calves. 

The  floor  over  the  pens  and  alley  is  all  on  the  same  level.  Doors  are  placed  in  the  sides 
of  the  building,  opening  into  the  loft,  through  which  to  pitch  hay.  The  gates  open  for  the 
admission  of  wagon  and  te  m  for  manure,  and  other  purposes. 

Each  pen  has  a  low  door  entering  from  the  alley;  and  also  a  door  running  into  the 
adjoining  pen.  The  sheep-rack  forms  the  boundary  of  the  pens.  Water  is  supplied  to  each 
pen  from  a  pipe  below  ground,  and  which  is  pumped  up  by  a  wind-mill  at  some  distance  from 
the  barn.  The  water  is  kept  at  a  uniform  level  by  means  of  a  valve  arranged  in  the  reser- 
voir. The  back  door  passing  into  the  yard  from  each  pen  is  in  two  parts.  The  lower  door 
is  set  in  a  groove  at  one  edge,  and  is  held  to  the  other  with  a  button.  When  not  in  use  it  is 
lifted  out  and  set  one  side.  The  upper  part  of  the  door  slides  back  on  rollers  above,  and  is 
on  the  outside  of  the  barn.  The  upper  one,  when  closed,  permits  a  sheep  to  walk  under  it; 
or  the  lower  one  may  be  closed  and  the  upper  open  when  occupied  by  Iambs. 

The  pens  are  12  by  16  feet,  and  the  yards  outside  and  adjoining,  are  each  12  by  25  feet. 


658  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

The  pens  may  be  easily  varied  in  width  by  moving  the  sheep-rack  which  divides  them.  To 
assist  in  readily  supplying  feed  from  the  alley,  a  slanting  board  or  door  inclines  towards  the 
alley,  and  on  this  the  hay  or  grain  is  placed  on  its  way  to  the  feeding-trough  below.  These 
slanting  doors  are  2i  feet  high,  and  are  held  in  place  by  long  hooks  at  the  top.  In  the 
summer,  these  doors  are  set  up  vertically  against  the  studs  (which  form  the  division  between 
the  pens  and  alley),  and  are  held  there  by  buttons. 

Stables.  —  It  is  always  well  to  have  plenty  of  stable  room,  even  in  a  warm  climate, 
where  protection  from  the  weather  is  not  as  necessary  as  in  the  higher  latitudes.  Animals 
that  are  stabled  a  portion  of  the  time  are  more  tame  and  gentle,  hence  more  easily  managed, 
and  are  really  more  valuable  on  this  account.  They  can  also  be  kept  in  better  condition  by 
the  care  they  may  thus  receive,  while  they  will  not  waste  one-half  the  food  that  they  would 
if  fed  upon  the  ground.  Animals  that  are  fed  on  the  ground  will  not  only  waste  a  great 
deal,  but  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  being  hooked  by  others,  while  the  master  spirits  of  the 
herd  prevent  the  timid  ones  from  getting  their  portion.  By  stable-feeding,  these  evils  are 
all  avoided.  Stables  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  crowding.  Animals  that  are  crowded 
into  narrow  quarters  will  not  thrive. 

Stables  should,  as  a  general  rule,  be  built  higher  than  they  commonly  are.  They  should 
never  be  less  than  eight  and  a  half  feet,  while  ten  feet  would  be  much  better.  A  better  and 
dryer  condition  of  atmosphere  is  thus  secured.  The  atmosphere  of  any  stable  should  be 
sufficiently  dry.  to  permit  the  insensible  perspiration  to  pass  off,  and,  at  the  same  time,  suf- 
ficiently warm  to  dry  a  horse  readily  when  its  coat  is  wet  with  perspiration,  and  is  being  well 
rubbed. 

Light  in  Stables.  —  Stables  should  be  located  in  the  sunny  side  of  the  building,  that 
the  animals  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  warmth  and  sunlight  thus  afforded.  A  dark  stable 
should  always  be  avoided.  Light  is  as  essential  to  animals  as  to  men,  and  no  animal  will 
thrive  to  be  excluded  from  it  for  any  length  of  time.  At  the  same  time,  the  arrangement  of 
the  stable  should  be  such  that  the  light  can  bo  admitted  without  its  being  too  intense  in  the 
face  of  the  animals.  "We  have  known  horses  and  cattle  to  have  been  made  partially  or 
wholly  blind  by  being  confined  in  stables  where  the  eyes  were  exposed  to  a  strong  light  most 
of  the  time.  If  practicable,  the  light  should  come  in  from  the  rear,  thus  affording  a  pro- 
tection to  the  eyes.  Stables  located  on  the  south  side  of  a  building  —  which  is  the  most 
desirable  arrangement  —  will  admit  of  the  best  means  of  thus  adjusting  the  light. 

Yentilation  of  Stables.  —  Good  ventilation  is  also  highly  essential.  So  much  has 
been  previously  stated  with  reference  to  this  subject,  that  a  repetition  here  seems  unneces- 
sary. No  animal  can  be  healthy  without  pure  air.  Good  ventilators  should  be  arranged  at 
the  top  of  every  barn  where  stock  are  kept,  to  permit  the  foul  air  to  escape,  while  there 
should  also  be  openings  near  the  floor  for  admitting  the  pure  air.  Great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  order  to  liave  the  arrangements  for  ventilation  such  that  no  animal  shall  be 
exposed  to  a  draught  of  air.  Such  exposure  will  produce  the  most  serious  results  to  man- 
kind or  animals,  pneumonia  and  other  diseases  being  frequently  occasioned  by  it. 

"We  have  in  mind  a  farmer  who  lost,  with  lung  fever,  a  valuable  A  Iderney  cow  from  his 
dairy  herd  for  three  winters  in  succession,  from  having  them  stand  in  the  stable  directly  in 
front  of  an  open  window,  where  they  were  constantly  exposed  to  a  draft  of  air  from  the  rear. 
And  this  farmer  was  either  so  indifferent  or  ignorant,  with  respect  to  sanitary  laws,  that  it 
was  only  the  fact  of  the  cows  that  died  in  this  manner  having  each  occupied  the  same  place 
in  the  stable  that  aroused  his  mind  to  investigate  as  to  the  cause. 

Stables  should  be  built  tight  and  warm,  for  the  comfort  of  the  stock  as  well  as  for 
economic  reasons,  while  the  pure  air  to  be  supplied  for  the  animals  to  breathe  should  find  an 
entrance  in  its  proper  place,  and  not  through  the  cracks  of   the  barn  at  the  sides,  or  up 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  659 

through  the  stable  floor,  or  through  an  open  window,  in  cold,  wintry  weather,  where  the  air 
is  constantly  blowing  upon  the  aui  i;als.  If  any  farmer  doubts  the  soundness  of  our  position 
in  this  respect,  let  him  imagine  or  experience  the  discomfort  and  effects  upon  the  health  of 
beiag  himself  confined  to  a  limited  space,  from  which  he  could  not  get  free,  and  be  obliged 
to  remain  constantly  in  a  draft  of  eold  air  day  and  night.  If  those  having  charge  of  animals 
were  themselves  obliged  to  be  subjected,  for  a  short  time  even,  to  the  same  treatment  they 
impose  upon  the  dumb,  patient,  and  so  often  abused  creatures  under  their  care,  there  would 
soon  he  a  great  reformation  in  this  respect,  and  more  kindness  and  consideration  be  shown 
them,  than  we  now  o  ten  see. 

Floors,  Box-Stalls,  etc. — The  flooi-s  of  stables  should  be  strong  and  well  laid. 
Serious  loss  sometimes  occurs  from  the  giving  way  of  the  stable  floor.  There  should  be  a 
few  box-stalls  in  every  barn  where  stock  are  kept,  and  these  should  be  so  arranged  that  a 
single  animal  may  be  turned  in  loose  when  desired.  These  are  very  convenient  for  horses, 
or  sick  animals,  to  occupy.  They  are  also  almost  a  necessity  for  use  as  l3ring-in  stalls  for 
cows,  while  they  furnish  a  convenient  place  for  young  calves  when  separated  from  the 
mother. 

Whatever  the  method  of  fastening  employed,  it  should  be  such  as  will  admit  of  the  free 
use  of  the  head  and  a  restful  position  in  lying  down.  We  have  seen  animals  so  tied  in  the 
stable  that  they  could  not  lie  down  without  great  discomfort.  While  cattle  should  be  so 
secured  by  fastenings  that  they  cannot  hook  or  otherwise  injure  each  other,  they  should  have 
sufficient  freedom  to  maintain  comfortable  positions  in  standing  or  lying  down.  All  animals 
would  be  more  comfortable,  when  stabled,  if  they  could  each  have  the  freedom  of  a  box  stall, 
without  being  tied  at  all.  This  would  be  impracticable  where  many  cattle  are  kept,  but  if 
all  working  horses  could  be  favored  with  such  comfortable  quarters,  we  believe  they  would 
last  much  longer,  and  the  benefits  derived  would  weU  repay  the  expense  of  this  luxury  to 
them. 

Freedom  of  movement  is  just  as  essential  to  animals  as  to  man,  for  health  and  comfort, 
and  if  horses  could  each  have  a  large  box-stall,  where  they  could  run  loose  and  get  some 
exercise  in  unfavorable  weather,  and  lie  down  in  any  position  they  might  choose,  it  would  be 
much  better  for  them  than  the  common  custom  of  fastening  them  to  one  place  in  a  narrow, 
dingy  stable.  Mangers  should  be  made  perfectly  smooth  inside,  and  so  well  fitted  that  even 
dry  meal  or  bran  can  be  fed  in  them  without  waste.  Where  racks  are  used,  a  shallow  box 
should  be  arranged  underneath,  to  prevent  the  waste  of  hay. 

Manure  Gutters  in  Stables.  —  In  order  to  prevent  the  waste  of  liquid  manure,  the 
stable  floors  should  be  water-tight,  and  provided  with  gutters  for  conducting  it  to  a  place  of 
deposit,  or  sufficient  dry  material  he  supplied  in  the  stable  to  absorb  it.  Gutters  for  both 
liquid  and  solid  manure  are  sometimes  made  in  the  rear  of  stables,  into  which  the  manure  is 
thrown.  These  are  cleaned  out  every  three  or  four  days,  and  the  manure  carted  directly 
upon  the  soil,  or  put  under  a  stied,  or  into  a  compost  pile.  These  gutters  are  made  in  various 
ways,  and  of  different  dimensions.  A  Western  farmer  describes,  in  one  of  the  leading 
agricultural  journals,  one  which  he  has  censtructed  as  being,  when  finished,  about  eight  inches 
deep  by  twenty -four  in  width,  and  costing  at  the  rate  of  two  dollars  per  cow  for  material  and 
labor.  It  is  made  principally  of  wliite  oak  plank,  and  double  throughout,  except  at  the  bot- 
tom, which  has  three  thicknesses.  The  gutter  is  made  perfectly  water-tight  by  fitting  the 
boards  nicely,  and  applying  a  coat  of  boihng  tar  between  the  courses,  care  being  used  in 
putting  on  the  second  course  to  break  the  joints  in  the  first.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  in 
using  tar  in  this  manner  to  nail  down  the  boards  while  the  tar  is  hot  and  soft.  The  same 
v.-riter  says,  respecting  this  method :  — 

"  After  the  gutter  was  done,  we  laid  one  course  of  floor,  for  which  we  also  used  one  inch 


660  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

thick  pine  boards,  and  coated  it  with  tar  about  half  way  Tip  to  the  stanchions,  and  then  laid 
the  other  course,  breaking  joints.  Always  use  the  tar  hot,  and  use  it  freely,  and  you  will 
find  it  easy  to  make  a  tight  job.  How  long  it  will  last  I  cannot  say,  but  that  it  will  last 
long  enough  to  pay  many  times  over,  I  know  from  experience.  Being  built  on  the  groimd, 
separate  from  the  rest  of  the  building,  it  can  easily  be  replaced  when  it  rots  out.  It  takes 
about  one  barrel  of  tar  to  75  feet  of  stable.  Get  all  the  cross-boards  and  floor-boards  sawed 
at  the  mill,  of  the  right  lengths. 

The  manure  from  this  gutter  is  wheeled  out  once  in  three  or  four  days.  By  this  plan  a 
man  wheels  out  three  days'  manure  from  50  cows  in  half  a  day.  If  it  was  wheeled  out  every 
day,  it  would  spoil  three  half-days.  The  stables  are  divided  so  that  only  10  or  15  cows  are 
let  out  at  once,  and  while  they  are  drinking  in  the  yard  I  wheel  out  the  manure,  then  put 
them  back  and  let  out  another  lot  I  am  keeping  1 5  three-year  old  steers  on  such  a  floor  as 
I  have  described." 

A  farmer  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  describes,  in  the  same  journal,  a  manure-gutter  of  very 
different  construction,  it  being  covered  with  a  heavy  iron  grating,  which  permits  the  manure 
to  fall  through  into  the  gutter  beneath.     It  is  as  foUows:  — 

"  The  joists  are  framed  into  the  sill  to  hold  it  in  its  place.  The  floor  is  of  1  or  1^-inch 
hemlock  lumber,  laid  lengthwise  of  the  stable  in  two  thicknesses,  and  so  as  to  break 
joints,  to  make  it  tight.  The  top  of  the  floor  is  even  with  the  top  of  the  sill.  The  iron  floor 
is  an  invention  of  E.  W.  Stewart  of  Lake  View,  Erie  county,  N.  Y.,  and  costs  S6  for  each 
cow.  This  is  hung  to  the  siU,  so  as  to  be  conveniently  raised  up  to  allow  the  pit  to  be 
cleaned.  I  purchased  and  put  in  the  floor  about  the  middle  of  December,  having  some  doubts 
as  to  its  utility  on  account  of  the  cows  having  to  stand  upon  it  with  their  hind  feet.  I  have 
used  it  ever  since,  and  1  have  never  tried  any  experiment  which  has  given  me  as  full  satis- 
faction (except  the  silo,  and  that  no  better)  as  this.  I  have  not  had  one-half  pound  of 
manure  adhering  to  eight  cows  in  the  whole  three  months,  nor  has  it  required  one  pound  of 
straw  or  other  bedding,  and  I  do  not  think  that  I  could  keep  the  cows  clean  with  bedding, 
as  it  would  prevent  the  droppings  from  going  through  into  the  pit,  and  the  cows  would  lie 
down  in  it. 

I  use  the  pit  by  putting  into  it  about  two  or  three  inches  deep  of  swamp  muck  (not  pond 
mud),  and  once  or  twice  each  day  add  a  little  to  this  by  throwing  from  a  pile  of  muck  in  the 
stable  a  shovelful  or  two  behind  each  cow  on  the  top  of  this  ii'on  grating,  and  let  it  sift  down 
through  and  mix  with  the  droppings  and  the  urine,  and  I  use  also  daily  a  little  plaster  in  the 
same  way.  If  the  cows  do  not  tread  all  the  droppings  through,  we  brush  over  the  top  of 
the  grating  with  a  common  stable  broom  (or  fork),  to  break  up  the  droppings  and  let  them 
go  through.  Once  or  twice  in  a  week  we  drive  (or  back  in)  the  wagon  behind  the  cows  and 
load  into  the  wagon  the  contents  of  the  pit  (all  fine,  without  straw),  carting  it  directly  to  the 
field,  and  spreading  it  where  it  is  wanted.  I  am  satisfied,  from  the  little  experience  which  I 
have  had,  that  besides  having  something  which  will  last  a  lifetime,  I  shall  save  in  labor  more 
than  the  extra  expense  every  two  years,  and  that  the  cows  will  stand  or  lie  down  upon  it 
more  comfortably  than  upon  a  common  stable  floor,  which  is  not  too  wide  to  allow  the  drop- 
pings to  fall  into  the  gutter.  Another  advantage  is,  that  I  have  no  wood  coming  in  contact 
with  the  urine  to  be  saturated  with  it  and  give  off  a  bad  odor.  This,  and  the  clean  condition 
of  the  cows,  I  consider  no  small  advantage  to  a  cow  stable.  If  I  had  neither  swamp  muck 
nor  thoroughly  decomposed  straw,  chaff,  weeds,  or  other  vegetable  matter  for  an  absorbent, 
I  believe  I  should  use  dry  road  dust.  This,  however,  has  little  to  do  with  the  arrangement 
of  a  stable." 

The  gutter  above  described  is  2  feet  deep  and  3  feet  wide,  the  sides  and  bottom  being  of 
concrete.  The  stable  floor,  from  the  base  of  manger  to  the  iron  grating,  measures  3  feet  and 
4  inches.     By  the  use  of  such  gutters,  as  above  described,  the  objections  urged  against  bam 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  661 

cellars  for  the  storage  of  manure  are  in  a  great  measure  obviated,  since  the  manure  is  taken 
out  before  fermentation  commences.  Gutters  for  saving  the  liquid  manure  separate  from 
the  solid,  when  desired,  are  shown  in  previous  description  and  illustrations  of  horse  and  cow 
stables. 

Baril  Cellars. — Various  opinions  are  entertained  with  reference  to  the  use  of  bam 
cellars  for  the  storage  of  manure.  A  few  years  ago  cellars  for  this  purpose  were  much  in 
favor,  but  at  present  many  grave  objections  are  being  urged  against  them  from  some  author- 
ities, while  others  are  as  strongly  as  ever  in  favor  of  them. 

That  a  bam  cellar  may  be  very  convenient  for  many  purposes  cannot  be  denied,  among 
which  is  the  storage  and  manufacture  of  manure.  But  in  their  use  for  this  purpose,  unless 
great  care  is  taken,  and  the  building  supplied  with  a  most  complete  and  thorough  system  of 
ventilation,  they  will  become  the  source  of  disease  by  the  contamination  of  the  atmosphere 
which  the  stabled  animals  must  of  necessity  breathe. 

The  fumes  of  decomposing  manure  in  a  barn  cellar  will  be  sure  to  find  their  way  to  the 
stable  above,  where  the  animals  are  kept,  which  will  poison  their  blood  and  be  a  source  of  ill- 
health,  while  the  quality  of  the  hay  and  other  fodder  stored  away  in  such  a  building  will  be 
greatly  injured  by  this  means. 

Absorbents  will  prevent  decomposition  in  a  measure,  but  not  wholly,  even  when 
Tised  in  large  quantities,  while  the  ordinary  facilities  for  ventilation  will  prove  only  partially 
effectual.  But  the  decomposition  of  the  manure  is  one  of  the  advantages  claimed  in  the  use 
of  the  cellar  for  its  storage,  and  unless  this  is  accomplished,  one  of  the  objects  sought  in  their 
use  is  not  attained. 

Wherever  so  used,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  on  hand  at  all  times  an  abundant 
supply  of  dry,  absorbing  material,  which  should  be  employed  freely,  and  especial  pains  taken 
to  have  the  building  thoroughly  ventilated.  It  is  also  well  to  make  use.  of  deodorizers  occa- 
sionally to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  evil  effects  that  may  result  from  the  storage  of  such 
a  quantity  of  femienting  material  directly  under  the  building  where  animals  are  stabled,  and 
fodder  stored.  Bam  cellars  furnish  a  very  convenient  place  for  the  storage  of  roots  for 
feeding  stock,  where  they  will  also  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  frost.  Such  places  of  storage 
should  not  be  directly  imder  a  stable,  but  under  the  portion  of  the  building  where  hay  and 
grain  are  kept. 

Animals  should  never  be  stabled  in  a  cellar.  Such  places  are  damp  and  unhealthy, 
and  are  injurious  to  animals  that  are  confined  in  them.  A  side-hill  or  bank-barn  may  be 
so  constructed  as  to  have  a  basement  on  a  sunny  side  of  the  building,  the  floor  being  on 
a  level  with  the  ground,  and  be  less  objectionable  for  stabling  cattle  than  cellar  stables, 
as  sometimes  arranged  ;  but  even  then  such  stables  will  be  more  or  less  damp  and  un- 
healthy, and  we  would  not  recommend  them  for  that  purpose.  The  practice  of  confining 
swine  in.  bam  cellars  where  manvire  is  stored  is  open  to  serious  objections.  No  animal 
thus  kept  is  fit  to  become  food  for  mankind.  It  is  very  true  that  swine  may  thus  be 
able  to  work  over  the  manure  and  aid  in  its  thorough  mixing,  and  will  eat  much  of  the 
food  wasted  by  the  horses  and  other  stock  that  may  be  \nixed  with  it;  but  no  animal 
can  be  healthy  when  forced  to  live  in  this  manure  and  breathe  such  vitiated  atmosphere. 
The  "Massachusetts  Ploughman"  contains  the  following  sensible  advice  with  reference  to 
this  subject : — 

"  It  is  a  fact  that  is  conceded  by  every  intelhgent  individual,  that  animals  of  all  kinds, 
to  be  healthy,  must  have  plenty  of  pure  air  and  sunshine.  If  this  be  so,  then  what  must  be 
the  condition  of  swine  kept  in  a  cellar  where  no  draft  of  pure  air  can  pass  through ;  where 
but  little  sunshine  can  penetrate,  and  where  the  continual  decomposition  of  animal  manure  is 
filling  the  air  with  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  To  suppose  that  any  animal,  except  of  a  low 
order  of  existence,  can  be  kept  in  health  in  such  a  position,  for  any  great  length  of  time,  is  to 


662  THE  AilERICAN  FARMER. 

suppose  an  impossibility.  It  is  true,  pigs  are  able  to  live  and  grow  in  such  places  until  tbey 
are  large  enough  to  kill,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  most  of  them  are  killed  before  they 
are  a  year  old,  not  giving  time  for  the  disease,  caused  by  ill  ventilation  and  darkness,  to 
mature  sufficiently  to  cause  death,  but  it  will  generally  mature  enough  to  make  the  animal 
unhealthy,  and  thus  render  the  pork  an  undesirable  food. 

The  farmer  loses  in  more  than  one  direction  by  keeping  his  animals  in  an  unhealthy 
place.  In  the  first  place,  he  loses  by  not  i  getting  as  much  flesh  for  a  bushel  of  meal,  and  in 
the  second  place,  he  loses  by  feeding  his  family  on  the  flesh  of  unhealthy  animals.  It  may 
not  create  immediate  sickness,  but  the  constant  eating  of  unhealthy  food  undermines  and 
breaks  down  the  most  robust  constitution,  and  renders  it  a  mere  wreck,  often  without  the 
cause  being  suspected. 

The  farmer  should  ever  keep  in  mind  the  fact,  that,  if  he  woiild  keep  his  family 
healthy,  he  must  keep  the  animals,  the  flesh  of  which  they  are  to  eat,  in  a  healthy,  thriving 
condition,  and  he  should  also  remember  that  he  can  do  this  only  by  giving  them  good  food, 
and  keeping  them  where  they  can  have  plenty  of  pure  air  and  bright  sunshine." 

It  is  no  wonder  that  mankind  are  subject  to  so  many  diseases,  when  the  first  principles 
of  sanitary  laws  with  respect  to  the  food  we  eat,  the  water  we  drink,  and  the  air  we  breathe, 
are  so  utterlj'  disregarded. 

Doors,  Scaffolds,  etc. — The  doors  of  tho  main  floor  of  the  barn  should  be  wide  and 
high.  Narrow  or  low  doors  will  prove  a  great  inconvenience,  and  should  never  be  made  in 
any  building,  especially  a  barn.  Sliding  doors  set  on  roUers  are  generally  preferred  to  hinges. 
"Where  the  latter  are  used,  the  hinges  should  be  strong,  and  hooks  arranged  to  fasten  them 
open  when  desired.     Stable-doors  should  also  be  of  good  size. 

Means  should  be  provided  for  safely  locking  all  the  barn-doors,  in  order  to  keep  out 
intruders.  Windows  can  scarcely  be  too  numerous  in  a  barn.  Light  is  essential  to  the  health 
and  comfort  of  animals,  as  well  as  mankind;  besides,  it  is  much  more  convenient  to  have  suffi- 
cient Hght  in  the  barn  while  performing  the  necessary  work  there.  Good  stairs  leading  to 
the  scaffolds  are  much  more  desirable  than  the  ladders  commonlv  used  by  fanners.  These 
can  frequently  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  fastened  up  out  of  the  way  when  desired,  as  in  the 
barn  first  described  in  this  department.  A  portable  step-ladder  will  also  prove  a  great  con- 
venience for  occasional  use. 

All  the  bays  should  have  tight  floors,  and  be  elevated  at  least  from  two  to  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  loose  floors  of  scaffolds  so  commonly  seen  in  barns  are  very  objection- 
able, as  the  hay-seed  and  dust  are  liable  to  sift  down  into  the  stables.  In  order  to  ob^aate 
this  difficulty,  the  floors  of  the  scaffolds  that  are  over  the  stables  should  be  lined  and  made 
perfectly  tight.  For  the  safety  of  the  crops,  comfort  of  the  animals,  and  the  prevention  of 
injury  to  the  building,  the  roof  should  be  kept  in  good  repair,  and  all  leakage  prevented. 
The  walls  under  the  bam  should  be  made  tight  in  the  main,  but  there  should  be  openings 
left  for  ventilation  on  opposite  sides.  The  main  floor  should  be  smooth  and  well  laid,  and 
the  floors  of  the  stables  made  ot heavy  plank,  and  of  the  most  substantial  character. 

Eave  troughs  shoidd  be  provided  for  the  bam  and  adjoining  sheds,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  large  quantity  of  water  that  falls  upon  the  roof  from  washing  into  the  yard.  By  this 
method  a,  supply  of  water  could  be  furnished  for  the  stock,  if  no  better  means  of  watering 
were  provided.  Lightning-rods  are  also  a  great  protection.  Some  arrangement  should  be 
made  for  protecting  the  manure  from  being  washed  by  the  rains,  and  evaporated  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  when  not  stored  in  cellars,  or  carted  directly  from  the  stables  on  to  the  land.  The 
barn-yards  should  be  so  located  that  the  drainage  from  them  will  flow  upon  the  farm  lands, 
and  also  so  as  to  receive  water  from  no  other  source.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  them  a  Httle 
lower  in  the  center  than  at  the  outer  limits,  in  the  form  of  a  shallow  dish.  By  this  means, 
the  drainage  is  retained,  which  may  be  absorbed  by  the  use  of  loam  or  dry  muck,  and  add 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  663 

materially  to  the  amount  of  fertilizers  for  farm  use.  If  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  therefore 
leachy,  it  should  be  covered  with  clay  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  liquid  manure  by  leaching 
into  the  subsoil.  Some  farmers  have  been  at  the  expense  of  making  a  concrete  basin  of  their 
barn-yards,  thus  making  a  complete  reservoir  for  all  the  fertilizing  substances  that  are  con- 
tained within  it,  and  from  which  none  can  escape  but  by  evaporation. 

Graiiarj'. — Instead  of  a  separate  building  for  the  storage  of  grain,  many  farmers  devote 
a  portion  of  the  barn  to  this  purpose,  or  the  upper  part  of  some  of  the  other  out-buildings, 
where  a  series  of  bins  are  made  to  substitute  a  granary.  It  is  far  better,  however,  to  have  a 
separate  building  for  such  use,  — one  built  with  special  reference  to  the  protection  of  grain 
from  rats,  mice,  and  other  vermin.  It  may  not  necessarily  be  a  very  large  or  elaborately- 
built  structure.  The  size  and  style  of  its  construction  will  depend  upon  the  size  and  require- 
ments of  the  farm,  but  whether  large  or  small,  it  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  rats  and  mice,  and  for  the  admission  of  air  for  keeping  the  grain  dry. 

A  granary  should  be  set  up  from  three  to  four  feet  from  the  ground,  on  a  perfectly 
smooth  brick  wall,  or  on  stone  posts.  This  is  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  rats  and  mice.  In 
olden  times,  it  was  customary  to  use  posts  on  which  the  building  was  elevated,  that  were 
capped  with  large,  flat,  smooth  stones.  Although  such  an  arrangement  is  more  useful  than 
ornamental,  since  it  proves  an  effectual  means  of  securing  the  object  sought,  yet  if  the  stone 
posts  or  brick  wall,  as  before  mentioned,  are  made  as  smooth  as  possible,  they  will  subserve 
the  purpose  equally  well,  and  look  very  much  better. 

Where  brick  waUs  are  employed,  spaces  must  be  left  open  sufficient  for  a  free  circulation 
of  air  under  the  building.  In  order  to  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  the  building,  two 
sides  of  it  should  be  covered  with  slats  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  inches  wide,  placed  about 
half  an  inch  apart.  The  other  sides  should  be  boarded  tight.  The  eaves  should  project  con- 
siderably, and  the  entire  building  be  kept  in  good  repair,  that  there  may  be  no  leakages  from 
roof  or  sides.  There  should  be  a  passage-way  through  the  center  of  the  building,  and  doors 
at  each  end.  The  doors  should  be  provided  with  locks  for  the  purpose  of  security  when 
desired.  There  should  be  a  sufBcient  number  of  windows  to  render  the  building  conveniently 
light.  It  should  also  be  provided  with  a  good  ventilator  in  the  roof.  The  bins  can  be 
arranged  according  to  convenience.  It  is  well,  however,  to  locate  the  bins  for  holding  ears 
of  corn  against  the  sides  of  the  building,  covered  with  slats,  while  those  for  wheat,  oats, 
shelled  corn,  and  meal,  should  be  placed  against  the  sides  that  are  boarded,  as  a  preventive 
against  dampness.  Each  bin  should  be  provided  with  a  well-fitting  cover,  and  also  a  lock 
and  key. 

Every  bin  should  also  have  its  capacity  in  bushels  plainly  marked  upon  it.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  have  the  number  of  bushels  which  each  bin  contains  marked  on  a  slate  or  blackboard 
attached  to  it.  An  arrangement  for  this  purpose  may  be  painted  on  each  bin  at  the  time  of 
completing  the  building.  By  this  means  the  amount  it  contains  can  be  recorded,  as  well  as 
the  amount  taken  out  from  time  to  time,  and  by  deducting  the  sum  of  the  latter  number  of 
bushels  from  the  former,  the  amount  on  hand  can  at  any  time  be  definitely  ascertained.  The 
bins  should  be  divided  into  several  compartments  by  partitions,  each  holding  from  ten  to 
forty  bushels,  or  more,  of  grain. 

Scaffolds  in  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  and  which  may  be  reached  by  stairs,  will  be 
found  convenient  for  various  purposes.  A  good  step-ladder  will  also  be  necessary  for  use  in 
the  granary.  The  grain  should  always  be  perfectly  dry  and  clean  when  put  into  the  bins, 
and  with  the  proper  provision  for  ventilation  and  protection  against  dampness,  as  previously 
indicated,  it  can  be  kept  in  the  best  condition. 

Ho£^ 'House. — In  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  swine,  buildings  will  be  necessary  in 
which  provision  is  made  for  warmth  in  cold  weather,  and  a  protection  against  the  hot  sun  in 


664  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

summer;  for,  although,  natives  of  a  warm  climate,  and  provided  by  nature  with  a  protection 
against  the  cold  of  only  a  thin  covering  of  coarse  hair,  they  are  not  fond  of  excessive  heat, 
and  will  seek  shelter  from  the  hot  sun  when  it  is  accessible. 

Ample  facilities  for  ventilation  should  also  be  provided,  as  well  as  those  for  keeping  the 
building  in  as  clean  a  condition  as  practicable.  Over-crowding  should  also  be  avoided  where 
a  large  number  of  swine  are  kept. 

The  size  of  the  building  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  number  to  be  kept.  Extensive 
breeding  and  rearing  of  swine  necessitates  convenient  buildings  of  large  size,  consisting  of 
various  departments  suited  to  the  purpose,  such  as  an  apartment  for  cooking  their  food,  for 
fattening,  and  sleeping,  and  for  keeping  different  portions  of  the  herd  that  it  is  desired  to 
keep  separate  from  others.  For  fattening  in  the  autumn,  a  large  pasture  for  them  to  nm  in 
during  the  day,  and  a  dry  yard  with  simply  a  shelter  at  night,  is  what  are  frequently  pro- 
vided in  the  Western  States;  but,  even  under  such  circumstances,  convenient  buildings  wiU 
be  necessary  for  such  as  are  kept  over  during  the  winter.  Where  only  a  small  number  are 
kept,  it  win  be  necessary  to  di\ide  the  building  into  two  or  more  apartments,  which  are  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  a  door,  and  each  connected  with  the  yard.  The  partitions  between 
the  different  departments  should  be  suESciently  high  to  prevent  the  pigs  from  jumping  over. 
In  front  of  the  pens  there  should  be  a  wide  alley. 

A  very  convenient  plan  is  to  hang  the  lower  boards  of  the  partition  between  the  pen 
and  alley,  where  the  feeding-troughs  are,  on  hinges,  so  that  they  may  be  made  to  swing  into 
tlie  pen  and  leave  the  trough  in  the  alley  when  the  food  is  put  in.  This  renders  it  more 
convenient  in  feeding  the  pigs,  as  well  as  in  cleaning  out  the  troughs. 

An  apartment  for  sleeping  should  be  separated  from  the  feeding  room,  and  plenty  of 
clean  straw  provided  for  their  beds.  The  floors  should  be  of  heavy  planks,  well  fastened 
down,  and  laid  to  slant  slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  yard,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it 
well  drained  and  dry.  A  scaffolding  overhead  wiU  be  found  convenient  for  various  purposes. 
Unless  svrine  are  permitted  free  access  to  the  yard,  or  have  fresh  earth,  charcoal,  &c.,  provided 
them  frequently,  they  wiU.  be  tmeasy,  and  wiU  be  liable  to  root  up  the  floor,  if  possible,  to  get 
at  the  earth. 

Special  provision  should  be  made  for  readily  cleaning  out  the  pens.  The  pens  should 
be  cleaned  out  every  day,  the  same  as  stables,  and  if  properly  arranged,  it  can  be  done  with 
but  slight  trouble,  and  in  a  comparatively  very  short  time.  There  is  no  reason  why  pigs 
should  not  be  kept  in  as  clean  a  condition  as  other  animals,  if  properly  cared  for. 

Pigs  should  also,  at  all  times,  have  access  to  fresh  water,  and  the  pens  should  be  at  a 
convenient  distance  from  a  pump,  where  such  supply  is  not  provided  in  the  building.  Pigs 
will  thrive  better,  and  be  healthier,  to  have  a  sufBcient  amount  of  room  and  fresh  air. 

In  raising  pigs,  more  room  will  be  required  than  simply  fattening  them.  In  a  cold 
climate,  the  sow-pen  should  be  provided  with  a  stove,  and  other  conveniences.  Many  young 
pigs  are  lost  in  severe  weather  by  getting  chilled,  and  if  some  means  of  rendering  the  pen 
comfortably  warm  were  provided,  it  would  amply  repay  for  the  trouble,  where  the  farmer 
pays  considerable  attention  to  this  industry.     Harris  says  with  reference  to  such  pens  : — 

'•  In  pens  for  breeding  sows,  we*  have  found  it  very  convenient  in  cold  weather  to  have  a 
partition  between  the  sleeping  and  feeding  apartments,  with  a  sliding  door,  that  can  be  easily 
closed .  It  is  desirable,  when  pigs  are  to  be  made  ready  for  the  butcher  in  eight  or  nine 
months,  that  the  sow  should  farrow  early  in  March;  and  it  often  happens  that  this  interesting 
event  occurs  during  a  severe  snow-storm.  With  a  warm  sleeping  apartment  and  with  a  door 
that  can  be  closed  at  night,  or  at  any  time  after  the  sow  has  been  fed,  thousands  of  pigs  that 
are  now  lost  might  be  saved.  This  plan  is  particularly  essential  where  the  feeding  apartment 
is  partially  or  wholly  uncovered.  But  even  where  both  apartments  are  covered,  it  is  better 
to  have  a  partition  that  can  be  opened  in  warm  weather,  and  closed  during  cold  storms. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  665 

The  only  objection  to  this  plan  is,  that  the  sow  has  not  so  much  room,  and  there  may  be 
increased  danger  of  her  crushing  the  pigs  against  the  sides  of  the  pen.  This  objection,  how- 
ever, is  more  apparent  than  real,  from  the  fact,  that  no  matter  how  large  the  pen  is,  the  sow 
is  almost  certain  to  make  her  bed  near  one  of  the  sides.  She  almost  invariably,  in  pigging, 
places  her  hack  against  the  rail  or  side  of  the  pen,  the  object  probably  being  to  prevent  the 
little  pigs  from  getting  on  the  wrong  side  of  her,  where  they  would,  in  cold  weather,  be 
likely  to  perish  before  they  find  the  teats.  Our  breeding-pens  have  a  rail  on  the  inside, 
about  six  inches  from  the  sides  of  the  pen,  and  about  one  foot  high,  but  the  sows  before  pigging 
take  special  pains  to  fill  the  space  with  straw,  and  we  are  satisfied  that  if  they  did  not,  the 
little  pigs,  when  bom  during  a  cold  night,  would  often  get  on  the  backside  of  the  sow,  and  be 
chilled  to  death." 

A  building  for  pigs  may  be  made  comfortable  and  convenient,  and  yet  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  expensive.  Good  planning  and  ingenuity  are  essential  to  render  such  buildings,  as 
well  as  all  others,  especially  suited  to  the  purpose. 

Plans  for  Piggeries. — The  following  plans  for  convenient  piggeries  will  contain 
valuable  suggestions  for  those  farmers  who  purpose  to  build  a  new  one,  as  well  as  others  who 
are  to  repair  or  otherwise  improve  the  old  one  now  in  use. 

Messrs.  H.  M.  and  "W.  P.  Sisson,  Galesburg,  Illinois,  who  are  extensive  breeders  of 
Poland-China  hogs,  use  a  breeding-pen,  of  which  the  following  is  a  description :  The 
building  is  24  s  40,  with  aUey,  4  feet  wide,  through  the  center;  ten  pens,  each  8  s  10 
feet — plenty  of  room  for  old  sows;  door  to  each  pen,  2  x  3  J  feet  in  size  ;  slide  window  over 
each  door,  excepting  two  at  south  end,  where  window  is  in  the  middle  of  each  pen.  Door  at 
south  end  of  alley  is  made  in  two  halves,  in  order  to  have  upper  half  open  for  ventilation. 
Window  over  door  in  south  gable.  All  cross-partitions  movable.  Two  south  pens  have 
doors  inside,  which  swing  or  open  into  alley,  and  hook  together,  forming  a  passage-way  from 
one  side  to  the  other.  When  partitions  are  out,  both  sides  can  be  used  for  feeding,  or  one 
side  for  feeding,  and  one  for  lodging.  Partitions  can  be  stowed  away  on  scaffold  overhead, 
and  replaced  when  pens  are  wanted  for  sows.  The  building  is  set  on  stone  piers,  about  1^ 
feet  high.  Sills,  8x8  inches;  joists,  2x8;  shielding,  4x4;  rafters,  2  x  4,  2  feet  apart;  roof, 
■J-  pitch,  with  two  good  ventilators  in  peak,  right  distance  apart  for  appearance.  Seven  feet 
from  top  of  sill  to  top  of  plate.  Stock  boards,  14  feet  in  length,  cut  in  the  middle,  can  be 
used  for  the  sides;  battened  all  around;  sealed  up  inside  with  common  lumber  to  bottom  of 
windows;  tar  paper  used  on  sides  and  roof  ;  2-inch  plank  for  floor  ;  shingled  roof.  This,  we 
believe,  comprises  about  all  needed  for  the  structure. 

Mr.  Pascal  Morris,  of  Philadelphia,  an  extensive  breeder  of  Chester  Whites,  uses  a  pig- 
gery which  is  susceptible  of  reduction  or  extension  for  a  larger,  or  smaller  number  of  pigs, 
and  is  intended  to  show  what  many  of  our  practical  swine-breeders  most  desire,  viz.,  a 
cheap  and  convenient  construction  of  buildings,  separate  and  distinct  from  each  other,  thus 
avoiding  the  evils  that  arise  from  massing  large  numbers  under  one  roof.  It  will  be  seen 
that  Mr.  Morris  has  an  eye  to  cleanliness  and  pure  air  iu  his  piggery,  as  well  as  the  healthful 
influences  of  sunlight  in  his  swine  quarters.  He  also  looks  after  the  comfort  and  safety 
of  his  breeding-sows,  as  twenty-five  to  thirty  of  these,  farrowing  at  different  seasons,  can  be 
accommodated  under  his  system  of  separate  pens,  by  bringing  them  successively  within  the 
enclosure  arranged  for  them.  In  the  s^me  way,  also,  an  equal  number  of  hogs  can  be  fat- 
tened without  crowding  or  interference  \vith  each  other. 

The  following  description  explains  itself :  "  The  entrance  is  on  the  north  side  of  the 
building,  which  fronts  the  south,  as  does  also  each  separate  pen.  The  main  building  is  32 
feet  long,  by  12  feet  wide,  with  an  entrance  gate,  at  each  lower  corner,  to  the  yard  of  two 
first  divisions.  The  entry,  or  room  in  the  center,  is  8  feet  wide,  allowing  space  for  slop- 
barrel,  feed-chest,  charcoal-barrel  (almost  as  indispensable  as  feed-chest),  hatchway,  for  access 


666  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

to  root-cellar,  undemeatli  the  whole  building,  and  also  passage-way  to  second  stoiy.  This 
latter  is  used  for  storing  corn  in  winter,  and  curing  some  varieties  of  seeds  in  summer.  A 
wooden  spout,  with  sKding  valve,  conveys  feed  to  the  chest  below.  The  grain  is  hoisted  to 
the  second  floor  by  a  pulley  and  tackle  on  the  outside. 

The  entrance  to  the  main  building  is  by  a  door  in  the  center  of  the  north  front,  the  door 
by  which  grain  is  hoisted  to  the  second  story  being  directly  above  the  latter,  with  a  four- 
paned  window  on  either  side  for  lighting  the  upper  story  of  the  building. 

On  either  side  of  a  central  passage-way  are  sis  pens,  the  first  two  pens  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  door  being  12x12  feet  each,  and  attached  to  them  are  25  feet  in  length  of  yard, 
by  15  feet  wide.  All  the  yards  are  extended  3  feet  wider  than  the  building,  which  admits  of 
two  entrance  gates  at  the  corners. 

Another  division  then  commences,  consisting  of  a  raised  platform,  6  to  8  feet  ■wide,  and 
extending  the  same  width  as  the  first  pen,  with  a  board  roof  over  it,  and.  also  boarded  up  on 
the  back,  which  answers  the  purpose  of  a  division  fence,  to  separate  from  the  pen  behind  it. 
Twenty-five  feet  of  yard  are  also  attached  to  this,  and  the  same  arrangement  is  continued  to 
all  the  six  di\'isions.  We  have  found,  says  Mr.  Morris,  that  this  board  roof  and  wooden 
floor,  on  the  north  side  of  each  pen,  and  fronting  the  south,  are  ample  protection  in  cold,  wet, 
or  stormy  weather.  The  floor  is  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  even  the  feeding-trough  is  not  on 
it,  on  account  of  more  or  less  of  wet  and  dirt  always  contiguous  to  the  trough,  which  freezes 
in  winter  and  becomes  slippery. 

Each  yard  is  used  for  the  deposit  of  refuse  vegetables  and  weeds,  litter,  etc.,  thrown  in 
from  time  to  time,  to  be  consumed,  or  made  into  manure.  This  is  conveniently  loaded  into  a 
cart,  passing  along  on  the  outside  of  each  range  of  pens.  The  passage-way  between  each 
range  of  pens  gives  convenient  access  to  the  feeder  for  all  the  pens.  A  door  also  communi- 
cates from  one  division  to  the  other,  to  make  changes  when  necessary;  and  also  a  door  or 
gate  from  each  pen  to  the  outside,  so  that  one  or  more  can  be  removed,  and  others  intro- 
duced, without  any  confusion  or  interference  from  any  of  the  other  pens.  The  two  pens 
under  the  main  roof  of  the  building,  being  more  sheltered,  are  reserved  for  cows  that  may 
happen  to  calve  very  early  in  the  season,  or  in  extremely  cold  weather,  which  is  always 
avoided  if  practicable.  For  several  reasons,  the  boiler  for  cooking  food  is  in  a  rough  shed, 
adjacent  to  the  piggery  and  entirely  outside  of  it.  There  is,  indeed,  no  reason  why  this 
should  be  necessarily  a  part  of  the  piggery.  The  above  plan  is  not  offered  as  embracing 
much  that  is  novel  in  arrangement,  but  as  one  that  combines  many  advantages  which  may  be 
comprised  in  the  following:  — 

Complete  separation,  and  easy  communication  between  each  pen,  as  well  as  to  outside 
from  each. 

Avoiding  close  and  confined  air,  and  admitting  of  extension  or  alteration  for  a  large  or 
small  number  of  pigs. 

Facilities  for  keeping  clean  and  receiving  refuse  vegetables  and  weeds,  etc.,  for  conver- 
sion into  manure,  and  also  for  loading  from  each  pen  into  a  cart,  passing  along  outside. 

Cheapness.  "With  the  exception  of  the  main  building,  all  the  rest  can  easily  be  erected 
by  an  intelUgent  farm  hand. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Morrison  of  Orange  county,  N.  Y.,  has  for  a  piggery  a  two-story  buUding, 
26x40  feet  on  the  groimd,  the  front  posts  being  16  feet,  while  the  rear  posts  are  14  feet 
high.     The  roof  is  nearly  flat,  and  covered  with  gravel  and  tar. 

On  the  long,  forty-feet  side  of  the  ground  floor  are  five  pens,  each  8x14  feet  in  size, 
connected  with  which  are  yards  8x16  feet  in  size,  these  being  on  the  south  side  of  the  build- 
ing, wliich  fronts  the  north.  On  the  north  side  of  these  five  pens  are  feeding-troughs,  1  x  I^ 
feet,  which  connect  with  the  feeding  and  slaughtering-room  by  openings  suitable  for  pouring 
the  swill  or  other  feed  into 'the  troughs,  aside  from  which  the  partition  between  the  pens 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  667 

and  the  slaughtering-room  is  entirely  closed,  the  latter  being  40x12  feet  in  size.  The 
entrance  door  to  the  feeding  and  slaughtering- room  is  on  the  west  side,  near  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  building,  This  room  contains  the  usual  conveniences  and  implements  for  feed- 
ing and  slaughtering  pigs,  such  as  fui-nace  and  boilers,  scalding-tub,  and  dressing-table  — 
the  boilers  being  used  m  cooking  food,  or  heating  water  for  use  in  dressing  the  pigs.  A  door 
opens  from  the  pens  into  the  slaughter-floor,  and  the  pens  are  all  connected  by  doors  between 
them. 

Feed-tubs  are  so  located  as  to  receive  by  conducting-pipes  the  skim  and  buttermilk 
from  the  dairy.  The  floor  of  the  pens  is  composed  of  brick  laid  in  cement,  and  slopes  four 
inches  back  to  the  sills,  which  are  raised  that  height  from  the  floor,  resting  on  iron  pins, 
thus  leaving  a  space  for  discharging  both  solid  and  liquid  manure  into  the  yards.  The 
yards  are  also  provided  with  a  tight  bottom,  and  walls  of  brick  and  mortar,  thus  preserving 
the  manure  from  waste.  The  floor  of  the  slaughtering-room  slopes  one  foot  in  twenty-six  in 
length,  and  a  few  inches  from  the  side  to  the  center.  The  second  story  contains  the  sleeping- 
rooms,  8x12,  entrance  to  which  is  gained  by  inclined  planes  from  the  pens  below.  No 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  the  pigs  accustomed  to  climbing  up  to  their  sleeping  rooms 
at  night,  and  they  keep  them  clean  and  dry;  leaves  are  furnished  for  bedding.  This  economical 
arrangement  of  pens  allows  the  keeping  of  about  50  hogs  in  a  comparatively  small  building. 
The  space  over  the  slaughter-floor  extends  up  to  the  roof,  except  that  a  platform  runs  around 
in  front  of  the  sleeping-pens,  on  a  level  with  the  second  floor. 

The  arrangement  of  sleeping-pens  in  the  second  story,  being  similar  to  that  of  the  feeding- 
pens  below,  leaves  space  for  two  large  rooms  that  may  be  used  for  grain-bins  and  storage. 
The  doors  opening  into  the  yards,  and  from  pen  to  pen,  are  all  managed  by  ropes  and  pulleys 
from  in  front  of  the  pens.  "With  a  view  to  keeping  out  vermin,  all  space  around  the  frame- 
work and  behind  the  troughs  is  filled  in  with  brick  and  mortar.  There  seem  to  be  but  two 
defects  in  the  foregoing  plans,  that  might  properly  be  criticised;  for  while  very  explicit  and 
minute  directions  are  given  on  various  points,  nothing  is  said  respecting  the  ventilation  of 
this  house  for  50  hogs.  There  should  be  at  least  three  large  ventilating  cupolas  on  the  top 
of  the  building,  beside  windows  and  doors  that  may  be  opened  or  closed,  as  circumstances 
may  seem  to  direct.  There  should  also  be  arrangements  made  for  keeping  the  yards  from 
being  flooded  by  rains,  to  the  great  saving  of  manure. 

Poultry-House.  —  Plans  and  descriptions  of  poultry-houses  will  be  given  in  connection 
with  the  poultry  department  (which  see). 

Wagon-House,  or  Shed.  —  A  shelter  for  the  storage  of 
wagons  and  carts  is  essential  on  every  farm.  On  small  farms, 
the  wagon-house,  tool-house,  and  repair-shop  may  be  combined 
in  one  building;  but  on  large  farms  considerable  room  will  be 
required  for  the  wagons  and  carts  alone.  A  wagon-house  should 
be  closel}''  boarded,  and  kept  in  good  repair.  Like  all  other 
farm  buildings,  its  size  wiU  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  farm, 
and  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be  appropriated.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  have  it  sufficiently  large  for  all  practical  purposes. 
If  the  upper  portion  of  the  building  is  finished  off  for  other 
uses,  the  scaiiold  or  floor  above  should  be  close  and  tight,  to 
prevent  the  dust  from  faUing  through  upon  the  floor  below. 

There  should  be  a  separate  department  where  the  best 
wagons  and  carriages  are  kept,  while  a  small  room  leading  into 
the  latter  may  be  finished  off  for  the  safe  keeping  of  the  har- 
nesses, robes,  etc.     The  door  of  this  department  shoiild  always  wagon-jack. 


668  THE  A3EERICAN  FARMER 

be  provided  \rith  a  strong  lock.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  in  getting  wagons  in  and  ou| 
of  the  building,  the  latter  should  be  elevated  but  a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  ground 
Some  wagon-sheds  are  left  open  in  front,  but  it  is  much  better  to  have  them  made  tight  bj 
doors,  thus  keeping  out  the  rain,  snow,  and  dust. 

The  building  and  doors  should  be  made  sufficiently  high  to  permit  a  high  carriage  tc 
pass  in  and  out  without  letting  down  the  top.  A  low  building  that  will  not  admit  of  this, 
is  a  perfect  nuisance,  as  well  as  a  small  building  that  has  not  sufficient  room  to  store  all  the 
wagons,  or  to  get  them  in  and  out  without  great  inconvenience.  Better,  by  far,  make  the 
building  too  large  than  too  small,  and  if  there  is  a  sxirplus  of  room  it  can  be  readily  appro- 
priated to  other  uses.  A  good  wagon-jack  is  a  great  convenience  in  every  building  where 
wagons  and  carriages  are  stored. 

TVood-House.  —  A  convenient  place  for  the  storage  of  fuel  is  a  necessity  on  every 
farm.  It  should  be  located  near  the  kitchen,  and  be  easy  of  access  from  that  quarter.  If 
practicable,  it  should  be  reached  without  going  out  of  doors.  In  any  case,  it  should  be  near 
the  house.  Sometimes  a  portion  of  the  back  part  of  the  dwelling  is  finished  off  for  this  pur- 
pose. Its  size  should  be  sufficient  to  hold  considerably  more  wood  than  would  be  needed  by 
the  family  in  one  year.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  good  floor,  that  the  wood  need  not  be 
put  upon  the  ground.  There  should  be  a  loft  over  the  wood-house,  which  may  be  reached 
by  stairs.  This  will  be  found  very  convenient  for  the  storage  of  many  things.  Such  places 
are  always  available  for  some  purpose,  on  any  farm.  The  building  should  be  tightly  boarded 
and  provided  with  windows  sufficient  to  make  it  conveniently  light.  The  front  of  the  building 
should  contain  large  doors,  which  may  be  made  to  slide  on  rollers,  or  hung  on  hinges.  The 
wood  should  never  be  pUed  higher  than  can  be  conveniently  reached  while  standing  on  the 
floor. 

Store-House.  —  A  building  for  the  storage  of  various  products  is  a  great  convenience 
on  any  farm,  large  or  small,  while  on  a  large  farm  it  is  not  only  a  convenience  but  a  necessity. 
Such  a  structure  will  furnish  a  place  for  the  storage,  ripening,  and  curing  of  fruit  in  the 
autumn,  the  drying  of  nuts  and  garden  seeds,  the  storage  of  roots  until  cold  weather,  and 
other  purposes  too  numerous  to  mention.  It  should  be  located  near  the  house,  and  be  closely 
boarded,  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  The  door  should  be  large,  and  provided  with 
a  strong  lock  to  keep  Out  intruders.  It  should  be  supplied  with  convenient  bins,  and 
room  for  the  storage  of  barrels,  which  should  always  be  kept  clean.  Shelves  should  always 
be  placed  against  the  walls.  If  designed  for  ripening  pears,  a  dark  place  will  be  essential 
for  this  purpose;  hence,  a  dark  room,  or  a  large  dark  closet  with  shelves  against  the  wall, 
will  be  found  essential,  as  pears  require  a  dark  place  for  ripening  well. 

Such  a  building  should  be  built  sufficiently  high  above  the  ground  to  prevent  dampness, 
and  the  floors  should  be  made  very  tight  also,  for  the  same  purpose.  A  store-room  should 
always  be  kept  as  cool  and  dry  as  possible.  The  underpinning  of  the  building  should  be  so 
constructed  as  to  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air,  which  wiU  aid  greatly  in  preventing 
dampness.  The  size  of  such  a  building  should  be  adapted  to  the  size  and  productiveness  of 
the  fann. 

Tool-House  and  Kepair-Shop.  —  There  should  be  a  place  on  every  farm  for  the 
storage  of  tools  and  farm  machines,  as  well  as  the  repairing  of  them.  On  smah  farms  the 
wagon-house  may  serve  for  this  purpose,  in  connection  with  the  storage  of  carts  and  wagons; 
but  on  large  farms,  the  many  farm  implements  that  are  essential  in  conducting  the  business 
will  necessitate  a  separate  building  or  department  for  this  purpose.  The  negligent  and  waste- 
ful practice  followed  by  some  fanners  of  permitting  the  farm  machines  to  lie  in  the  open  field 
exposed  to  the  storms,  year  after  year,  is  one  not  to  be  commended.  Reapers,  mowers,  hay- 
tedders,  plows,  harrows,  grain-drills,  etc.,  are  injured  more  by  this  means  than  by  their  use 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  669 

on  the  farm,  and  the  loss  thus  sustained  would  very  soon  defray  the  expense  of  providing  a 
convenient  place  of  shelter  for  all  such  implements. 

Such  a  building  need  not  be  expensive,  but  should  be  built  tight,  to  afford  protection 
from  the  weather.  It  should  be  located  near  to  or  adjoining  the  barn,  be  well  covered  and 
lighted,  and  amply  provided  with  large  doors  to  render  it  convenient  in  getting  machines  in 
and  out  of  the  building.  For  the  latter  reason,  it  should  also  be  built  but  a  Httle  above  the 
ground.  A  tight  floor  should  be  laid,  as  it  is  not  well  to  have  machines  stand  upon  the 
ground,  since  the  dampness  arising  from  the  earth  would  cause  the  steel  and  iron  portions  to 
rust  badly,  as  well  as  the  wood-work  to  swell.  A  scaffold  above  will  serve  as  a  convenient 
place  of  storage  for  lighter  implements,  such  as  rakes,  forks,  baskets,  etc.  This  scaffold 
should  be  reached  by  a  pair  of  stairs. 

One  part  of  the  building  should  be  done  off  for  a  repair-shop.  This  can  be  separated 
from  the  former  by  large  folding-doors.  Tools  are  constantly  needing  to  be  repaired  on  even 
the  best  regulated  farms,  and  a  special  place  supplied  with  implements  for  this  purpose  is  a 
great  convenience,  as  well  as  the  practice  of  economy ;  for  if  the  farmer  possesses  the  means 
of  repairing  his  farm  tools  and  machines  himself,  when  they  require  it,  he  will  be  more  liable 
to  do  it  in  season,  before  they  become  more  badly  broken  or  injured.  The  means  of  repair- 
ing them  on  the  premises  is  also  a  saving  of  time  and  expense  in  having  them  taken  to  a 
machine-shop  for  the  purpose.  With  a  little  practice,  any  farmer  who  is  handy  in  the  use  of 
tools  will  soon  be  able  to  do  many  jobs  in  repairing  broken  or  injured  farm  implements,  that 
the  special  mechanic  is  generally  depended  upon  to  perform.  The  repair-shop  should  contain 
a  good  work-bench,  racks  and  shelves  for  the  purpose  of  holding  tools,  a  forge,  and  a 
lathe. 

Two  or  three  convenient  horses,  upon  which  planks  or  farm  implements  can  be  laid 
when  desired  in  repairing,  will  be  necessary.  A  good  set  of  tools  for  all  the  common  pur- 
poses of  working  wood  and  iron  will  complete  the  establishment.  The  repair-shop  would 
require  a  stove  in  winter,  in  order  to  make  it  comfortable  for  working.  Such  a  building, 
especially  where  a  forge  is  used,  should  have  a  good,  substantial  chimney,  built  rather  high 
above  the  roof.  It  should  also  be  located  sufBciently  far  from  the  other  farm  buildings  to 
obviate  all  danger  from  sparks  that  might  escape  from  the  chimney;  still,  it  should  be  at  a 
convenient  distance  from  them.  It  would  also  be  well  to  cover  the  roof  with  tin,  slate,  or 
some  other  fire-proof  material. 

Ice-House. — It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  construction  of  ice-houses  was  an 
expensive  and  laborious  task,  and  the  keeping  of  ice  through  the  warm  season  was  attended  with 
many  difficulties ;  therefore,  ice  was  regarded  as  a  luxury  that  few  farmers  were  financially  able 
to  enjoy.  But  it  has  been  found  that  very  inexpensive  structures,  or  their  substitutes,  with 
proper  construction  and  management,  are  all  that  is  essential  for  supplying  an  abundance  of  ice, 
which  has  within  a  few  years  ceased  to  be  classed  with  the  list  of  luxuries,  and  is  now  regarded 
as  one  of  the  necessities  on  every  well-conducted  farm.  There  is  really  no  reason  why  every 
farmer's  family  should  not  be  supplied  with  an  abundance,  since  it  can  be  furnished  at  so 
slight  an  expenditure  of  money  and  labor. 

Tliose  who  have  not  been  favored  with  the  use  of  ice  during  the  hot  weather  have  no 
idea  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  it,  both  in  sickness  and  health,  while  those  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  an  abundant  supply  would  scarcely  feel  that  they  could  dispense  with  it 
for  even  a  single  season.  Ice  is  absolutely  indispensable  for  securing  the  best  results  in  a 
dairy.  In  the  city,  it  can  always  be  readily  obtained  from  those  who  make  it  their  business 
to  furnish  it;  but  in  the  country  no  such  facilities  will  be  found;  therefore,  each  individual 
farmer  will  be  obliged  to  lay  up  a  store  during  the  winter  months  on  his  own  premises  for 
home  consumption,  or  be  deprived  of  it  in  the  season  of  its  use. 


670  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Essentials  in  Bnilding  Ice-Houses.  —  Vaxious  methods  and  plans  are  employed  in 
the  construction  of  ice-houses.  Some  prefer  them  built  entirely  above  ground ;  others  recom- 
mend that  they  be  built  partly,  or  almost  entirely,  xmder-ground.  When  suitabh'  constructed, 
either  method  will  answer  the  purpose  well.  As  a  general  rule,  the  plan  of  building  may  be 
safely  left  to  the  skill  of  those  who  know  what  is  required  to  secui'e  the  preservation  of  the 
ice  when  properly  packed.  When  these  essentials  are  well  understood,  any  fanner,  with  the 
common  tools  and  materials  found  on  every  farm,  can  easily  construct  one  at  but  shght 
expense.  The  principal  rules  in  building  houses  that  will  be  successful  in  preserving  ice  may 
be  briefly  summarized  as  follows,  viz.:  a  good  non-conducting  wall;  perfect  drainage,  with, 
air-tight  foundations;  ample  ventilation  at  the  top  of  the  structure;  solid  ice,  closely  packed; 
sufficient  protection  between  the  packed  ice  and  walls;  storing  the  ice  in  dry,  cold  weather. 

It  is  always  well  to  construct  an  ice-house  considerably  larger  than  will  contain  what 
would  be  used  during  the  season,  as  there  will  always  be  some  waste,  while,  if  the  succeeding 
winter  should  be  too  warm  to  supply  a  good  crop,  enough  may  be  left  over  to  supply  the 
deficiency.  Besides,  it  costs  but  little  more  to  build  one  of  considerable  size  than  a  small  one, 
and  it  is  better  to  have  an  abundance  of  ice  than  to  be  limited  in  its  use.  A  small  ice-house 
also  requires  much  more  care  in  constructing  than  a  large  one,  since  the  larger  the  quantity 
of  ice  stored  within  it,  the  better  its  temperature  is  preserved,  and  the  less  proportionate 
waste  there  will  be  from  melting.  A  small  quantity  of  ice  stored  requires  very  careful  packing 
to  prevent  melting.  Some  prefer  double  walls  packed  tightly  between  with  dry  sawdust, 
or  ground  bark ;  others  prefer  single,  tight  board  walls  of  one  thickness,  and  fill  in  a  foot  of 
dry  sawdust  around  on  all  sides  between  the  ice  and  walls.  This  may  be  done  to  good  advant- 
age, as  the  ice  is  deposited  in  successive  layers,  and  the  sawdust  may  be  filled  in  perhaps 
more  compactly  and  perfectly,  than  in  the  space  between  two  walls  or  partitions,  where  it 
would  be  liable  to  settle,  or  openings  form  from  other  causes.  Whether  double  or  single 
walls  are  constructed,  we  should  recommend  that  sawdust  be  always  used  in  packing  between 
the  ice  and  walls. 

A  hill-side  is  sometimes  chosen  for  the  location  of  an  ice-house,  and  the  gable  of  one 
end  built  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  which  an  opening  is  made  to  put  in  the  ice. 
The  other  end  of  the  structure  in  which  is  the  entrance,  is  exposed,  being  on  a  level  with  the 
floor.  An  under-ground  ice-house  is  sometimes  made  by  digging  a  cellar  under  a  shed  or 
well-ventilated  building,  and  providing  means  for  perfect  drainage.  An  ice-house  with  a 
small  room  partitioned  off  in  such  a  manner  that  it  shall  have  ice  on  two  or  three  sides  of  it, 
is  a  great  convenience,  as  furnishing  a  nice  cool  place  for  keeping  milk,  meats,  butter,  or 
fruit  in  warm  weather.  We  have  seen  plans  of  one  that  had  ice  on  three  sides  and  the  top, 
and  the  exposed  side  opening  on  the  north  side  of  the  structure.  A  milk-room  adjoining 
an  ice-house,  by  which  it  is  kept  cool,  should  have  double  walls  and  windows. 

Plans  for  Ice-Houses. — Various  plans  and  methods  might  be  given  for  constructing 
ice-houses,  but  our  space  will  not  admit  of  but  two  or  three,  which,  together  with  previous 
instructions  relative  to  the  essentials  in  such  a  structure,  will  serve  to  furnish  suggestions  for 
various  plans  that  may  be  made  according  to  the  requirements  of  circumstances. 

A  dry  foundation  with  perfect  drainage  is  essential.  Where  the  soil  is  retentive  of 
water,  drainage  should  be  provided  by  the  use  of  drain-tiles  or  other  equally  effective  means 
of  securing  it  and  conducting  the  water  away.  An  ice-house  16  feet  square  and  10  feet  high 
will  hold  50  or  more  tons.  The  foundations  may  be  of  stone  or  brick;  many  simply  lay 
down  heavy  planks  or  bed  the  sills  in  the  earth.  A  stone  or  brick  foundation  will,  of  course, 
be  more  durable,  although  requiring  more  labor.  Inside  make  a  floor  of  cement,  slightly 
concave,  with  an  opening  at  the  lowest  point  for  conducting  the  drainage  off  by  means  of 
tiles.  The  walls  may  be  double  or  single.  If  double,  there  should  be  a  tight  packing  of  saw- 
dust or  pulverized  bark  from  eight  to  ten  inches  thickness  between  them.     If  single,  at  least 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  Q71 

twelve  iiich.es  of  sawdust  should  be  closely  packed  between  the  ice  and  wall.  The  walls 
when  double,  are  usually  built  with  separate  studding  and  posts,  in  which  case  the  studs  are 
joined  by  cross  strips  every  few  feet  in  order  to  strengthen  the  walls.  Every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  render  the  foundation  perfectly  air-tight. 

The  drainage  from  the  ice  might  be  utilized  in  a  more  elaborate  structure,  by  having  it 
conducted  to  a  milk-room,  where  it  could  be  used  for  cooling  the  milk,  or  by  constructing  an 
apartment  for  this  purpose  partioned  ofiE  from  the  ice-house.  By  this  means  the  drainage 
from  the  ice  could  all  be  utilized,  and  the  consumption  of  ice  economized.  The  building 
may  be  covered  with  rough  unplaned  clapboards,  and  the  roof  shingled.  The  covering 
should  be  very  close  and  tight,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  warm  air.  If  the  walls  are  double 
and  filled,  the  doors  should  be  the  same.  A  small  door  above  the  large  one,  will  be  convenient 
for  removing  the  ice  until  it  is  taken  out  down  to  the  lower  door,  when  the  latter  can  be  used 
for  the  purpose. 

Another  plan  for  constructing  a  cheap  ice-house  which  will  hold  from  .35  to  40  tons  is 
given  by  a  good  authority  as  follows : — The  sills  to  be  bedded  in  the  ground,  2  by  1 2,  and 
the  inner  studs,  2  by  G,  sheathed  on  both  sides  with  common  boards,  the  outside  to  be  covered 
with  felt  paper,  the  space  formed  by  sheathing  to  be  filled  as  compactly  as  possible  with  dry 
sawdust,  or  tan  bark.  The  outer  studding  to  be  2  by  4,  spiked  to  outside  of  sheathing  and 
covered  with  common  siding,  leaving  a  space  under  frieze,  and  above  base,  of  three  inches. 
The  foundation  to  be  of  porous,  sandy  soU,  or  if  of  soil  that  will  not  admit  of  the  ready 
escape  of  water,  to  be  underdrained  with  tile.  The  floor  to  be  constructed  by  spreading  from 
six  to  eight  inches  of  sawdust  or  tan  bark,  and  after  leveling  it,  cover  with  common  boards, 
leaving  about  an  inch  space  between  each  for  the  water  to  escape.  The  plates  to  be  the  same 
as  studs,  2  by  12,  rafters  2  by  4.  The  roof  should  be  shingled.  Ventilators  in  the  top  of 
the  roof  2  feet  6  inches  square,  to  be  surmounted  by  a  small  cupola  with  open  slats.  Doors 
double  and  filled  with  sawdust. 

The  full  bill  of  lumber  for  the  above  is  given  as  follows: — Eight  pieces,  2  by  12  by  14, 
for  sills  and  plates;  thirty  pieces,  2  by  6  by  12,  for  inner  studs;  five  pieces,  2  by  6  by  12,  for 
hip-rafters  and  collar-beams;  thirty-eight  pieces,  2  by  4  by  12,  for  outer  studs;  twenty  pieces, 
2  by  4  by  12,  for  rafters  and  the  ventilator;  750  feet  siding,  14  feet  long;  2,000  feet  common 
boards,  for  sheathing,  floor,  roof,  etc.;  twenty-four  pieces  fencing,  surfaced,  12  feet  long,  for 
corner-boards,  etc.;  80  yards  building-paper;  3,000  common  shingles. 

An  elaborate  structure  is  not  necessary  in  order  to  preserve  a  good  supply  of  ice;  one  of 
rough  boards,  and  so  simple  in  its  construction  that  any  farmer  can  make  it  who  is  in  the 
least  skilled  in  the  use  of  tools,  will  answer  the  purpose,  providing  the  essential  rules  previ- 
ously given  for  its  successful  construction  be  observed. 

How  to  Cut  Ice. — In  cutting  a  smaU  supply  of  ice,  such  as  the  quantity  required  for 
a  farm  or  dairy,  but  few  tools  will  be  needed.  These  may  be  comprised  in  a  cross-cut  saw, 
with  one  thimble  and  handle  removed,  or  an  ice-saw  made  especially  for  the  purpose,  an  ax, 
and  an  ice-pole.  The  latter  implement  has  two  sharp  points,  one  projecting  at  the  end  to  push 
the  blocks  of  ice,  and  the  other  bent  down  at  right  angles  with  the  pole  to  draw  with. 
Where  very  large  quantities  of  ice  are  stored,  horse-markers  and  cutters  are  used.  The  ice 
to  be  stored  should  always  be  cut  into  square,  even-sized  blocks.  These  should  be  marked 
out  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  each  way  by  means  of  a  long  line  stretched  across  the  ice 
to  guide  the  saw.  Unless  the  blocks  are  cut  of  uniform  size,  so  that  they  can  be  packed 
closely  without  empty  spaces  occurring  between,  ice  will  not  keep  well,  even  in  the  very  best 
ice-houses.     A  farmer  in  Michigan,  Mr.  N.  Atwell,  gives  his  method  as  follows: — 

"  A  good  cross-cut  saw  is  the  most  convenient  tool  to  use.  A  good  pair  of  ice  tongs  is 
the  best  instrument  with  which  to  haul  the  cakes  out  of  the  water,  and  also  to  handle  and 
load  them.     The  cakes  should  be  as  large  as  they  can  be  without  inconvenience  in  handling. 


672  THE  AMKRICAJi  FARMER. 

I  make  the  cakes  2H  by  27  inches.  Twenty  cakes  of  this  size  will  complete  one  layer  nine 
feet  square.  The  second  layer  has  the  cakes  placed  crosswise  of  the  layer  below,  and  so  on  to 
the  top.  This  binds  the  whole  mass  together.  If  the  bottom  layer  is  level,  and  the  cakes  are 
of  unifonn  size  with  square  edges,  they  will  fit  together  nicely,  making  pounded  ice  between 
them  unnecessary. 

"We  find  that  it  is  less  than  a  day's  work  for  a  man  to  saw  out  an  abundant  supply  of  ice 
for  an  ordinary  family.  During  warm  weather,  ice  will  unavoidably  melt  from  the  outside  of 
the  mass,  and  if  neglected,  a  vacancy  is  soon  formed  between  the  ice  and  the  sawdust.  It  is 
very  important  that  the  sawdust  be  packed  down  often,  thus  preventing  the  admission  of 
warm  air.  "When  we  commence  marking  and  sawing  ice,  we  find  it  an  advantage  to  make 
the  headings  widest  where  we  commence  to  saw  them.  They  can  then  be  removed  without 
binding  or  wedging  fast." 

How  to  Store  Ice. — The  floor  of  the  ice-house  should  be  covered  from  six  to  eight 
inches  with  sawdust,  and  the  ice  packed  in  as  closely  as  possible,  the  cracks  between  the 
blocks  carefuUy  filled  with  broken  ice,  to  make  the  entire  mass  perfectly  solid,  always,  how- 
ever, leaving  a  space  between  the  body  of  ice  and  wall  of  the  building  all  around,  to  be  filled 
compactly  with  sawdust  as  the  packing  continues.  This  space  may  be  from  eight  to  twelve 
inches,  the  wider  the  Isetter  protection  from  the  outside  heat.  "Where  the  walls  are  con- 
structed double  and  filled  with  sawdust  or  tan  bark,  this  precaution  is  sometimes  not  taken, 
but  we  should  always  recommend  the  practice,  as  there  is  less  UabUity  of  the  ice  melting, 
even  in  such  cases.  This  is  especially  necessary  where  the  walls  are  not  lined,  as  there  would 
then  be  no  protection  from  the  heat  of  the  walls,  and  the  ice  would  soon  all  melt.  In  such 
cases  the  packing  of  sawdust  between  the  ice  and  walls  should  not  be  less  than  a  foot  in 
width.  Care  should  be  used  that  no  spaces  be  left  open  for  the  air.  "When  the  house  is  well 
fiUed,  cover  the  whole  mass  of  ice  with  two  or  three  feet  of  sawdust,  and  keep  the  building 
closed  as  tight  as  possible,  except  the  ventilators  at  the  top  of  the  structure. 

The  ice  for  packing  should  be  solid  and  clear,  and  the  storing  done  in  dry,  cold  weather, 
that  the  whole  mass  may  become  thoroughly  congealed  and  perfectly  soUd.  It  is  well  to 
have  a  refrigerator,  or  other  means  of  preserving  large  pieces  as  they  are  taken  out  of  the 
ice-house,  in  order  to  ob%'iate  the  necessity  of  admitting  the  warm  outside  air  to  the  interior 
of  the  building  by  opening  it  oftener  than  is  absolutely  essential.  The  best  time  for  doing 
this  is  in  the  evening,  or  very  early  in  the  morning,  when  the  air  is  coolest.  As  the  ice  in  the 
building  melts  it  wiU  become  uncovered  in  places,  unless  care  is  taken  to  keep  a  good  supply 
of  covering  added,  as  it  is  occasionally  removed.  Therefore  a  sufficient  amount  of  sawdust 
for  this  purpose  should  be  kept  on  hand,  and  care  taken  to  keep  the  ice  well  covered.  As 
the  ice  is  taken  out  from  time  to  time,  or  has  settled  away,  the  sawdust  should  be  packed 
down  at  the  sides,  and  kept  as  compact  as  possible. 

Keeping  Ice  Without  Ice-Houses. — Ice  may  be  kept  very  successfully  without  an 
ice-house,  where  only  a  small  quantity  is  needed.  A  small  room  may  be  done  ofE  in  a  wagon- 
house,  or  other  building,  or  in  a  clean  basement  in  the  barn,  where  ice  may  be  stored  by 
having  a  sufficient  amount  of  suitable  covering.  A  large  bin  with  double  walls,  filled  with 
sawdust  or  tan  bark,  and  a  few  holes  in  the  bottom  to  admit  of  drainage,  wiU  answer  the 
purpose  very  well.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  packing  the  ice  under  such  circum- 
stances the  same  rules  should  be  observed  as  in  packing  in  ice-houses,  except  more  outside 
covering  will  be  required  to  exclude  the  air.  For  this  purpose  straw  and  hay  are  used  very 
successfully.  The  American  Agriculturist  gives  the  following  method  of  stacking  ice,  which 
may  prove  of  benefit  to  those  who  have  no  ice-house: — 

"  If  one  has  an  abimdance  of  ice,  but  no  ice-house,  and  has  straw  in  plenty,  it  mav  be 
worth  while  to  stack  up  a  lot,  though  it  can  hardly  be  expected  to  last  all  summer.     The  ice- 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  673 

Stack  is  especially  useful  when  tlie  ice-house  is  not  large  enough  to  hold  a  full  supply,  if  the 
ice  is  freely  used.  An  ice-stack,  to  be  drawn  upon  duiing  the  early  part  of  summer,  will 
allow  the  store  in  the  house  to  be  a  long  time  undisturbed.  If  the  stack  can  be  made  in  a 
shady  place,  all  the  better;  select  a  spot  where  the  water  will  drain  off,  and  lay  down  a  tier 
of  rails  a  foot  or  so  apart;  on  these  put  a  layer  of  brush,  and  upon  the  brush,  straw  to  the 
thickness  of  a  foot.  If  possible  set  a  strong  pole  in  the  center.  Now  stack  up  the  ice  as  in 
an  ice-house,  taking  care  that  the  mass  does  not  incline  to  one  side.  The  covering  for  the 
sides  may  be  straw,  hay,  swale  hay,  or  even  leaves,  but  the  latter  will  need  to  be  held  in 
place  by  boards.  A  foot  in  thickness  of  protecting  materials  will  do,  but  thicker  will  be 
better.  Old  boards,  with  braces  to  press  them  against  the  straw,  etc.,  may  be  used  if  needed. 
The  stack  is  to  be  finished  by  a  roof  of  straw,  put  on  with  pins  and  ropes,  as  in  finishing  off 
a  hay-stack.  On  grain  farms,  where  straw  is  abundant,  the  mass  of  ice  may  be  covered  with 
a  great  thickness  of  straw,  by  building  a  stack  of  it  over  the  ice.  In  using  from  such  a 
stack  the  ice  should  be  taken  off  on  all  sides  regularly,  and  care  taken  to  properly  replace  the 
covering.  The  larger  such  a  stack  the  better.  It  should  not  be  less  than  a  cube  of  ice  12 
feet  on  each  side." 

A  cool,  shady  place  should  be  chosen  when  the  above  method  of  stacking  is  practiced. 
Ice  is  sometimes  stored  in  ice-wells  in  England,  the  ice  being  placed  considerably  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  This  plan  is  only  practicable  where  arrangements  are  made  for  per- 
pect  drainage.  The  ice-house  is  a  great  improvement  upon  this  method.  Ice  may  be  kept 
for  a  long  time  by  storing  it  in  the  corner  of  some  building,  such  as  the  wood-house,  wagon- 
house,  etc.  A  thick  bed  of  straw  should  first  be  spread  upon  the  floor,  upon  which  boards 
are  placed  loosely.  A  layer  of  six  or  eight  inches  of  sawdust  is  spread  above,  and  the  ice 
closely  packed,  to  be  covered  on  all  sides  with  sawdust  and  straw.  Boards  will  be  required 
to  hold  the  straw  upon  the  ice  and  around  it.  There  should  be,  at  least,  two  feet  of  straw  on 
aU  sides  of  the  ice  to  preserve  it  from  the  warm  air.  The  coldest  part  of  the  building  should 
be  chosen  for  this  purpose,  a  northwest  coiner  being  the  best. 

How  to  Keep  Small  Quantities  of  Ice  in  Summer. — A  refrigerator  is,  of 

course,  the  best  arrangement  for  keeping  food  cool  by  the  use  of  a  small  amount  of  ice,  and 
they  are  a  very  useful  article  of  household  furniture  for  thus  preserving  food  in  warm 
weather,  but  where  it  is  desired  to  keep  simply  a  small  quantity  of  ice  for  a  short  time,  and 
there  is  no  ice-house,  or  if  it  is  not  desirable  to  open  the  ice-house  frequently,  we  know  of  no 
better  method  than  the  following: — 

Take  a  clean  barrel  that  is  perfectly  tight,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  small  holes 
in  the  bottom  for  drainage.  Have  on  hand  a  bushel  or  more  of  dry  sawdust.  Spread  about 
a  peck  of  the  saw-dust  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  and  then  put  in  the  large  lumps  of  ice; 
the  larger  they  are  the  better  they  will  keep.  Be  careful  not  to  allow  the  ice  to  come  in  con- 
tact  with  the  sides  of  the  barrel,  but  have  a  thick  layer  of  sawdust  between.  Cover  this 
with  sawdust,  and  put  in  more  ice  as  before.  Cover  the  whole  with  a  thick  layer  of 
sawdust  pressed  down  tightly,  and  over  all  put  a  folded  woolen  blanket,  pressed  down  closely 
to  exclude  the  air.  Ice  will  keep  much  better  in  this  way  than  when  only  folded  in  a  blanket. 
The  barrel  should  stand  in  the  coolest  place  that  can  be  found  in  the  cellar. 

How  to  Make  Ice. — The  securing  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  ice  for  summer  use, 
although  attended  with  but  little  labor  or  expense  to  the  farmer  residing  near  a  pond,  river, 
or  other  body  of  water,  from  which  to  procure  it,  yet  for  the  farmer  living  remote  from  such 
sources  of  supply,  the  task  is  a  more  difficult  one.  For  the  benefit  of  such,  we  quote  Mr. 
Waring's  method,  which  will  be  found  both  practicable,  simple,  and  valuable: — 

"Select  a  place  on  the  north  side  of  some  building;  lay  a  floor  twelve  feet  square  on 
scantlings,  one  foot  from  the  ground.  Set  firmly  in  the  ground,  near  each  comer,  two  posts, 
from  four  to  sis  inches  square,  and  about  eight  or  ten  feet  long.    When  the  weather  becomes 


674  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

cold,  place  on  the  floor  sawdust,  tan-bark,  or  rye-straw,  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches. 
On  the  top  place  another  floor  of  the  same  size,  putting  a  curb  inside  the  posts  to  keep  the 
filling  between  the  floors  in  its  place.  Next  make  a  curb  ten  feet  square  and  six  inches  deep, 
and  fasten  the  corners  with  common  gate-hooks.  On  a  cold  day  place  the  curb  on  the  cen- 
ter of  the  floor,  put  in  two  inches  of  tan-bark,  and  dash  water  over  the  bottom  until  it  forms 
a  coat  of  ice  that  will  not  leak.  Fill  the  curb  with  water  and  let  it  stand  until  frozen  solid. 
With  boiling  water  thaw  the  curb  loose,  raise  it  to  the  top  of  the  frozen  mass,  fill  and  freeze 
as  before.  Continue  so  doing  until  the  mass  is  of  the  desired  height.  Place  boards  on  the 
inside  of  the  posts,  and  fill  the  space  with  tan-bark  or  rye-straw;  nail  boards  on  the  outside 
of  the  posts  and  fill  the  space  with  rye-straw;  cover  the  top  with  tan-bark  to  the  depth  of  ten 
inches.  Over  the  whole  put  a  roof,  to  shield  from  the  sun  and  rain.  Cut  and  take  the  ice 
from  the  top.  Ice  can  be  thus  kept  the  entire  season.  If  a  stream  of  running  water  can  be 
turned  into  the  curb,  the  labor  of  filling  will  be  much  lessened." 

Another  method  is  to  draw  water  from  the  well  on  severe  cold  days,  and  pour  it  into 
deep  square  tin  pans  or  wooden  boxes  that  will  hold  water.  When  it  is  frozen  solid,  apply 
hot  water  until  the  blocks  of  ice  can  be  taken  out,  when  they  should  be  stored  in  an  ice- 
house or  other  place  for  the  purpose,  and  the  pans  or  boxes  be  again  filled  as  before.  By 
this  means,  ice  can  be  manufactured  with  but  little  trouble.  This  should  be  done  in  the  very 
coldest  weather. 

How  to  Construct  a  Cheap  Conservatory.— Perhaps  some  farmers  may  consider 
directions  with  respect  to  the  construction  of  a  conservatory,  scarcely  admissible  among  those 
of  farm  buildings,  such  a  structure  not  being  considered  an  essential  adjunct  to  the  farm, 
and  but  rarely  seen  in  connection  with  the  farmer's  house.  But  this  does  not  prove  that 
such  a  desirable  addition  to  any  dwelling  would  not  be  just  as  highly  appreciated  by  the 
farmer's  household,  as  any  other,  or  that  the  attractions  it  might  give  to  the  farmer's  home, 
and  the  happiness  and  refining  influence  it  would  impart,  would  not  many  times  repay  the 
slight  expense  of  its  construction. 

If  farmers  would  make  farm  Hfe  attractive  to  their  sons  and  daughters,  and  prevent 
their  leaving  it  for  more  congenial  surroundings  and  employment  in  the  city,  they  must  do 
more  than  is  commonly  done  by  the  average  farmer  in  this  respect.  Among  the  adornments 
of  a  home,  a  simple  conservatory  would  prove  a  very  desirable  addition. 

A  veranda,  or  a  portion  of  one,  on  the  south  side  of  a  dwelling,  can  be  very  easily  and 
cheaply  made  into  a  conservatory  by  simply  enclosing  it  with  sashes,  thus  having  windows 
for  the  walls  exposed  to  the  sunlight.  This  will  convert  it  into  a  cheap  conservatory  with  an 
abundance  of  light  which  can  be  regulated  by  means  of  shades,  if  desired.  All  that  remains 
is  to  provide  shelves  and  standards  for  the  plants.  Heat  for  such  a  conservatory  can  be  pro- 
vided by  a  warm-air  pipe  from  a  furnace,  or  by  a  small  stove.  The  sim  will  add  much  to 
the  warmth  during  bright  days. 

Summer-Houses. — Rustic  summer-houses  and  arbors  are  very  pleasant  to  have  on  the 
premises,  and  may  be  very  easily  constructed.  The  farmer  and  his  boys  may  do  much  in  the 
way  of  such  simple  home  ornamentation  3  by  spending  a  few  days  in  this  manner  when  the 
farm  work  is  not  pressing.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  can  be  done  towards  making  a  home 
pleasant  and  attractive,  by  devoting  an  occasional  day,  or  a  few  hours  now  and  then,  to  such  an 
object.  Such  structures  need  not  be  elaborate,  or  expensive.  A  lattice  work  of  rough, 
unplaned  material,  when  covered  with  vines,  will  answer  the  purpose  just  as  well  as  one 
of  nicely  finished  wood.  Various  plans  for  such  structures  can  be  devised,  according  to  the 
skill  and  taste  of  the  owner.  Painting  is  not  essential  for  the  preservation  of  the  wood.  A 
much  easier  and  cheaper  method  is  to  thoroughly  saturate  all  the  wood-work — as  soon  as  the 
structure  is  completed — with  crude  petroleum,  applied  with  a  coarse  brush.  Light  wood- 
work, when  thus  treated,  will  remain  perfectly  sound  for  many  years,  which,  if  not  oiled, 
would  decay  in  a  short  time. 


PART  III. 

DOMESTIC  AN^IMALS. 


THE  HORSE. 


THE  history  of  the  horse  is  an  interesting  one,  and  is  closely  connected  with  that  of 
mankind,  he  having  been  in  all  ages  of  the  world's  record,  man's  willing  and  faithful 
servant,  ready  at  all  times  to  do  his  bidding — sharing  his  toils,  hardships,  and  dan- 
gers. Whether  on  the  field  of  battle,  or  aiding  in  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  Hfe,  he  is  ever 
faithful  and  true  to  his  master. 

He  is  also  one  of  the  most  intelligent  of  the  brute  creation,  second  to  none  in  this  respect, 
— unless  it  be  the  dog, — while  he  is  unexcelled  by  any  of  the  other  quadrupeds,  wUd  or  tame, 
in  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  form,  and  gi-acefulness  of  motion.  Among  the  domestic  ani- 
mals,  the  horse  has  been  the  one  upon  which  the  most  time,  attention,  and  affection  have  been 
bestowed  by  not  only  the  most  enlightened,  but  barbarous  races  also,  and  it  is  quite  safe  to 
assert  that  more  money  and  intelligent  effort  have  been  expended  in  attempting  to  improve 
and  perpetuate  the  distinguishing  traits  of  the  best  breeds  of  this  animal,  than  upon  all  the 
other  domestic  animals  combined. 

The  affection  which  the  wild  Arab  entertains  for  his  horse,  is  an  interesting  feature  of 
that  barbarous  race,  and  serves  to  counteract,  in  a  measure,  the  undesirable  characteristics, 
or,  rather,  causes  us  to  regard  them  with  more  leniency.  A  human  heart  with  a  love  for 
something,  cannot  be  wholly  depraved. 

The  horse,  ass,  zebra,  quagga,  and  a  few  other  similar  animals,  belong  to  the  genus 
Equus.  This  term  denotes  a  small  group  of  quadrupeds  of  the  Mammalia  class,  which  have 
a  single  hoof,  as  the  horse,  ass,  etc.  The  different  species  of  the  genus  Equus  may  produce 
hybrids,  but  these  hybrids  are  generally  sterile,  as  in  case  of  the  mule,  which  is  the  product 
of  the  male  ass  and  mare,  or  the  hinny,  the  product  of  the  stallion  and  female  ass. 

Horses  exist  in  a  wild  state  in  various  portions  of  the  globe,  but  they  are  easily  domesti- 
cated,  even  the  progeny  of  those  that  have  run  wild  for  centuries.  The  period  of  their  first 
domestication  is  unknown.  Horsemen  and  chariots  are  mentioned  in  Genesis,  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  Joseph,  in  transferring  his  father's  remains  from  Egypt  to  Canaan.  The 
horse  was  also  in  common  use  among  the  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  Moses. 

At  the  time  of  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites,  Pharoah  had  numerous  war  chariots  dravra 
by  horses.     It  is  also  stated  that  Solomon  received  many  horses  from  Egypt. 

The  horse  has  been  domesticated  for  so  many  ages,  that  his  original  habitat  is  unknown, 
or  the  manner  in  which  he  was  first  trained;  in  fact,  though  frequently  mentioned  in  history, 
but  little  was  known  respecting  him  until  about  four  hundred  years  before  Christ.  Xeno- 
phon  was  the  first  writer  who  left  us  any  statement  with  respect  to  the  opinion  of  that  age 
as  to  what  were  the  best  points  of  a  horse,  or  who  described  in  detail  the  proper  method  of 
training  him,  which  method — strange  as  it  may  seem — might,  in  the  main,  be  regarded  as  a 
standard  authority  at  the  present  time. 

From  what  we  are  able  to  learn,  the  horse  was  but  little  used  by  the  ancients,  except  in 
war  and  the  chase,  and  for  these  purposes  the  wild  horses  of  the  East  were  well  adapted.     It 

(677) 


G78  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

is,  therefore,  supposed  that  up  to  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  the  main  charac- 
teristics of  the  horse  had  been  but  slightly  changed  by  domestication,  the  principal  changes 
being  such  as  had  been  produced  by  different  climates,  soil,  and  food  upon  which  they  sub- 
sisted. Where  the  climate  is  cold  and  vegetation  scanty,  the  wild  horses  are  dwarfed  in  size, 
active  and  hardy,  with  compact  bodies  and  long  hair.  The  horses  of  Iceland,  Shetland  Isles, 
and  the  wild  horses  of  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  Asia  and.  Northern  Europe  gen- 
erally, are  of  this  type.  These  present  a  striking  contrast  with  the  high  bred  racers  of 
England  and  the  United  States,  the  beautiful  Arab,  the  active  Barb,  the  powerful  Clydesdales 
and  Percheron-Normans,  or  the  wild  horses  of  America.  The  latter  are  known  to  be 
descended  from  domestic  horses  brought  to  this  country  from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards, — the 
thousands  of  wild  horses  on  the  plains  of  South  America  being,  according  to  the  best  author- 
ity, descended  from  only  two  stallions  and  four  mares  which  the  early  Spanish. adventurers 
left  there. 

Arabian  horses,  as  a  race,  have  been  the  most  celebrated,  while  those  of  Turkey  and 
Barbary  (the  latter  called  Barbs)  are  quite  similar.  From  these,  by  a  thorough  and  judicious 
system  of  breeding,  have  sprung  the  English  race-horse,  which  at  the  present  time  so  far 
surpasses  the  original,  that  scarcely  any  benefit  has  been  derived  from  imported  stock  for 
more  than  three-quarters  of  a  century. 

The  Persian  horse  has  also  been  quite  celebrated.  It  is  more  stoutly  built  than  the 
Arabian,  nearly  equal  to  the  latter  in  speed,  but  possesses  less  endurance.  The  Flemish  and 
Dutch  horses  are  generally  large,  well-formed  animals,  with  fine  chests,  and  an  abundance  of 
bone  and  muscle,  and  well  adapted  for  purposes  of  draft.  The  celebrated  draft  horses  of 
England  were  principally  descended  from  these.  The  French  horses  are  particularly  valuable, 
the  Norman  breed  having  long  been  noted  for  their  excellence.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
Kussian  breeds  is  the  Orloff. 

The  Chinese  horses  are  quite  inferior.  Italian  horses  were  formerly  quite  highly  valued, 
but  do  not  compare  favorably  with  the  present  improved  breeds  of  some  other  countries. 
England  is  the  source  from  which  the  best  of  our  horses  have  been  derived,  the  thorough- 
bred blood  of  our  racers  being  obtained  from  that  source. 

The  horse  is  invaluable  to  man  in  all  climes  and  conditions,  but  willing  and  faithful 
servant  tliat  he  is,  he  too  often  suffers  from  ill-treatment  and  neglect,  and  is  but  poorly  re- 
compensed for  all  his  fidelity.  There  is  no  animal  that  has  proven  more  useful  to  man,  and 
none  that  has  been  so  much  abused.  There  is  also  no  animal  that  so  well  deserves  or  amply 
repays  by  his  services  the  best  treatment. 

The  Arabs  have  the  following  tradition  respecting  the  origin  of  the  horse :  "  When 
God  wished  to  create  the  horse  He  said  to  the  south  wind,  '  I  wish  to  form  a  creature 
out  of  thee,  be  thou  condensed,'  and  the  wind  was  condensed.  And  God  formed  a 
chestnut  horse,  saying,  '  I  have  called  thee,  horse  ;  I  have  created  thee  an  Arab,  and  have 
given  thee  a  chestnut  color.  I  have  bound  fortune  on  the  mane  which  falls  over  thine  eyes  ; 
thou  shalt  be  chief  among  animals ;  men  shall  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest ;  good 
for  the  pursuit,  as  for  the  retreat,  thou  shalt  fly  without  wings  ;  riches  shall  repose  in  thy 
loins,  and  wealth  shall  be  made  by  thy  intercession.'  Then  He  marked  him  with  the  sign  of 
glory  and  of  happiness,  a  star  shining  in  the  middle  of  his  forehead.  After  the  creation  of 
Adam,  God  called  him  by  name,  and  said  '  Choose  now  between  the  horse  and  the  borak.' 
Adam  replied,  '  The  more  beautiful  of  the  two  is  the  horse.'  And  God  said,  '  Excellent,  thou 
hast  chosen  thy  glory,  and  the  glory  of  thy  sons;  while  they  exist  my  blessing  shall  be  with 
them,  because  I  have  not  created  anything  that  can  be  more  dear  to  me  than  man  and  the 
horse.' " 

Next  to  man  he  is  one  of  the  noblest  and  best  of  God's  creations,  and  under  proper 
training,  and  kind  treatment,  can  be  made  to  do  everything  that  comes  within  the  limitations 
of  his  powers. 


THE  HORSE.  679 

Naturally  generous,  affectionate,  and  confiding,  he  attaches  himself  to  his  friend  and 
master,  and  is  ever  ready,  with  kind  and  yielding  disposition,  to  do  within  the  limits  of  his 
capacity  all  that  can  reasonably  be  required  of  him ;  while  all  that  is  necessary  to  make  him  kind, 
amiable,  and  gentle,  and  at  tlie  same  time  increase  his  knowledge,  is  to  recognize  this  capacity, 
and  by  careful  education  develop  his  mental,  and  (we  might  almost  add)  moral  qualities,  to 
their  fullest  extent.  Thus  domesticated  and  taught  by  intelligent  owners,  the  liorse  will  not 
only  increase  in  intelligence,  docility,  and  consequent  value,  but  will  reciprocate  the  affection 
bestowed  upon  him,  as  is  instanced  in  the  well-known  Arab  custom,  where  the  horse  is 
domesticated  to  the  extent,  that  he  is  at  the  same  time  servant  of  the  master,  and  playmate  of 
his  children. 

Qualities  Desirable  in  a  Horse. — WMle  it  is  essential  that  the  horse  should  be 
adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  he  is  to  be  principally  used,  whether  for  the  common  pur- 
poses of  the  farm,  for  a  draft-horse  in  drawing  heavy  loads,  the  carriage,  saddle,  or  race- 
course, there  are  certain  characteristics  which  the  animal  should  possess,  aside  from  the 
qualities  desired  for  special  pui-poses.  These  may  be  included  in  a  good  disposition,  a  desir- 
able temperament,  strength,  endurance,  and  activity.  Beauty  of  form  and  color,  graceful- 
ness in  motion,  are  also  very  desirable,  although  not  absolutely  essential  for  all  purposes. 
There  are  many  good  horses  that  are  lacking  in  the  latter  qualities,  but  we  think  it  would 
be  better  to  be  at  a  little  more  expense  in  purchasing  a  horse,  and  procure  one  that  looks 
well  in  all  respects,  than  to  be  obliged  to  use  an  animal  that  is  a  constant  offence  to  the  eye 
and  taste,  even  though  it  might  be  valuable  as  far  as  utility  is  concerned. 

A  Good  Disposition. — A  good  disposition  is  highly  essential  in  a  horse,  for  without 
this  the  animal  is  almost  worthless  and  exceedingly  uiisafe.  Like  the  human  race,  horses 
differ  greatly  in  disposition,  no  two  being  alike  in  this  respect.  Some  are  born  naturally 
vicious,  and  many  others  are  made  so  by  ill-treatment. 

A  horse  with  a  naturally  bad  disposition  may,  with  kind  treatment,  become  greatly 
changed  in  this  respect,  and  yet  such  a  horse  is  never  really  safe,  for  the  evil  of  his  nature 
may  display  itself  at  a  time  when  least  expected,  and  where  an  animal  has  so  much  within 
his  power;  it  is  always  best  to  be  on  the  safe  side,  which  wiU  be  by  never  keeping  a  bad-tempered 
horse.  A  horse  may  be  gentle  for  years  ;  but  if  he  does  not  possess  a  good  disposition 
naturally,  he  will  be  liable  to  display  his  vicious  temper  in  an  unexpected  moment,  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  safely  trusted.  The  disposition  of  a  horse  can  be  easily  determined  by  even 
an  inexperienced  horseman,  by  the  expression  of  the  eye,  shape  of  the  head,  the  manner  in 
which  the  animal  moves  his  ears,  his  movements  generally,  and  various  other  ways,  any  one 
of  which,  or  all  combined,  are  a  pretty  sure  index  of  the  temper  of  the  animal. 

Intelligence. — Intelligence  is  also  equally  essential.  An  intelligent  horse  can  not 
only  be  made  more  useful,  other  things  being  equal,  since  he  can  be  taught  more  readily,  and 
to  a  greater  extent,  than  a  stupid  animal,  but  he  is  generally  more  docile  and  kind  in  dispo- 
sition, and  also  more  safe,  being  less  liable  to  be  easily  frightened  and  become  unmanageable. 

Strength  and  Endurance. — Strength  and  endurance  are  very  indispensable  qualities. 
A  horse  that  possesses  but  httle  of  either  is  not  of  much  value  for  any  purpose  whatever,  and 
whether  as  a  farm,  draft,  or  carriage  horse,  must  necessarily  be  used  to  disadvantage.  "Weak 
teams  for  any  use  are  inefficient  and  unprofitable.  Size  and  strength  are  not  always  combined 
in  a  proportionate  degree  in  a  horse;  neither  are  strength  and  endurance.  While  as  a  general 
rule  a  largo  hoi-se  will  be  much  stronger  than  a  small  one,  yet  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
and  many  large,  heavy  horses  are  not  as  strong  as  they  seem  to  be.  The  strength  of  a  horse, 
while  in  a  measure  depending  upon  his  size,  depends  much  more  upon  his  form  and  muscular 
development.  For  tliis  reason,  we  frequently  see  medium-sized  horses  that  are  stronger  than  those 


680  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

that  are  much  heavier.  This  is  not  always  so,  but  is  sometimes  the  case.  A  large  horse 
with  a  good  form  and  well-developed  muscles,  will  be  stronger,  other  conditions  being  equal, 
than  a  small  or  medium-sized  one,  with  an  equally  well-developed  form  and  muscles,  but  the 
size  of  the  animal  will  not  always  prove  an  index  of  his  strength.  "We  specify  thus  partic- 
ularly because  we  wish  to  be  understood  that  strength  does  not  always  depend  upon  size. 
Many  horses  will  also  be  very  strong  and  able  to  draw  heavy  loads  for  a  time,  but  do  not 
possess  the  power  of  endurance  that  others  of  less  strength  may  have.  A  horse  may  be  in 
disposition,  free  and  willing,  and  perhaps  work  beyond  his  strength,  and  consequently  will  be. 
liable  to  be  injured  by  continual  severe  labor,  such  as  he  is  obliged  to  perform  at  certain 
busy"  seasons  on  the  farm.  Irregularity  in  labor  and  in  feeding,  which  are  frequently  prac- 
ticed in  the  busy  season  on  most  farms,  are  very  injurious  to  a  horse,  and  a  great  strain  upon 
their  powers  of  endurance.  A  horse,  as  well  as  a  man,  will  be  able  to  perform  much  more 
labor  in  the  aggregate,  with  less  exhaustion  to  the  physical  system,  by  observing  regularity 
in  labor,  performing  about  the  same  amount  day  after  day,  than  to  do  an  excessive  amount 
of  work  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  then  lie  idle  about  the  same  length  of  time.  Regularity 
is  in  accordance  with  Nature's  law,  and  a  violation  of  this  law  is  very  liable  to  bring  evil 
results.  Farm  labor,  being  much  more  severe  at  some  times  than  at  others,  will  test  the 
powers  of  endurance  of  a  horse  much  more  than  regular  labor  of  some  other  kind,  and 
therefore  the  farmer  should  have  for  this  purpose  a  horse  possessing  great  powers  of  endur- 
ance in  connection  with  the  other  good  qualities  previously  mentioned. 

Activity. — Activity  is  also  a  desirable  quality  in  a  horse,  and  a  sluggish  drone  to  be 
avoided.  For  a  carriage-horse  this  is  very  essential,  and  it  is  also  very  desirable  in  a  farm- 
horse,  which,  with  the  majority  of  farmers,  is  the  "  general-purpose  horse."  A  horse  with  a 
very  nervous  temperament,  sprightly  and  active  in  movement,  might  prove  restive  and  uneasy 
under  the  slow  process  by  which  much  of  the  heavy  farm  work  is  performed.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  sluggish  horse,  whose  activity  would  not  much  surpass  that  of  an  ox,  would  prove  quite 
as  objectionable.  A  medium  between  the  two  would  be  an  animal  possessing  a  fair  amount  of 
activity,  yet  patient  under  restraint  and  admirably  suited  to  all  kinds  of  labor.  There  is  a 
great  difference  in  animals  in  this  respect,  and  consequently  in  the  amount  of  labor  they  axe 
able  to  perform  in  a  given  time,  therefore  some  horses  will  prove  nearly  twice  as  valuable  to 
the  farmer  in  this  respect  as  others. 

The  Farm  Horse.— As  we  have  previously  specified  the  qualities  generally  desirable 
in  a  horse,  which  qualities  are  especially  essential  in  a  farm  horse,  it  will  only  be  necessary  in 
this  connection  to  mention  some  points  not  referred  to  in  the  former,  and  which  have  a 
special  application  to  this  subject.  On  those  farms  where  several  horses  are  required  to  per- 
form the  work,  and  a  special  carriage-horse  is  kept,  it  is  customary  in  some  sections, 
especially  in  the  Western  States,  to  employ  the  heavy  draft-horse  for  farm  purposes,  those 
showing  great  compactness  of  body  and  muscle,  low,  broad,  and  heavy-boned,  with  short 
neck,  wide  breast,  and  withers  so  formed  as  to  throw  the  greatest  weight  into  the  collar. 
Such  horses  are  admirably  adapted  for  heavy  work.  But  where  the  farmer  is  unable  to  keep 
more  than  one  or  two  horses — and  this  comprises  a  large  class  of  farmers — it  is  generally 
conceded  that,  for  all  the  practical  purposes  of  the  farm,  one  of  medium  size  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Under  all  circumstances,  the  animal  should  be  adapted  to  the  kind  of  work  for 
which  he  is  to  be  principally  used.  If  for  general  use  on  the  farm,  he  should  neither  be  too 
heavy  for  the  road  or  light  work,  or  too  light  for  heavy  work,  therefore  a  medium  sized 
animal,  under  such  circumstances,  will  best  meet  the  requirements  of  the  farmer.  Hon. 
Geo.  B.  Loring,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  sketches  in  the  following  a  pen-picture  of  his 
ideal  of  a  farm  horse : — 

"  When  I  commenced  farming,  I  made  up  my  mind  that  my  horses  should  be  as  good 


THE  HORSE.  681 

as  my  sheep  and  cattle;  that  none  of  them  should  be  surpassed;  and  that  I  would  find  out  a 
way  to  breed  and  rear  my  own,  instead  of  going  into  the  market  to  purchase  the  fruits  of 
other  people's  industry.  I  knew  very  well  what  I  wanted.  I  did  not  want  a  running-horse, 
nor  a  saddle-horse,  nor  a  cart-horse.  I  wanted  a  horse  of  all  work — a  horse  weighing  a  httle 
more  than  ten  hundred  pounds,  in  good  road  condition;  fifteen  hands  and  one  inch  high  (for 
I  had  found  that  this  height  and  weight  usually  go  together);  with  a  head  not  too  fine,  wide 
betv;een  the  eyes,  and  high  above  them;  with  a  good-sized,  steady,  erect,  and  lively  ear;  with 
every  bony  process  sharp  and  prominent — even  the  processes  of  the  first  cervical  vertebra 
behind  the  ears;  with  a  calm  and  weU-set  eye,  and  lips  which  indicate  determination  rather 
than  delicacy;  a  "Websterian  head,  with  a  neck  well  muscled,  weU  arched,  strong,  and  elastic; 
with  active  motion,  and  a  throttle  loose  and  open ;  with  withers  not  sharp  and  thin,  but  solid 
and  strong;  with  a  shoulder  set  loosely  on,  broad  and  deep  at  the  base  ;  with  a  strong  arm, 
sinewy  leg,  short  cannon-bone,  firm  and  not  too  long  or  elastic  a  pastern,  and  a  firm  foot;  with 
a  deep  chest,  without  a  prominent  and  bulging  breast-bone;  with  a  round  barrel,  ribbed  well 
back  toward  the  hips,  but  not  so  far  back  as  to  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  hind-quarters; 
with  a  short  back,  and  a  shght  elevation  of  the  rump  just  behind  the  coupling;  with  a  long 
and  strong  quarter,  well  muscled  inside  and  outside;  with  a  hind-leg  so  set  on,  that  the  action 
shall  be  free  and  open,  and  with  the  fore-leg  so  set  on,  that  the  toes  shall  not  turn  out  for 
fear  of  brushing  the  knees  at  speed,  and  that  they  shall  not  turn  in  too  much  for  fear  of 
paddling.  I  wanted  a  good  strong  bay  color  with  black  points,  and  a  temperament  calm, ' 
collected,  fearless,  defiant,  and  a  brain  quick  to  learn,  and  strong  to  remember.  This  was 
the  horse  I  wanted,  and  I  felt  sure  I  could  breed  him." 

"We  may  add  with  propriety,  that  Dr.  Loring  did  breed  him  successfully,  and  so  may  any 
farmer  who  understands  the  true  principles  of  breeding,  and  conforms  to  them. 

The  Carriage  Horse. — The  EngUsh  carriage-horses  are  generally  larger  than  those 
of  this  countr3^  The  carriages  used  in  England  are  also  larger  and  heavier  than  American 
ones,  consequently  there  is  a  great  demand  there  for  large  carriage-horses  of  elegant  style 
and  free,  rapid  action.  In  this  country  we  have  many  trotting  horses,  but  there  seems  to  be 
a  scarcity  of  the  larger  carriage-horses  of  the  English  type,  although  there  is  at  present  an 
increasing  demand  for  them.  As  has  been  stated  by  one  of  our  prominent  agricultural 
writers  — 

"  "We  have  as  yet  no  distinctive  breeds  of  driving-horses  or  roadsters.  The  horses  used 
for  hght  driving,  fast  trotting,  etc.,  are  largely  a  conglomeration  of  all  breeds  and  types. 
Some  approximate  the  French  Canadian  pony  in  form  and  action,  while  others  possess  most 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  thoroughbred ;  but  so  popular  has  fast  trotting  become  in  this 
country,  and  so  universal  is  the  fancy  for  fast  driving-horses,  that  at  almost  all  our  fairs  the 
roadster  class  will  be  found  more  largely  represented  than  any  other,  and  usually  more 
largely  than  all  others  combined.  Indeed,  the  roadster  is  more  distinctly  an  American 
feature  than  any  other  in  our  equine  product;  and  we  are  fast  approaching  the  time  when 
the  American  trotting-horse  wiU  be  classed  as  a  distinct  breed.  It  is  the  creation  of  an 
American  fancy — the  result  of  a  fashion  that  has  demanded  the  fastest  and  stoutest  trotting- 
horses  in  the  world  for  driving  on  the  road;  and  to  this  end  we  have  selected  and  bred  until 
our  horses  surpass  all  others  in  this  particular.  Among  these  horses  we  have  several  recog- 
nized families  t)f  especial  prominence,  all  more  or  less  related,  but  each  possessing  features 
that  are  to  some  extent  peculiarly  its  own,  but  none  of  them  entitled  to  be  called  a  breed." 

A  good  carriage-horse  should  have  a  moderately  small  head,  free  from  much  flesh,  thin 
lips,  open  nostril,  a  kindly,  expressive  eye,  full  and  lustrous,  a  broad  forehead,  wide  between 
the  eyes,  but  not  between  the  ears,  ears  rather  small,  finely  formed,  quick  and  playful  in 
motion;  throat  broad,  neck  slender,  well  set  and  arching;  the  skin  thin,  hair  fine  and  glossy; 
chest  deep,  withers  high;  oblique  shoulder;  body  and  limbs  well  formed  and  adapted  to 


682  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

strength  and  endurance;  the  hoof  round,  hard  and  smooth,  wide  at  the  heel,  the  frog  sound 
and  large.  As  we  shall  define  more  particularly  in  the  pages  that  follow,  the  desirable  points 
in  a  horse,  a  more  minute  description  in  this  connection  is  unnecessary;  suffice  to  say,  that 
intelligence,  or  what  might  be  called  good  horse-sense,  combined  with  docility,  is  one  of  the 
most  desirable  characteristics  in  a  horse  for  any  purpose,  and  especially  a  carriage-horse. 

The  Saddle  Horse. — There  seems  at  present  to  be  an  increasing  demand  for  good  saddle- 
horses,  and  we  are  glad  to  note  the  fact,  as  there  is  no  more  healthful  or  pleasant  recreation 
than  is  afforded  by  saddle-riding,  when  the  horse  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  purpose.  The 
requisites  are  similar  in  the  main  to  those  of  a  carriage-horse.  For  such  use  a  rather  small 
or  medium-sized  horse  is  generally  preferred.  High  withers  are  essential  in  a  saddle-horse, 
to  prevent  the  weight  of  the  rider  from  being  thrown  forward  too  far. 

Saddle-Gaits. — We  quote  the  following  on  saddle  gaits  from  one  of  the  leading  authori- 
ties in  the  country:  "The  gaits  that  especially  commend  a  horse  for  use  in  the  saddle  are,  the 
walk,  the  fox-trot,  the  single-foot,  and  the  rack.  The  walk  is  a  gait  understood  by  everybody; 
but  everybody  does  not  understand  that  a  good  saddle-horse  ought  to  be  able  to  go  a 
square  walk  at  the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour.  The  fox-trot  is  faster  than  the  square  walk, 
and  the  horse  will  usually  take  a  few  steps  at  this  gait  when  changing  from  a  fast  walk  to  a 
trot.  It  may  be  easily  taught  to  most  horses  by  urging  them  slightly  beyond  their  ordinary 
walking  speed,  and,  when  they  strike  the  fox-trot  step,  holding  them  to  it.  They  will  soon 
learn  to  like  it,  and  it  is  one  of  the  easiests  of  gaits  for  both  horse  and  rider. 

The  single-foot  differs  somewhat  from  the  fox-trot,  and  has  been  described  as  exactly 
intermediate  between  the  true  trot,  and  the  true  walk.  Each  foot  appears  to  move  independ- 
ently of  the  other,  with  a  sort  of  pit-a-pat,  one-at-a-time  motion,  and  it  is  a  much  faster  gait 
than  the  fox-trot. 

The  rack  is  very  nearly  allied  to  the  true  pacing-gait,  the  difference  being  that  in  the 
latter  the  hind  foot  keeps  exact  time  with  the  fore  foot  of  the  same  side,  making  it  what  has 
been  called  a  lateral  or  one-side-at-a-time  motion,  while  in  the  former,  the  hind  foot  touches 
the  ground  slightly  in  advance  of  the  fore  foot  on  the  same  side.  The  rack  is  not  so  fast  a 
gait  as  the  true  pace  ;  but  it  is  a  very  desirable  gait  in  a  saddle-horse.  In  addition,  the  per- 
fect saddle-horse  should  be  able  to  trot,  pace,  and  gallop,  and  should  be  quick,  nervous,  and 
elastic  in  all  his  motions,  without  a  particle  of  dullness  or  sluggishness  in  his  nature.  His 
mouth  should  be  sensitive,  and  he  should  respond  instantly  to  the  slightest  motion  of  the  rein 
in  the  hands  of  the  rider.  A  poor  and  clumsy  rider,  however,  will  soon  spoil  the  best-trained 
saddle-horse  in  the  world,  and  such  a  person  should  never  be  permitted  to  mount  a  horse 
that  is  exceptionally  valuable  for  that  purpose.  A  "plug"  horse  and  a  " plug "  rider  may 
well  go  together;  but  keep  a  reaUy  good,  well-trained  saddle-horse  for  one  who  knows  how  to 
enjoy  this  most  health-giving,  exhilarating,  and  delightful  of  all  out-door  exercises." 

Points  of  a  Horse,  or  Marks  by  Which  a  Good  Horse  May  be  Known. — 

To  be  familiar  with  those  points,  or  marks  by  which  a  perfect  animal  may  be  known,  or,  in 
other  words,  (since  absolute  perfection  in  anything  is  impossible,)  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  highest  standard  of  excellence  by  which  to  judge  of  a  horse,  is  of  great  importance  and 
interest  to  any  one  who  is  about  to  purchase,  breed,  or  have  the  care  of  horses. 

As  the  face  of  a  man,  and  the  conformation  of  his  head,  are  generally  a  very  sure  index 
of  his  character,  or  natural  propensities,  it  is  equally  true  that  we  may  determine  the  dis- 
position, temperament,  and  intelligence  of  the  horse  by  the  shape  of  the  face  and  head,  while 
his  strength  and  power  of  endurance  may  be  determined  by  the  bones,  muscles,  and  general 
make-up  of  the  body. 

In  the  same  connection,  there  are  other  considerations  that  should  not  be  lost  sight  of, 


THE  HORSE. 


683 


and  which  are  of  great  importance  to  the  puychaser,  whether  the  animal  is  designed  for  the 
track,  carriage,  farm,  or  draft  horse,  one  of  which  is  the  pedigree  of  the  animal.  It  is  true 
that  some  very  fine  animals  have  been  produced,  as  it  were  by  accident,  with  no  pedigree  to 
which  to  trace  their  origin;  but  these  are  the  rare  exceptions,  the  general  rule  being,  that  like 
begets  like. 

Again,  it  is  of  importance  to  know  how  a  horse  has  been  raised,  whether  he  has  received 
kind  treatment  or  has  been  ill-treated  to  the  injury  of  his  disposition  and  physical  powers; 
what  has  been  his  principal  food,  etc.  There  are  localities  in  the  country  where  young 
horses  are  fed  very  much  as  swine  are,  while  there  are  others  in  which  grass,  hay,  and  oats 
are  the  principal  food  of  the  colt,  diet  which  tends  to  the  production  and  development  of  the 
bone  and  muscle  required 
for  hard  service,  whether  j  i 
on  the  road  or  at  the  plow. 
The  mature  horse,  it  is 
true,  may  be  fed  moder- 
ately on  corn  without  in. 
jury  to  the  animal ;  but, 
in  this  connection,  it 
should  b  e  remembered 
that  corn  and  the  produc- 
tion of  beef  and  pork  are 
more  intimately  related 
than  corn  and  horse-flesh 
are,  and  that  what  is 
needed  in  the  horse  is 
hardihood  and  endurance. 
If  to  these  we  add  speed, 
we  have  the  American 
trotter;  while  if  to  these 
we  add  strength,  we  have 
the  American  work-horse. 
The  illustration  above 
given,  showing  the  sever- 
al parts  of  the  horse,  and 


1.  Forehead. 
3.  Jaw. 

3.  Throat. 

4.  Breast. 


Arm. 

7.  Large  Pastern. 

8.  Small  Pastern. 
Withers. 


5.  Shoulder.    10.  Back. 


11.  Loin. 
13.  Hip. 

13.  Stifle. 

14.  Thigh. 

15.  Hamstring. 


16.  Point  of  the  Hock. 

17.  Hock. 

18.  Croup  or  Rvmip. 

19.  Dock. 

20.  Cannon-Bones. 


indicated  by  terms  recognized  by  horsemen  generally,  will  prove  of  value  to  those  not 
already  familiar  with  them. 

Temperament.  —  "With  animals,  as  with  individuals,  there  are  different  tempera- 
ments. One  of  the  most  essential  points  to  be  observed  concerning  horses  is  the  temperament. 
There  should  always  be  a  distinguishing  difference  recognized  between  temperament  and 
temper,  or  disposition.  This  difference  is  very  aptly  defined  by  Murray,  as  follows: —  "The 
temper  is  an  accident,  the  result  of  education,  or  treatment;  in  rare  instances,  of  birth;  but 
the  temperament  is  a  law  or  mode  of  being  affecting  and  modifying  the  physical  structure  and 
the  nervous  forces.  The  temper  can  be  modified  or  changed  —  the  vicious  can  be  made 
amiable,  and  the  amiable  vicious.  Not  so  with  the  temperament;  that  is  fixed  at  birth,  and 
remains  immutable,  dominating  over  the  entire  organization.  Diet,  training,  treatment  in 
sickness  —  these,  and  much  beside,  are  suggested  to  the  thoughtful  mind  by  the  temperament 
of  the  horse. 

I  could  show  that  this  matter  of  temperamental  organization  of  the  horse  potentially 
affects  the  entire  animal  —  even  every  minute  point  of  the  physical  structure,  and  each 
separate  part  and  function  of  the  body.  If  the  temperament  be  an  active,  lively  one,  then 
42 


(534  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

will  the  bones  be  f5ne  in  their  testure,  ivory-like,  and  lasting.  The  muscles,  also,  will  be 
influenced,  and  become  wiry,  compact,  and  elastic  as  spiral  wire.  If  the  temperament,  on 
the  other  hand,  be  sluggish,  heavy,  lymphatic,  the  bones  will  be  spongy  and  porous  in  their 
structure,  the  muscles  flaccid  and  coarse,  and  the  nervous  organization  low,  dull,  and  inoperant. 
I  am  well  aware  that  size,  all  else  being  equal,  is  a  true  gauge  of  power  ;  but  let  it  never  be 
forgotten  by  tlie  breeder  and  purchaser  of  the  horse,  that  '  all  else  '  is  not  equal.  Size  alone 
is  no  measure  of  power;  for  all  can  see,  even  with  the  most  casual  examination  of  the  subject, 
that  the  slightest  alteration  in  temperament  makes  a  corresponding  alteration  in  the  power 
and  efEciency  of  every  individual  part. 

A  horse  does  not  draw  by  virtue  of  his  weight,  nor  in  proportion  to  his  size.  The  pub- 
lic scales  and  the  measuring-tape  can  never  assure  us  how  much  a  horse  can  draw,  or  how 
many  miles  he  can  pull  a  wagon  and  its  owner  in  a  day.  Muscular  action  and  nerve-force 
must  be  considered;  and  these  are  both  closely  allied  to,  and  dependent  on,  the  temperament 
of  the  animal.  The  well-bred  horse,  incli  for  inch,  and  pound  for  pound,  is  far  stronger  than 
the  dray-horse;  and  old  'Justin  Morgan,'  the  founder  of  the  most  wonderful  family  of  horses 
(all  things  being  considered)  this  or  any  country  ever  saw,  could  draw  logs  that  horses  of 
twelve  and  thirteen  hundred  pounds  could  not  even  start,  albeit  he  weighed  only  about  nine 
hundred  pounds,  and  stood  barely  fourteen  and  a  half  hands  high.  It  is  the  amount  of  vital 
force  that,  at  the  end  of  a  stick  of  timbei-,  or  on  a  weary  day's  journey  on  a  heavy  road,  tells 
the  story." 

There  are  four  distinct  temperaments  generally  recognized,  which  are,  however,  but 
rarely  found  separate,  being  usually  blended  and  mingled  in  a  greater  or  less  proportionate 
degree.  They  are  the  nervous,  bilious,  sanguine,  and  lymphatic.  When  not  separate,  one 
will  be  found  to  so  predominate  over  others  as  to  stamp  its  characteristic  upon  the  animal, 
and  be  easily  recognized. 

Nervous  Temperament. — A  horse  with  a  nervous  temperament  wiU  have  an  ani- 
mated expression  of  face,  quick-moving  ears,  and  wiU  be  characterized  by  quickness  in  all 
his  movements,  nervous  excitability,  and  extreme  sensitiveness.  Combined  with  these,  he 
will  have  a  large  brain.  Such  a  horse  will  chafe  under  restraint,  like  being  forced  to  do 
work  that  requires  slow  movements,  as  plowing,  for  instance,  and  when  allowed  to  test  his 
strength  in  drawing  heavy  loads,  or  doing  hard  work  of  any  kind,  will  be  Uable  to  over-work 
himself  and  be  permanently  injured.  A  horse  of  this  kind  will  suffer  extremely  from  harsh 
treatment  of  any  kind,  even  harsh  tones  of  voice,  and  wOl  be  liable  to  take  fright  and  shy  out 
quickly  when  on  the  road,  unless  the  driver  is  on  his  guard.  The  "Vermont  Black  Hawk" 
has  been  instanced  as  one  of  the  best  types  of  this  class  of  horses. 

Bilious  Temperament. — The  bilious  temperament  is  characterized  by  a  well-devel- 
oped muscular  system,  and  a  horse  of  this  class  will  have  large  bones  and  muscles,  and  be 
capable  of  great  strength  and  powers  of  endurance.  Such  a  horse,  possessing  great  muscular 
power,  will  be  able  to  perform  a  vast  amount  of  hard  labor,  without  breaking  down. 

Sanguine  Temperament. — Next  follows  in  order  the  sanguine  temperament,  which 
is  associated  with  a  large  development  of  the  vital  organs  —  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.  An  animal 
possessing  this  temperament  will  be  what  is  called  "  long-winded,"  and  whatever  he  does  will 
be  done  with  ease,  and  but  little  appearance  of  panting  or  exhaustion  after  being  driven  fast. 
Having  large  and  well-developed  vital  organs,  his  digestion  will  be  exceedingly  good  and  the 
food  he  eats  will  be  assimilated  and  appetized,  so  that  food  and  rest  will  be  to  him  truly 
"nature's  repair  shop,"  and  day  by  day  he  will  go  forth  fresh  for  a  trial  of  speed  or  strength. 
Lymphatic  Temperament. — A  horse  with  a  lymphatic  temperament  will  be  lazy 
and  dull.  He  will  generally  be  a  heavy  animal  with  a  surplus  of  fat,  and  slow-moving  and 
stumbling  in  his  gait.  Such  a  horse  is  scarcely  worth  the  whip  that  drives  him,  and  the 
driver  will  well  earn  the  work  he  gets  out  of  him. 


THE  HORSE.  687 

The  Eye.  —  It  has  been  said  that  the  eye  is  the  window  through  which  we  may  look 
into  the  soul  of  a  man.  As  this  is  the  most  expressive  feature  of  the  human  face,  and  the 
one  by  which  we  can  best  determine  the  disposition  of  the  individual,  so  with  the  horse; 
some  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of  the  animal  may  be  read  in  his  eye.  If  you  do 
not  like  the  eye  of  a  horse,  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  him,  for  you  will  not  like  the 
animal.  The  eye  of  a  horse  should  be  intelligent  and  kindly  in  expression,  yet  full  of 
courage,  and  characterized  by  mildness  and  gentleness.  It  should  also  be  rather  prominent 
and  full.  The  nearer  the  eye  of  a  horse  approaches  that  of  the  deer,  in  expression,  the  better. 
A  horse  that  is  frequently  looking  back  of  him  furtively,  so  as  to  show  the  white  of  the  eye, 
is  generally  apt  to  be  mischievous,  and  is  not  to  be  trusted. 

The  Ears.  —  The  ears  of  a  horse,  as  well  as  the  eye,  may  express  much.  They  should 
be  fine  in  texture,  that  is,  thin,  in  which  the  veins  are  readily  traced ;  rather  small,  and  npt 
too  long  proportionately  for  the  head  that  carries  them.  They  should  be  curved  slightly 
inward  at  the  tips,  and  covered  with  fine,  short  hair.  They  should  be  set  rather  close 
together  at  the  base,  quick  and  playful  in  movement.  A  horse  that  is  in  the  habit  of  laying 
his  ears  back,  down  close  to  the  head,  is  not  trusty,  and  will  be  inclined  to  kick  or  bite  if  he 
gets  a  chance.  ^ 

The  Head.  —  The  following  extract  from  the  description  of  the  head  of  a  perfect  horse, 
by  Carson,  will  be  found  to  contain  many  excellent  suggestions:  "The  head  of  every  horse 
should  be  as  small  as  would  be  in  keeping  with  the  rest  of  his  body.  A  large,  coarse  head 
is  a  defect  in  every  person's  eye ;  and  it  has  no  advantages  to  counterbalance  its  deformity. 
The  muzzle  should  be  fine,  and  of  moderate  length;  the  mouth  invariably  deep  for  receiving 
and  retaining  the  bit;  and  the  lip  rather  thin  and  firmly  compressed.  A  fine,  tight  lip  is  a 
pretty  sure  indication  of  an  active  temperament,  and  consequently  affords  a  measure  of  the 
energy  and  durability  of  the  animal.  Horses  with  short,  flabby  lips,  lying  wide  apart  are 
proverbial  for  sluggishness.  The  nostrils  should  be  large,  so  as  to  be  capable,  when  open, 
of  allowing  the  air  to  have  free  access  to  the  lungs.  In  conformity  with  the  uniform  condi- 
tion of  the  Creator's  work,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a  direct  relation  between  the  develop- 
ment of  the  nostrils,  and  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  for  air.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  of 
observing  the  size  of  the  nostrils.  Capacious  lungs  would  be  of  no  use  if  the  orifice  which 
connects  them  with  the  external  atmosphere  were  so  concentrated  that  they  could  not  get 
properly  filled. 

The  race-horse  must  have  very  wide  and  dilatable  nostrils  to  admit  a  large  volume  of 
air,  with  the  utmost  freedom  and  greatest  speed,  into  his  widely  and  rapidly  distended  lungs; 
but  the  horse  of  slow  work  can  false  more  time  in  his  breathing,  and  consequently  does  not 
require  such  a  very  large  nostril  as  the  racer,  hunter,  or  steeple-chaser.  Care  must  always  be 
taken,  recollect,  not  to  confound  a  naturally  well-developed  nostril  with  one  which  looks  large 
in  consequence  of  having  been  kept  in  a  state  of  permanent  distention  by  disease  of  the 
lungs  or  air-passages. 

The  muzzle  ought  to  be  fine  a  good  way  up,  and  then  the  parts  should  enlarge  suddenly, 
in  order  to  give  plenty  of  breadth  to  the  under-jaw,  as  well  as  thickness  from  side  to  side. 
This  is  a  point  of  great  beauty,  as  it  gives  breadth  to  the  jaw-blade,  and  breadth  from  eye  to 
eye,  whilst  the  fineness  of  the  head  generally  is  maintained.  A  head  that  is  narrow  between 
the  eyes,  and  narrow  on  the  side  of  the  jaw,  is  painfully  disagreeable  to  the  eye  of  every 
judge.  The  space  between  the  two  blades  of  the  under-jaw  ought  to  be  so  broad  and  so  deep 
as  to  freely  admit  the  lower  edge  of  the  neck  when  the  chin  is  reined  in  towards  the  counter; 
but  it  should  not  be  wider  than  this,  as  it  would  then  appear  coarse.  If  there  is  sufBcient 
room  in  this  locality,  the  horse  can  be  reined  up  to  the  proper  pitch  without  stopping  up  his 
windpipe. 


688  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

The /ace,  on  a  side-%'iew,  should  be  dipped  in  the  center  between  the  eyes  and  the  nose. 
This  is  generally  the  case  in  the  Arabian  and  English  blood-horse;  and  it  is  a  much  more 
beautiful  formation  than  either  the  straight  or  convex  profile.  However  ornamental  it  may 
be  to  the  human  face,  a  Roman  nose  certainly  does  not  improve  the  appearance  of  the  horse. 
The  line  of  beauty  in  the  one  case  is  very  different  from  the  other.  A  dish-faced  horse  is 
admired  on  all  hands;  but  a  pug-nosed  man,  with  a  projecting,  upturned  chin,  will  have  some 
difficulty  in  carrying  off  the  prize  for  beauty.  The  face  must  be  very  broad  between  the 
eyes;  but  it  should  taper  a  little  as  it  approaches  the  ears.  If  the  breadth  is  carried  all  the 
way  upwards,  the  top  of  the  head  will  be  too  wide,  the  ears  ill-set,  and  the  horse  probably 
sulky.  Now,  in  respect  to  the  head,  it  should  also  be  examined  in  detail,  for  in  it  are  dis- 
tinct organs  having  distinct  uses,  and  each  contributing  its  share  to  the  proper  understanding 
of  the  animal  to  which  they  belong,  and  to  which  they  serve.  But,  of  all  these  organs,  per- 
Haps  the  eye  is  the  most  expressive  and  characteristic  of  them  all. 

The  portion  of  the  head  lying  between  the  eyes  and  the  ears  is  worthy  of  the  closest 
possible  attention ;  for  it  is  the  section  occupied  by  the  brain  itself,  —  the  seat  of  all  intelli- 
gence, docility,  and  motive-power.  This  section  of  the  head  can  scarcely  be  too  full.  I 
would  never  breed  a  mare  to  a  stallion  deficient  at  this  point  of  his  structure.  I  want  no 
colts  from  a  sire  with  a  flat  forehead;  for  such  a  horse  is  a  savage,  sulky,  detestable  brute. 
To  start  with,  he  will  have  no  memory:  he  will  forget  to-morrow  what  you  taught  him 
to- day.  Even  if  he  wished  to  remember  it,  he  could  not;  for  he  is  incapable.  To  a  bad 
memory  must  be  added  a  bad  disposition.  He  is  sour,  cross,  and  crabbed,  tricky  and 
malignant.  His  cunning  is  not  playful,  but  mean;  and  his  tricks  are  tricks  of  cruelty.  No 
one  ever  saw  a  horse,  with  such  formation  of  front,  tractable  and  trusty. 

But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  you  meet  a  horse  with  a  bold,  prominent  forehead,  a  noble 
fullness  at  that  point  where  the  brain  is  lodged,  you  will  find  him  to  be  of  a  docile  and  silky 
disposition.  You  can  teach  him  anything;  and,  when  once  taught,  he  will  rarely  if  ever 
forget.  Indeed,  his  great  intelligence  suggests  to  liis  owner  a  caution :  Never  teach  him  to 
do  anything  that  you  do  not  desire  him  to  do  always,  and  at  all  times;  for  whatever  he  has 
once  acquired  you  can  only  with  great  difficulty  eradicate.  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood 
as  saying  that  every  horse  with  a  fine  brain  development  is  gentle ;  for  he  may  have  been 
trained  under  a  system  so  essentially  vicious,  that  no  natural  amiability  could  withstand  its 
savage  friction;  but  this  I  do  wish  to  be  understood  as  sa)ring,  — that  every  horse  with  this 
full  and  fine  brain  development  is  by  nature  courageous,  docile,  and  loving;  and  that,  if  they 
become  otherwise,  it  is  owing  to  the  vicious  management  of  those  who  have  them  in 
charge." 

The  Neck.  —  The  neck  should  be  suited  to  the  animal.  A  neck  desirable  for  the 
trotter,  would  be  entirely  unsuited  to  the  draft  horse,  and  the  reverse.  The  neck  should  vary 
according  to  the  service  for  which  the  animal  is  designed.  Tor  speed,  the  nearer  the  neck 
approaches  the  greyhound  type,  the  better,  provided  it  admits  of  sufficient  room  for  food  and 
air.  If,  however,  the  length  and  lightness  of  the  neck  be  carried  to  extreme  in  breeding, 
there  will  be  danger  of  constitutional  weakness  as  a  result. 

For  draft  horses,  a  heavy,  thick  neck,  where  it  enters  the  shoulder,  is  very  essential. 
Much  of  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  style  in  a  horse  depends  upon  the  form  of  the  neck.  It 
is  much  more  easy  to  the  hand  in  driving  a  horse  with  a  long  neck,  than  a  short  one.  Many 
horses  have  their  necks  spoiled  by  the  improper  use  of  the  check-rein  in  producing  too  much 
of  a  curvature,  or  in  drawing  the  head  back  too  far.  This  practice  not  only  detracts  greatly 
from  the  beauty  of  the  animal,  but  is  equally  cruel,  and  causes  much  discomfort  and  suffer- 
ing by  forcing  the  neck  and  head  out  of  its  natural  position.  Many  otherwise  fine  animals 
are  thus  spoiled  through  the  ignorance  and  false  notions  of  beauty  in  their  owners. 


THE  HORSE.  ggg 

The  Chest.  —  The  chest  of  the  horse  should  be  large  and  roomy,  as  it  contains  the 
vital  organs,  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.,  upon  the  free  action  of  which  the  perfect  health  and 
strength  of  the  whole  system  so  largely  depends.  If  the  heart  be  in  a  healthy  condition,  the 
entire  system  will  be  very  likely  to  be  healthy;  but  if  the  heart  be  diseased,  there  will  be 
weakness  or  disease  of  the  physical  system.  Neither  this  organ,  or  the  lungs,  can  be  in  a 
vigorous  and  healthy  state,  unless  they  are  well  developed,  and  are  allowed  sufficient  room 
for  action. 

The  blood  is  circulated  by  the  action  of  the  heart,  but  it  can  only  be  purified  by  coming 
in  contact  with  the  air,  in  passing  through  the  lungs.  Now,  if  the  lungs  and  heart  are  com- 
pressed within  a  narrow  chest,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  such  an  animal  will  lack  one  of  the 
great  essentials  of  a  perfectly  developed,  healthy  body.  The  lungs  of  the  horse  occupy  a 
much  larger  space  when  he  is  in  active  exercise  than  when  at  rest,  consequently  the  more 
speed  is  required  of  him,  the  greater  the  necessity  of  his  being  able  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  chest,  to  give  ample  room  for  these  organs. 

The  following,  descriptive  of  the  proper  form  of  the  chest,  is  from  Youatt's  work,  the 
noted  English  authority  on  the  horse:  "  The  front  of  the  chest  is  a  very  important  considera- 
tion in  the  structure  of  the  horse.  It  should  be  prominent,  broad,  and  full,  and  the  sides  of 
it  well  occupied.  "When  the  breast  is  narrow,  the  chest  has  generally  the  same  appearance: 
the  animal  is  flat-sided,  the  proper  cavity  of  the  chest  is  diminished,  and  the  stamina  of  the 
horse  is  materially  diminished,  although,  perhaps,  his  speed  for  short  distances  may  not  be 
affected.  When  the  chest  is  narrow,  and  the  fore-legs  are  too  close  together,  in  addition  to 
the  want  of  bottom,  they  will  interfere  with  each  other,  and  there  will  be  wounds  on  the 
fetlocks,  and  bruises  below  the  knee. 

A  chest  too  broad  is  not  desirable,  but  a  fleshy  and  a  prominent  one :  yet  even  this,  per- 
haps, may  require  some  explanation.  When  the  fore-legs  appear  to  recede,  and  to  shelter 
themselves  under  the  body,  there  is  a  faulty  position  of  the  fore-limbs,  a  bend,  or  standing 
over,  an  unnatural  lengthiness  about  the  fore  parts  of  the  breast,  sadly  disadvantageous  in 
progression. 

The  spaces  between  the  ribs  are  occupied  by  muscles  firmly  attached  to  their  edges,  the 
fibers  of  which  cross  each  other  in  the  form  of  the  letter  X.  By  the  prolongation  thus 
obtained,  they  have  a  much  greater  latitude  of  action  than  they  would  have  if  they  run 
straight  from  rib  to  rib.  The  ribs,  while  they  protect  the  important  viscera  of  the  thorax 
from  injury,  are  powerful  agents  in  extending  and  contracting  the  chest  in  the  alternate 
inspiration  and  expiration  of  air. 

This  leads  to  a  very  important  consideration,  the  most  advantageous  form  of  the  chest 
for  the  proper  discharge  of  the  natural  or  extraordinary  functions  of  the  thoracic  viscera. 
The  contents  of  the  chest  are  the  lungs  and  heart: — the  first,  to  render  the  blood  nutrient  and 
stimulating,  and  to  give  or  restore  it  to  that  vitality  which  will  enable  it  to  support  every 
part  of  the  frame  in  the  discharge  of  its  function,  and,  devoid  of  which,  the  complicated  and 
beautiful  machine  is  inert  and  dead;  and  the  second,  to  convey  this  purified  arteriahzed  blood 
to  every  part  of  the  frame. 

In  order  to  produce,  and  to  convey  to  the  various  parts,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  blood, 
these  organs  must  be  large.  If  it  amoimts  not  to  hypertrophy,  the  larger  the  heart  and  the 
larger  the  lungs,  the  more  rapid  the  process  of  nutrition,  and  the  more  perfect  the  discharge 
of  every  animal  function. 

Then  it  might  be  imagined  that,  as  a  circle  is  a  figure  which  contains  more  than  any 
other  of  equal  girth  and  admeasurement,  a  circular  form  of  the  chest  would  be  most  advan- 
tageous. Not  exactly  so;  for  the  contents  of  the  chest  are  alternately  expanding  and  con- 
tracting. The  circular  chest  could  not  expand,  but  every  change  of  form  would  be  a  diminu- 
tion of  capacity. 


g90  THE  AMERICAIif  FARMER. 

That  form  of  chest  which  approaches  nearest  to  a  circle,  while  it  admits  of  suflBcient 
expansion  and  contraction,  is  the  best — certainly  for  some  animals,  and  for  all  under  peculiar 
circumstances,  and  with  reference  to  the  discharge  of  certain  functions.  This  was  the  grand 
principle  on  which  Mr.  Bakewell  proceeded,  and  on  which  all  our  improvements  in  the  breed- 
ing of  cattle  were  founded. 

In  the  heavy  draft-horse,  the  circular  chest  is  no  disadvantage,  and  it  gives  him  what  we 
require,  weight  to  oppose  the  weight  of  his  load.     Speed  is  not  demanded  of  him. 

Some  of  our  saddle-horses  and  cobs  have  barrels  round  enough,  and  we  value  them  on 
account  of  it,  for  they  are  always  in  condition,  and  they  rarely  tire.  But  when  we  look  at 
them  more  carefully,  there  is  just  that  departure  from  the  circular  form  of  which  mention 
has  been  made — that  happy  medium  between  the  circle,  and  the  ellipse,  which  retains  the 
capacity  of  the  one,  and  the  expansibility  of  the  other.  Such  a  horse  is  invaluable  for  com- 
mon purposes,  but  he  is  seldom  a  horse  of  speed.  If  he  is  permitted  to  go  his  own  pace,  and 
that  not  a  slow  one,  he  will  work  on  forever;  but  if  he  is  too  much  hurried,  he  is  soon 
distressed. 

Then  for  the  usual  purposes  of  the  road,  and  more  particularly  for  rapid  progression, 
search  is  made  for  that  form  of  the  chest  which  shall  unite,  and  to  as  great  a  degree  as  possi- 
ble, considerable  capacity  in  a  quiescent  state,  and  the  power  of  increasing  that  capacity  when 
the  animal  requires  it.  There  must  be  the  broad  chest  for  the  production  of  muscles  and 
sinews,  and  the  deep  chest  to  give  the  capacity  or  power  of  furnishing  arterial  blood  equal  to 
the  most  rapid  exhaustion  of  vitality. 

This  form  of  the  chest  is  consistent  with  all  the  lightness  that  can  be  rationally  required. 
The  broad-chested  horse,  or  he  that  with  moderate  depth  at  the  girth  swells  and  barrels  out 
immediately  behind  the  elbow,  may  have  as  light  a  forehead  and  as  elevated  a  wither  as  the 
horse  with  the  narrowest  chest,  but  the  animal  with  the  barrel  approaching  too  near  to  rotun- 
dity is  invariably  heavy  about  the  shoulders  and  low  at  the  withers.  It  is  to  the  mixture  of 
the  Arabian  blood  that  we  principally  owe  this  peculiar  and  advantageous  formation  of  the 
horse.  The  arch  is  light,  some  would  say  too  much  so  before,  but  immediately  behind  the 
arms,  the  barrel  almost  invariably  swells  out,  and  leaves  plenty  of  room  where  it  is  most 
wanted  for  the  play  of  the  lungs,  and  at  the  same  time  where  the  weight  does  not  press  so 
exclusively  on  the  fore-legs,  and  expose  the  feet  to  concussion  and  injury. 

Many  horses  with  narrow  chests,  and  a  great  deal  of  daylight  under  them,  have  plenty 
of  spirit  and  willingness  for  work.  They  show  themselves  off  well,  and  exhibit  the  address 
and  gratify  the  vanity  of  their  riders  on  the  parade,  or  on  the  park,  but  they  have  not  the 
appetite  nor  the  endurance  that  wUl  carry  them  through  three  successive  days  of  hard  work. 

Five  out  of  six  of  the  animals  that  die  from  inflamed  lungs  are  narrow-chested.  There 
are  many  other  important  points,  but  that  which  is  most  of  all  connected  with  the  general  health 
of  the  animal,  and  with  combined  fleetness  or  bottom,  is  a  deep,  broad,  and  swelling  chest, 
with  sufficient  lengthening  of  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  beneath.  The  impropriety  of  tight- 
girthing  may  readily  be  seen,  especially  where  it  is  unnecessary,  as  in  the  stable,  for  instance, 
or  when  the  rider  is  off  from  the  saddle. 

The  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  is  a  long,  flat,  spongy  bone,  forming  the  floor  of  the  chest. 
It  supports  the  ribs  by  the  connecting  cartilage,  and  is  composed  of  from  seven  to  nine  pieces 
united  together  by  cartilage.  The  point  of  the  breast-bone  is  occasionally  injured  by  blows, 
and  has  even  been  completely  broken  off.  A  kind  of  tumor  on  it,  difficult  to  heal,  has  also 
been  produced  by  some  cruelty  or  violence." 

Again  the  same  authority  says: — "The  question  then  is,  what  service  is  required  from 
the  horse?  If  he  has  to  carry  a  heavy  weight,  and  has  much  work  to  do,  he  should  be 
ribbed  home — the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone  should  not  be  far  from  each  other.  There  is 
more  capacity  of  chest  and  of  belly — there  is  less  distance  between  the  points  of  support — 


THE  HORSE.  691 

and  greater  strength  and  endurance.     A  hackney  (and  we  would  almost  say  a  hunter)  can 
scarcely  be  too  well  ribbed  home. 

If  speed,  however,  is  required,  there  must  be  room  for  the  full  action  of  the  hinder  limbs; 
and  this  can  only  exist  where  there  is  sufficient  space  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone. 
The  owner  of  the  horse  must  make  up  his  mind  as  to  what  he  wants  from  him,  and  be  satis- 
fied if  he  obtains  that;  for  let  him  be  assured  that  he  cannot  have  everything,  for  this  would 
require  those  differences  of  conformation  that  cannot  possibly  exist  in  the  same  animal." 

The  Bones. — The  bones  are  the  frame-work  of  the  system,  and  give  support  and  pro- 
tection to  the  body.  It  must  be  remembered  that  size  is  not  the  true  index  of  strength  with 
respect  to  the  bones  of  an  animal,  but  rather,  size  and  texture  combined.  Large  bones  are 
often  coarse  and  porous  m  texture,  while  small  bones  will  frequently  be  found  hard  and  firm, 
and  possessing  much  more  strength  than  those  of  larger  size,  as  is  shown,  for  instance,  by  a 
comparison  made  between  a  section  of  the  cannon-bone  of  a  low-bred  cart-horse,  and  that  of 
a  thorough-bred  animal.  The  former  was  found  open  and  porous,  while  the  latter  is  firm 
and  soHd ;  in  fact,  so  compact  that  it  may  be  polished  to  resemble  ivory.  The  leg  of  a  thor- 
ough-bred  horse,  although  much  smaller  than  that  of  a  cart-horse,  may,  as  shown,  be  much 
stronger  than  the  latter;  therefore,  although  the  bones  should  be  of  suitable  size  for  the  pur- 
poses to  which  the  horse  is  to  be  used,  their  texture  is  of  equal  importance,  and  shoxild  not 
be  overlooked,  by  either  the  purchaser  or  breeder. 

The  Shoulder. — The  shoulder  should  vary,  according  to  the  t)rpe  of  the  horse,  and 
the  purposes  for  which  he  is  to  be  used.  The  draught-horse  should  have  a  large,  powerful 
neck,  an  upright,  thick,  and  heavy  shoulder,  and,  withal,  there  must  be  an  abundance  of  mus- 
cle, flesh,  and  fiber,  so  that  the  weighty  collar  he  is  obliged  to  wear  will  fit  well,  and  seem, 
as  it  were,  a  part  of  him,  thus  distributing  the  pressure  evenly,  in  drawing  heavy  loads. 

For  saddle  and  cari-iage  use,  the  shoulder  should  be  oblique,  and  the  withers  high,  as 
this  gives  the  animal  more  freedom  in  moving,  and  renders  him  less  liable  to  stumble 
when  on  the  road. 

The  slope  of  the  shoulder  also  adds  to  his  capacity  to  stride  with  ease,  and  thus  renders 
a  horse  well  adapted  to  saddle  and  carriage  use.  The  rule  laid  down  by  Youatt  and  others 
is,  that  the  oblique  shoulder,  being  less  exposed  to  concussion  in  rapid  action,  is  indispensa- 
ble to  horses  where  extensive  and  rapid  action  is  required,  but  for  horses  where  use  requires 
them  to  throw  as  much  weight  as  possible  into  the  collar,  an  upright  shoulder  is  of  more 
advantage.  Roadsters  and  what  are  commonly  termed  gentlemen's  carriage-horses,  as  well 
as  saddle-horses,  should,  therefore,  have  oblique  shoulders,  while  those  that  are  used  princi- 
pally for  draught,  should  have  the  shoulders  upright. 

The  humerus,  or  second  bone  in  the  shoulder,  should  be  of  good  length,  and  supplied 
with  powerful  muscles,  while  a  good  fore-arm  is  equally  essential. 

The  Limbs. — However  superior  a  horse  may  be  in  all  respects  relative  to  his  head  and 
body,  he  becomes  inefBcient  unless  these  desirable  qualities  are  accompanied  with  good  limbs 
and  feet. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  horse  not  only  have  limbs  suited  to 
the  body,  and  the  duties  he  is  required  to  perform,  but  that  they,  as  well  as  the  feet,  receive 
good  care,  in  order  to  be  kept  in  a  sound  and  healthy  condition. 

Youatt  says:  "  Whatever  other  good  points  the  animal  may  possess,  if  the  arm  is  narrow 
in  front  and  near  the  shoulders,  flat  on  the  side,  and  altogether  deficient  in  muscular 
appearance,  that  horse  is  radically  defective.  He  can  neither  raise  his  knee  for  rapid  action, 
nor  throw  his  leg  sufiiciently  forward." 

The  fore-arm,  or  radius,  can  scarcely  be  too  long,  or  well  supplied  with  muscles,  as  these 
muscles  move  the  leg  and  foot.  The  cannon  bone  should  be  small,  short,  hard,  and  solid. 
A  short  cannon  usually  accompanies  a  long  fore-arm,  especially  in  horses  of  great  speed. 


692 


THE  A3EERICAN  FAR3IER. 


The  arm  should  be  laxge  where  it  joins  the  body,  admitting  of  strength  by  giving  it  a 
firm  attachment  to  the  trunk.  The  sinews  of  the  leg  should  be  large,  indicative  of  large 
muscles  and  strength.     A  broad,  flat  leg  denotes  great  strength  and  endurance. 

The  following  cuts  will  serve  to  give  a  better  idea  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  of  a 
horse,  than  can  be  given  by  a  verbal  description : — 


d.... 


/.... 


9-- 


FIG.    ]. 


FIG.    2. 


Fig.  1  shows  a  side  view  of  the  bones  of  the  fore  leg  ;  a  represents  the  bones  of  carpus  ; 
h,  splent,  or  what  is  sometimes  termed  the  splint  bone  ;  c,  cannon  bone  ;  d,  sesamoid  bone  ; 
e,  pastern  bone  ;  /  coronet  bone  ;  g,  cofBn  bone. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  front  view  of  bones  of  the  hind  legs  ;  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  bones  of  the 
tarsus  ;  /  cannon  bone  ;  g,  pastern  bone  ;  h,  coronet  bone  ;  «',  cofiSn  bone. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  a  side  view  of  the  hind  leg  ;  a,  bones  of  the  tarsus  ;  h,  splint  bone  ;  c, 
cannon  bone  ;  d,  sesamoid  bone  ;  e,  pastern  bone  ;  f,  coronet  bone  ;  g,  cofBn  bone. 

These,  together  with  a  cut  of  the  skeleton  of  a  horse  hereafter  given  in  connection  with 
diseases  of  this  animal  and  their  treatment,  will  enable  the  reader  to  obtain  a  correct  idea  of 
the  location  of  all  the  bones. 

"With  regard  to  the  position  of  the  fore  leg  when  standmg,  Carson  says:  "The  leg 
should  drop  perfectly  straight  from  its  junction  with  the  shoulder  to  the  ground ;  and  the 
point  of  the  toe  should  come  as  near  as  possible  to  a  straight  line  under  the  point  of  the 
shoulder." 

The  Pastern. — In  the  draft  horse  the  pastern  should  be  strong,  short,  and  nearly  up- 
right, while  in  the  trotter  it  should  be  long  and  well  slanted,  so  as  to  give  the  movement  of  the 
horse  that  easy,  elastic,  springing  character  that  relieves  the  ends  of  the  upright  bones  of  that 
fearful  concussion  which  would  otherwise  invariably  occur  when  trotting  upon  the  race- 
course or  in  running  and  leaping  in  hurdle  races.  Besides,  when  under  saddle,  horses  that 
have  long  pasterns  are  easy  and  comfortable  for  the  rider.  But  in  this,  as  in  almost  every- 
thing else,  the  '•  happy  medium  "  is  to  be  preferred  for  general  purposes,  for  if  the  pasterns 
are  too  long,  or  slope  too  much,  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  spraining  or  weakness  of  the  bfl/>lr 
tendons. 

Fig.  4  represents  the  pasterns  of  a  horse. 

a.     The  shank  bone 

h.     The  upper  and  larger  pastern  bone. 


693 


THE  HORSE. 

c.  The  sesamoid  bone. 

d.  The  lower  or  smaller  pastern  bone. 

e.  The  navicular  or  shuttle  bone. 
/.  The  cofBn  bone  or  bone  of  the  foot. 
g.  The  suspensory  ligament  inserted  into  the 

sesamoid  bone. 

h.     A  continuation  of  the  suspensory  hgament, 
inserted  into  the  smaller  pastern  bone. 

i.     The  small  inelastic  ligament,  tying  down 
the  sesamoid  bone  to  the  larger  pastern  bone. 

k.     A  long  ligament  reaching  from  the  pastern 
bone  to  the  knee. 

1.     The  extensor  tendon  inserted  into  both  the 
pasterns  and  the  cofBn  bone.  jg , 

m.    The  tendon  of  the  perforating  flexor  in-      J^ 
serted  into  the  coffin  bone,  after  having  passed  over   i/^/. ; 
the  navicular  bone.  [[_  ' "' 

n.     The  seat  of  the  navicular  joint  lameness. 

o.     The  inner  or  sensible  frog. 

p.     The  cleft  of  the  horny  frog. 

q.     A  ligament  uniting  the  navicular  bone  to  the  smaller  pastern. 

r.     A  ligament  uniting  the  nav-icular  bone  to  the  coffin  bone. 

s.     The  sensible  sole  between  the  coffin  bone  and  the  horny  sole. 

i.     The  horny  sole. 

u.     The  crust  or  wall  of  the  foot. 

V.     The  sensible  laminaa  to  which  the  crust  is  attached. 

w.    The  coronary  ring  of  the  crust. 

X.     The  covermg  of  the  coronary  ligament  from  which  the  crust  is  secreted. 

z.     Place  of  bleeding  at  the  toe. 

The  Hock. — This  is  where  lameness  frequently  occurs  in  a  horse,  therefore  in  order 
to  avoid  difficulty  in  this  respect,  and  that  it  may  be  strong  enough  to  bear  the  severe  strain 
that  hard  labor  brings  upon  this  part  of  the  leg,  the  hock  should  be  large.  It  is  well,  then, 
to  look  for  large,  well-proportioned  hocks  in  a  horse,  whether  it  be  for  trotting,  draft,  or 
general  purposes.  The  line  of  distance  between  the  hip  and  hock  should  be  long,  thus  bring- 
ing the  latter  low  down  towards  the  foot. 

The  Foot. — The  foot  of  a  horse  should  be  of  medium  size,  neither  too  large  nor  too 
small.  A  large  flat  foot  is  very  undesirable,  and  suggestive  of  a  coarse  and  porous  bony 
structure  above  it.  The  animals  that  are  most  fleet,  such  as  the  antelope  and  deer,  have 
small  hoofs.  The  wild  horse  also  has  a  hoof  of  rather  small  or  medium  size.  The  different 
parts  of  the  foot  are  somewhat  complicated,  but  the  design  in  their  formation  is  simple  and 
easily  understood.  The  hoof  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  thin  layers  of  horn,  nearly  five  hundred 
in  number,  nicely  fitted  the  one  to  the  other,  and  forming  a  firm  and  solid  lining  to  the  foot 
itself. 

Besides  this,  there  are  numerous  other  layers  which  are  elastic  belonging  to  what  is 
termed  the  "coffin  bone,"  and  which  are  fitted  into  this.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  about 
four  thousand  elastic  layers  in  the  four  feet  of  the  horse,  upon  which  the  weight  of  the  entire 
body  rests,  which  enable  them  not  only  to  bear  the  great  weight  of  the  body,  but  also  the 
additional  burdens  that  may  be  placed  upon  him. 

The  flat  foot  is  usually  weak  and  troublesome  to  both  the  horse  and  his  owner.     The 


694  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

length  of  the  foot  on  the  ground  should  be  greater  than  its  breadth,  and  the  breadth  should 
be  greatest  across  the  center,  lessening  towards  both  the  toe  and  heel.  The  heel  should  be  of 
medium  height,  neither  too  high  nor  too  low.  The  hoof  should  also  be  of  fine  texture, 
smooth  and  tough-looking.  A  brittle  hoof  is  very  objectionable.  The  frog  should  be  large 
and  healthy,  and  never  be  cut,  or  otherwise  tampered  witL  Reasons  for  this  will  be  fully 
given  iu  connection  with  the  subject  of  shoeing. 

The  Back. — It  is  generally  conceded  by  all  experienced  horsemen  the  world  over  that, 
other  conditions  being  equal,  the  strength  of  a  horse's  back  is  inversely  in  proportion  to  its 
length,  the  sliort-back  being  the  strong  back,  and  the  long  back  the  weak  one.  Consequently 
the  short-backed  horse  has  proportionately  greater  powers  of  endurance  as  well  as  strengtli. 
Flora  Temple  was  a  short-backed  horse,  and  usually  ended  her  victorious  summer  campaign 
in  a  better  condition  than  when  she  began.  Maud  S.,  Governor  Sprague,  Taggart's  Abdallah, 
Dexter,  Thorndale,  and  other  noted  animals,  are  also  horses  of  this  type.  Such  a  formation 
of  the  spinal  column  as  produces  considerable  of  a  dip  or  hollow  immediately  back  of  the 
withers  is  objectionable,  since  it  interferes  with  the  space  which  should  be  occupied  by  the 
heart  and  lungs,  and  affords  them  less  room  than  is  essential  for  their  perfect  development. 

The  Hind  Quarters. — Here  is  where  both  speed  and  strength  he,  while  the  fore  legs 
are  designed,  for  the  most  part,  for  support.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  great  moving  power  of 
the  body.  These  impel  the  body  forward  through  the  air,  and  also  start  the  heavy  loads. 
The  hind-quarters  of  the  animal  should,  therefore,  be  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  great 
strength  and  endurance,  which  should  be  with  long  bones  well  placed,  and  long  powerful 
muscles,  by  means  of  which  these  bones  are  to  be  moved. 

The  rump  should  be  of  medium  width,  although  narrowness  at  this  point  should  be 
avoided,  being  an  indication  of  a  lack  of  strength. 

The  thigh  bone  is  heavily  overlaid  with  large,  powerful  muscles,  which  constitute  the 
principal  moving  power  of  the  whole  body.  This  bone  should  be  long,  in  order  to  admit  of 
a  long  stride,  and  consequently  speed  in  the  animal.  Shortness  of  this  bone  and  the  one 
below  it  indicate  that  the  horse  is  incapable  of  taking  long  strides,  and  is  consequently  a 
short  stepper.  The  muscles  that  surround  them  should  also  be  long,  heavy,  compact,  and 
well  developed  inside,  as  well  as  outside  the  thigh.  Flat  or  soft  muscles  here  are  a  sure 
indication  of  a  want  of  power. 

The  Teeth.  —  Determiuing  the  Age  of  Horses,  etc.  —  It  is  a  truth  recognized 

by  horsemen  of  all  nations,  and  from  the  earhest  records  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  of 
the  horse,  that  his  age  can  only  be  determined  with  any  certainty  by  the  appearance  of 
the  teeth. 

Xenophon,  in  his  writings,  alludes  to  the  custom  of  selecting  cavalry  horses  for  the 
Grecian  army  by  this  means,  and  the  rejection  of  such  as  had  lost  the  dental  mark.  Various 
Roman  writers,  such  as  Columella,  VirgiUus,  and  Varro,  also  mention  the  practice  of  exam- 
ining the  teeth  of  horses  in  order  to  determine  their  age. 

So  many  arts  and  deceptions  are  practiced  by  crafty  and  dishonest  dealers  at  present, 
in  manipulating  the  teeth,  that  unless  a  person  is  well  skilled  in  judging  and  handling  horses 
he  would  be  very  liable  to  be  deceived  in  this  respect.  The  adult  horse  has  forty  teeth; 
six  incisors  or  nippers,  two  canines  or  tushes,  and  twelve  molars  or  grinders  to  each  jaw. 
The  canines  are  generally  wanting  in  the  mare.  An  additional  small  tooth  sometimes  makes 
its  appearance  in  advance  of  the  upper  molars.  The  incisors  are  placed  close  together  at  the 
terminus  of  the  jaw.  They  have  greater  length  and  curvature  than  those  of  ruminants,  and 
.differ  also  by  the  fold  of  enamel  which  penetrates  the  crown.  As  the  tooth  is  worn  down, 
this  fold  becomes  a  ring  of  enamel  with  a  cavity  filled  by  cement  and  particles  of  food,  and 
is  denoted  by  horsemen  as  "  the  mark." 


THE  HORSE.  695 

In  aged  horses  this  mark  disappears  altogether,  owing  to  the  wearing  down  of  the  tooth 
below  the  extent  of  this  enamel  fold.  This  occurs  in  the  lower  mid-incisor  when  the  horse 
is  six  years  of  age,  in  the  next  pair  at  seven,  and  the  outer  pair  at  eight  years.  This 
"mark"  remains  considerably  longer  in  the  upper  teeth. 

The  grinding  teeth  are  long,  and  have  heavy,  square  crowns  composed  of  enamel,  den- 
tine, and  cement  intermingled,  so  that  when  worn  down  they  present  an  uneven  and  ridgy 
surface,  owing  to  the  enamel  and  dentine  being  so  much  harder  than  the  cement.  There  are 
two  sets,  the  temporary  or  milk  teeth,  which  are  the  first,  and  the  permanent  teeth  which 
succeed  them.  The  canines  are  wanting  in  the  colt,  and  generally  in  mares,  as  previously 
stated.  The  following  facts  relative  to-  this  subject  are  derived  mainly  from  Youatt's  noted 
work  on  the  horse. 

The  germs  of  the  teeth  are  visible  in  the  jaw  seven  or  eight  months  before  the  birth 
of  the  foal.  At  the  time  of  birth,  the  first  and  second  grinders  have  made  their  appearance, 
and  seem  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  jaw.  When  the  colt  is  seven  or  eight  days 
old,  the  two  center  nippers  or  incisors  appear  at  the  end  of  the  jaw.  During  the  first  month, 
the  third  grinder  appears  on  the  upper  and  lower  jaw,  and  soon  after,  and  usually  by  or 
before  six  weeks  have  expired,  another  incisor  comes  by  the  side  of  the  first  two,  on  each 
jaw.  When  the  colt  is  two  months  of  age,  the  center  incisors  or  nippers  will  have  grown 
their  full  length,  and  between  the  second  and  third  month  the  second  ones  attain  the  same 
level.  Between  the  sixth  and  ninth  month  another  pair  of  incisors  appear  by  the  side  of  the 
others,  making  six  on  each  jaw,  after  which  the  only  apparent  difference  in  these  teeth, 
until  between  the  second  and  third  years,  is  in  the  wear.  At  six  months  of  age,  the  four 
incisors  are  worn  to  a  level. 

At  the  Expiration  of  the  First  Year,  or  shortly  after,  a  fourth  grinder  is  seen,  and 
the  colt  then  has  six  nippers  and  four  grinders  in  each  jaw,  above  and  below,  which  will  enable 
one  to  determine  its  age  at  this  period.  When  it  has  attained  the  age  of  a  year  and  a  half, 
the  mark  in  the  central  incisors  will  be  considerably  shoi-ter  and  fainter;  that  in  the  two 
other  pairs  wiU  be  somewhat  changed,  and  all  of  them  will  be  worn  flat. 

At  Two  Years  this  change  will  lie  still  more  apparent.  When  about  this  age  a  fifth 
grinder  will  be  seen,  and  the  new  process  of  shedding  the  milk  or  temporary  set  commences. 
The  necessity  of  this  is  readily  seen,  since  the  first  set  are  only  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  jaw 
and  necessities  of  the  colt,  but  as  these  bones  expand  with  the  increased  growth  of  the  animal 
the  teeth  become  separated  too  far  apart  from  each  other  to  be  useful,  and  a  larger  set 
will  be  required  to  occupy  the  space,  and  also  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  system. 

By  the  gradual  growth  and  pushing  up  from  below  of  the  permanent  teeth,  the  fangs 
of  the  first  set  are  absorbed  until  the  second  teeth  are  near  the  surface  of  the  gum,  when  the 
former  drop  out.  When  the  second  teeth  appear  by  the  side  of  the  first,  they  will  be 
absorbed  partially  their  entire  length,  will  become  narrow,  and  will  be  pushed  out  of  place. 
These  should  always  be  drawn  to  give  the  permanent  teeth  room,  and  to  prevent  injury  to 
the  mouth  or  cheek,  which  sometimes  happens  if  this  is  neglected. 

At  this  period  the  colt  should  be  fed  cut  or  mashed  feed,  as  he  will  be  Uable  to  find 
difficulty  in  eating. 

At  Three  Years  of  Age  the  sixth  grinder  is  generally  through,  or  if  not,  its  appear- 
ance is  indicated  by  the  swelling  of  the  gum  at  that  point. 

From  three  and  a  half  to  four  years  of  age,  the  central  nippers  will  have  reached  nearly 
their  full  growth,  the  second  pair  will  just  be  making  their  appearance  above  the  gum,  or  a 
space  will  be  left  where  the  first  ones  stood.  The  corner  ones  will  be  greatly  diminished  in 
breadth,  and  worn  down  so  that  the  "  mark "  will  be  small  and  faint.  At  this  time,  the 
second  pair  of  grinders  will  also  be  shed. 


696 


THE  AMERICAN  FARilER. 


At  Four  Tears,  the  central  nippei-s  will  be  fully  developed,  the  sharp  edge  somewhat 
worn  off,  and  the  mark  shorter,  \sider,  and  fainter.  The  next  will  be  up,  but  tliey  will  be 
small,  with  the  mark  deep  and  extending  across  them.  The  sixth  grinders  wiU  have  attained 
the  level  of  the  others,  and  the  canines  or  tushes  will  begin  to  appear. 

At  this  period,  the  dishonest  dealer  wUl  endeavor,  more  than  at  any  time  previous,  to 
make  the  animal  seem  older  than  he  really  is,  as  the  difference  between  a  four-year  old  colt 
and  five-year  old  horse  with  regard  to  strength,  utility,  and  value,  is  great ;  but  the  lack  of 
wear  in  the  middle  nippers,  the  small  size  of  the  corner  ones,  and  slight  growth  of  the 
tushes,  besides  the  smallness  of  the  second  grinders,  lack  of  depth  in  the  mouth,  and  dispro- 
portionate length  of  limbs  in  the  animal,  will  be  suflBcient  to  expose  the  deception. 


BLACK    HAWK,    JR. 

(Property  of  S.  W.  Picklin,  Charlottesville,  Virginia.) 

The  tushes  are  four  in  number,  two  on  each  jaw,  located  between  the  incisors  and 
grinders,  and  nearer  the  former  than  the  latter.  At  four  years  and  a  half,  or  between  that 
and  five  years  of  age,  the  last  important  change  takes  place  in  the  mouth  of  the  horse.  The 
corner  nippei-s  are  then  shed,  and  the  permanent  ones  begin  to  appear.  The  central  ones  are 
considerably  worn,  and  the  next  pair  begin  to  show  marks  of  usage  somewhat.  The  tush  is 
now  cut  through  and  generally  a  full  half-inch  in  length.  The  colt  is  now  considered  a 
horse,  and  the  filly  a  mare. 

At  Five  Tears,  the  comer  nippers  are  well  up,  containing  the  long,  irregular,  deep  mark 
in  the  inside,  and  the  other  nippers  showing  evidence  of  wear.     The  sixth  molar  is  now  up. 


THE  HORSE.  697 

and  the  third  molar  wanting.  The  three  last  grinders  and  the  tushes  are  never  shed.  At  six 
years,  the  mark  on  the  central  nippers  is  worn  out,  but  there  will  still  be  a  difference  in  color 
in  the  center  of  the  tooth.  In  the  next  pair  the  mark  is  shorter,  broader,  and  pointed,  and 
in  the  corner  teeth  the  edges  of  the  enamel  are  somewhat  worn.  The  tushes  or  canine  teeth 
have  now  attained  their  full  growth,  and  are  nearly  or  quite  an  inch  long,  the  grinder  is  fully 
grown,  and  all  the  grinders  on  a  level.  The  teeth  are  now  all  of  them  fully  grown.  At 
seven  years  of  age,  the  "  mark  "  is  worn  out  in  the  four  central  nippers,  and  is  wearing  away 
in  the  corner  teeth.  The  tush  also  at  this  period  will  begin  to  get  rounded  at  the  point  and 
edges. 

At  Eight  Years,  the  mark  is  gone  from  all  the  bottom  incisors,  and  the  tush  is  more 
rounded  in  every  respect.  After  this  period,  nothing  remains  in  the  bottom  incisors  to  define 
definitely  the  age  of  the  horse. 

It  is  stated  by  good  authority  that  dishonest  dealers  resort  to  the  following  mean  and 
cruel  method  of  prolonging  the  mark  in  the  lower  nippers  of  the  horse:  The  horse  is  thrown 
down,  an  excavation  dug  with  an  engraver's  tool  in  the  plain  surface  of  the  corner  teeth,  in 
a  form  resembhng  the  mark  of  a  seven-year  old  horse,  after  which  the  cavity  is  burned  with 
a  hot  iron,  which  leaves  a  permanent  black  stain.  The  next  pair  of  nippers  are  then  slightly 
touched.  By  this  means  a  horse  nine  or  ten  years  old  is  made  to  have  the  appearance  of  one 
of  seven  years  of  age,  to  a  person  inexperienced  in  judging  the  age  of  a  horse.  But  to  the 
experienced  eye  this  deception  is  easily  perceived  by  the  irregular  appearance  of  the 
cavity,  the  black  stain  around  the  tushes,  the  sharpened  eclges  and  concave  inner  surface  of 
which  can  never  be  given  again,  the  marks  on  the  upper  nippers,  and  the  general  appearance 
of  the  horse. 

After  eight  years  of  age,  sometimes  some  shght  marks  may  be  seen  in  the  nippers  of  the 
upper  jaw,  the  marks  remaining  longer  there  than  in  the  lower  nippers,  which  is  generally 
believed  to  be  one  or  two  years.  At  nine  years  of  age,  the  mark  will  be  obliterated  from  the 
middle  upper  nippers,  from  the  second  pair  at  ten,  and  from  all  at  ehven.  The  teeth  also 
undergo  a  great  change,  being  shorter  and  more  rounded. 

After  the  Horse  is  Eleven  Tears  Old,  and  until  very  old,  the  age  may  be  determined 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy  from  the  shape  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  nippers.  At 
eight  years  they  are  oval,  but  as  the  animal  gets  older,  their  surface  becomes  round  instead  of 
oval,  the  teeth  become  diminished  in  size,  and  by  lessening  in  width,  become  separated  a  little 
apart  from  each  other.  At  eleven  years  the  second  pair  of  nippers  are  quite  rounded  and 
the  corner  ones  at  thirteen.  At  fourteen,  the  faces  of  the  central  nippers  become  rather  tri- 
angular, and  at  seventeen  they  all  have  this  appearance.  At  nineteen,  the  angles  begin  to 
wear  off,  and  the  oval  form  is  again  assumed,  but  in  a  reversed  manner,  that  is,  from  out- 
ward, inward.     At  twenty-one,  all  the  nippers  have  this  form. 

Circumstances  will,  of  course,  vary  with  different  conditions,  methods  of  feeding,  the 
care  the  animal  has  received,  etc.,  but  the  above  rules  for  determining  the  age  will  be  found, 
in  the  main,  reliable.  The  diminution  of  the  bars  of  the  mouth  denote  increasing  old  age, 
they  becoming  less  prominent  at  ten  years.  Other  indications  of  old  age,  aside  from  those  of 
the  teeth,  are  gray  hairs  over  the  eyes  and  about  the  muzzle;  sunken  appearance  of  the  eyes, 
and  the  deepening  of  the  hollows  over  them ;  thinness  of  lips,  as  well  as  their  hanging  down ; 
sinking  of  the  back,  sharpened  appearance  of  the  withers,  and  the  disappearance  of  tumors 
of  every  kind. 

Horses,  when  kindly  treated,  will  remain  quite  vigorous  for  a  long  period,  and  also  will 
attain  great  age.  We  have  known  of  their  reaching  the  age  of  forty-five  years,  and  still  be 
quite  active.  An  account  is  recorded  by  Mr.  Percival  of  a  horse  that  died  in  his  sixty-second 
year.     American  Eclipse  was  used  successfully  in  Kentucky  for  stock  purposes  at  the  age  of 


698  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

thirty -one;  but  these  are  very  rare  instances.  From  the  commonly  hard  usage  that  the  horse 
receives,  he  rarely  ever  lives  beyond  the  age  of  twenty-five  or  thirty;  in  fact,  many  horses  are 
subjected  to  such  severe  labor,  and  so  much  abused,  that  they  are  old  and  decrepit  at  thirteen 
or  fourteen  years  of  age. 

Color. — The  color  may  seem  an  unimportant  point  to  some  persons  in  regard  to  a  horse, 
providing  he  be  really  a  valuable  animal;  but  to  individuals  of  fastidious  taste,  and  who  have 
an  eye  for  beauty,  an  undesirable  color  would  prove  a  serious  objection.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  bay,  chestnut,  dark  brown,  and  black  are  the  most  desirable  colors  in  a  horse,  the 
preference  being  in  the  order  in  which  we  have  given,  and,  other  conditions  being  equal, 
horses  of  these  colors  will  bring  a  higher  price  in  market  than  those  commonly  considered 
less  desirable,  such  as  white,  light  gray,  hght  sorrel,  cream-colored,  spotted,  etc.  A  dark 
bay,  with  no  white  about  him,  and  with  black  taU,  mane,  and  legs  from  the  knees  and  hocks 
down,  is  generally  conceded  by  horse-fanciers  to  be  the  most  beautiful  color,  while  the  chest- 
nut and  dark  brown  might  be  regarded  next  in  order  in  this  respect. 

Hints  to  Purchasers  of  Horses. — It  would  be  impossible  to  lay  down  any  definite 
rules  with  respect  to  judging  of  the  fine  points  in  a  horse  that  would  take  the  place  of  the 
experienced  and  practiced  eye  of  the  skilled  horseman ;  but  a  few  hints  may  be  given  which 
will  prove  of  value  to  the  inexperienced  in  this  respect.  The  first  thing  to  be  determined 
before  purchasing  a  horse  is  the  kind  of  an  animal  necessary,  and  that  will  be  adapted  to  the 
labor  required  of  him.  This  will  involve  the  consideration  of  size,  form,  strength,  endu- 
rance, temperament,  disposition,  color,  and  various  other  things  which  have  alreadv  been 
definitely  treated  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  department  of  the  work.  We  would  advise, 
first,  in  all  cases  to  examine  carefully  the  head,  note  the  expression  of  the  eye,  and  determine 
the  disposition  and  temperament  of  the  animal,  after  wliich  the  other  qualities.  The  follow- 
ing directions  to  inexperienced  purchasers  of  horses,  given  in  a  treatise  on  the  horse,  by  D. 
C.  Linsley,  of  Vermont,  will  be  found  of  value  to  many: — 

"  When  the  purchaser  is  unaccustomed  to  horses,  we  would  advise  him,  after  determining 
what  kind  of  a  horse  he  wants,  to  engage  some  reliable  person  to  assist  him  who  has  had 
more  experience,  especially  if  he  is  about  to  purchase  of  a  stranger,  for  in  the  latter  case  he 
wiU  not  only  be  liable  to  misjudge  as  to  the  justness  of  the  animal's  proportions,  but  also  as 
to  the  soundness  and  vices,  for  a  vast  number  of  faults  and  defects  may,  by  artful  jockeys, 
be  concealed  from  the  inexperienced  eye,  and  sometimes  even  from  the  closest  and  most 
intelligent  examination. 

If,  however,  the  purchaser  avail  himself  of  no  such  assistance,  or  chooses  to  trust  to  Ms 
own  judgment,  he  cannot  be  too  cautious.  When  you  enter  the  stable,  observe  carefully  the 
way  in  which  the  owner  approaches  his  horse.  If,  as  soon  as  he  comes  within  hearing,  he 
speaks  to  him  in  a  loud,  sharp  voice  that  makes  the  horse  spring  up  in  his  stall  as  if  fright- 
ened, look  out  for  some  defect  in  his  limbs.  If  much  lame,  it  will  be  seen  when  he  is  moved ; 
but  if  the  lameness  is  very  slight,  you  may  not  notice  it.  If  the  owner  comes  up  to  the  horse 
very  carefully,  and  seems  a  little  cautious  about  going  into  the  stall  where  he  is,  you  may 
justly  suspect  that  he  is  not  kind  and  pleasant-tempered.  If  he  approaches  the  horse  in  an 
easy,  careless,  but  quiet  way,  you  may  reasonably  expect  that  the  horse  has  no  such  ■(•ices  to 
hide,  and  you  will  not  suspect  him  of  lameness,  though  it  should  not  prevent  your  watching 
carefully  every  motion  of  his  hmbs  to  see  if  you  can  detect  it. 

Mark  how  the  horse  stands,  how  he  is  hitched,  and  what  kind  of  a  halter  he  has  on.  If 
he  stands  with  one  of  his  fore-feet  far-;,in  advance  of  the  other,  look  out  for  founder.  If 
he  is  fastened  with  more  than  ordinary  care,  see  if  you  can  observe  any  signs  of  his  having 
attempted  to  untie  his  halter  with  his  teeth.  If  the  halter  is  fastened  veiy  tight  round  his 
throat,  he  may  have  a  trick  of  sKpping  it  off,  or  he  may  be  a  cribber.  A  large  strap,  buckled 
close  round  the  throat,  will  often  prevent  cribbing. 


THE  HORSE.  699 

Youatt  considers  crib-biting  unsoundness;  and  it  is,  at  all  events,  a  very  bad  habit,  that 
materially  injures  the  sale  of  a  horse.  If  the  manger  shows  signs  of  being  bitten  by  the 
horse,  do  not  purchase  the  animal  until  you  have  seen  him  eat.  The  teeth  of  an  old  "  cribber  " 
almost  invariably  show  signs  of  this  habit,  being  much  worn  on  the  outer  edge,  but  in  young 
horses  it  will  not  always  be  noticed. 

"When  the  horse  is  turned  out  of  his  stall  and  faces  the  light,  observe  whether  he  shuns 
it,  and  partially  closes  his  eyes;  if  so,  his  eyes  are  weak;  if,  on  the  contrary,  he  looks  boldly 
about,  with  a  bright  and  lively  expression,  his  eyes  are  not  only  good,  but  you  may  infer  that 
he  is  both  spirited  and  tractable.  Examine  the  head  carefully.  If  it  is  thoroughly  good, 
light,  lean,  and  graceful,  with  tapering,  sharp-pointed  ears,  ever  moving  and  restless,  the  eyes 
animated  and  prominent,  the  forehead  broad,  the  muzzle  firm,  the  nostrils  large,  and  the 
whole  well  set  upon  the  neck,  you  may  be  pretty  sure  that  it  belongs  to  a  good  horse. 

If  the  eye  is  not  bright  and  lively,  it  should  be  carefully  examined.  Sometimes  the  eye 
wUl  look  very  natural,  and  the  horse  appear  bright  and  well,  yet  be  perfectly  blind.  If  the 
horse  is  entirely  blind,  you  may  easily  detect  it,  for  though  some  horses  move  about  very 
easily  and  handily  when  perfectly  blind,  you  will  soon  notice  the  defect  if  you  watch  him 
and  permit  him  to  move  about  freely.  If  you  are  suspicious  that,  although  not  entirely 
blind,  his  sight  is  defective,  you  may  determine  it  by  passing  some  small  object  like  a  stalk  of 
hay  rapidly  before  his  eyes,  and  at  a  short  distance  from  them,  taking  care  that  the  substance 
be  not  large  enough  to  create  any  perceptible  motion  of  the  atmosphere,  for  a  blind  horse 
will  wink  at  the  least  unnatural  current  of  air. 

The  appearance  of  the  head  is  a  pretty  sure  index  of  the  age  of  the  animal,  and  the 
inexperienced  buyer  will  do  well  to  rely  as  much  upon  this  general  appearance  as  upon  the 
appearance  of  the  teeth;  for  with  a  saw  and  a  filing-iron  old  teeth  may  be  made  to  resemble 
so  closely  those  of  a  young  horse  as  to  deceive  even  pretty  good  judges.  In  the  old  horse, 
the  eyes  are  usually  a  little  sunken,  and  the  hollows  over  the  eyes  are  deepened,  the  lips  are 
less  firm  and  close,  and  the  mouth  shows  the  long  use  of  the  bit.  If  the  head  is  satisfactory, 
next  examine  the  legs,  and  see  that  they  are  not  too  long,  are  wide,  flat,  bony,  and  free  from 
flesh  below  the  knees  and  bocks.  When  the  muscles  are  well  developed,  and  stand  well  out 
from  the  bones,  and  are  free  from  any  fat  or  meat,  they  can  be  distinctly  traced  by  the  eye 
through  the  skin.  See  that  the  horse  stands  squarely  and  equally  upon  them,  and  that  they 
iare  neither  stretched  too  far  apart  nor  gathered  too  much  under  liim.  Examine  closely 
whether  there  be  any  unnatural  enlargements  or  bunches  on  either  leg.  If  none  can  be 
detected  by  the  eye,  then  pass  the  half-closed  hand  carefully  down  each  one,  pressing  the  leg 
moderately,  to  determine  whether  there  are  any  bunches  or  scars  concealed  by  the  hair. 

Look  carefully  at  the  hocks  for  spavins,  curbs,  or  thoroughpin,  for,  although  the  latter 
do  not  constitute  unsoundness,  yet  they  are  objectionable.  Pass  the  hand  carefully  down  the 
back  sinews  to  detect  any  unevenness  in  the  muscle.  If  any  little  bunches  are  found,  or  the 
cord  is  anywhere  enlarged,  examine  carefully  for  any  scar  that  may  indicate  that  the  injury 
was  an  external  one.  If  there  are  no  signs  of  any  such  injury,  and  especially  Lf  the  muscle  at 
this  point  feels  sore,  reject  the  animal.  The  back  sinews  have  been  strained,  if  not  ruptured, 
and  there  is  little  chance  that  he  will  ever  be  able  to  endure  hard  service.  Search  for 
bunches  on  the  inside  of  the  fetlocks;  if  you  find  them,  or  scars,  you  will  attribute  them  to 
the  horse's  cutting.  If  the  scars  are  old,  and  the  horse  being  in  very  high  flesh  yet  travels 
very  close,  it  will  be  wise  to  reject  him,  for  in  ordinary  flesh  he  will  be  likely  to  cut,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  most  unpleasant  defects  in  the  horse,  and  one  that  is  very  difficult  to  remedy. 
Press  the  hand  closely  and  carefully  around  the  pastern,  for  ringbone,  or  cling-fasts,  that  are 
just  commencing  to  form,  and  will  be  detected  more  easily  by  the  hand  than  the  eye.  This 
is  the  more  important,  as  ringbone  is  one  of  the  worst  kinds  of  unsoundness,  and  the  horse 
may  not  at  all  times  and  in  all  instances  be  sufficiently  lame  to  enable  the  buyer  to  detect  it. 


700  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Tlie  knees  are  often  too  carelessly  examined.  It  is  not  enough  that  there  is  no  trembling 
of  the  joint,  that  it  shuts  back  well,  and  is  well  shaped.  If  there  are  any  bunches,  hard  or 
soft,  or  any  scars  in  front,  it  is  a  pretty  sure  sign  that  the  horse  is  a  stumbler,  and  is 
unsafe. 

Just  below  the  knees,  and  upon  the  inside  of  the  leg,  look  for  splints;  if  small,  and 
removed  from  the  joint,  they  may  in  no  way  affect  the  usefulness  of  the  animal,  but  they  are 
unsightly  and  objectionable.  The  feet  requii-e  the  closest  scrutiny.  Eeject  horses  that  have 
split  or  flat  hoofs,  as  they  wiU  be  fit  only  for  slow  work.  Where  the  feet  are  high  and  nar- 
row at  the  heels,  it  is  a  serious  objection,  as  such  feet  are  very  liable  to  founder,  and  other 
diseases. 

The  legs  and  feet  proving  satisfactory  thus  far,  take  a  look  at  the  body.  If  the  ribs  are 
round,  the  back  short,  and  his  wmd  good,  little  more  need  be  required.  To  determine  the 
soundness  of  the  wind  is  sometimes  difficult,  especially  if  the  horse  is  in  high  condition,  and 
has  been  dieted  and  medicated  with  the  view  of  concealing  some  defect  in  it.  The  best  way 
to  determine  this  is  to  make  him  trot  briskly  about  one  hundred  rods,  and  as  soon  as  he  has 
done  this,  let  him  stand  perfectly  still  and  watch  closely  his  breathing.  If  he  breathes  easily, 
and  without  any  apparent  effort,  and  especially  if,  as  soon  as  he  stops,  he  draws  one  or  two 
long  breaths  that  fill  the  lungs  to  their  utmost  capacity,  without  any  appearance  of  distress,  his 
wind  may  be  pronounced  good;  but  if  there  is  the  least  evidence  of  painful  respiration,  or 
catching  for  breath,  something  is  wrong,  and  the  animal  should  be  rejected.  Heaves,  or 
broken  wind,  is  a  common  disease  at  the  East,  but  at  the  "West  it  is  comparatively  very  rare; 
hence,  the  purchaser  will  be  more  on  his  guard  to  detect  the  disease  in  a  horse  raised  at  the 
East,  than  in  one  raised  at  the  West. 

While  the  horse  is  moving,  notice  carefully  his  action,  and  to  do  this  take  such  a  posi- 
tion that  he  can  move  by  you  on  level  ground,  and  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  you  to  give 
a  good  view  of  him.  Notice  particularly  the  action  of  the  forelegs,  see  that  the  joint  at  the 
shoulder  plays  freely,  that  the  feet  are  not  raised  too  high,  that  he  reaches  out  boldly  in  his 
step  with  his  forelegs,  and  throws  his  weight  freely  upon  them.  If  he  does  this,  you  may  be 
pretty  sure  the  feet  are  sound  and  good,  and  the  shoulders  unhurt.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
horse  does  not  carry  his  feet  well  forward,  but  takes  a  short,  mincing  step,  and  puts  down 
his  feet  cautiously,  they  are  unsound;  and  if  the  legs  seem  stiff,  and  tied  up  at  the  shoulders, 
he  is  chest-foundered.  These  things  should  be  carefully  observed  when  the  horse  is  first 
moved,  for  if  he  is  but  a  little  stiff  in  his  shoulders,  the  stiffness  generally  disappears  entirely 
after  a  little  exercise. 

After  having  carefully  noticed  these  things,  and  also  his  general  style  and  appearance, 
take  such  a  position  that  you  can  watch  the  movement  of  his  feet  as  he  comes  directly  towards 
you,  and  goes  directly  from  you;  see  that  he  carries  forward  his  feet  in  a  straight  line,  and 
that  ho  does  not  travel  too  close  or  too  wide,  for  if  very  close  he  will  be  apt  to  cut,  or  inter- 
fere, and  if  too  wide,  his  gait  will  be  labored  and  awkward. 

While  the  horse  is  moving,  see  if  he  hesitates  to  turn  short  and  quick;  if  he  does,  and 
appears  in  the  least  stiff  in  the  back,  you  may  conclude  that  he  has  been  strained  there,  and 
a  horse  that  has  once  been  severely  strained  in  his  back  rarely,  if  ever,  fully  recovers,  and  is 
unfit  for  any  kind  of  business,  but  if  the  back  is  such  as  we  have  described,  there  will  be 
little  danger  of  this  complaint. 

These  defects,  at  which  we  have  glanced,  by  no  means  comprise  all  the  diseases  or  defects 
of  tho  horse,  nor  are  the  methods  we  have  pointed  out  in  all  cases  the  only  ones.  We  have 
aimed  only  to  glance  at  the  most  serious  and  ordinary  defects,  and  point  out  the  simplest 
means  of  detecting  them.  Some  quite  common  defects  we  have  not  noticed,  as,  for  instance, 
string-halt.  This  is  not  considered  unsoundness  in  ordinary  circumstances,  and  where  it 
is  so  bad  as  to  become  seriously  objectionable,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  noticed  by  the  most  care- 
less observer. 


THE  HORSE.  703 

To  some,  this  kind  of  examination  may  seem  tedious  and  laborious,  and  to  the  inexperi- 
enced horseman  it  maybe  so;  but  the  horseman  of  taste,  with  a  practiced  eye,  will  determine 
the  freedom  of  an  animal  from  the  objections  we  have  referred  to  in  a  small  fraction  of  the 
time  it  has  taken  us  to  describe  them. 

We  have  said  nothing  upon  those  subjects  that  are  merely  matters  of  taste,  as  to  enter 
into  a  discussion  of  them  would  occupy  more  space  than  we  could  devote  to  it. 

One  wishes  a  horse  that  shall  have  a  bold,  resolute  style  of  action,  and  a  high  temper 
that  prompts  him  to  ke*p  a  constant  and  heavy  pull  upon  the  reins.  Another  wishes  a  horse 
of  less  spirit,  with  a  quiet,  pleasant  temper,  and  a  mouth  that  only  feels  the  bit,  that  is  never 
restless,  never  pulls,  and  so  gentle  that  his  wife  and  children  can  manage  him.  Yet  he  does 
not  want  a  dull,  stupid  animal ;  on  the  contrary,  one  that  is  bright  and  lively,  and  that  when 
gently  urged  will  move  off  at  a  lively  pace. 

One  wants  a  horse  that  is  round  and  smooth,  with  soft  hair,  a  beautiful  color,  and  a 
proud,  showy  style,  that  will  attract  the  admiration  of  his  neiglibors,  but  cares  little  about  its 
speed  upon  the  road,  or  its  powers  of  endurance,  while  his  next-door  neighbor  cares  far 
less  for  the  showy  style  and  the  beautiful  color,  and  values  his  horse  solely  on  account  of  his 
useful  qualities.  In  short,  no  rules  can  be  laid  down  that  will  determine  the  excellence  of 
the  animal  in  these  respects,  as  so  much  depends  upon  the  precise  service  which  is  demanded 
of  him,  and  the  taste  of  the  purchaser. 

Although  people  differ  much  in  their  opinion  as  to  the  color,  style  of  movement,  etc.,  of 
their  carriage-horses,  yet  the  anxiety  to  own  a  free,  nimble  driver,  is  nearly  universal,  and 
might  almost  be  styled  a  national  characteristic. 

But  the  passion  for  horses  is  co-extensive  with  man's  acquaintance  with  them,  and  is  con- 
fined to  no  nation,  no  portion  of  the  human  family;  indeed,  there  are  comparatively  few 
persons  who  take  no  interest  in  his  history,  no  pleasure  in  training  or  using  him. 

Other  animals  may  be  as  useful  to  man,  but  they  do  not  so  lay  hold  of  human  affections 
and  sympathies.  He  is  at  once  his  companion  and  servant  in  his  long  and  weary  journeys. 
With  the  same  patience  and  unflinching  courage,  he  carries  his  rider  safely  over  the  scorch- 
ing sands  of  the  desert,  or  treads  with  careful  step  the  icy  footpaths  of  the  mountains.  He 
waits  with  silent  patience  his  master's  pleasure,  and  moves  only  at  his  bidding.  Heat  and 
cold  do  not  shake  his  courage,  hunger  and  thirst  do  not  drive  him  to  rebellion.  The  sooth- 
ing sound  of  his  mastei-'s  voice  stills  his  restlessness  when  he  wishes  him  to  be  quiet,  and  the 
cheering,  encouraging  tones  of  the  same  voice  rouse  him  to  the  noblest  efforts  to  do  his  will." 

Thorough-Bred. — This  is  a  term  that  is  often  improperly  used  in  connection  with 
horses.  Technically,  it  means,  when  properly  applied,  that  the  animal's  pedigree  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  East,  or  rather,  that  he  is  of  a  breed  derived  from  a  Barb  or  Arabian 
ancestry. 

English  juries  have  frequently  decided  that  a  horse  that  is  warranted  thorough-bred  is 
returnable,  if  any  defect  can  be  traced  in  his  pedigree,  or,  in  other  words,  if  it  can  be  proven 
that  his  pedigree  is  not  directly  traceable,  on  the  side  of  both  sire  and  dam,  to  imported  Barb 
or  Arabian  stock.  This,  then,  is  the  technical  meaning  of  the  term,  and  proves  that  in  this 
sense  there  can  properly  be  but  one  breed  of  horses  designated  as  thorough-breds.  It  is  the 
oldest  and  purest  breed  in  existence,  and  is  noted  for  speed,  endurance,  strength,  energy,  and 
courage.  The  genealogy  of  this  race  of  horses  has  been  carefully  recorded  in  a  stud-book  for 
nearly  a  hundred  years,  and  the  records  of  their  achievements  upon  the  race-course,  both  in 
this  country  and  Europe,  are  the  most  noted  in  the  history  of  the  horse.  They  were  intro- 
duced into  this  country  at  a  very  early  period,  and  so  frequent  have  been  the  importations 
of  the  choicest  animals  of  this  type,  that  they  are  identical  with  those  of  the  old  country.  A 
leading  authority  thus  describes  the  thorough-bred:  — 

"  All  running  horses  are  of  this  breed,  and  none  but  thorough-breds  can  make  a  credit- 
43 


704  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

able  showing  in  long-distance  or  heat  races.  A  horse  with  a  dash  of  this  blood  may  make  a 
fast  race  for  a  short  distance,  but  it  takes  the  genuine  stuff  to  go  a  mile  and  repeat,  in  good 
time.  They  are  of  all  colors,  bay,  brown,  and  chestnut  predominating;  are  rather  light  of 
bone,  and  long  in  the  body,  with  thin  neck,  small  head,  wide  between  the  eyes,  finely-pointed 
ears,  long  quarters,  and  deep  chest,  and  are  usually  rather  'leggy.'  In  height  they  are  from 
15  to  16^  hands,  although  they  may  sometimes  be  found  a  half  a  hand  above  or  below  these 
figures.  They  are  nervous,  restless,  determined,  and  excitable,  and  are  highly  valued  for 
crossing  upon  all  other  breeds." 

Beyond  the  technical  meaning  of  the  term  thorough-bred,  some  writers  give  it  a  practi- 
cal signification,  and  employ  it  to  denote  certain  essential  quaUties  that  give  superior  value  to 
the  animal,  and  determine  his  rank  in  the  grade  to  which  he  belongs.  These  qualities  may 
comprise  beauty  of  form,  compactness  and  strength  of  bone  and  muscles,  intelligence,  activity, 
docility,  and  the  various  other  desirable  qualities  that  give  value  to  the  horse.  The  true 
thorough-breds,  according  to  the  technical  and  proper  signification  of  the  term,  are,  without 
doubt,  the  finest  horses  in  existence,  and  to  that  blood  are  we  indebted  for  some  of  the  finest 
qualities  that  our  best  types  of  horses  possess.  Yet,  notwithstanding  this,  a  poor  horse,  as 
well  as  a  man  of  inferior  ability,  will  ever  remain  such,  whatever  his  ancestry  may  be,  and  a 
pure  thorough-bred  will  occasionally,  though  rarely,  be  found  to  be  a  very  inferior  animal, 
since  there  are  exceptions  to  almost  every  rule,  the  world  over,  and  while  the  law  of  nature, 
that  "like  produces  like,"  will  be  the  general  rule,  there  will  occasionally  be  an  exception, 
and  a  poor  animal  will  sometimes  possess  a  fine  pedigree,  and  the  reverse;  some  noted  ani- 
mals having  sprung  from  unknown  ancestry.  Pedigree  has,  however,  great  significance,  and 
a  good  horse  with  a  good  pedigree  is  the  one  to  be  desired.  The  superiority  of  thorough- 
bred horses  over  the  common  stock,  will  be  found  generally  to  consist  in  a  superior  form, 
physical  organization,  and  intelligence,  while  from  their  intelligence,  they  are  more  kind  and 
tractable  in  their*  disposition.  Possessing  a  superior  organization,  they  are  less  liable  to  dis- 
ease, and  live  and  maintain  their  usefulness  to  a  much  greater  age.  They  have  greater 
•  endurance,  are  superior  in  action,  and  more  elegant  in  appearance;  they  are  also  superior  in 
.breathing  powers,  fleetness,  and  bravery. 

As  we  have  previously  stated,  the  bones  of  a  thorough-bred  horse  are  more  solid  and 
■fine  in  texture  than  those  of  horses  of  the  common  type,  while  his  tendons  are  much  stronger 
and  better  defined,  and  his  muscles  more  firm  and  elastic.  Such  a  horse  will  perform 
much  more  labor  in  a  given  time,  with  less  exhaustion,  and  be  able  to  repeat  the  task  oftener, 
than  an  animal  of  inferior  blood.  For  all  the  common  and  general  purposes  of  farming,  or 
for  a  carriage  horse  simply,  the  thorough-bred  horse  will  be  found  greatly  superior  to  those 
of  common  class,  and  this  should  be  borne  in  mind,  whether  in  purchasing,  or  breeding. 

The  Pei'Cheron-Norman.  —  These  horses  are  frequently  called  Normans,  or  French 
horses.  The  breed  originated  in  La  Perche,  an  ancient  province  of  France.  Importations 
from  that  country  to  this  have  been  very  extensive  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century 
past.  These  horses  are  noted  for  great  strength  and  endurance,  being  much  used  for  draft. 
They  are  usually  fifteen  and  a  half,  or  sixteen  and  a  half  hands  high,  although  some  of  the 
larger  types  of  the  breed  are  occasionally  seventeen  hands.  In  temperament  they  are  sanguine, 
mixed  in  variable  proportions  with  the  musco-lymphatic.  In  color  they  are  quite  uniform, 
being  nearly  always  gray,  although  occasionally  other  colors,  such  as  the  black,  roan,  bay,  or 
chestnut,  are  seen.  It  is  estimated  by  good  authority  that  fully  ninety  per  cent,  of  them, 
both  in  this  country  and  France  —  from  where  they  are  imported  —  are  gray.  They  are 
large  animals,  those  imported  to  this  country  ranging  in  weight  from  1400  to  1900  lbs.  They 
generally  have  a  good  head,  mild,  expressive  eyes,  rather  short  neck,  denoting  strength;  high 
withers,  a  broad,  deep  chest,  short  rump,  sometimes  slightly  drooping,  and  body  well 
rounded.     The  mane  and  tail  are  abundant.    They  are  very  docile,  possess  great  strength  and 


THE  HORSE.  707 

endurance,  and,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  are  quite  active.  These  horses  are  much  used  in 
the  Western  States,  while  an  infusion  of  the  blood  upon  the  common  stock  of  the  country  is 
very  apparent  in  nearly  all  sections.  It  is  to  this  blood  that  may  be  attributed  largely  the 
excellence  that  distinguished  the  Canadian  horses  about  half  a  century  ago,  this  breed  having 
been  introduced  into  Canada  by  the  French  settlers. 

"While  the  Percheron-Norman  horse  is  used  principally  for  draft  and  heavy  work,  the 
light  or  smaller  tjrpes  are  frequently  employed  upon  the  road.  The  result  of  a  cross  with  this 
breed  upon  the  common  horses  of  the  country  has  been  found  very  satisfactory  in  producing 
an  improvement  in  strength,  and  hardiness. 

The  Clydesdale.  —  This  breed  of  horses  derives  its  name  from  a  district  on  the 
Clyde,  m  Scotland,  where  it  was  first  introduced  by  one  of  the  dukes  of  Hamilton,  by  cross- 
ing with  the  imported  Flemish  stallions.  It  is  adapted  principally  for  draft,  and  is  much 
prized  for  this  purpose.  Importations  of  the  Clydesdale  have  been  made  into  this  country  to 
the  extent  that  they  are  now  bred  here  in  considerable  numbers.  In  color,  the  bays  and 
browns  are  most  numerous;  but  there  are  occasional  blacks,  sorrels,  and  grays  among  them. 
Whatever  the  color  of  the  body,  they  nearly  all  have  strong,  distinct  markings  of  white  in 
the  face  and  on  the  feet,  with,  frequently,  white  spots  under  the  body.  An  abundance  of 
hair  on  the  legs  is  considered  a  good  point  in  a  well-bred  Clydesdale,  while  the  tail  and  mane 
are  quite  heavy  and  inchned  to  be  naturally  wavy.  In  height,  they  range  from  fifteen  to 
seventeen  hands,  while  sometimes  one  will  be  found  eighteen  hands  high.  In  weight,  they 
range  from  1500  to  2100  pounds,  one  being  found  occasionally  that  will  reach  2500  pounds. 

The  pure-bred  Clydesdale  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Percheron-Norman,  and  is  also 
longer  in  the  body  and  hind-quarters  than  the  French  horses.  He  is  heavier-boned  than  any 
other  breed,  according  to  his  weight,  and  particularly  in  his  limbs,  which  are  of  great  width, 
flat,  sinewy,  and  hard.  It  is  said  that  at  the  bone-mills  the  bones  of  this  breed  can  be  readily 
distinguished  from  those  of  ordinary  horses,  by  their  size  and  solidity.  He  has  generally  a 
good  eye  and  head,  well-shaped  neck  and  shoulders,  and  a  round,  straight  body.  These 
horses  possess  great  strength  and  endurance,  and  are  naturally  gentle  in  disposition.  The 
back  of  the  legs,  from  the  knee  and  hock  to  the  fetlock,  are  covered  with  quite  long  hair,  a 
characteristic  greatly  prized  by  the  Scotchman,  as  being  an  evidence  of  the  purity  of  the 
breed.  The  Clydesdale  is  frequently  crossed  with  the  heavier  class  of  common  horses  with 
good  results. 

English  Draft.  —  The  native  English  breed,  variously  termed  the  English  Draft, 
Cart,  or  Shire  horse,  is  the  largest  draft  horse  known.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  first 
introduced  into  England  through  the  invasions  of  war.  Their  improvement  dates  from  the 
last  century,  at  which  time  stallions  were  imported  from  Holland.  From  that  time,  by 
judicious  crossing  and  breeding  only  from  the  best,  and  with  especial  reference  to  large, 
powerful  draft  horses,  adding  occasionally  (as  is  quite  probable)  a  mixture  of  the  Scotch 
Clydesdale,  a  breed  has  been  established  of  gigantic  size,  commonly  known  in  Europe  and 
America  as  the  English  Draft  horse. 

The  famous  brewers'  horses  of  London,  which  average  a  full  ton  in  weight,  are  of  this 
breed.  Notwithstanding  their  immense  size  and  strength,  however,  they  ar?  symmetrical 
and  attractive  in  form,  and  may  be  described  as  follows:  Head  short  and  heavy  in  appear- 
ance; face  oval  on  lower  part  and  broad  above;  mouth  large,  with  thick  lips;  eyes  small  and 
mild-looking;  ears  broad,  thick,  and  short;  the  neck  arched;  heavy  at  throat-latch,  and 
thickening  towards  the  shoulder;  shoulder  with  a  moderate  slant,  with  withers  extending 
well  back;  barrel  round  and  "well  ribbed  up;  "  rump-bones  wide  apart,  but  not  prominent, 
rump  drooping  to  the  tail;  short  quarters,  with  thick,  round  buttocks;  the  upper  limbs  are 
not  only  well-proportioned,  but  well-shaped ;  the  lower  part  heavy  and  bony,  with  long  hair 
behind,  similar  to  the  Clydesdale ;  feet  large. 


708  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

They  possess  great  endurance  and  strength,  and  make  excellent  draft  horses,  although  a 
lighter  animal  would  be  desired  for  common  use. 

Bouloiinaise  Draft.  —  This  breed  was  first  brought  into  notice  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boulogne,  but  has  rapidly  spread  throughout  the  region  of  Paris.     They  are  thus  described: — 

''They  are  of  about  1,600  or  1,700  pounds  weight,  and  have  a  handsome  form  for  a  large 
animal.  Their  action  is  more  clumsy  than  graceful,  and  they  are  principally  used  for  very 
heavy  draft  purposes,  where  great  strength  is  needed  instead  of  speed.  The  moving  of  the 
heavy  blocks  of  stone  used  in  the  buildings  of  Paris  is  done  with  these  horses.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  see  six  or  eight  of  them  hitched  in  hne,  drawing  blocks  of  several  tons'  weight, 
which  of  necessity  must  move  very  slowly.  They  are  mostly  gray  in  color,  but  bays  and 
blacks  are  not  uncommon.  For  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  by  nature  adapted,  they  are 
entitled  to  be  classed  among  the  best  of  draft  horses." 

The  Conestoga  is  descended  from  early  importations  from  Flanders  and  Denmark, 
and  is  a  mixture  of  several  breeds,  but  owes  its  principal  characteristics  to  the  former- 
mentioned  sources.  A  heavy  roadster,  he  was  more  frequently  employed  as  a  draft  horse, 
and  was  formerly  extensively  reared  in  Pennsylvania.  The  best  types  of  this  variety 
possessed  fine  symmetry  and  great  power,  and  were  much  preferred  by  the  German  emigrants 
of  that  State.  They  are  now  rarely  met,  having  been  superseded  by  the  Percheron-Norman, 
Clydesdale,  and  other  breeds  for  draft  purposes. 

Cleyelaud  Bays. — As  the  name  indicates,  the  prevaiHng  color  of  the  horses  that 
bear  this  name  is  a  light  bay.  They  were  first  known  in  the  district  of  Cleveland.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  this  district  became  noted  for  producing  a  heavy  breed 
of  horses  suited  for  cavalry  or  the  coach,  and  from  their  history  it  appears  that  they  are  part 
thoroughbred,  being  a  cross  between  the  race-horse  and  the  large  horses  found  in  the  country. 
The  old  Cleveland  horses  were  very  large,  and  noted  for  their  strength.  They  are  reputed  to 
have  carried  on  their  backs  a  weight  of  760  pounds,  (or  more  than  54  stone,)  a  distance  of  sixty 
miles  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  old  race  is  now  nearly  extinct,  the  animals  that  at  present 
bear  that  name  having  but  a  slight  resemblance  to  them,  these  having  been  changed  in  size 
and  form  by  careful  breeding,  to  meet  the  modern  ways  of  travel,  since  on  the  improved 
public  highways  of  England  the  old-fashioned,  cumbersome  coach  is  now  for  the  most  part 
useless.  Consequently  these  animals  have  been  considerably  reduced  in  size  by  the  infusion 
of  thoroughbred  blood,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  new  order  of  things  for  which  they  are  in 
demaud,  both  at  home  and  in  other  countries. 

They  combine  the  necessary  size  for  ordinary  or  general-purpose  use,  with  style,  action, 
and  endurance,  while  they  have  a  beautiful  color,  which  is  transmitted  to  their  oilspring  with 
as  much  certainty  as  characterizes  the  Devon  cattle.  If  exhibited  at  a  fair,  they  would 
probably  be  catalogued  as  either  family,  carriage,  coach,  or  saddle-horses,  their  average 
weight  being  about  1,400  poimds. 

Youatt,  speaking  of  the  improved  Cleveland  Bay,  says:  —  "  Now  we  have  an  animal 
tall,  deep-chested,  rising  in  the  withers,  slanting  on  shoulder,  flat  in  the  legs,  with  far  more 
strength  and  treble  the  speed." 

Another  writer  describes  them  as  follows:  —  "The  modem  Cleveland  Bay  is  a  large, 
elegant  horse,  standing  16;i-  to  16|  hands,  and  weighing  from  1,350  to  1,500  pounds;  a  fine 
head;  full,  bright  eye;  long,  arched  neck;  oblique  shoulders;  deep  chest;  short  back;  long 
quarters;  strong,  clean,  cordy  legs,  and  perfect  feet.  Their  color,  bay;  full,  flowing  mane 
and  tail,  and  black  legs,  usually  clear  of  white. 

Cleveland  Bays  are  very  strong-blooded,  and  impress  their  characteristics  on  their  grade 
offspring  with  certainty.  They  have  long  been  very  popular  in  all  parts  of  Europe  for  coach 
pui-poses,  and  also  for  light  artillery  and  cavalry." 


THE  HORSE.  711 

These  horses  are  also  valuable  in  the  intelligent  breeder's  hands  for  modifying  some 
other  cross;  but  in  this  matter  of  producing  handsome,  stylish  carriage  and  coup6  animals, 
the  breeder  must  have  in  his  mind  a  standard  which  he  desires  to  attain,  and  then  govern 
himself  accordingly. 

"We  are  certainly  not  lacking  in  the  elements  necessary  to  produce  with  certainty  the 
large,  stylish  carriage-horse  in  this  country,  and  it  only  remains  necessary  for  our  breeders 
to  direct  their  attention  to  supplying  this  demand,  which  is  growing  rapidly  both  in  America 
and  Great  Britain. 

The  Hanibletonians.  —  The  Hambletonian  family  of  horses  are  noted  for  their  speed 
and  power  of  endurance,  and  make  excellent  carriage-horses.  Some  of  the  most  noted 
trotters  belong  to  this  race.  In  mentioning  a  hst  of  the  most  noted  trotting  horses  with  their 
record,  in  connection  with  this  family,  a  recent  authentic  writer  says:  — 

"  One  noticeable  feature  of  this  list  is  that  no  other  family  is  represented  with  two  or 
more  performers  the  get  of  one  horse;  another  is  that  the  fastest  record  (Maud  S.,  2.10^,) 
the  second  fastest  (St.  JuUen,  2.11^,)  and  the  third  fastest  (Goldsmith  Maid,  2.14,)  are  made 
by  two  granddaughters  and  one  grandson  of  the  famous  horse  Hambletonian,  showing  that 
he  had  the  power  to  transmit  his  excellences  to  his  sons,  and  thus  to  perpetuate  not  only  his 
great  fame,  but  his  name  and  his  family  as  well.  Hence,  we  see  not  only  the  importance, 
but  the  value  of  a  sire  who  transmits  his  qualities  in  the  male  line  of  descent." 

This  race  descended,  on  the  paternal  side,  from  imported  Messenger  (a  thoroughbred), 
through  his  son  Mambrino  (also  a  thoroughbred),  who  was  the  sire  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian, 
the  dam  being  by  Bellfounder,  an  imported  Norfolk  trotter,  and  her  dam  probably  having 
two  direct  crosses  to  Messenger.  Through  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,  on  the  paternal  side,  we 
have  a  long  line  of  celebrated  horses,  such  as  the  Volunteers,  the  Edward  Everetts,  the 
Alexander  Abdallahs,  the  Almonts,  the  Messenger  Durocs,  the  Sentinels,  the  Happy  Mediums, 
and  all  the  various  so-called  Hambletonians  of  the  present  day. 

Hambletonian  was  a  developed  trotter,  and  possessed  the  power  of  transmitting  his  good 
qualities  to  his  descendants.  At  three  years  of  age  he  trotted  in  2.48^,  and  could  trot  in 
2.40  at  any  time  when  matured.  In  color,  he  was  a  bright  bay  with  black  extending 
above  the  knees  and  hocks,  and  white  hind  feet,  also  a  small  star  in  the  forehead.  This 
noted  animal  was  foaled  in  1849,  bred  in  Orange  County,  New  York,  and  sold  with  his  dam 
when  only  a  few  months  old  to  William  M.  Rysdyk  for  $125.  He  died  when  twenty-seven 
years  of  age,  after  establishing  the  most  noted  family  of  trotters  in  existence. 

The  Messengers. — This  class  of  horses  are  celebrated  as  both  roadsters  and  trotters. 
The  founder  of  this  family  was  Messenger,  the  son  of  Mambrino,  a  thoroughbred,  and  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  rimning  horses  of  the  English  turf.  He  was  imported  to  this  country 
after,  having  achieved  several  successful  races  in  England,  having  won  the  king's  plate  in 
1785,  being  then  five  years  of  age.  He  was  in  color  a  beautiful  dark  gray,  fifteen  and  three- 
quarters  hands  high,  and  stoutly  built,  having  a  peculiar  formation  of  limbs,  large  forehead, 
and  deep  quarters.  He  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight  years.  Some  of  the  most  renowned 
of  his  immediate  descendants  are  Hambletonian,  Lady  Suffolk,  Abdallah,  and  Engineer. 

The  Hambletonians  are  claimed  by  some  to  be  a  cross  between  the  Morgans  and  Messen- 
gers, uniting  the  excellences  of  both.  His  stock  was  justly  celebrated,  and  although  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  animals  of  this  family  may  now  be  found  possessing  sufScient 
resemblance  to  each  other  or  to  their  progenitor,  from  whom  they  derive  their  name,  to  be 
classed  as  a  distinct  and  permanent  variety,  yet  the  effect  of  this  blood  is  still  very  percep- 
tible in  many  sections  of  the  country. 

The  Morgans. — This  is  a  noted  family  of  horses,  of  which  the  famous  horse  called 
Justin  Morgan  was  the  progenitor.     They  may  perhaps  be  called  our  oldest  trotting  family, 


712 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


and  although  they  have  not  produced  animals  of  the  very  fleetest  type,  they  doubtless  justly 
merit  the  very  highest  rank  as  fine-tempered,  hardy,  and  desirable  roadsters.  The  popularity 
of  this  family  of  horses  seemed  at  one  period  unbounded;  in  fact,  no  blood,  except  the  thor- 
oughbred, has  been  more  generally  disseminated  throughout  this  country,  or  more  highly 
esteemed.  At  the  present  time,  they  are  not  so  highly  valued  by  those  whose  main  object  is 
speed,  and  who  place  that  above  aU  other  qualities,  but,  as  a  certain  writer  has  said — 

"  Go  where  you  will  among  livery -stable  keepers  or  horse-railroad  managers,  and  ask 
them  what  type  of  horse  they  have  found  most  profitable  to  use  and  wear  out  on  the  road, 
and  they  will  almost  invariably  answer,  'the  old-fashioned  Morgan.' " 


JUSTIN    MORGAN. 

Justin  Morgan  was  bred  in  Vermont,  foaled  in  1793,  and  died  in  1821.  His  ancestry  is 
not  positively  known,  although  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  thoroughbred  blood  predomi- 
nated. The  following  accurate  and  interesting  description  and  history  of  Justin  Morgan  is 
given  in  Mr.  Linsley's  work  on  "The  Morgan  Horse  ": — 

"The  original,  or  Justin  Morgan,  was  about  fourteen  hands  high,  and  weighed  about  nine 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  His  color  was  dark  bay  with  black  legs,  mane,  and  tail.  He  had 
no  white  hairs  on  him.  His  mane  and  tail  were  coarse  and  heavy,  but  not  so  massive  as  has 
been  sometimes  described;  the  hair  of  both  was  straight  and  not  inclined  to  curl.  His  head 
was  good,  not  extremely  smaU,  but  lean  and  bony,  the  face  straight,  forehead  broad,  ears 
small  and  very  fine,  but  set  rather  wide  apart.  His  eyes  were  medium  size,  very  dark  and 
prominent,  with  a  spirited  but  pleasant  expression,  and  showed  no  white  round  the  edge  of 
the  lid.     His  nostrils  were  very  large,  the  muzzle  small,  and  the  lips  close  and  firm. 

His  back  and  legs  were  perhaps  his  most  noticeable  points.  The  former  was  very  short ; 
the  shoulder-blades  and  hip-bones  being  very  long  and  oblique,  and  the  loins  exceedingly 
broad  and  muscular.  His  body  was  rather  long,  round,  and  deep,  close  ribbed  up;  chest 
deep  and  wide,  with  the  breast^bone  projecting  a  good  deal  in  front.  His  legs  were  short, 
close-jointed,  thin,  but  very  wide,  hard  and  free  from  meat,  with  muscles  that  were  remark- 


THE  HORSE.  715 

ably  large  for  a  horse  of  his  size.  This  superabundance  of  muscle  exhibited  itself  at  every 
step.  His  hair  was  short,  and  at  almost  all  seasons  soft  and  glossy.  He  had  a  little  long 
hair  about  the  fetlocks,  and  for  two  or  three  inches  above  the  fetlock  on  the  back  side  of  the 
legs;  the  rest  of  the  limbs  were  entirely  free  from  it.  His  feet  were  small,  but  well  shaped; 
and  he  was  in  every  respect  perfectly  sound  and  free  from  any  sort  of  blemish.  He  was  a 
very  fast  walker.  In  trotting,  his  gait  was  low  and  smooth,  and  his  step  short  and  nervous. 
He  was  not  what  in  these  days  would  be  called  fast ;  and  we  think  it  doubtful  whether  he 
could  trot  a  mile  much,  if  any,  within  four  minutes;  though  it  is  claimed  by  many  that  he 
could  trot  it  in  three. 

Although  he  raised  his  feet  but  little,  he  never  stumbled.  His  proud,  bold,  and  fearless 
style  of  movement,  and  his  vigorous,  untiring  action  have  perhaps  never  bee%  surpassed. 
When  a  rider  was  on  him,  he  was  obedient  to  the  slightest  motion  of  the  rein;  would  walk 
backwards  rapidly  under  a  gentle  pressure  of  the  bit;  and  moved  sideways  almost  as  will- 
ingly as  he  moved  forward ;  in  short,  was  perfectly  trained  to  all  the  paces  and  evolutions  of 
a  parade-horse.  "When  ridden  at  mihtary  reviews  (as  was  frequently  the  case),  his  bold, 
imposing  style,  and  spirited,  nervous  action  attracted  universal  attention  and  admiration.  He 
was  perfectly  gentle  and  kind  to  handle,  and  loved  to  be  groomed  and  caressed ;  but  he  dis- 
liked to  have  children  about  him,  and  had  an  inveterate  hatred  for  dogs,  if  loose  always 
chasing  them  out  of  sight  the  instant  he  saw  them.  When  taken  out  with  halter  or  bridle, 
he  was  in  constant  motion,  and  very  playful. 

He  was  a  fleet  runner  at  short  distances.  Running  horses  short  distances  for  small 
stakes,  was  very  common  iu  Vermont  fifty  years  ago.  Eighty  rods  was  very  generally  the 
length  of  the  course,  which  usually  commenced  at  a  tavern  or  grocery,  and  extended  the  dis- 
tance agreed  upon,  up  or  down  the  public  road.  In  these  races  the  horses  were  started  from 
a  '  scratch,'  that  is,  a  mark  was  drawn  across  the  road  in  the  dirt,  and  the  horses,  ranged  in  a 
row  upon  it,  went  off  at  '  the  drop  of  a  hat '  or  some  other  signal.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  form  of  Justin  Morgan  was  not  such  as  in  our  days  is  thought  best  calculated  to  give 
the  greatest  speed  for  a  short  distance.  Those  who  believe  in  long-legged  racers  will  think 
his  legs,  body,  and  stride  were  all  too  short,  and  to  them  it  may  perhaps  seem  surprising  that 
he  should  be  successful,  as  he  invariably  was,  in  such  contests. 

But  we  think  his  great  muscular  development  and  nervous  energy,  combined  with  his 
small  size,  gave  him  a  decided  advantage  in  the  first  start  over  taller  and  heavier  horses; 
Just  as  any  ordinary  horse  can  distance  the  finest  locomotive  in  a  ten-rod  race.  At  all  events, 
the  history  of  racing  in  this  country  and  England  proves  conclusively  that  small  horses  may 
have  great  speed.  In  such  a  race,  a  horse  of  great  spirit  and  nervous  energy  derives  a 
decided  advantage  from  these  qualities,  especially  after  being  a  little  accustomed  to  such 
stmggles.  When  brought  up  to  the  hne,  his  eyes  flashed  and  his  ears  quivered  with  intense 
excitement,  he  ground  the  bit  with  his  teeth,  his  hind  legs  were  drawn  under  him,  every  muscle 
of  his  frame  trembled  and  swelled  almost  to  bursting,  and  at  the  given  signal  he  went  off  like 
the  springing  of  a  steel  trap.  His  unvarying  success  in  these  short  races  may  perhaps  be 
partly  accounted  for  in  this  way,  though  he  was  undoubtedly  possessed  of  more  than  ordinary 
speed,  and  was  a  sharp  runner. 

Among  the  many  races  of  this  description  that  he  ran  were  two  in  1796,  at  Brookfield, 
Vermont,  one  with  a  horse  called  Sweepstakes,  from  Long  Island,  and  the  other  with  a  horse 
called  Silver  Tail,  from  St.  Lawrence  County,  New  York ;  both  of  these  he  beat  with  ease. 
Mr.  Morgan  (who  then  owned  him)  offered  to  give  the  owner  of  Si'ver  Tail  two  more  chances 
to  win  the  stake,  which  was  fifty  dollars,  by  walking  or  trotting  the  horses  for  it,  which  was 
declined.  There  are  many  accounts  of  other  races  which  he  ran  and  won;  but,  these 
accounts  not  fully  agreeing  as  to  the  details,  we  have  not  mentioned  them. 

In  harness  Justin  Morgan  was  quiet,  but  full  of  spirit;  an  eager  and  nimble  traveler, 


718  THE  AMERICAN  PAR3IER. 

but  patient  in  bad  spots;  and  although  for  a  long  time  steadily  engaged  in  the  heavy  work 
of  a  new  farm,  his  owner  at  that  time  informs  us  that  lie  never  knew  him  refuse  to  draw  as 
often  as  he  was  required  to;  but  he  pithily  adds,  '  I  didn't  very  often  have  to  ask  him  but 
once;  for  whatever  he  was  hitched  to  generally  had  to  come  the  first  time  trying.'  This  imi- 
form  kindness  at  a  pull  was  one  of  the  striking  characteristics  of  the  horse,  and  the  same 
trait  may  be  observed  in  the  greater  part  of  his  descendents.  '  Pulhng  matches  '  and  •  pull- 
ing bees '  were  as  common  in  those  days  as  short  races,  and  the  '  little  horse,'  (as  he  was  often 
called,)  became  quite  celebrated  for  his  unvarying  willingness  to  do  his  best,  and  for  his  great 
power  at  what  is  called  a  '  dead  lift.'  " 

The  Morgan  horses  were  spirited,  with  fine  action,  but  kind  and  docile  in  disposition. 
They  were  |^m  thirteen  and  a  half  to  fifteen  hands  high,  being  of  medium  size,  with  finely- 
formed  head  and  neck,  symmetrical  bodies,  deep  chest,  short  back,  and  long  quarters  ;  mane 
and  tail  heavy.  Though  horses  of  fine  type,  and  well  adapted  to  the  road,  they  are  regarded 
by  many  as  too  small  for  a  general-purpose  horse  on  the  farm,  and  consequently  are  not,  as 
previously  stated,  in  as  high  repute  as  formerly,  although  still  highly  valued  by  many. 
Among  the  noted  descendants  of  Justin  Morgan  may  be  mentioned  Black  Hawk,  Gifford, 
Ethan  Allen,  Morrill,  Taggart's  Abdallah,  Gen.  Knox,  Fearnaught,  and  Lambert.  This 
family  of  horses  possessed  the  power  of  transmitting  their  excellent  qualities  to  their  offspring 
in  a  remarkable  degree,  and  dominating  over  other  bloods  with  which  they  were  crossed,  so 
that  wherever  found,  a  Morgan  horse  would  at  once  be  known  by  the  peculiar  characteristics 
which  distinguish  this  family. 

The  Orloif. — This  is  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Russian  breed  of  horses.  It  takes  its 
name  from  a  Russian  count  who  was  an  enthusiastic  horseman,  and  who,  in  1'775,  imported 
from  Arabia  a  fine  gray  stallion  of  unusual  size  and  strength  named  Sometaxa.  This  stal- 
lion was  the  progenitor  of  the  OrlofE  race,  which  are  noted  for  large  size  and  fine  action, 
while  great  pains  are  taken  in  training  them  to  trot,  and  to  prevent  them  from  moving  in  any 
other  gait  than  a  walk,  or  trot.  Many  of  them  are  very  fine  trotters,  but  do  not  quite  equal 
in  speed  the  trotting  horses  of  America,  as  wiU  be  seen  by  the  following  table  giving  the  best 
Orloff  record. 

It  is  stated  that  Count  OrlofE  was  an  intelligent  enthusiast  in  the  enterprise  he  established, 
and  persistently  refused  to  part  with  any  of  his  breeding  stock,  preferring  to  dictate  with  re- 
spect to  perpetuating  and  improving  this  race  of  horses.  After  the  Count's  death  the  stud 
was  scattered — a  portion  of  it  passing  to  the  crown.  Private  studs  were  estabhshed  about 
this  time,  and  an  Orloff  stud-book  instituted.  As  a  means  of  developing  the  trotting  powers 
of  his  horses,  Count  Orloff  had  been  a  patron  of  the  race-course,  and  since  his  death  the 
Russian  Government  has  furnished  more  than  half  of  the  prize  money  expended  in  the  estab- 
lished trotting  races.  Russian  trials  of  speed  are  regulated  by  laws,  and  the  result  of  a 
violation  of  any  of  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  fair  contest,  renders  the 
owner  or  driver  Hable  to  a  severe  penalty,  not  less  than  that  of  a  trip  to  Siberia  at  the  Gov- 
ernment's expense.     Mons.  Jules  Goujon,  who  has  resided  for  many  years  in  Moscow,  says: — 

"  The  entries  for  the  races  are  according  to  age  qualifications,  except  that  for  horses  past 
six  years  old  they  are  free  for  all.  The  heats  are  never  less  than  three  versts,  and  the  decid- 
ing heat  is  at  the  same  distance.  In  ra,ces  of  four  and  one-half  versts,  the  deciding  heat  is 
at  three  versts.  Races  of  six  and  twelve  versts,  are  decided  in  one  heat.  The  first  prize  is 
not  given  to  the  horse  who  comes  in  first  in  the  race,  but  in  the  deciding  heat.  The  number 
of  horses  entered  in  each  race  is  unlimited,  but  they  are  started  three  at  a  time,  and  the  two 
horses  out  of  the  entire  number  of  starters  who  trot  the  distance  in  the  least  time,  according 
to  the  watch,  take  part  in  the  deciding  heat.  If  the  horse  winning  in  the  first  trial  comes  in 
second  in  the  second  trial,  then  a  third  heat  settles  the  question  of  supremacy.  Only  two 
moneys  are  given.     There  are  three  tracks,  one  for  each  horse,  of  oval  shape,  enclosed  one 


THE  HORSE.  719 

within  the  other.  The  outer  is  1^  versts  (one  mile)  long  ;  the  two  others  are  shorter,  one  by 
12  sagenes  (84  feet),  and  the  other  by  23  sagenes  (161  feet).  The  first  horse  is  started  on 
the  exterior  track,  in  front  of  the  stand,  and  the  two  others,  in  order  to  equalize  the  distance, 
are  started  in  the  rear,  on  their  respective  tracks,  which  are  selected  by  lot. 

The  hoi-ses  come  up  at  a  jog,  each  one  to  his  place.  A  judge  is  placed  beside  each 
horse,  whose  duty  it  is,  by  waving  a  bit  of  cloth,  to  notify  the  starter,  who  is  in  the  stand, 
that  the  horse  under  his  charge  has  arrived  at  his  position.  The  horses  are  started  from  the 
stand  by  the  stroke  of  a  bell,  which  sets  in  motion  at  the  same  time  the  hands  of  a  great  dial, 
which  mark  minutes  and  seconds.  At  the  instant  that  the  first  horse  passes  the  winning-score, 
the  judge  strikes  a  blow  which  stops  the  first  hand  of  the  dial,  and  in  the  same  way  for  the 
second  horse.  This  automatic  system  gives  the  time  of  the  race,  by  means  of  the  clock,  with- 
out error,  and  enables  the  judge,  who  is  placed  at  the  distance-post,  to  decide  which  of  the 
horses  are  distanced,  to  better  know  the  precise  instant  when  the  race  is  finished.  A  distance 
in  Russia  is  30  sagenes  (210  feet)  for  a  race  of  three  versts,  and  75  sagenes  (525  feet)  for  a 
race  at  a  greater  distance.  Only  three  false  starts  are  allowed  ;  after  that  number  the  judges 
can  fine  the  driver  of  the  horse  that  is  responsible  for  the  false  starts,  or  can  refuse  to  allow 
him  to  go  the  course.  In  case  a  driver  does  not  try  to  win  with  a  horse,  the  judges  may  fine 
him,  and  on  a  repetition  of  the  offence  he  is  Uable  to  visit  Siberia  for  a  couple  of  years — a 
punishment  which  I  imagine,  from  what  I  hear,  would  be  salutary  for  some  of  your  American 
drivers. 

A  horse  is  not  allowed  to  make  but  three  breaks  during  a  heat  of  three  versts,  and  the 
same  number  in  the  deciding  heat.  If  he  makes  more,  he  is  out  of  the  race,  and  so  is  he  if 
he  makes  more  than  thirteen  jumps  in  one  gallop.  Each  horse  in  the  race  has  a  judge  espec- 
ially assigned  to  watch  his  movements,  whose  decision  as  to  whether  the  horse  makes  more 
than  three  breaks,  or  more  than  the  permitted  number  of  jumps  in  one  break,  is  without  ap 
peal ;  he  has  only  to  touch  a  button  of  an  electric  machine  designating  the  offending  horse, 
and  a  groom  on  horseback,  in  front  of  the  stand,  at  once  rushes  oS  to  notify  his  driver  to 
quit  the  track. 

For  all  the  prizes  given  by  the  societies,  any  one  can  trot  as  he  pleases  to  a  droschka 
(the  national  Russian  vehicle,  four-wheeled,  and  very  clumsy  and  heavy  as  compared  with  the 
sulky)  or  to  a  sulky  with  two  wheels  and  four  reins.  The  weight  of  the  vehicle  and  of  the 
sulky  is  equally  ad  libitum  for  all  the  prizes  given  by  the  societies.  The  Government,  for 
prizes  which  it  gives,  specifies  for  itself  the  kind  of  vehicle,  its  weight,  the  weight  of  the 
driver,  and  the  distance  to  be  trotted. 

There  are  two  seasons  for  racing.  The  summer  races  occur  in  May  and  June,  and  are 
trotted  twice  a  week.  They  are  started  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  days  being  so  long 
in  Russia  that  it  is  light  until  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  and  thus  the  heat  of  the  day  is  avoided, 
which  is  an  advantage  for  both  the  horses  and  the  spectators. 

In  winter  the  races  are  always  trotted  on  Sundays,  and  on  the  ice.  But  two  horses  are 
started  at  a  time,  and  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  same  course,  which  is  but  one  verst  in 
length." 

The  droschka  referred  to,  although  a  clumsy-looking  vehicle,  is  very  light,  weighing 
only  about  seventy  pounds.  The  verst  is  3,500  feet  in  length,  being  a  Httle  less  than  two- 
thirds  of  a  mile. 

The  best  "Orloff"  time  for  thirty  versts  (twenty  miles)  is  1  hour  8  minutes  30  seconds. 
The  following  table  shows  favorably  for  our  American  trotters  : — 

Best  Russian  time.  Best  American  time.  Dif . 

Onemile 2:31  One  mile 2:10i— 20fs. 

Twomiles 5:01i  Two  miles 4:.50J-llis. 

Three  miles 7:52*  Three  miles 7:21i— 31is. 

Fivemiles 13:56}  Five  miles 13:00—5618. 

Twenty  miles 1:08:80  Twenty  mUes 58:25  —10m.  5s. 


720  THE  AJIERICAN  FAIdER. 

From  the  foregoing,  the  superiority  of  American  trotters  for  speed  is  clearly  seen.  Be- 
tween 700  and  800  of  our  trotters  have  beaten  the  best  one-mile  time  made  in  Russia,  and 
though  two-mile  races  are  somewhat  rare  in  this  country,  yet  the  fast  Russian  time  for  two 
miles  (o:01J),  made  by  their  famous  trotter,  Poitieshnoy,  has  been  beaten  by  nearly  all  our 
great  trotters  ;  and  to-day  there  are  probably  fifty  horses  in  America  that  can  beat  that  time 
by  several  seconds. 

The  Orloff  is  a  spirited,  well-formed  animal,  of  fine  action  and  elegant  carriage.  But 
few  of  this  breed  have  thus  far  been  imported  into  the  United  States.  The  horse  '•  Sobol," 
of  which  we  give  an  imperfect  illustration,  was  bred  by  Count  Nicholas  SoUogub,  of  Tambou, 
Russia,  and  imported  by  his  present  owner,  Mr.  Robbins  Battell,  of  Norfolk,  Conn.,  in  1876. 
He  is  black  in  color,  and  15 J  hands  high.  He  was  foaled  ia  1870,  sired  by  Dehrody,  4th ; 
dam,  Pobeida,  by  Krelika,  tracing  back  directly  to  Belley  Smetanka,  who  was  brought  from 
Arabia  by  Count  Orloff  Tchesmenkoi  in  1775. 

Tlie  Canadian  Horse. — This  race  of  horses  is  of  the  Norman  descent,  introduced 
from  France  by  the  early  settlers  of  Canada.  For  many  generations  they  were  bred  pm-e, 
and  possessed  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Norman,  except  that  they  gradually  became 
somewhat  smaller  than  their  progenitors.  This  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  cold  climate, 
and  the  more  scanty  fare  on  which  they  have  subsisted. 

They  are  annually  imported  in  large  numbers  into  the  New  England  and  some  of  the 
other  northern  states,  where  they  have  proved  valuable  for  farm  use,  and  as  a  general-purpose 
horse. 

Tbey  are  from  fourteen  and  a  half  to  fifteen  hands  high,  have  strong,  compact  muscles, 
large  bones,  in  proportion  to  their  size,  and  great  power  of  endurance.  They  are  also  active, 
docile,  easy  to  keep,  and  will  perform  a  vast  amount  of  hard  labor,  without  any  appearance 
of  breaking  down.  They  perpetuate  their  strong  points,  and  are  withal  a  very  valuable 
animal  for  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  best  adapted.  There  are  many  varieties  of  these, 
some  having  been  crossed  with  the  English  thoroughbred.  They  are  regarded  as  very  valu- 
able for  producing  crosses  with  other  breeds. 

Shetland  Ponies. — These  are  the  smallest  of  the  pony  breeds,  many  of  them  not 
being  more  than  seven  or  eight  hands  high,  and,  in  fact,  the  average  height  is  not  more  than 
nine  or  ten  hands,  or  from  thirty-six  to  forty  inches.  It  is  claimed  that  no  true  Shetland 
ever  reached  eleven  hands  in  height.  They  have  round  bodies,  closely  ribbed,  with  heads 
weU  shaped,  and  often  with  the  dish-face  of  the  true  Arab.  The  ears  are  small  and  erect, 
eyes  large  and  intelligent  in  expression,  neck  short  and  strong,  shoulders  thick  and  sloping; 
withers  low;  back  slightly  hollowed,  loin  strong  and  wide;  tail  and  mane  very  hea\-y  and 
long.  The  legs  and  hoofs  axe  well-formed  and  strong,  while  as  a  breed,  these  little  creatures 
possess  a  wonderful  amount  of  endurance  and  strength.  They  are  said  to  perform  journeys 
of  forty  miles  a  day,  upon  the  rocky  and  hilly  pathways  in  their  native  country.  They  are 
generally  in  color  dark  sorrel,  brown,  and  black;  although  sometimes  spotted  with  consider- 
able wliite.  When  bred  in  a  haK  wild  state,  they  often  suffer  for  want  of  food,  even  subsist- 
ing on  the  coarsest  that  can  be  found;  such  as  kelp  and  sea-weed  that  are  foimd  along  the 
shore.  The  most  perfectly-formed  animals  of  this  breed  are  foxmd  in  the  extreme  northern 
islands  of  Unst  and  Tell. 

Though  they  wiU  sometimes  resent  injuries  by  the  use  of  the  heels,  like  the  mule,  yet 
when  kindly  treated  and  petted,  they  become  very  docile,  being  strongly  attached  to  their 
masters,  and  make  admirable  playmates  for  children,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  respect- 
ing them  from  the  London  Field :  — 

"  The  ponies  are  not  an  agricultural,  but  a  domestic  necessity.  In  Shetland,  as  in  parts 
of  Ireland,  every  family  depends  for  its  supply  of  fuel  on  peat;  and  as  the  peat  is  seldom 


THE  HORSE.  721 

found  near  at  hand  on  the  shore  where  the  houses  stand,  but  on  the  hill  behind  them,  — 
there  is  always  a  hill  in  the  rear  in  Shetland,  every  island  consisting  mainly  of  hill,  with  a 
patch  or  two  of  '  smooth '  land  in  a  few  snug  nooks  by  the  shore,  —  and  as  it  often  is  at  a 
distance  of  several  steep  and  stony  miles,  each  house  requires  several  ponies,  the  number 
depending  on  the  distance,  and  the  character  of  the  road.  A  family  living  '  convenient '  to  the 
peat  may  require  only  two  peat-carriers,  and  another  family  may  require  half  a  dozen. 

The  material,  after  it  has  been  dug  and  dried  in  the  usual  manner,  is  carried  home  on 
the  backs  of  the  ponies  in  baskets  called  '  cassies.'  It  is  obvious  that  the  back  which  has  to 
perform  this  kind  of  service  should  be  broad  and  strong.  A  pony  belonging  to  a  breed 
which  has  had  to  pick  its  zigzag  way  down  a  steep  declivity  during  many  generations  must 
be  sure-footed.  By  the  same  rule,  a  pony  whose  grooms  and  playmates  include  a  dozen 
juveniles  —  the  children  of  the  neighborhood,  who  roll  about  underneath  him  or  upon  his ' 
back  —  must  be  gentle ;  and  the  same  pony,  living  on  air  sometimes,  rather  than  on  herbage, 
must  be  hardy. 

The  pony  of  the  Shetland  Isle  is,  in  fact,  the  offspring  of  circumstances.  He  is  the  pet 
of  the  famOy,  gentle  as  the  Arab's  steed  under  similar  training.  He  will  follow  his  friends 
indoors  like  a  dog,  and  lick  the  platters,  or  the  children's  faces.  He  has  no  more  kick  in  him 
than  a  cat,  and  no  more  bite  than  a  puppy.  There  is  no  precedent  for  his  running  away,  nor 
for  his  becoming  frightened  or  tired,  even  when  he  has  carried  some  stout  laird  from  Ler- 
wick to  his  house,  many  Scotch  miles  across  the  hills.  In  crossing  boggy  spots,  where  the 
water  is  retained  and  a  green  cai'pet  of  aquatic  grass  might  deceive  some  steeds  and  bring 
them  headlong  to  grief  in  the  spongy  trap,  he  carefully  smells  the  surface,  and  is  thus 
enabled  to  circumvent  the  danger. 

In  the  winter,  the  Shetland  pony  wears  a  coat  made  of  felted  hair,  and  specially  suited 
for  the  season.  His  thick  winter  garment  is  well  adapted  for  protecting  him  against  the 
fogs  and  damps  of  the  climate.  It  is  exceedingly  warm  and  comfortable,  fits  close  to  the 
wearer's  dapper  form,  and  is  not  bad-looking  when  new.  But,  when  the  coat  grows  old 
towards  spring,  at  the  season  when  the  new  one  should  appear,  it  becomes  the  shabbiest  gar- 
ment of  the  kind  that  you  often  see.  Its  very  amplitude,  and  the  abundance  of  the  material, 
render  it  the  more  conspicuous,  when  it  peels  and  hangs  for  a  while  ragged  and  worn  out, 
and  then  falls,  bit  by  bit,  till  the  whole  of  it  disappears.  No  horse  looks  at  his  best  when 
losing  his  old  coat;  and  the  more  coat  there  may  be  to  lose,  the  worse  he  looks." 

Mustang,  or  Prairie  Horses.  —  These  are  doubtless  of  Spanish  origin;  their  promi- 
nent  and  general  characteristics  all  bearing  unmistakable  evidence  of  this.  The  Spanish 
wars  with  Mexico  and  also  voyages  of  discovery  and  exploration  are  matters  of  history,  and 
the  supposition  is  that  Cortez  lost  many  horses  in  his  conquest  of  Mexico,  also  that  the  death 
of  DeSoto,  who  discovered  the  Mississippi  River,  must  have  resulted  in  the  abandonment  of 
many  horses,  since  his  followers  quickly  made  their  escape  to  Mexico,  from  the  unfriendly 
savages.  It  is  also  quite  probable  that  many  of  these  animals  were  abandoned  by  other 
adventurers  in  prospecting  for  gold  and  silver,  all  of  which  suppositions  on  the  origin  of  this 
race  of  animals  are  well  sustained  by  probable  facts.  This  animal  has  also  been  called  the 
«9pild  horse  of  North  America.  There  were  no  wild  horses  found  on  the  American  continent 
when  it  was  discovered,  and  those  that  are  now  found  in  a  wild  or  undomesticated  state  are 
such  as  have  escaped  from  domesticity,  or  have  been  abandoned,  and  from  them  have 
descended  the  vast  herds  that  may  be  found  on  the  plains  of  South  America,  Central 
America,  Mexico,  Texas,  California,  and  some  of  the  territories. 

Those  found  in  Mexico  and  Texas  are  under-sized,  while  those  of  the  more  northerly 
section  are  considerably  larger.  The  former  have  small  limbs,  long  neck  and  back,  a  long, 
lean  head,  although  well-shaped  and  well-set,  and  wide,  open  nostrils.  Their  hoofs  are  some- 
what flat,  and  their  tails  and  manes  are  generally  very  fine.     These  liberty-loving  animals 


722  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

possess  great  endurance,  are  very  fleet,  and  will  easily  outstrip  the  fleetest  well-bred  horse. 
They  are  quite  useful  for  saddle  purposes  when  tamed.  They  are  inclined  to  be  vicious,  but 
may  easily  be  managed.  They  are  lightly  valued,  and  may  be  purchased  at  a  very  low  rate, 
owing  to  the  constant  and  rapid  increase  of  better  stock. 

Wild  horses  will  always  be  found  divided  into  squads  or  herds  controlled  by  the  most 
powerful  stallion  of  the  tribe,  who  holds  dominion  as  long  as  he  is  able  to  do  so,  or  until  his 
place  is  usui-ped  by  a  younger  and  more  powerful  rival;  consequently  every  herd  of  wOd 
horses  has  its  leader. 

The  wild  horses  of  our  "Western  plains  have  furnished  the  kernel  of  many  an  interest- 
ing and  exciting  story  of  border-life.  It  is  stated  that  two  or  three  of  these  leaders,  more 
powerful  than  all  others,  lived  and  led  their  herds  on  the  plains  of  Texas  for  several  years. 
One  was  white,  and  a  pacer,  and  such  was  his  speed  and  endiirance,  that  although  he  was 
pursued  by  parties  mounted  on  the  best  horses  of  the  frontier  for  scores  of  miles  together, 
yet  he  was  never  known  to  fail  to  keep  a  good  distance  ahead  of  his  pursuers. 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  roving  kings  of  the  plain  was  captured  many  years  ago 
in  Matagorda  County.  He  was  a  dun  stalUon,  with  a  dark  stripe  down  the  back,  and  faint 
rings  about  the  legs,  as  are  sometimes  seen  on  the  mule.  The  New  York  Sportsman  gives  an 
account  of  the  capture  of  this  beautiful  animal,  as  follows :  — 

"  Between  thirty  and  forty  years  ago  mustangs  were  to  be  found  in  large  numbers  on 
every  prairie  west  of  the  Brazos,  and  quite  a  large  herd  infested  that  one  bounded  by  the 
Colorado  on  the  west,  and  '  Old  Caney '  on  the  east,  (about  where  the  boundary  between 
Matagorda  and  Wharton  Counties  now  runs,)  headed  by  this  famous  stallion,  afterwards 
called  '  Boggy '  from  the  name  of  a  creek  by  means  of  which  his  capture  was  effected. 

These  mustangs  were  very  troublesome  to  the  settlers  in  leading  their  gentle  horses  astray, 
for  once  with  the  mustangs  they  were  as  wild  and  unapproachable  as  the  mustangs  them- 
selves, and  were  seldom  or  never  recaptured.  So  it  was  resolved  by  the  settlers  that  this 
herd  should  be  driven  off,  and  this  was  impossible  without  the  capture  of  their  leader,  the 
dun  stallion;  conseqviently  that  was  determined  upon.  Old  Captain  John  Duncan,  who 
acquired  his  title,  as  master  of  a  steamboat  on  the  Alabama  River,  when  that  State  was  but 
just  out  of  its  territorial  form,  was  one  of  the  wealthiest,  most  energetic,  and  prominent  men 
of  the  settlement,  and  he  was  selected  to  plan  the  capture. 

The  range  of  '  Boggy '  and  his  herd  was  a  prairie  of  about  thirty  miles  circumference, 
bounded  by  the  bay  on  the  south.  Boggy  Creek  on  the  north,  and  Caney  and  Colorado  on 
the  east  and  west  respectively,  around  which  the  mustangs  always  ran  when  pursued,  as  they 
had  been  <  many  a  time  and  oft.'  The  old  captain  collected  about  thirty  of  the  best-mounted 
light-weights  of  the  settlement,  and  the  day  before  the  chase  he  distributed  them  in  couples 
about  two  miles  apart  around  the  prairie,  where  they  camped  for  the  night,  and  were  in  the 
saddle  at  daybreak  the  following  morning,  ready  to  begin  the  chase. 

About  good  daylight  the  captain  broke  away  after  the  herd,  which,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Boggy,  at  once  took  their  usual  circuit.  As  they  passed  the  first  couple,  the  boys 
whooped  them  up  at  their  best  lick  lor  two  miles,  when  the  second  couple  took  it  up  and 
drove  them  to  the  third,  and  so  on  round  the  prairie.  After  a  while  the  weaker  ones  began 
to  fail,  and  were  left  by  the  herd,  but  no  attention  was  paid  to  them,  for  orders  were  to 
capture  Boggy.  Away  and  away  they  went  around  the  thirty-mile  track,  once,  twice,  and 
all  were  lagging  but  the  magnificent  Boggy,  whose  beautiful  wavy  mane  and  tail  streamed  in 
the  wind  as  he  swept  on  with  reaching  stride,  running  gallantly,  at  splendid  speed,  on,  on, 
on.  The  sun  rose  and  mounted  higher  and  higher,  until  he  stood  at  zenith,  and  looked  down 
upon  this  wonderful  struggle,  and  still  the  glorious  dun  kept  on  his  course,  nor  seemed  to 
fail  of  speed  or  wind,  until  the  shadows  slanted  away  to  the  east,  and  the  shades  of  evening 
were  warning  the  captain  that  he  must  redouble  his  efforts  or  darkness  would  put  out  the 


THE  HORSE.  725 

hope  of  capture,  for  that  day  at  least,  and  another  cavalcade  of  hoi-ses  would  have  to  be 
gathered  to  renew  the  race  on  the  morrow. 

So,  bringing  his  ingenuity  to  bear,  he  gathered  several  of  the  freshest  couples  together, 
and  heJd  them  for  a  final  rush.  Girths  were  tightened,  stirrups  shortened,  and  lariats  were 
coiled  for  the  dash.  They  were  hidden  by  a  clump  of  trees  from  the  line  Boggy  was  run- 
ning, and  held  well  in  hand  until  the  poor  fellow  was  entering  his  fourth  round,  when  out 
they  rushed  'with  hoop  and  spur  and  loud  huzzas,'  and  crowded  him  from  his  course. 
Round  and  round  they  twirled  their  lariats,  and  spun-ed  and  urged  to  get  within  throwing 
distance,  when,  sudden  as  a  flash  of  light,  Boggy  swerved  to  the  right  and  plunged  headlong 
into  the  creek,  which,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  was  to  prove  a  snare  to  his  feet.  Flounder- 
ing, rearing,  and  plunging  along  through  the  treacherous  bog  which  received  him  up  to  his 
very  withers,  he  was  gallantly  but  slowly  making  his  way  to  the  opposite  shore,  which  a  few 
more  plunges  would  have  reached,  when,  alas!  alasl  a  whirr  in  the  air,  and  over  his  beauti- 
ful head,  and  encircling  his  swelling  neck,  the  fatal  noose  fell,  and  Boggy,  poor,  gallant  fel- 
low, was  a  captive. 

It  is  stated  that  this  stallion  Boggy,  after  his  captivity,  became  very  quiet  and  docile. 
He  was  extensively  used  in  the  stud,  but  none  of  his  get  possessed  especial  merit." 

When  attacked  by  wolves,  as  the  wild  horses  on  the  prairies  sometimes  are,  they  display 
much  intelligence  and  courage.  The  leader  of  the  drove  forms  the  mares  in  a  circle  with 
their  heels  outward  towards  the  enemy.  Within  this  circle  the  foals  and  half-grown  colts 
are  collected  for  protection.  Around  the  outside  all  the  stallions  collect  to  fight  the  wolves, 
while  the  mares  use  their  heels  to  good  advantage  whenever  the  enemy  approaches  near 
,  enough  for  the  attack. 

The  Trotting  Horse  of  America.  —  Horse  trotting,  as  a  public  amusement,  seems 
to  have  been  inaugurated  in  this  country  during  the  first  part  of  the  present  century,  and 
since  that  time  the  desire  for  fast  horses  has  been  on  the  increase,  so  much  so  that  many 
breeders  in  making  speed  the  main  or  principal  quality  aimed  at,  have  seemed  to  overlook 
others  equally  essential,  and  there  is  danger  of  carrying  this  point  to  the  extent  that  speed 
will  be  secured  at  the  expense  of  strength  and  endurance.  The  development  of  speed  through 
systematic  breeding  and  training  has  become  one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  United  States, 
where  it  has  attained  a  degree  of  perfection  truly  wonderful,  and  which  is  not  to  be  found  in 
any  other  portion  of  the  world. 

This  interest  dates  back  to  the  importation  of  the  celebrated  thoroughbred,  Messenger, 
in  1788.  At  the  time  of  his  importation,  he  was  eight  years  old,  and  was  used  in  the  stud 
for  twenty  years,  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  This  horse  is  generally 
conceded  to  be  the  foundation  or  progenitor  of  the  American  trotting  race,  since  nearly  every 
trotter  of  this  country,  whose  pedigree  is  known,  traces  to  this  animal,  and  the  more 
Messenger  strains  there  are  in  the  pedigree,  the  greater,  as  a  general  rule,  is  the  value. 

One  of  the  first  horses  noticed  by  the  public  journals  of  the  country  for  trotting  was  the 
"Rat-tailed  Gray,"  that  trotted  in  1816  on  the  Salem  turnpike,  near  Boston.  He  is  said  to 
be  the  same  horse  that  was  afterwards  called  "Boston  Blue,"  that  was  matched  with  Col. 
Bond,  of  Maryland,  and  Major  William  Jones,  of  Long  Island,  to  trot  one  mile  in  three 
minutes  for  $1,000.  In  this  race  Boston  Blue  is  recoided  as  winning,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  for  his  unexampled  speed. 

New  York  and  Philadelphia  were  the  first  to  become  interested  in  associations  for  devel- 
oping the  speed  of  the  trotter,  which  associations  resulted  in  great  success  in  improving  this 
race  of  horses. 

In  contesting  for  the  premiums  in  trotting,  the  descendants  of  Messenger  were  found  to 
take  the  lead.  The  propensity  of  this  family  for  fast  trotting  was  first  discovered  in  the 
second  generation,  and  after  the  death  of  Messenger.     It  is  true  that  there  have  been  many 


72G  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

fast  trotters  whose  pedigree  could  not  be  definitely  traced  to  the  thoroughbred  stock,  but  it 
has  been  found  that,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  the  exceptions  being  rare,  the  best 
trotters  can  be  traced  to  the  thoroughbred  stock,  and  there  is  no  question  whatever  that  this 
is  the  original  source  of  the  fast-trotting  blood,  they  possessing  naturally  the  rare  combination 
of  bone  and  muscle  and  other  essentials  that  render  them  peculiarly  adapted  to  speed. 

Some  horses  trot  naturally,  while  others  require  to  be  entirely  educated  to  this  gait. 
While  so  much  depends  upon  the  formation  of  the  bones  and  muscles,  and  the  adaptation  of 
the  limbs  and  body  to  the  trotting  gait,  all  horses  require  considerable  training  to  become 
educated  to  the  degree  of  developing  their  best  capacity  in  this  direction.  The  principal 
families  that  are  at  present  distinguished  as  trotters  are,  the  H^mbletonians,  Mambrinos,  Ba- 
shaws, Clays,  Stars,  Morgans,  Black  Hawks  (a  branch  of  the  Morgan  family).  Gold  Dusts, 
Blue  Bulls,  Royal  Georges,  Canadians,  etc.,  besides  various  other  branches  of  these  leading 
families. 

Progenitors  of  Trotting  Families. — Although  England  and  America  are  indebted 
to  Arabia  for  their  finest  horses — it  being  the  original  source  of  the  pure  thoroughbred — 
careful  breeding  and  training,  together  with  judicious  crossing,  have  produced  such  a  change 
that  the  American  trotter  and  the  English  race-horse  of  to-day  are  greatly  superior  in  speed 
and  some  other  qualities  to  the  best  ty^fjes  of  the  thoroughbred  that  may  now  be  found. 

Youatt  says,  in  this  connection: — "The  Arabian  is  not  equal  to  his  English  descendant. 
This  has  also  been  incontestably  proved  in  the  United  States.  Pure-blood  Arabians  of  the 
highest  pretensions  have  at  various  times  been  imported  into  our  country,  but  they  have  never 
compared  either  in  speed  or  bottom  with  the  English  race-horse  and  his  descendants.  A  few 
years  ago.  Recruit,  an  EngUsh  horse  of  moderate  reputation,  easily  beat  Pyramus,  the  best . 
Arabian  on  the  Bengal  side  of  India." 

We  see  by  this  the  vast  field  that  lies  open  to  the  breeder,  and  the  power  of  intelligent 
efiort  in  accomplishing  desired  results.  In  breeding  trotters,  more  difficulties  have  been  met 
than  in  breeding  the  thoroughbred,  since  the  latter,  being  of  pure  blood  of  long-known  value, 
could  be  relied  upon  with  a  great  degree  of  certainty,  while  in  the  case  of  trotters,  which 
were  produced  by  crossing  with  the  thoroughbred  blood,  the  breeder  would  frequently  be 
surprised  in  obtaining  the  best  results  from  the  most  unexpected  sources,  the  union  of  the 
thoroughbred  with  other  bloods  producing  in  individual  cases  very  different  results. 

Messenger,  the  noted  progenitor  of  the  trotting  families  in  this  country,  foaled  in  1780, 
had  as  his  first  sire  Mambrino,  second  sire  Engineer,  and  third  sire  Sampson.  According  to 
the  English  stud-book,  his  first  dam  was  by  Turf,  second  dam  by  Regulus,  third  dam  by 
Starling,  fourth  dam  by  Fox,  fifth  dam  by  Bay  Bolton,  sixth  dam  by  Duke  of  Newcastle's 
Turk,  seventh  dam  by  Byerly  Turk,  eighth  dam  by  Taffolet  Barb,  and  ninth  dam  by  Place's 
Turk.  Beyond  Sampson  his  pedigree  may  be  traced  back  to  Blaze,  Flying  Childers,  and  the 
Darley  Arabian.  He  is  described  as  being  gray  in  color,  fifteen  and  three-fourths  hands  high, 
and  stoutly  built. 

Rysdyck's  Hamhletonian,  the  founder  of  the  Hambletonian  family,  was  got  by  Abdallah 
(who  was  traced  to  imported  Messenger  on  the  side  of  both  sire  and  dam)  out  of  a  dam  by 
imported  Bellfounder,  with  two  crosses  to  imp.  Messenger  on  her  dam's  side;  foaled  in  1849. 

Mambrino  Cldef,  the  modern  head  of  the  Mambrino  family,  was  foaled  in  1844,  sired  by 
Mambrino  Paymaster,  who  was  a  grandson  of  imp.  Messenger. 

Young  Bashaw,  foaled  in  1822  by  Grand  Bashaw,  an  Arabian  horse,  heads  the  Bashaw 
family;  his  dam  was  Pearl,  by  First  Consul. 

Henry  Clay,  a  grandson  of  Young  Bashaw  through  Andrew  Jackson,  is  the  founder  of 
the  Clays,  which  are  properly  a  branch  of  the  Bashaw  family. 

Slockhoim's  American  Star,  sired  by  Duroc,  the  son  of  imp.  Diomed,  is  the  progenitor  of 
the  Star  race. 


THE  HORSE.  727 

Justin  Morgan,  from  whom  the  noted  family  of  Morgans  sprang,  was  foaled  in  1793, 
sired  by  a  horse  named  True  Briton  or  Beautiful  Bay,  and  without  doubt  a  thoroughbred. 
Three  of  Justin  Morgan's  sons  were  famous,  and  each  of  them  became  the  progenitor  of  a 
long  hne  of  descendants  of  marked  and  superior  characteristics;  they  were  known  as  Bul- 
rush, Sherman,  and  Woodbury. 

Bulrush  Morgan  was  foaled  in  1813.  He  had  more  muscular  development  than  his 
brothers,  was  a  dark  bay  with  a  few  white  hairs  in  the  center  of  the  forehead,  and  no  other 
marks.  His  legs,  mane,  and  tail  were  black,  his  mane  and  tail  being  very  heavy.  His  mane 
is  said  to  have  reached  nearly  to  his  knees,  and  his  foretop  to  his  nose.  His  legs  were  broad, 
flat,  and  strong,  with  a  powerful  development  of  muscle.  His  hips  were  not  as  long  as  Sher- 
man's, and  he  was  not  as  well  quartered  as  Woodbury,  although  he  was  deeper  in  the  chest 
than  either.  He  had  not  Woodbury's  proud  and  elegant  style  of  action,  although  a  fine- 
looking  animal.  His  most  remarkable  characteristic  was  his  great  power  of  endurance.  His 
dam  was  a  dark  bay,  weighing  a  thousand  pounds.  She  was  bought  out  of  a  six-horse  team 
that  carried  merchandise  between  Montpelier  and  Boston,  and  was  a  very  strong,  hardy 
animal. 

Sherman  Morgan,  foaled  in  1808,  was  a  beautiful  animal  of  a  bright  chestnut  color,  and 
possessed  most  of  the  fine  points  of  his  father.  His  weight  was  nine  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  pounds.  He  had  a  small  white  stripe  in  the  face,  and  his  oil  hind-leg  was  white  from 
the  foot  half  way  to  the  hock;  he  also  had  a  fine  chest  with  prominent  breast-bone. 
A-lthough  quite  spirited,  he  was  very  tractable.  His  descendants  were  remarkably  fine  horses 
of  all- work,  known  as  the  "general-purpose  horse,"  and  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
stage  horses  in  New  England. 

Woodbury  Morgan  was  superior  to  his  brothers  in  style  of  action,  and  presented  so  fine 
an  appearance  that  he  was  very  much  sought  after  as  a  parade  horse.  He  was  very  spirited, 
bold,  and  resolute.  He  was  foaled  in  1816.  His  dam  was  a  deep  bay,  with  black  mane  and 
tail,  a  small  white  spot  in  the  forehead,  and  no  other  mark.  She  was  of  unknown  blood, 
over  fifteen  hands  high,  had  a  fine  head  and  shoulders,  compact  body,  and  beautiful  mane 
and  tail.  Her  action  was  bold  and  spirited,  and  she  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  fast 
trotter.     The  following  description  of  Woodbury  is  given  by  Linsley: — 

"Woodbury  was  fourteen  and  three-fourths  hands  high,  and  weighed  from  nine  hundred 
and  eighty-eight  pounds  to  ten  hundred  and  forty  pounds;  he  was  weighed  several  times,  and 
these  two  statements  of  his  weight,  at  different  times,  are  the  extremes.  Many  persons  who 
have  frequently  seen  him  weighed,  say  they  never  knew  him  weigh  more  than  ten  hundred 
and  thirty,  nor  less  than  ten  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds.  He  was  a  dark,  rich  chestnut;  his 
off  hind-leg  was  white  from  the  foot  half  way  to  the  hock,  and  he  had  a  white  stripe  in  his 
face,  beginning  at  the  edge  of  the  upper-lip,  filhng  the  space  between  the  nostrils,  and  extend- 
ing more  than  half-way  to  his  eyes. 

His  mane  was  not  very  thick  or  long,  and  was  hghter  than  either  of  the  others;  still  it 
was  full.  His  tail  was  cut  off  when  a  colt,  and  left  about  ten  inches  long;  the  hair  was  very 
full  and  curly;  both  mane  and  tail  were  about  the  same  color  as  his  body.  The  hair  on  the 
body  was  fine,  short,  and  soft.  He  was  close  and  compactly  bmlt,  with  heavy  quarters  and 
deep  flanks;  his  chest  was  good  and  the  shoulders  finely  shaped;  he  had  a  short  back,  and 
broad,  sinewy  loins.  His  legs  had  some  long  hairs  on  the  back  side,  but  were  well  shaped, 
somewhat  larger  than  Sherman's  and  not  so  large  as  Bulrush's. 

His  head  was  small  and  lean,  with  a  fine,  firm  muzzle,  the  nostrils  very  large  and  full, 
face  straight,  very  wide  between  the  eyes,  which  were  dark  hazel,  very  large  and  prominent, 
and  showed  no  white  around  the  edge  of  the  lid.  His  ears  were  small  and  fine,  but  rather 
short,  and  set  somewhat  wider  apart  than  many  would  consider  consistent  with  perfect 
beauty.     His  style  of  action  was  hold  and  resolute,  and  his  temperament  was  so  nervous 


728 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 


that  when  taken  out  with  a  bridle  it  was  almost  impossible  to  keep  him  still.  He  was  a  good 
driver  and  appeared  well  in  harness,  but  he  appeared  to  the  best  advantage  under  the  saddle. 
Militia  colonels  and  generals  were  eager  to  ride  him,  and  no  '  musters '  or  reviews  could  pass 
without  his  being  seen;  in  his  case,  to  be  seen  was  to  be  admired.  His  disposition  was  pleas- 
ant and  playful. 

As  has  been  said,  he  was  taken  to  Gainesville,  Alabama,  in  the  autumn  of  1836,  being 
then  twent)'  years  old.  He  was  shipped  from  Boston,  on  board  a  small  saihng  vessel:  he 
suffered  much  from  the  long  and  stormy  passage,  and  never  fully  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  it.  It  is  altogether  likely  that  the  cUmate  and  food  did  not  agree  with  him,  for  neither 
were  such  as  he  had  been  accustomed  to ;  however  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  he  continued 
to  fail  until  he  died  in  1833. 

Woodbury  was  the  largest  of  these  horses,  and  possessed  in  a  greater  degree  the  bold, 
fearless,  and  showy  style  of  their  sire.  He  was  more  nervous  and  less  tractable  than  Sher- 
man, better  under  the  saddle,  not  so  pleasant  in  harness,  and  we  are  inchned  to  think  hardly 


BLACK   HAWK. 

as  good  a  roadster.  His  form  was  more  symmetrical  than  either  of  the  others;  his  breast 
was  not  so  full  and  prominent  as  Sherman's;  he  was  deeper  in  the  flanks  and  better  quartered. 
No  horse  ever  had  less  'fear.  ]\Iartial  music  only  roused  him ;  the  firing  of  guns  in  no  way 
disturbed  him;  waving  flags  and  gay  uniforms  seemed  hardly  able  to  attract  from  him  a 
single  glance,  and  he  moved  about  as  if  he  himself  were  the  principal  object  of  attraction, 
and  the  cause  of  all  the  attending  excitement  and  display." 

Black  Ilmuk  was  sired  by  Sherman  Morgan,  the  son  of  old  Justin  Morgan,  the  dam 
being  a  half-blood  English  mare  of  jet-black  color,  and  a  fast  trotter.  From  him  the  race 
that  bears  his  name  are  descended,  being  but  another  branch  of  the  Morgan  family.  He  was 
foaled  in  1833;  was  jet-black  in  color,  like  his  dam,  although  in  almost  every  other  respect 
he  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  family  of  which  he  was  a  member,  such  as  size,  com- 
pactness, muscular  development,  temperament,  endurance,  and  style  of  action.  His  stock 
exhibited  similar  characteristics;  though  generally  larger,  they  were  (when  not  black)  almost 
without  exception  a  bay.  or  chestnut.  Black  Hawk  was  sUghtly  less  than  fifteen  hands  high, 
and  weighed  1,000  pounds. 


THE  HORSE.  731 

In  writing  of  him  when  he  was  twenty-three  years  of  age,  Mr.  Linsley  says:  —  "His 
compact,  symmetrical,  and  muscular  form,  and  nervous,  elastic  style  of  action,  give  un- 
mistakable evidence  of  the  speed  and  endurance  he  has  shown  upon  the  turf  and  road ;  and 
although  now  twenty-three  years  old,  his  eye  has  lost  none  of  its  brightness,  his  health  is  still 
excellent,  and  his  movements  still  graceful  and  energetic." 

He  was  in  all  respects  a  remarkable  horse,  being  beautiful  and  majestic  in  appearance, 
and  whether  in  harness  or  not,  he  was  ever  the  same  splendid  animal,  always  attracting  uni- 
versal admiration.  His  blood  is  very  highly  prized  in  New  England  trotting  circles  of 
to-day,  as  well  as  other  portions  of  the  country.  He  could  trot  his  mile  in  2:40  without 
training,  and  was  a  horse  of  great  intelligence,  as  well  as  great  endurance.  Besides,  Black 
Hawk  possessed  the  power  of  transmitting  his  speed  and  other  characteristics  to  his  oflspring 
in  a  degree  unsurpassed  by  any  horse  in  the  country.  He  died  in  1856,  being  twenty-three 
years  old. 

Gold  Dust  was  another  branch  of  the  Morgan  family  of  horses,  while  the  Royal  Georges 
sprung  from  Tippoo,  a  horse  supposed  to  be  from  Ogden's  Messenger,  a  son  of  imported 
Messenger. 

The  best  representatives  of  the  Canadian  race  are  said  to  be  St.  Lawrence  and  Pacing 
Pilot,  horses  of  unknown  pedigree.  Besides  these,  are  the  Blue  Bulls,  which  were  descended 
from  Doyle's  Blue  Bull,  a  pacer  that  was  sired  by  a  pacer  of  the  same  name,  and  numerous 
other  branches  of  leading  families  already  given.  Various  opinions  are  entertained  by  dif- 
ferent breeders,  relative  to  the  best  methods  of  perpetuating  and  improving  the  trotting  horse, 
but  our  limits  will  not  admit  of  farther  consideration  of  the  subject  in  this  connection. 

Fabulous  prices  have  been  paid  in  this  country  for  trotters,  and  frequently  for  colts, 
simply  on  the  strength  of  their  breeding.  It  is  stated  from  authentic  sources  that  in  1876 
the  sum  of  $13,000  was  paid  for  two  two-year-old  filHes,  and  $41,200  for  thirteen,  nearly  all  of 
them  young.  A  three-year-old  colt,  Steinway,  wa3  sold  in  1879  for  $13,000  to  a  party  in 
California.  Gov.  Sprague  was  sold  for  827,000  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  Maud  S.  for 
$21,000  when  four  years  old,  and  after  she  had  trotted  a  mde  in  2m.  17^3.  As  she  is 
now  queen  of  the  turf,  having  reduced  her  record  to  2m.  lO^s.,  it  would  probably  require 
a  very  much  larger  sum  than  that  to  purchase  her,  if  at  all.  The  sum  of  $40,000  was  paid 
for  Smuggler,  $45,000  for  Pocahontas,  $35,000  for  Goldsmith  Maid  and  Dexter,  $36,000  for 
Rarus,  $30,000  for  Lady  Thome,  while  St.  Julien  was  prized  at  $50,000  at  the  close  of  1879, 
when  he  had  attained  the  fastest  record  known  at  that  time.  Messenger,  Rysdyk's  Hamble- 
tonian.  Volunteer,  and  several  other  noted  horses  were  valued  at  $100,000  when  in  their  prime. 

Noted  Trotting  Horses.  —  Among  the  many  noted  trotting  horses  of  the  country, 
we  have  space  to  give  the  description  of  but  a  few.  Trotting  time  has  been  gradually 
reduced  until  at  present  it  stands  at  2m.  10|s.,  that  achieved  by  the  queen  of  the  turf,  Maud 
S,  whose  record  has  not  yet  been  excelled.  Trotting  a  mile  in  three  minutes  was  formerly 
considered  very  good  time,  while  the  opinion  entertained  by  many  of  the  leading  horsemen 
of  the  country  of  former  days  was,  that  no  animal  could  ever  excel  the  2m.  20s.  record,  and  when 
little  Flora  Temple,  less  than  twenty-five  years  ago,  reduced  it  to  2: 19J,  she  became  the  wonder 
of  the  world  for  a  brief  time.  Dexter,  after  a  period  of  eight  years,  reduced  this  record  to 
2:17i.  In  1871  Goldsmith  Maid  reduced  this  record  to  2:17,  and  again  in  1873  to  2:16^. 
She  still  continued  to  reduce  her  record  by  degrees,  until  it  reached  2:14,  remaining  queen 
of  the  turf  until  Rarus  comes  to  the  front  with  a  record  of  2:13^.  But  his  reign  is  short, 
for  from  California  the  following  year  comes  the  news  that  St.  Julien  has  won  a  victory  over 
time  by  a  record  of  2:12f.  The  contest  next  is  between  Maud  S.  and  St.  Julien,  at  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  in  August,  1880,  which  resulted  in  a  drawn  battle  for  possession  of  the  sceptre, 
but  a  joint  victory  over  time,  for  they  each  scored  on  that  day  a  record  of  2:1  If.  This  was 
still  further  reduced  afterward  by  St.  JuUen  to  2:11^,  and  by  Maud  S.  to  2:10:^. 
44 


732  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Among  the  best-informed  horsemen  there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  with  respect  to  the 
limits  of  trotting  speed,  but  none  fix  it  slower  than  2m.  10s.,  while  some  are  confident  that 
a  mile  will  yet  be  made  by  a  trotter  in  two  minutes.  The  pacing  gait  differs  from  trotting 
by  having  the  front  and  hind  legs  on  the  same  side  move  in  the  same  direction  simultaneously, 
while  in  trotting,  the  near  fore-leg  and  off  hind-leg  move  together.  The  pacing  gait  is  more 
rapid  than  trotting,  but  the  latter  is  greatly  preferred. 

Flora  Temple  was  foaled  in  1845,  and  bred  by  Samuel  Welch,  Esq.,  of  Oneida 
county,  N.  Y.  She  was  sired  by  Hunter,  who  was  by  Kentucky  Hunter,  her  dam  being 
Madam  Temple,  who  was  sired  by  a  spotted  Arabian  horse  owned  by  Mr.  Horace  Terry  of 
Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.  She  was  purchased  of  a  drover  by  Mr.  Jonathan  Vielee  for  $175. 
At  this  time  she  was  a  little  rough-coated  animal,  not  over  fourteen  hands  and  two  inches 
high,  and  was  tied  behind  the  drover's  wagon  by  a  rope.  All  that  the  drover  would  tell  Mr. 
Vielee  about  the  little  bay  mare  with  a  docked  tail  was,  that  he  had  purchased  her  in  Utica 
of  a  young  man  who  had  been  trying  in  vain  to  dispose  of  her  in  connection  with  another 
little  mare,  but  that  the  intractable  disposition  of  this  one  had  invariably  prevented  a  sale,  so 
that  finally  each  animal  was  sold  separately,  and  Flora,  at  five  years  of  age,  was  bought  by 
the  drover  for  $80. 

It  appears,  also,  that  her  former  owner  kept  her  until  she  was  four  years  old,  and,  find- 
ing her  willful  and  unserviceable,  sold  her  for  the  sum  of  $13.  Mr.  Congdon,  her  new 
owner,  sold  her  soon  after  for  $68,  subsequent  to  which  she  changed  owners  two  or  three 
times  before  coming  to  Mr.  Vielee,  who,  fortunately,  was  a  man  who  appreciated,  to  a  certain 
extent,  her  good  points.  Being  a  practical  business  man,  and  sufficiently  sagacious  to  see 
that  New  York  was  a  place  to  find  a  market  for  such  an  animal,  Mr.  Vielee  took  her  there 
and  sold  her  to  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Perrin  of  that  city  for  $350.  In  his  hands  she  was  instructed 
in  trotting  and  fitted  for  the  track.  Her  first  public  appearance  upon  the  turf  was  at  Long 
Island  in  1850,  when,  to  the  astonishment  of  all,  she  defeated  four  horses,  winning  the  purse 
of  $50,  and  the  race  in  2:52,  2:55,  2:52,  2:49. 

The  next  year  she  was  not  in  training,  owing  to  an  accident.  The  following  year  she 
trotted  twice,  winning  both  times.  In  1853,  being  then  eight  years  old,  she  started  a 
wonderful  trotting  career,  which  ended  only  with  the  advent  of  the  civil  war. 

In  her  first  race  at  the  old  Hunting  Park  Course,  Philadelphia,  she  was  beaten  by  Black 
Douglass,  a  local  celebrity,  but  soon  made  him  lower  his  colors  by  defeating  him  twice  with- 
out difficulty.  She  also  beat  Highland  Maid  twice.  Green  Mountain  Maid  three  times, 
Tacony  seven  times,  Rhode  Island  three  times,  and  Lady  Brooks  and  Lady  Vernon  each 
once.  She  was  beaten  twice  by  Tacony,  and  once  each  by  Black  Douglass  and  Green  Moun- 
tain Maid.  In  her  first  season  upon  the  turf  it  will  thus  be  seen  that  she  won  nineteen  races 
and  lost  but  four.  In  her  next  season  she  lost  in  her  first  race  with  the  gray  mare,  Sontag, 
and  won  in  every  race  besides  during  the  whole  season. 

In  the  next  two  years,  she  carried  off  the  lion's  share  of  the  honors,  and  reduced  her 
record  to  2:24^.  In  1858  she  was  sold  to  Wm.  McDonald,  Esq.,  a  wealthy  gentleman  of 
Baltimore,  for  $8,000,  and  during  the  year  won  thirteen  victories,  without  a  single  defeat. 
The  next  year  (1859)  was  a  remarkable  year  with  her,  not  only  for  winning  in  her  races 
with  Ethan  Allen,  beating  him  twice,  and  also  in  other  races,  but  especially  for  her  splendid 
record  of  2:19f,  at  Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  October  15th. 

In  the  many  races  trotted  by  little  Flora  Temple  during  the  rest  of  her  trotting  career, 
her  most  formidable  antagonists  were  George  M.  Patchen  and  Ethan  Allen;  the  former 
defeating  her  in  one  two-mile  heat  contest,  and  Flora  defeating  him  twice,  and  Ethan  Allen 
once.  She  also  went  hippodroming  with  George  M.  Patchen.  Her  owner  sympathizing  with 
the  rebellion,  she  was  confiscated  by  the  governor  in  1861,  and  never  trotted  again. 

In  1864,  Flora  Temple  was  purchased  by  Mr.  "Welch  of  Chestnut  Hill,  Pa.,  for  the  sum 


THE  HORSE.  733 

of  $8,000.     Mr.  Welch  owned  her  up  to  the  time  of  her  death  of  old  age,  which  occurred 
Dec.  21,  1877,  aged  nearly  33  years. 

American  Girl. — This  noted  animal  was  a  bay,  about  sixteen  hands  high,  was  foaled 
in  1862,  by  an  unknown  mare  who  was  bought  for  forty  dollars  from  a  team  in  Virginia. 
She  was  sired  by  Amos  Clay  and  bred  by  Mr.  Philip  Travis  of  Westchester  County,  New 
York. 

Mr.  Travis  gave  the  filly  to  his  sons;  and  they,  not  seeing  her  value,  sold  her  for  a  small 
sum  to  a  Mr.  Odell,  who,  after  testing  her  value  as  a  roadster,  and  finding  her  speedy,  disposed 
of  her  to  Messrs.  Travis  and  Mason,  brick-makers,  near  PeekskUl. 

The  mare  now  received  her  name,  "American  Girl,"  and  was  put  in  training  for  the 
trotting-course  with  a  horse  known  as  J.  J.  Bradley,  in  the  first  of  which  she  was  to  go  in 
wagon,  he  in  harness;  in  the  second,  both  were  to  go  in  harness.  The  first  race  occurred  on 
the  L5th  of  November,  1867,  and  was  well  contested  by  American  Girl,  now  five  years  old, 
but  was  won  by  the  horse.  The  second  race,  being  on  even  terms,  was  never  trotted,  the 
owner  of  the  gelding  paying  forfeit. 

American  Girl  was  now  sold  to  Mr.  William  Lovell,  and  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
John  Lovett  as  trainer,  and  on  the  4th  of  June,  1868,  she  beat  Goldsmith  Maid  at  Pough- 
keepsie,  after  a  desperate  race  of  sis  heats,  the  first  of  a  series  of  races  in  which  these 
renowned  mares  were  rival  contestants.  In  one  of  the  heats  of  this  race,  American  Girl 
trotted  in  2:28.     She  showed  also  that  she  had  remarkable  courage  and  resolution. 

Losing  in  the  next  raco  at  Narragansett  Park,  Mr.  Lovell  selected  for  her  a  new  driver 
and  trainer,  Mr.  Hiram  Howe.  Soon  after,  there  was  another  trot  between  American  Girl 
and  Goldsmith  Maid,  in  which  the  former  defeated  the  latter  after  a  contest  of  six  heats,  the 
best  time  being  2:25.  American  Girl  trotted  in  five  other  races  during  the  season,  winning 
twice  and  losing  three  races.  She,  however,  gained  a  record  of  2:24.  After  three  defeats 
in  the  following  season,  she  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Roden,  a  man  of  excellent  capacity. 

Roden  began  with  her  on  the  29th  of  May,  1869,  at  the  Prospect  Park  course,  and  had  to 
compete  against  a  large  and  very  strong  field,  consisting  of  Lucy,  Bashaw,  Jr.,  Goldsmith 
Maid,  Rhode  Island,  and  G«orge  Wilkes.  In  this  race  she  won  in  three  straight  heats — 
2:23^,  2:23;!,  2:21. 

This  was  not  only  a  grand  triumph  for  her,  but  also  shows  how  much  depends  upon  a 
driver  of  the  right  kind  and  capacity.  This  was  the  first  time  that  this  remarkable  mare,  now 
in  her  seventh  year,  had  been  properly  handled;  hence,  the  result. 

In  the  six  ensuing  races  of  the  season,  she  won  in  every  instance;  and  in  one  of  these 
races  (notably  that  on  the  26th  of  June)  at  Narragansett  Park,  placed  herself  second  on  the 
roll  with  Dexter,  by  beating  Lady  Thorn,  Goldsmith  Maid,  Lucy,  and  George  Palmer,  in 
three  straight  heats,  and  also  getting  a  record  of  2:19. 

But  at  Suffolk  Park,  Philadelphia,  American  Girl  met  Goldsmith  Maid  for  the  sixth  time 
and  was  beaten.  Following  this  defeat,  another  driver  took  her  in  charge,  but,  as  will  be 
seen,  he  was  the  wrong  man  in  the  wrong  place;  for  in  the  balance  of  the  season  he  won  but 
three  races,  while  he  lost  seven.  In  his  hands  also,  in  1870,  she  won  seven  races  and  lost 
in  nine.  In  1870  American  Girl  did  not  beat  Goldsmith  Maid  once,  but  was  beaten  by  the 
latter  seven  times.  During  the  season  of  1871,  she  won  in  six  races;  none  of  them  very 
fast,  and  lost  in  seven,  being  beaten  six  times  by  Goldsmith  Maid. 

In  1872,  she  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Mace,  and  began  the  season  by  winning 
the  first  three  races.  In  the  third  race,  American  Girl  met  and  defeated  Goldsmith  Maid, 
Lucy,  and  Henry,  in  three  heats — the  second  heat  being  trotted  in  2 : 1 9^.  During  this  year, 
she  won  in  all  eight  races,  and  in  one  of  them  with  Lucy,  in  which  she  lost,  made  the  time 
of  2:17^.  The  following  year  she  won  five  races.  In  1874,  she  won  in  nine  races,  the  best 
and  crowning  one  in  her  career  being  at  Albany,  when  she  made  the  time  of  2:20J,  2:16J, 


73-i  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

2:19,  placing  the  three  heats  on  the  average  at  2:18^  each,  the  result  being  all  the  more 
remarkable  when  we  remember  that  she  was  badly  spavined  in  one  leg. 

In  1875  she  won  only  one  race,  when  she  beat  Lula  and  Nettie,  her  remarkable  career 
closing  at  Elmira,  New  York,  October  2d,  where  she  dropped  dead  at  the  quarter-pole  in  the 
first  heat.  She  had  been  ailing  with  epizootic,  and,  as  the  post-mortem  showed,  ought  not 
to  have  been  put  upon  the  race-course  in  that  condition. 

Goldsmith  Maid  was  foaled  in  1857.  Her  sire  was  the  son  of  Hambletonian,  known 
in  Kentucky  as  Alexander's  Abdallah,  Her  dam  was  by  the  original  Abdallah,  son  of 
Mambrino  (Americus)  and  sire  of  Hambletonian.  She  is  said  to  have  been  "  the  smallest 
of  her  dam's  products,  and  was  by  no  means  exempt  from  temper  and  accidents."  She  was 
noted  for  jumping  fences,  asd  when  put  to  the  harrow,  was  entirely  unmanageable,  as  she 
would  rear  up  and  fall  over;  when  hitched  to  a  wagon,  she  would  kick  herself  loose  and  run 
away.  She  was  regarded  as  so  very  ungovernable  as  to  be  practically  useless,  and  her  owner, 
Mr.  J.  B.  Decker,  of  Sussex  County,  New  York,  accordingly  sold  her  for  the  sum  of  $350. 
In  taking  the  animal  home,  the  purchaser  was  offered  $400  for  her,  which  he  accepted. 
Three  months  later  the  last  purchaser  sold  her  for  $650  and  a  buggy  to  Mr.  Alden  Gold- 
smith, one  of  the  most  sagacious,  kind,  and  patient  of  lioreemen.  She  was  at  that  time  very 
wild,  tjmid,  and  unruly,  although  she  possessed  nothing  of  what  might  be  termed  a  malicious 
disposition.  By  patient  and  gentle  treatment,  Mr.  Goldsmith  made  her  more  quiet,  but  she 
would  not  go  with  check-rein  or  running-martingale,  so  her  owner  ordered  them  taken  off, 
and  also  took  off  her  blinders.  She  trotted  without  check  in  all  her  races  for  the  first 
three  years.  She  is  described  as  "small  of  stature,  long  and  low,  deep  through  the  heart, 
of  wiry,  whalebone  texture  all  over,  and  with  a  back  of  amazing  strength  for  a  horse  of  her 
size." 

In  1865  she  trotted  her  first  race,  the  best  time  being  2:26,  and  won  in  three  heats.  In 
1866  she  trotted  nine  or  ten  times,  and  won  in  all  but  the  last.  Tlie  nest  year  she  was  beaten 
by  Dexter.  In  1868  she  won  eight  times  and  made  a  record  of  2:2H.  The  next  season  she 
lost  five  times  to  the  American  Girl,  who  trotted  in  2:19.  Her  next  record  was  2:20^  at 
Boston,  where  she  beat  Lucy.  At  Philadelphia  she  won  the  victory  over  American  Girl  in 
three  heats  all  better  than  2:20,  which  was  the  first  time  any  horse  had  beaten  2:20  in  all  the 
heats  of  a  race. 

During  this  year  she  won  eight  races,  beating  all  those  that  had  previously  beaten  her 
except  Lady  Thorne.  In  1870  she  won  eleven  times.'  In  1871  she  beat  all  her  competitors, 
including  American  Girl  and  Lucy.  Soon  after,  she  trotted  in  2:17,  beating  Dexter's  time 
of  2:17i.  In  1872  she  went  to  Boston  and  reduced  her  record  to  2:16|.  After  this  she  put 
in  all  the  heats  for  the  fourth  time  in  less  than  2:20.  She  was  then  taken  to  Sacramento 
and  in  little  more  than  a  month  after  her  previous  race  trotted  in  2:17|.  In  1874  Goldsmith 
Maid  trotted  seventeen  times  and  with  increased  speed,  making  a  record  of  2:16.  Three 
times  during  this  year  2:20  was  beaten  in  all  the  heats.  At  Rochester  a  second  heat  was 
trotted  in  2:U|.  At  Boston  in  September,  1874,  she  trotted  in  2:14.  In  1877  she  defeated 
Rarus  in  California  over  a  rough  track  in  2:19i,  2:14^,  2:17.  Shortly  after  this  she  was 
permanently  retired  from  the  track,  her  best  record,  as  previously  stated,  being  2:14. 

The  following  incident,  showing  how  attached  an  intelligent  horse  becomes  to  his  faith- 
ful attendant,  and  also  the  influence  of  kindness  on  dumb  animals,  will  be  of  interest  to 
many.  As  the  story  goes,  Charley  Cochrane,  who  was  many  years  the  faithful  custodian  of 
Goldsmith  Maid,  went  to  pay  her  a  visit.  It  is  well  known  that  she  was  very  jealous  of 
her  foal,  and  would  not  permit  any  one  to  come  near  it,  and  it  was  arranged  that  she  should 
hear  Charley's  voice  before  she  saw  him;  and  although  they  had  been  separated  for  two 
years,  a  loud  whinny  presently  assured  the  visitors  that  she  had  recognized  the  man's 
voice.     Cochrane  next  showed  hinisolf,  when  a  touching  scene  occurred.     The  old  Queen  of 


THE  HORSE.  735 

the  Turf,  who  for  months  would  not  allow  any  one  to  approach  her,  making  use  of  both  heels 
and  teeth  if  it  was  attempted,  rushed  with  a  bound  to  her  old  friend,  forgetting  even  her  colt, 
and  rubbed  her  head  upon  his  shoulders,  her  nose  in  his  face,  played  with  his  whiskers,  and 
showed  by  her  every  action  that  her  heart  was  full  of  joy  to  see  him.  Directly  the  colt  came 
up  to  them,  and  she  seemed  delighted  when  Charley  placed  his  hand  on  the  little  fellow. 
When  Cochrane  left  the  place  she  followed  him  to  the  gate,  whinnying  for  him  even  after  he 
had  passed  out  of  her  sight.  This  horse  is  only  one  of  many  examples  that  might  be  given 
of  what  patience  and  kindness  will  accomplish  with  a  high-tempered  and  spirited  horse. 

Dexter  was  bred  by  Jonathan  Hawkins,  Esq.,  of  Orange  county,  N.  Y.  He  was  foaled 
in  1858,  and  purchased  when  four  years  old  by  Mr.  George  B.  Alley  for  the  sum  of  $400. 
He  was  sired  by  Hambletonian,  and,  although  a  finely-formed  animal,  his  four  white  stock- 
ings and  blaze  in  the  face  had  caused  him  to  be  held  in  disfavor;  so  that  up  to  this  time  it  is 
stated  that  he  was  not  only  practically  unbroken,  but  had  never  had  a  feed  of  oats  in  his  life. 

In  his  early  training,  while  in  Mr.  Alley's  hands,  two  accidents  happened,  one  while  he 
was  attached  to  a  sleigh,  and  the  other  to  a  wagon,  resulting  in  each  case  in  a  runaway. 
Fortunately,  in  his  five-year-old  season  he  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Hiram  Woodruff,  and 
after  a  short  time  went  in  2:42  to  a  wagon.  Dexter  made  his  first  trot  on  the  4th  of  May, 
1864,  and  was  consequently  six  years  old  at  the  time.  In  this  effort  his  competitors  were 
beaten. 

He  continued  to  improve  his  record  until  it  was  reduced  to  2:17^,  being  repeatedly 
matched  vrith  the  best  trotters  of  the  country.  After  this  achievement  he  was  purchased  by 
Mr.  Bonner  and  retired  from  the  turf.      Wallace's  Monthly  says  of  him  : 

"During  his  career  of  less  than  four  seasons.  Dexter  won  forty-nine  races.  The  great 
majority  of  them  were  mile  heats,  three  in  five,  in  harness.  He  also  won  at  three-mile  heats, 
and  at  two-mile  heats,  in  harness,  and  to  wagon  he  was  never  defeated.  He  lost  a  race  to 
Shark  through  hitting  himself.  Lady  Thorne  defeated  him  once  when  he  was  not  seasoned, 
and  was  off,  as  well.  He  beat  her  five  times  in  much  better  races.  General  Butler  beat  him 
once  in  a  poor  race,  under  saddle,  when  he  was  off.  Ethan  Allen,  with  running  mate,  beat 
him  twice.  Dexter  made  the  best  mile  under  saddle,  the  best  mile  in  harness,  and  the  best 
mile  to  wagon  that  had  been  made.  His  two  miles  to  wagon,  second  heat,  was  perhaps  his 
greatest  performance.'' 

Rarus. — Of  the  pedigree  of  this  horse,  which  was  for  a  brief  period  king  of  the  turf, 
there  seems  to  be  a  mingling  of  fact  and  speculation.  Mr.  Conklin,  who  bred  him,  states  that 
his  sire  was  a  horse  owned  by  him  called  AbdaUah  (the  son  of  old  Abdallah).  Others  trace 
his  pedigree  to  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,  and  those  who  knew  the  latter  horse  well  see  a 
striking  resemblance  between  him  and  that  famous  progenitor  of  a  family  of  trotters.  Mr. 
Videto,  one  of  his  former  owners,  says  he  was  "marked  like  the  'old  horse,'  gaited  like  him, 
and  formed  like  him,  with  the  same  sway  back  and  white  hind-feet." 

The  investigations  which  have  been  made  also  establish  the  fact  that  the  dam  of  Rarus 
was  by  Telegraph,  and  that  his  grandam  was  a  good  mare  that  was  known  as  a  Black  Hawk, 
but  farther  than  this  nothing  is  known  of  her;  from  all  of  which  it  would  seem  that  the  pedi- 
gree of  Rarus  through  Conklin's  Abdallah  is  uncertain,  and  it  should  be  written  as  unknown. 

But  a  horse  that  can  beat  the  time  of  the  famous  Goldsmith  Maid,  and  win  a  record  of 
2:13i  as  Rarus  did,  at  Buffalo  Park,  is  a  kingly  horse  indeed,  and  deserving  of  all  the  more 
credit  for  all  his  brUUant  performances,  if  he  does  not  inherit  speed  from  his  ancestors. 

He  was  a  large,  strong  horse,  of  an  exceedingly  unpleasant  disposition,  and  would  fre- 
quently manifest  his  temper  by  both  biting  and  kicking.  He  was  used  in  the  streets  of  New 
York  for  some  time,  in  a  butcher's  cart,  but  took  a  higher  position  when  his  real  merits 
became  known  and  appreciated. 


736  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

In  appearance,  Rams  was  a  fine-looking  animal.  He  was  a  bay,  with  white  hocks,  and  a 
white  strip  on  the  nose;  was  16^  hands  high,  and  in  many  respects  resembled  Rysdyk's  Ham- 
bletonian.  Rarus's  fastest  first  heat  was  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1878,  and  was  2:14i^;  his 
fastest  second  heat  was  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  the  same  year,  and  was  2:13^.  His  fastest  third 
heat  was  also  in  the  same  year  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  the  time  being  2:13^. 

Smuggler. — This  horse  was  bred  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Morgan,  who  at  that  time  resided  near 
Columbus,  Ohio.  He  was  foaled  in  1866,  and  was  taken  to  Olathe,  Kansas,  in  August,  1872, 
and  at  that  time  is  said  to  have  been  a  confirmed  pacer.  He  was  soon  after  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  very  successful  trainer  and  driver,  and  in  about  three  months  made  a  mile  in  2:30. 
From  this  time  his  improvement  was  very  rapid.  In  July,  1873,  he  made  the  time  of  2:18|. 
He  was  soon  after  purchased  by  Col.  Tuffts,  of  Kansas,  and  shortly  after  this  taken  to  Pros- 
pect Park,  N.  Y.,  and  given  a  public  trial  of  three  heats,  one  mile  each,  which  resulted  in  the 
time  of  2:19|,  2:21^,  2:21,  making  the  last  half  of  the  third  mile  in  1:09.  Immediately  after 
this  performance,  he  was  purchased  by  Col.  H.  S.  Russell,  of  Milton,  Mass.,  for  the  sum  of 
$40,000.  He  continued  to  gradually  lower  his  record,  and  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1876,  he  won 
in  three  straight  heats,  in  2:15|^,  2:18,  2:19^,  making  a  record  four  and  a  quarter  seconds 
lower  than  had  ever  been  made  by  any  other  stallion.  At  Hartford,  Conn.,  the  same  year, 
he  trotted  in  2:1 5^,  the  fastest  heat  ever  made  by  a  stallion. 

Smuggler  is  a  very  dark  bay  horse,  15|  hands  high,  with  a  blaze  lying  between  the  eyes, 
and  widening  out  until  at  the  end  of  his  nose  it  extends  to  either  nostril.  Like  almost  all 
pacers  that  have  been  broken  to  trotting,  he  wears  a  heavy  shoe  in  front  in  order  to  steady 
his  gait.     Of  his  pedigree,  one  of  the  leading  stock  journals  says: 

"He  was  got  by  Blanco,  a  son  of  Iron's  Cadmus,  and  his  dam  was  a  bay  pacing  mare 
brought  from  West  Virginia.  This  mare  was  for  a  long  time  reported  as  by  Tuckahoe,  but 
subsequent  investigations  have  exploded  that  story,  and  it  may  safely  be  said  that  her  blood 
is  hopelessly  unknown.  The  dam  of  Blanco  was  by  blind  Tuckahoe,  a  son  of  Herod  Tuckahoe. 
Iron's  Cadmus  was  by  Cadmus,  son  of  American  Eclipse,  out  of  a  mare  by  Brunswick.  This 
horse,  Iron's  Cadmus,  was  the  sire  of  the  famous  pacing  mare  Pocahontas,  who,  in  turn,  was 
the  dam  of  Mr  Bonner's  trotting  mare  of  the  same  name,  by  Ethan  Allen. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  all  that  is  known  of  the  blood  of  Smuggler  is 
through  his  sire,  Blanco,  and  that  from  this  source  he  inherits  a  good  share  of  pacing  blood, 
mixed  with  thoroughbred;  and  that  his  dam  was  also  a  pacer." 

St.  Julien. — This  regal  horse,  the  rival  of  Maud  S.,  was  bred  by  Mr.  Benj.  F.  Dunning, 
of  Orange  county,  N.  Y.  He  was  foaled  in  1869,  sired  by  Volunteer,  who  was  sired  by 
Hambletonian  got  by  Abdallah,  whOe  his  dam  was  by  Henry  Clay.  He  is  a  large,  powerfuUy- 
built  animal,  and  possesses  great  courage  and  energy. 

He  made  his  entry  into  the  trotting  world  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  in  August,  1875,  and 
in  the  short  space  of  three  weeks  won  six  races.  He  was  sold  in  January,  1876,  to  California 
parties  for  the  round  sum  of  $20,000,  and  was  taken  at  once  to  that  State,  where  for  three 
years  he  was  out  of  condition  much  of  the  time.  His  training  during  this  period,  however, 
was  as  skillful  as  it  was  severe,  as  his  subsequent  achievements  attest. 

His  fastest  record  up  to  the  present  time  is  2 :11^,  being  next  to  Maud  S.,  who  stands  first, 
being  the  fastest  trotter  known  to  the  turf. 

Maud  S. — This  noted  horse,  at  present  queen  of  the  trotting  turf,  was  bred  at  Mr. 
Alexander's  celebrated  "  "Woodbum  Farm."  Her  sire  was  Harold,  a  son  of  Rysdyk's  Ham- 
Ijletonian,  whose  dam  was  Enchantress,  got  by  Abdallah.  Her  dam  was  Helen  RusseU,  by 
Pilot,  Jr.,  son  of  old  Pacing  Pilot. 

It  wiU  be  remembered  that  Maud  S.  showed  2:17^  at  a  public  trial,  when  four  years  old, 
at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Oct.  26,  1878;  and  that  thereupon  Mr.  "Wm.  H.  Vanderbilt,  of  New  York, 
purchased  her  for  $21,000. 


THE  HORSE.  739 

It  seems,  however,  that  during  the  year  that  Maud  S.  remained  in  New  York  she  did 
not  come  quite  up  to  Mr.  Vanderbilt's  expectations,  so  with  his  characteristic  good  sense  he 
sent  her  back  to  Capt.  Stone,  of  Cincinnati,  the  gentleman  of  whom  he  bought  her,  with  the 
request  that  he  would  take  her  in  hand  and  bring  her  back  to  her  old  form. 

Upon  receiving  Maud  S.  Capt.  Stone  put  her  under  the  charge  of  her  former  trainer,  in 
whose  hands  she  rapidly  improved,  and  soon  the  most  remarkable  accounts  respecting  her 
speed  were  affoat.     She  is  described  as  follows: 

"Maud  S.  the  champion  trotter  of  the  world,  is  a  long-bodied  mare,  standing  15  hands 
2^  inches  high  at  the  withers  and  fully  16  hands  high  at  the  hips.  Her  weight,  in  trotting 
condition,  is  960  lbs.,  and  her  stride,  when  going  at  her  best,  on  a  straight  track,  is  about  18 
feet.  In  her  great  feat  at  Chicago,  September  18th,  when  she  trotted  a  mile  in  2:1  Of,  her 
stride,  when  coming  down  the  home  stretch  against  a  high  wind,  was  a  little  less  than  17 
feet.  She  wears  '  shin  boots  '  and  '  scalpers,'  and  carries  a  15-oz.  shoe,  with  a  4oz.  toe-weight 
in  front,  and  an  8-oz.  shoe  behind.  She  is  usually  driven  in  a  bridle,  without  blinds.  She 
is  a  mare  of  very  strong  will,  and  it  is  necessary  to  handle  her  with  great  gentleness.  A 
man  who  would  fight  her,  would  soon  render  her  entirely  unmanageable.  And  in  this  she  is 
the  counterpart  of  her  grandam  Enchantress,  as  well  as  of  her  sire  Harold  and  his  fuU 
brother  Lakeland  Abdallah.  The  old  mare  had  the  courage  and  resolution  of  the  bull-dog, 
and  this  quality  descended  to  all  of  her  produce.  Harold  and  Lakeland  Abdallah  both 
possess  it  to  a  remarkable  degree,  and,  if  they  had  fallen  when  young  into  gentle,  careful 
hands,  as  Maud  S.  fortunately  did,  it  is  ceitain  that  they  would  have  developed  into  animals 
of  far  greater  value  even  than  they  proved  to  be." 

When  brought  out  for  a  race,  Maud  S.  is  as  steady  as  a  clock,  and  moves  with  that  easy, 
ghding  motion  which  steals  over  the  ground  at  a  pace  that  deceives  everything  but  the 
timer's  watch.  This  gives  her  a  great  advantage  over  horses  of  nervous  and  excitable 
temperaments.  The  account  of  her  best  achievement  is  thus  given  by  one  of  the  journals  of 
the  day:  — 

"Twenty  thousand  people  gathered  at  the  race-course  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  August  11th,  to 
witness  an  attempt  to  lower  the  record  of  the  noted  mare,  Maud  S.  She  was  "accompanied 
by  a  running  horse  who  could  not  keep  up  with  her,  the  track  being  in  perfect  condition  for 
trotting.  Maud  S.  trotted  the  first  quarter  in  32|,  the  half  in  1:  05:J^,  the  three-quarters  in 
1:37^,  and  the  full  mile  in  2:10^.  This  is  the  fastest  time  ever  made,  and  the  race  was 
made  under  the  eye  of  her  owner,  Wm.  H.  Vanderbilt,  and  at  his  desire.  Last  year  she 
closed  the  season  with  a  record  of  2:10| ;  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  a  few  days  ago,  she  made  a 
mile  in  2:10^,  and  has  now  still  farther  reduced  her  record.  Her  driver  expects  to  see  her 
make  a  mile  in  2:  08." 

Santa  Clans.  —  This  famous  animal  belongs  to  the  Hambletonian  family,  being  the 
son  of  Strathmore,  a  grandson  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,  a  great  grandson  of  Abdallah. 
His  dam.  Lady  Thorne,  Jr.,  was  by  Williams'  Mambrino,  a  grandson  of  Mambrino  Chief. 
In  color,  Santa  Claus  is  a  dark  bay,  with  black  mane,  tail,  and  legs,  while  his  fore-top  reaches 
nearly  to  his  nostrils,  and  conceals  a  small  star  in  the  forehead,  the  only  white  there  is  on 
him.  He  has  a  well-formed  chest  and  body,  and  limbs  admirably  adapted  to  speed.  It  is 
stated  that  when  first  foaled  he  was  so  ill-formed  and  ungainly  that  the  owner  of  his  sire 
endeavored  to  hire  the  breeder  of  the  colt  to  kill  him,  whose  proposition  came  near'being 
accepted.  This  valuable  animal  is  at  present  owned  by  Col.  P.  A.  Finigan  of  California. 
His  best  time  thus  far  is  2:17^,  a  record  that  will  probably  be  reduced  in  the  future,  as  he 
is  now  in  his  prime,  and  possesses  great  endurance  and  energy. 

Gov.  Spragne  is  a  coal-black  stallion,  without  a  white  hair,  but  his  muzzle  and  flanks 
show  wine-colored  tints.  He  is  slightly  taller  at  the  withers  than  at  the  rump,  with  a  short 
back,  powerfully  muscled,  and  limbs  sinewy  and  strong.     He  possesses  great  endurance,  as 


740  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

is  evidenced  by  his  conformation  generally,  while  he  is  energetic  and  courageous,  yet  gentle 
and  kind  in  disposition.  He  was  foaled  in  1871.  His  sire,  Rhode  Island,  belonged  to  the 
Messenger  family,  and  had  a  record  of  2:23^  while  his  dam  also  possessed  thoroughbred 
blood.  During  the  summer  that  he  was  two  years  old  he  was  broken  to  the  harness,  and 
showed  such  remarkable  promise  of  speed  that  he  was  sold  in  the  autumn  to  Messrs.  Higbie 
Brothers  and  Mr.  A.  C.  Babcock  of  Canton,  111.,  for  $1,500.  For  the  next  year  he  was 
driven  but  little  on  the  road,  and  this  only  with  a  view  to  accustom  him  to  the  harness;  but 
he  was  not  put  to  training.  In  the  spring  of  1875  he  was  put  to  moderate  training,  but  not 
driven  to  his  full  speed.  In  the  spring  of  1876  he  was  again  put  in  training.  In  the  follow- 
ing June  he  was  sold  to  his  present  owner,  Hon.  J.  I.  Case  of  Racine,  Wis.,  for  §27,000. 
Two  weeks  afterward  he  won  his  second  race  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  made  a  record  of 
2:21:^.      Shortly  afterward  he  reduced  his  record  to  2:20:^,  being  then  five  years  of  age. 

As  a  sire  of  trotters,  he  has  already  become  noted.  Kate  Sprague,  of  his  get,  a  six-year- 
old  mare,  made  2:18  in  the  second  heat,  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1881,  trotting  the  last 
quarter  of  the  heat  in  33^  seconds;  a  2:15  gait. 

Trinket.  —  This  horse  was  bred  by  R.  S.  Veach,  Esq.,  of  "Indian  Hill  Farm,"  near 
Louisville.  Ky.  She  was  sired  by  Princess  in  1875,  who  was  sired  by  the  famous  and  fast- 
trotting  stallion  Woodford  Mambrino,  he  by  Mambrino  Chief.  The  dam  of  Princess  was  by 
Alexander's  Abdallah,  a  son  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian.  The  dam  of  Trinket  was  also  by 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  she  possesses  a  trotting  pedigree,  built 
largely  upon  a  thoroughbred  foundation.  Her  owner  sold  her  when  a  yearling.  When  two 
years  old,  she  showed  great  speed  for  her  age.  Her  first  appearance  upon  the  turf  was  in 
1879.     She  is  described  by  one  of  the  leading  journals  as  follows:  — 

"A  handsome,  high-bred-looking  mare,  with  a  fine,  intelligent  head,  a  light,  well-shaped 
neck,  and  splendid  shoulders,  with  great  heart-room,  a  strong  back,  weU-coupled,  wide  hips, 
and  sloping  quarters  and  big  stifles  —  a  union  of  great  substance  along  with  quality.  Her 
appearance  is  suggestive  of  'the  whalebony,  spring-steel  style  of  horse.  Her  legs  are  hard, 
like  ivory,  and  she  has  not  a  soft  spot  about  her.  A  dangerous,  resolute-looking  mare  is 
Trinket,  and  when  she  moves,  her  action  is  smooth,  frictionless,  and  stealthy.  She  covers  a 
vast  amount  of  ground  at  a  stride,  but  she  does  it  seemingly  with  a  cat-like  effort;  and  when 
she  gets  the  word  'Gol '  she  darts  as  a  cat  darts  from  under  the  bed  with  a  dog  to  persuade 
her.  She  is  about  15^  hands  high,  and  wears  an  eight-ounce  toe-weight  when  trotting." 
Her  best  record,  up  to  this  time,  is  2:14f. 

Tliorudale  is  a  bay  stalHon  15^  hands  high,  and  foaled  in  1865.  He  was  bred  by  Dr. 
J.  R.  Adams  of  Scott  county,  Ky.,  and  is  owned  by  Edwin  Thome  of  "  Thorndale  Stud 
Farm,"  Millbrook,  N.  Y.  He  was  sired  by  Alexander's  Abdallah,  the  sire  of  Goldsmith 
Maid,  for  a  long  time  queen  of  the  trotting  turf;  her  record,  as  previously  stated,  being  2:14. 
His  first  dam  was  Dolly,  by  Mambrino  Chief,  the  sire  of  Lady  Thome,  whose  record  was 
2:18:^^.     His  second  dam  was  by  a  son  of  Potomac. 

Thorndale  won  the  three-year-old  trotting  stakes  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  July,  1868,  in  three 
straight  heats,  the  record  being  2:49^,  2:50,  2:55.  Immediately  after  this  race,  he  was  pur- 
chased by  Mr.  Thorne,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  his  stud.  He  was  awarded  the  first  premium 
in  the  stallion  class,  three  years  old  and  under  five,  with  ten  competitore,  at  the  Narragansett 
Park  Fair,  1 868.  He  also  won  the  first  premium  in  the  stallion  class  for  getting  roadsters, 
at  the  New  York  State  Fairs  at  Albany  in  1871,  1873,  and  1880. 

In  May,  1876,  he  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  his  trainer,  and  after  eighty  days'  training 
he  trotted  in  Buffalo  with  eleven  competitors  in  the  2:32  class,  and  won  the  second,  third, 
and  fifth  heats,  and  the  race  in  2:22:^^,  2:23^,  and  2:25.  Since  that  period  he  has  won  in 
several  races,  in  one  of  which  at  Fleetwood  Park,  N.  Y.,  he  won  not  only  the  race,  but  a 
prize  of  $2,000  and  a  silver  cup. 


THE  HORSE. 


741 


Trotting  Record.  —  The  following  is  a  list  of  horses  that  have  trotted  a  mile  in  2m. 
20s.,  or  better,  together  with  their  pedigree  ;  also,  tables  of  the  fastest  trotting  to  wagon, 
imder  saddle,  pacing  different  distances,  fleetest  running,  etc. 


2:1(M. 
Maud  S.,  by  Harold,  dam  Miss  Russell,  by  Pilot,  Jr. 

2:11M. 

St.  Julien,  by  Volunteer,  dam  by  Ilarry  Clay. 

2:13J4. 
Rams,  by  Conklin's  Abdallah,  dam  by  Telegraph, 

2:14. 

Goldsmith  Maid,  by  Alexander's  Abdallah,  dam  by  Abdallah. 
Trinket,  by  Princeps,  dam  by  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian. 
Clingstone^  by  Rysdyck,  dam  Gretchen  by  Chosroes. 

2:14?^. 
Hopeful,  by  Godfrey's  Patchen,  dam  by  Bridham  Horse. 

2:15. 
Lulu,  by  Alexander's  Norman,  dam  by  imp.  Hooten. 

2:15^. 
Smuggler,  by  Blanco,  son  of  Iron's  Cadmus,  dam  unknown. 
(The  fastest  heat  by  a  stallion.) 

2:1% 
Hattie  Woodward,  by  Aberdeen,  dam  by  Hefiry  Clay. 

2: 16^. 
Lucille  Golddnst,  by  Goldduet,  dam  by  Bald  Hornet. 

2:16X. 
American  Girl,  by  Amos's  C.  M.  Clay,  dam  unknown. 
Barby,  by  Delmonico,  dam  by  Cox's  St ump-t he- Dealer. 
Edwin  Thorne,  by  Thorndale,  dam  by  Lady  Lightfoot  by  Ash- 
land. 

2: 165^. 
Charley  Ford,  by  McKisson's  Grey  Eagle,  dam  unknown. 
Occident,  by  Doc,  son  of  the  pacer  St.  Clair,  dam  unknown. 

2:17. 
Gloster,  by  Volunteer,  dam  by  Stockbridge  Chief. 

2:17M- 

Dexter,  by  Hambletonian,  dam  by  American  Star, 

Piedmont,  by  Almont,  dam  by  Mag  Ferguson  by  Mambrino 
Chief. 

So-So,  by  George  Wilkes,  dam  by  Edwin  Forrest. 
2:17H, 

Santa  Claus,  by  Strathmore,  dam  by  Lady  Thome,  Jr.,  by 
Williams's  Mambrino. 

2:17%. 

Hannis,  by  Mambrino  Pilot,  dam  a  Morgan  Mare. 
2:18. 

Dick  Swiveller,  by  Walkill  Chief,  dam  by  Harry  Clay. 

Edwin  Forrest,  by  Brannock's  Ned  Forrest,  dam  by  Smiling 
Tom. 

Great  Eastern,  by  Walkill  Chief,  dam  by  son  of  imp.  Conster- 
nation. 

Jnsephus.  by  Green's  Bashaw,  dam  by  Copperbottom  (?). 

Judge  FuUerton,  by  Edward  Everett,  dam  unknown. 

Kate  Sprague,  by  Gov.  Sprague,  dam  Fan  by  Lance. 

Nettie,  by  Hambletonian,  dam  by  American  Star. 

Proteine,  by  Blackwood,  dam  by  Mambrino  Chorister. 

Red  Cloud,  by  Legal  Tender,  dam  unknown. 

Robert  McGregor,  by  Major  Edsall,  dam  by  Seely's  American 
Star. 

Jerome  Eddy,  by  Louis  Napoleon. 
2:18^. 

Lady  Maud,  by  Gen.  Knox,  dam  unknown. 

Lady  Thome,  by  Mambrino  Chief,  dam  by  Gano. 

Lucy,  by  Geo.  M.  Patchen,  dam  by  May  Day. 

Midnight,  by  Peacemaker,  dam  by  son  of  Hiram  Drew. 

Monroe  Chief,  by  Jim  Monroe,  eon  of  Alexander's  Abdallah, 
dam  by  Bay  Chief. 


I  2:1^. 

Col.  Lewis,  by  Rifleman,  dam  unknown. 

I  Slow-Gio,  by  Young  Shautuck,  grandson  of  Medoc,  dam  un- 
known. 

2:  lb%. 
J.  B.  Thomas,  by  Sterling,  he  by  Patchen  Boy,  a  son  of  God- 
frey's Patchen.  dam  unknown. 
Nutwood,  by  Belmont,  dam  by  Pilot,  Jr. 
Patchen,  (breeding  unknown). 

2:19. 
Albemarle,  by  Tom  Hunter,  dam  by  Blucher. 
Alexander  (France's),  by  Ben  Patchen,  dam  by  Canada  Jack. 
Alley,  by  Volunteer,  dam  by  New  York  Black  Hawk. 
Bonesetter,  by  Brooke,  son  of  Brown  Pilot,  dam  by  Adams's 

Stump-the-Dealer. 
Cozette,  by  Blumberg's  Black  Bashaw,  dam  by  Stargazer. 
Edward,  by  Fisk's  Hambletouian  Star,  dam  unkno\Mi. 
Graves,  by  Whipple's  Hambletonian,  dam  unknown. 
Kitty  Bates,  by  Loder's  Cloud  Mambrino,  dam  unknown. 
Wedgewood,  by  Belmont,  dam  by  Woodford. 

2:19J4. 

Bodine,  by  Volunteer,  dam  by  Harry  Clay. 

Comee,  by  Daniel  Lambert,  dam  by  Hiawatha. 

Croxie,  by  Clark  Chief,  dam  by  Little  Priam. 

George  Palmer,  by  Ames's  Bogus,  dam  unknown. 

Keene  Jim,  by  Keene's  Lookout,  son  of  Bourbon  Chief,  dam 

by  Morgan  Rattler. 
Parana,  by  Mambrino  Hambletonian,  dam  Belle  of  Cayuga, 

by  Hambletonian  Prince. 

2:19J^. 
Driver,  by  Volunteer,  dam  by  American  Star. 
Moose,  by  Washburn  Horse,  dam  unknown. 
Thos.  L.  Young,  by  Yellow  Jacket,  dam  by  Dragon. 
Troubadour,  by  Revenge,  dam  Illinois  Maid  by  Black  Slasher. 
Will  Cody,  by  Blue  Bull,  dam  unknown. 
Aldine,  by  Almont. 

2:1^. 
Adelaide,  by  Phil.  Sheridan,  dam  by  Sam  Houston,  son  of 

Vemaont  Black  Hawk. 
Camors,  by  Gen.  Knox,  dam  unknown. 
Daisydale,  by  Thorndale,  dam  by  Burr's  Washington. 
Deck  Wright,  by  Hinsdale  Horse,  dam  unknown. 
Fanny  Witherspoon,  by  Almont,  dam  by  Cough's  Wagoner. 
Flora  Temple,  by  Loomis's  Bogus,  dam  by  a  sjjotted  Arabian. 
John  S.  Clark,  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  dam  by  Scott's  Hiatoga. 

2:20. 

Annie  W.,  by  Almont,  Jr.,  dam  Belle  Forrest. 

Belle  Brasfield,  by  Viley's  Cripple,  dam  by  Mambrino  Chor- 
ister. 

Capt.  Emmons,  by  Continental,  dam  by  John  Morgan. 

Elaine,  by  Messenger  Duroc,  dam  by  Harry  Clay. 

Etta  Jones,  by  Parrish's  Pilot,  dam  by  Pilot,  Jr. 

Fleety  Golddust,  by  Golddust,  dam  Tiger  Morgan. 

Frank,  by  Buel's  Pathfinder,  dam  unknown. 

Humboldt,  by  Stocking  Chief,  dam  by  Parrisb's  Crockett. 

John  H.,  by  Blumberg's  Black  Bashaw,  dam  by  Morgan  Hun- 
ter. 

Little  Fred,  by  Eastman's  Morgan,  dam  by  Blackbird. 

Mambrino  Gift,  by  Mambrino  Pilot,  dam  by  Pilot,  Jr. 

May  Queen,  by  Alexander's  Norman,  dam  by  Crockett's 
Arabian. 

Nancy  Hackett,  by  Wood's  Hambletonian,  dam  unknown. 

Orange  Girl,  by  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,  dam  by  American 
Star. 

Prospero,  by  Messenger  Duroc,  dam  by  Harry  Clay. 


742 


THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


TROTTING  TO  "WAGON. 

One  mile,  (Brst  heat)— Hopeful,  Chicago,  LI.,  Oct.  12th,  1878, 

2:16H. 
One  mile,  (second  heat)— Hopeful,  Chicago,  111.,  Oct.  12th, 

1878,  2: 17. 
One  mile,  (third  heat)— Hopeful,  Chicago,  111.,  Oct.  12th,  1878, 

2:17. 
One  mile,  (drawing  2,000  lbs.)- Mountain  Maid,  Long  Island, 

186.-),  3:  HVi 
Two  miles,  (first  heat)— Gen.  Butler,  Long  Island,  1863,  4:66^. 
Two  miles,  (second  heat)— Dexter,   Long  Island,  Oct.  2Tth, 

186,3,  4:56!4- 
Three  miles,— Kemble,  Jackson,  June  1st,  1853,  8: 3. 
Four  miles, —Longfellow,  California,  Dec.  31st,  1860,  ]0:34}<5. 
Five  miles,— Little  Mack,  Long  Island.  Oct.  29th,  18<i3, 13: 43^. 
Twenty  miles,— Controller,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  April  20th, 

1878,58:57. 
Fifty  miles,— Spangle,  Oct.  13th,  1855,  3  h.  49:4. 

TROTTING  DOUBLE  TEAMS. 

One  mile,— Lysander  Boy  and  William  H.,  New  York,  1881, 

2:30. 
One  mile,  (third  heat)— Gen.  Cobb  and  Lulu,  San  Francisco, 

Cal.,  May,  1877,  2:26><J. 
One  mile,  with  running-mate,  (first  heat)— Ethan  Allen  and 

mate.  Long  Island,  June  21st,  18(i7,  2: 15. 
One  hundred  miles,— Master  Burke  and  Robin,  10  h.  17: 22. 

TROTTING  UNDER  SADDLE. 
One  mile,— Great  Eastern,  Fleetwood  Park,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  22d, 

1877,  2:16SJ. 
Two  miles,— Dexter,  Long  Island,  1865,  6:0^. 
Three  miles,— Dutchman,  Beacon  Park,  N.  J.,  Aug.  Ist,  1839, 

7:32^. 
Four  miles,— Dutchman,  18  6, 10:31. 

PACING. 

One  mile  in  harness.— Sleepy  Tom,  Chicago,  111.,  July  28th, 

1879,2:1214. 
One  mile  under  saddle,— Billy  Boyce,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 

1st,  1868,  l:14Ji. 
One  mile  to  wagon,— Pocahontas,  June  2l8t,  1855,  2:17}5. 
Two  miles  under  saddle,- Bowery  Boy,  Long  Island,  1839, 

6;4H. 
Two  miles  in  harness,- Hero,  May  17th,  1883,  4: 56}^. 
Two  miles  under  saddle,- Onedia  Chief,  New  Jersey,  1843, 

7:44. 
Three  miles  in  harness,— Harry  White,  San  Francisco,  Cal., 

Aug.  8th,  1874,  7:57>4. 

BEST  RECORDS   OF  FLEETEST  RUNNING 
HORSES. 

Giving  classified  lists  of  such  records,  with  places,  dates, 
weight  carried,  age,  time  in  minutes  and  seconds. 
Quarter  of  a  Mile. 
Belle,  Galveston,  Texas,  July  3,  1880,  21?^  sec. 

Haff  a  Mite. 
Olitipa,  2  yrs.,  97  lbs,,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  25,  1874,  47?^ 


Lizzie  S  ,  2  yrs.,  97  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  May  8, 1880. 49  sec. 

Harold,  5  yrs.,  110  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  23, 1878,  49^ 
Bee. 

Idalia,  2  yrs.,  lOTlbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  July  4, 1876, 49J4  sec. 

Vampire,  2  yre.,  110  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  22,  1881, 
49)4  sec. 

Memento,  2  yrs.,  107  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  19,  1881, 
49^  sec. 

Ualf-MUe  Beats. 

Red  Oak,  aged,  114  lbs.,  Carson  City,  Nev.,  Sept.  16, 1879, 
4^^-49  see. 


Hal/Mile  Heats,  3  in  5. 
Mollle  M'Cann,  5  yrs.,  catch  weight,   Indianapolis,  Ind., 
July  26,  1879,  61>4,  51^,  50  sec. 

I^ve  Furlongs. 

Olivia,  2  yrs.,  97  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  6. 1881, 1 :01^. 

Lizzie  S.,  3  yrs.,  92  lbs.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  10, 1881, 1 :  02. 

Bouncer,  2  yrs.,  104  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  J.,  July  4, 

1881,1:02. 

Mollie  Brown,  2  yrs.,  97  lbs.,  Springfield,  Mo.,  Jane  17, 1880, 
1:02. 

Brambaletta,  2  yrs.,  88  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
4,1880,  1:02)4. 

Gerald,  2  yrs.,  110  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  16, 1881, 
1:02^. 

Onondaga,  2  yrs.,  IIB  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  Y.,  July  7, 
1881,1:021^. 
Bend  Or,  2  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  Sept.  18, 1880, 1 :  03. 
Runnymede,  2  yrs.,  103  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  20, 1881, 
l:03Ji. 

Pappoose,  4  yrs.,  131  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  16,  1881, 
l:03?i. 

Five-Furlong  Heats. 
Ingomar,  2  yrs.,  catch  weights,  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  Oct.  10, 
1879,  1:07,  1:03. 

Three-Quarters  qf  a  Mile. 
Barrett,  2  yrs.,"  110  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  J.,  Aug.  14, 
1880.1:14. 

Knight  Templar,  3  yrs.,  77  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
18, 1880,  1 :  14. 

Gouverneur,  2  yrs.,  82  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18, 
1880,1:14^. 

Gouverneur,  2  yrs.,  98  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  25, 
1880, 1 :  14i^;  after  dead  heat  with  Ada,  2  yrs.,  87  lbs.,  1 ;  14Ji. 
Patti,  3  yrs.,  92  lbs.,  Chicago,  111.,  July  2, 1881, 1:14^. 
Charley  Gorham,  aged,  103  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y., 
June  29,  1881,1:15. 

One  dime,  5  yrs.,  120  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  21,  1881, 
1:1554. 

Three-Quarier  Mile  Heats. 
Bonnie  Lizzie,  3  yrs.,  101  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  16, 
1881, 1:15J4, 1:14J4. 

Charley  Ross,  aged,  118  lbs.,  Brighton  Beach,  N.  Y.,  July 
1,1881,1:16,1:15.  L.  B.  Sprague,  4  yrs.,  108  lbs.,  won  first 
heat  in  1:17. 

Knight  Templar,  3  yrs.,  92  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  May  24, 
1880,1:15,1:17. 

One  Mile. 
Ten  Broeck,  5  yrs.,  110  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  May  24,  1877, 
"against  time,"  1:39?^. 

Boardman,  4  yrs.,  91  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  20, 
1880,  1 :  40H. 

Marchioness,  5  yrs.,  64  lbs.,  Brighton  Beach,  N.  Y.,  July  6, 
1881,1:41. 
Victim,  B  yrs.,  117  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  1, 1881, 1 :  41?^. 
Knight  Templar,  4  yrs.,  106  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  6, 
1881,1:42. 
Parole,  aged,  102  lbs.,  Baltimore,  Md. ,  Oct.  21, 1880, 1 :  42. 
Hindoo,  3  yrs.,  118  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  15, 
1881,1: 4.314. 
Mistake,  2  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  36,  1879, 


One  Mile  Heats. 

Gabriel,  5  yrs.,  115  lbs.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  IS,  1881, 1 :42>i, 
1:4% 

Dan  Sparling,  4  yrs.,  106  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept, 
21, 1880, 1:42,  1:4A%.  Ada  Glenn,  4  yrs.,  106  lbs,  won  first 
heat  in  1:4% 

Glenmore,  6  yrs..  114  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  16, 
1881, 1:42)4. 1: 4014.  Dan  Sparling,  5  yrs.,  114  lbs.,  won  first 
heatinl:42H' 


TUE  HORSE. 


745 


One  Mile  Heats,  3  in  5. 
Thad  Stevens,  aged,  110  lbs.,  Sacramento,  Cal.,  JtJy  8, 1873, 
1 :  43H.  1 :  '*6)^.  1 :  ^-    ThomhUl,  4  yrs.,  won  the  first  and  sec- 
ond heats  in  1:43,  1:43. 

Mile  and  a  Furlong. 

Bob  Woolley,  3  yrs.,  90  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  Sept.  6, 1875, 
1:64. 

Greenland,  3  yrs.,  108  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  T.,  July  S3, 1881, 
1:54!^. 

Patti,  3  yrs.,  89  lbs.,  Chicago,  HI.,  June  28, 1881, 1:545^. 

Kinyar,  6  yrs.,  116  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  30,  1880, 
1:54^. 

Baby,  4  yrs.,  106  lbs.,  Brighton  Beach,  N.  Y.,  July  31, 1880, 
1:55. 

Mile  and  a  Furlmig  Heats. 
Gabriel,  4  yrs.,  112  lbs.,  Sbecpshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  23, 
1880,1:56,1:56. 

MUe  and  a  Quarter. 

Getaway,  3  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  5,  1881, 
2:07%. 

Maidelssohn,  3  yrs.,  95  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  May  10,  1880, 
2  OS. 

Sir  Hugh,  3  yrs.,  102  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  19,  1831, 
8:08>4- 

Checkmate,  6  yrs.,  117  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  16, 1881, 
S:U8}<S. 

Mile  and  a  Quarter  Heats. 
Glenmore,  5  yrs.,  114  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  35, 
1880,2:10,2:14. 
Mary  Anderson,  3  yrs.,  83  lbs.,  won  first  heat  in  2:09. 

MUe  and  500  Yards. 
Valleria,  3  yrs.,  94  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  1, 1881,2:121.^ 
Kipplc,  3  yrs.,  109  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  20, 1881,  8:14. 

MUe  and  Three  Furlongs. 

Uncas,  4  yrs.,  107  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  23, 
1880,  2: 21%. 

Luke  Blackbnm,  3  yrs.,  96^  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y., 
June  22,  1880,  2:241^. 

Spendthrift,  3  yrs.,  123  lbs.,  Jerome  Park,  N.  Y'.,  June  10, 
1879,  2:25 Jg. 

Mile  and  a  Half. 

Luke  Blackbnm,  3  yrs.,  102  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  Aug.  17, 
1880,2:34. 

Tom  Bowling,  4  yrs.,  104  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  May  12, 1874, 
8:34?i. 

Hindoo,  3  yrs.,  118  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  4, 1881,  2:  .30. 

Parole,  4  yrs.,  97  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  4, 1877,  2:3(;?^. 

Liatnnale,  6  yrs.,  112  lbs.,  Chicago,  111.,  June  25,  1881, 
2;37H. 

Gabriel,  5  yrs.,  115  lbs.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  11,  1881, 
2:3754. 

Mile  and  a  Half  Beats. 
Keno,  6  yrs.,  catch  weight,  Toledo,   O.,  Sept.    16,   1880, 
2:43H,  2:*5'    Belle  of  Nelson,  5  yrs.,  won  second  heat  in 
2:45. 

MUe  and  Five  Furlongs. 

Ten  Broeck,  3  yrs,,  90  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  Sept.  9, 1876, 
3:49^. 

Eole,  3  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  1881,  2:4954. 

Checkmate,  5  yrs..  Ill  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept, 
16,1880,2:60. 

Monitor,  3  yrs.,  98  lbs..  Prospect  Park,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  13, 1879, 
2: 50!^. 


MUe  and  Three-Quarters. 

Glenmore,  6  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Jnne  23, 
1881,3:0114. 

Checkmate,  6  yrs.,  124  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  6,  1881, 
3:01!^, 

Monitor,  4  yrs.,  115  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  J.,  Aug.  19, 
1880,3:0254. 

Crickmore,  3  yrs..  Ill  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  7, 
18S1,  3:0314. 

Luke  Blackburn,  3  yrs.,  105  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  30, 
1880,3:04. 

Dartagnan,  3  yrs.,  110  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  24,  1875, 
3:06H. 

Luke  Blackbnm,  3  yrs.,  116  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  7, 
1880,3:07. 

Iliudoo,  3  yrs.,  118  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  16,  1881, 
3: 0714. 

Two  Miles. 

Ten  Broeck,  5  yrs.,  110  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  May  29, 1877— 
"  against  time  "—3;  ii^i4- 

Bushwhacker,  aged,  99  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  18, 1881, 
3:30. 

McXYhirter,  3  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  LouisvUle,  Ky.,  May  28,  1877, 
S::}0;4. 

Uiudoo,  3  yrs.,  118  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11, 1881,3:32. 

Ihco-Jlile  Heats. 

M'illie  D.,  4  yrs.,  102  lbs..  Prospect  Park,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  11, 
1879,  3:. 34^,3: 35. 

Lottery,  3  yrs.,  100  lbs.,  Sacramento,  Cal.,  Sept.  21,  1878, 
3:38,3:3.11^. 

Bushwhacker,  4  yrs.,  105  lbs.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  22, 1878, 
3:36,  3:38>^.  Princeton,  4  yrs.,  108  lbs,. ..won  second  heat, 
3:36J^. 

Two  Miles  and  a  Fwlong. 

Aristldes,  4  yrs.,  108  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  May  10,  1876, 
3:45H. 

Mate,  6  yrs.,  114  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  31,  1875,  3:4654. 

Ferida,  5  yrs.,  109  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  29, 1881, 
3:48. 

Glenmore,  5  yrs.,  114  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  26, 
1880,3:481^. 

T\vo  Miles  and  a  Quarter. 

Springbok,  5  yrs.,  114  lbs. ;  Preakness,  aged,  114  lbs.,  "dead 
heat,"  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  29, 1376,  3:56!4- 

Glenmore,  6  jtb.,  114  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  18, 
1881,  3:  585$. 

Blue  eyes,  5  yrs., 116  lbs.,  Chicago,  HI.,  June 20, 1880,  3:58?^. 

Harry  Bassett,  4  yrs.,  108  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  16, 1872, 
3:69. 

Ihvo  Miles  and  a  Haff. 

Aristides,  4  yrs.,  104  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  May  13,  1876, 
4:27!^. 

Katie  Pease,  4  yrs.,  105  lbs.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  10,  1874, 
4:28H. 

Two  Miles  and  Five  Furlongs. 

Ten  Broeck,  4  yrs.,  104  lbs.,  Lexington,  Ky.,  Sept  16,  1876, 
4:58M- 

Ttoo  Miles  and  Three-Quarters. 

Hubbard,  4  yrs.,  107  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  9,  1873, 
4:6854. 

Kentucky,  5  yrs.,  124  lbs.,  Jerome  Park,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  3,  1866, 
5:01. 

Three  Miles. 

Thora,  3  yrs.,  99  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  27, 1881, 5: 2514. 

Ten  Broeck,  4  yrs.,  104  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  23, 1876— 
"against  time" — 5:2654- 

Elias  Lawrence,  3  yrs.,  98  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  28, 
1830,  6:28J4. 


746 


THE  ASDERICAN  FARJIER. 


Tlitee-MUe  HeaU. 
Norfolk,  4  JT8.,  100  lbs.,  Sacramento,  Cal.,  Sept.  83, 1865, 

Brown  Dick,  3  yrs  ,  86H  lbs.,  New  Orleans,  La.,  April  10, 
1855,5:30?^,  B:28. 

Note. — Brown  Dick  would  have  been  a  4-year  old  under 
present  rules. 

Four  Mites. 

Ten  Broeck,  4  yrs.,  104  lbs.,  LouisvUle,  Ky.,  Sept.  2",  1876— 
"against  time"— 7:15?^. 

Fellowcraft,  4  yrs.,  108  Ibe.,  Saratoga,  N.  T.,  Aug.  20, 1874, 
7:19H. 

Lexington,  4  yre.,  103  lbs..  New  Orleans,  La.,  April  2, 1855 
— "against  time"— 7:19?^. 

Janet,  0  yrs.,  116  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  27, 1879,  7: 25. 

Four-Mile  Beats. 

Ferida,  4  yrs.,  105  lbs.,  Shecpshcad  Bay,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18, 
1880,  7:23J^7:41. 

Lexington,  4  yrs.,  10.3?^  lbs..  New  Orleans,  La.,  April  14, 
1855,  7:23J4. 

Note. — Lecompte  was  withdrawn  after  the  first  heat. 

Leoompte,  3  yrs,  86  lbs..  New  Orleans,  La.,  April  8,  1854, 
7:26,7:38^. 

Thad.  Stevens,  aged,  115  lbs.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  7:30, 
7:43.    Joe  Daniels,  4  yrs.,  103  lbs.,  won  first  heat  in  7: 42)4. 

Glenmore,  4  yrs.,  108  lbs.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  29,  1879, 
7:30J4,  7;.31. 

Willie  D,  4  yrs.,  105  lbs.,  won  first  heat  in  7: 29>^. 

HURDLE  RACES. 
[One  Mile,  over  Four  Hurdles.] 
Judith,  5  yrs.,  145  lbs.,  Brighton  Beach,  N.  Y.,  July  17, 1880, 
1:61. 


[Mile  neats,  each  Four  Hurdles.] 

Joe  Rhodes,  6  yrs.,  140  lbs.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  4, 1878, 
l:50Ji,  1:5014. 

Frank  Short,  4  yrs.,  135  lbs.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  11,  1880, 
l:5%l:5tH- 

Bay  Rum,  aged,  130  lbs.,  Shcepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  June  25, 
1880, 1:51, 1:57.  Gallagher,  aged,  100  lbs.,  won  first  heat  in 
1:6% 

[Mile  aui'.  a  Furlong,  over  Five  Hurdles.] 

Glasgow,  aged,  160  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  July  30, 1881,2:07. 
[Mile  and  a  Quarter,  over  Five  Hurdles.] 

Ohio  Boy,  6  years,  140  lbs.,  Brighton  Beach,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  17, 
1880,  2: 19. 

Glasgow,  aged,  146  lbs.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  6, 1881,  2:20. 

Waller,  6 yrs.,  162  lbs.,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Aug  14, 1878, 2: 21^. 

[Mile  and  a  Half,  over  Six  Hurdles.] 
Ventilator,  aged,  137  lbs.,  Brighton  Beach,  N.  Y.,  July  31, 
1880,  3: 49J4. 

Problem,  6  }TS.,  158  Ibe.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  J.,  Aug.  14, 
1880,8:50. 

[Mile  and  Three-Quarters,  over  Seven  Hurdles.] 
Judith,  5  yrs.,  150  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  J.,  Aug.  19, 
1880,  3:17H- 

[Two  Miles,  over  Eight  Hurdles.] 
Tom  Leathers,  aged,  117  lbs..  New  Orleans,  La.,  April  16, 
1875,  3: 47J^. 

Ventilator,  aged,  135  lbs.,  Sheepshead  Bay,  June  20,  1880, 
3:4S!4. 
Redman,  4  jts,  132  lbs.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Mayl9,1876,3;48Ji. 

:  [Two  Miles  and  a  Quarter,  over  Nine  Hurdles.] 
Cariboo,  5  yrs.,  151  lbs.,  Monmouth  Park,  N.  J.,  Aug.  88, 
1875,4:33. 


The  Breeding  of  Horses. — The  improvements  that  have  been  brought  about  among 
the  various  classes  of  domestic  animals  through  the  efforts  of  intelligent  breeders  is  truly- 
wonderful,  and  although  many  obstacles  in  this  department  are  to  be  constantly  met,  and 
many  intricate  questions  that  present  themselves  in  the  pursuance  of  this  art  must  forever 
continue  to  remain  mysteries,  yet,  in  the  main,  breeding  has  been  reduced  to  a  science,  and 
the  governing  principles  and  laws  in  this  department  of  Nature's  vast  laboratory  have  come 
to  be  so  well  understood  that  the  skillful  breeder  can  mold,  as  it  were,  by  a  judicious  selec- 
tion and  combination,  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  hereditary  law,  the  ideal  animal  into  the 
real,  and  can  prospectively  determine,  with  considerable  certainty,  the  result  of  such  selection 
and  union.  The  breeder  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  possess,  in  a  great  measure,  the  creative 
power,  making  use  of  the  material  that  he  finds  within  his  reach — as  the  potter  does  the  clay 
— to  combine  and  mold  the  object  desired,  after  the  various  patterns  and  designs,  for  the 
different  uses  to  which  the  result  of  his  effort  is  to  be  appropriated. 

Thus  we  have  to-day  among  horses,  those  intended  for  speed  in  running  and  trotting; 
for  style,  the  different  classes  of  ,carriar;e-horses ;  those  adapted  especially  for  the  saddle;  the 
heavy  draft-horse,  and  the  general-purpose  horse,  or  what  might  be  termed  the  model  farm- 
horse. 

In  view  of  what  has  thus  far  been  accomplished,  the  intelligent  breeder  has  great 
encouragement  to  continue  his  efforts  towards  farther  developments  and  improvements,  for 
the  field  is  indeed  a  vast  one,  and  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  reach  the  limit. 

Those  animals  that  combme  the  greatest  number  of  excellences  for  the  use  to  which 
they  are  to  be  appropriated  are,  of  course,  the  best;  but  as  what  would  be  desirable  in  one 
type  or  class  of  horses  would  be  an  objection  in  another  class,  the  purpose  for  which  the 
animal  is  to  be  used  should  first  be  considered.     For  instance,  the  form  of  the  trotter  would 


THE  HORSE.  747 

be  incompatible  witb  that  of  the  draft-horse,  while  the  latter  would  also  be  objectionable  in 
the  carriage-horse,  etc. ;  therefore,  many  of  the  desirable  qualities  in  different  classes  of  horses, 
being  antagonistic,  cannot  be  combined  in  a  single  animal,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  aaa^.'.- 
ing  the  animal  to  its  especial  use. 

The  breeding  of  horses  is  a  very  important  subject,  since  it  relates  to  the  agricultural 
interests  of  the  country  so  extensively.  But  when  we  consider  the  lack  of  interest  that 
farmers  generally  take  in  this  department,  it  is  not  surprising  that  we  see  so  many  inferior 
horses.  It  is  rather  the  occasion  of  surprise  that  the  common  farm-horse  is  as  good  an  ani- 
mal as  we  find  him,  when  so  little  pains  are  taken  generally  towards  his  improvement. 

"With  most  farmers,  the  opinion  is  prevalent  that  when  a  mare  has  become  useless  for 
any  other  purpose,  having  become  old,  or  broken-down  by  hard  work,  sprained,  spavined, 
and  perhaps  diseased,  she  will  do  well  enough  for  raising  colts. 

How  in  the  name  of  common  sense  a  person  can  expect  a  colt  worth  the  raising  from 
such  stock  is  (KfEcult  to  understand,  and  yet  farmers  are  constantly  doing  this  all  over  the 
country.  If  good  stock  is  desired,  it  will  be  necessary  to  secure  good  stock  as  the  progenitors, 
in  order  to  reach  the  desired  results. 

Disqualifications  for  Breeding. — At  the  outset,  to  be  successful  in  breeding 
requires  outlay  and  careful  selection.  A  person  cannot  reasonably  expect  that  from  a  dam 
that  is  perhaps  not  worth  twenty  dollars,  and  a  sire  whose  real  value  may  be  but  little  more, 
that  the  progeny  will  be  equal  to  a  St.  Julien  or  a  Maud  S.  Old  age  alone  is  a  sufficient 
disqualification  for  breeding,  and  when  we  add  to  this,  unsoundness  and  disease,  the  objec- 
tions become  doubly  intensified.  The  colts  from  such  stock  wUl  lack  vitality  and  endurance, 
since  they  will  inherit  these  tendencies  from  their  progenitors,  and  such  a  method  of  breed- 
ing is  not  only  a  direct  violation  of  all  physiological  law,  but  of  all  the  teachings  of  common 
sense  and  experience  combined,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 

No  matter  how  active  and  valuable  an  animal  may  have  been  in  her  prime,  if  old  and 
broken-down,  the  foal  will  inherit  the  infirmities  of  old  age  rather  than  the  excellences  of 
her  younger  days.  Therefore,  never  breed  from  a  mare  that  is  old  and  infirm,  no  matter  how 
pure  her  "  blood  "  may  be. 

Never  breed  from  a  horse  that  has  the  heaves  or  is  spavined.  The  tendency  to  transmit 
disease  is  as  strong  in  animals  as  in  the  hmnan  famUy,  and  a  horse  that  has  any  weakness 
about  the  organs  of  respiration  will  be  almost  sure  to  transmit  this  tendency.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  any  of  the  other  forms  of  disease.  Lameness,  although  it  may  have  been 
produced  by  accident,  will  also  be  liable  to  be  transmitted  to  the  foal.  Colts  from  such  mares 
wUl  be  apt  to  become  lame  in  early  life,  through  inherited  weakness.  In  fact,  any  infirmity, 
disease,  or  defect,  in  either  sire  or  dam,  will  be  very  liable  to  be  reproduced  in  the  progeny. 

Aa  animal  for  breeding  should  be  free  from  a  vicious  disposition  and  temper,  as  well 
as  bad  habits  of  every  kind.  A  cross,  ill-tempered  mare  or  stalUon  will  be  likely  to  perpet- 
uate this  tendency  in  the  offspring,  while,  if  both  parents  possess  these  traits,  an  ill-tempered, 
vicious  colt  may  be  expected  as  an  absolute  certainty. 

Even  a  tendency  to  cribbing  is  known  to  be  inherited.  The  same  law  holds  true  relative 
to  temperament,  form,  color,  size,  etc. 

Always  breed  up,  and  never  down ;  that  is,  never  breed  a  dam  to  a  sire  of  inferior  blood. 
It  is  also  highly  essential  that  the  dam  possess  qualities  desirable  to  be  transmitted  to  the 
progeny,  as  her  influence  in  this  direction  nearly,  if  not  fully,  equals  that  of  the  sire. 

Influence  of  the  Sire  and  Dam. — The  Arabs  have  a  maxim  that  "the  foal  fol- 
lows the  sire,"  yet  at  the  same  time  they  always  select  their  dams  with  much  care. 

Notwithstanding  the  Arab  maxim,  we  beUeve  the  qualities  of  the  dam  are  of  as  much 
importance  as  those  of  the  sire,  and  that  the  progeny  will  inherit  the  mingled  characteristics 


748  THE  AMERICAX  FARMER. 

and  qualities  of  both  parents.  It  is  generally  thought — although  individual  cases  differ, 
according  to  different  circumstances — that  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  male  parent  gives 
size  and  form  to  the  bones  and  muscles  generally,  while  the  feinale  parent  influences  the 
nervous  system,  and  frequently  the  form  of  the  head  and  adjacent  portions  of  the  body.  W. 
C.  Spooner,  a  leading  English  authority,  says,  respecting  this  opinion,  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  : — 

"The  influence  of  male  and  female  parent  is  not  capricious,  but  yet  not  always  alike;  in 
the  majority  of  instances  the  male  parent  gives  the  size  and  external  shape  of  the  offspring 
(particularly  the  back  and  hind-quaxters),  while  the  female  influences  the  constitutional,  the 
nervous  system,  and  often  the  head  and  fore-quarters.  That  this  combination — which  may 
be  more  of  a  mechanical  mixture  than  a  chemical  union — by  no  means  implies  such  an  equal 
division  of  influence,  as  the  mingUng  of  two  fluids — in  which  case  the  offspring  would  be 
unhke  either  parent,  but  &  juste  milieu  between  the  two,  and  there  could  be  no  handing  down 
of  type  from  one  generation  to  another — it  is  rather  such  a  fusion  of  two  bodies  into  one, 
that  both  defects  and  high  quahfications  are  passed  on  from  parent  to  offspring  ■n'ith  a  sort  of 
regular  irregularity  resembhng  the  waves  of  the  sea,  each  parent  having  the  remarkable 
power  of  propagating  ancestral  peculiarities,  though  latent  in  itself." 

Another  English  authority,  the  author  of  "Breeding,  Rearing,  Feeding,  and  General 
Management  of  Farm-Horses,"  says: — 

"  Instances  have  come  under  the  notice  of  the  writer  where  a  tribe  of  horses  have  been 
bred  in  one  family  for  many  generations,  the  mares  of  which  all  inherited  from  the  female 
ancestors  the  bad  habit  of  kicking  in  the  yoke;  and  although  crossed  with  very  docile  sires,  the 
same  propensity  and  nervous  temperament  was  transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another; 
others  again  preserve  the  im welcome  and  annoying  habit  of  being  shy  pullers ;  and  others,  again, 
where  the  mares  are  hot-tempered,  tearing  workers,  but  deficient  in  stamina  or  staying  power. 
Owners  sometimes  breed  from  a  mare  that  is  hot-tempered,  or  a  kicker,  to  sober  her  down  a 
bit.  They  invariably  succeed  in  perpetuating  a  breed  which  should  be  allowed  to  become 
extinct.  The  importance,  therefore,  of  selecting  a  quiet-dispositioned  mare  of  sound  consti- 
tution for  breeding  purposes  is  apparent.  By  sober-tempered,  a  sluggish  animal  is  not  meant, 
activity  being  very  essential  in  a  brood  mare,  especially  in  her  walk,  as  this  is  the  most 
important  pace  for  farm  work.  Either  meeting  you  or  leaving  you,  a  horse  should  go  square; 
the  fore  action  should  be  straightforward,  the  fore-feet  should  not  be  thrown  out  sideways,  as 
it  were.  It  is  also  necessary  that  a  farm-horse  should  be  able  to  acquit  itself  well  in  a  trot; 
and  the  words  of  an  enthusiastic  Scotchman  when  once  describing  a  brood  mare  can  be 
repeated,  when  he  said,  '  Her  very  step  had  music  in't.'  " 

The  rule  previously  recognized  does  not  hold  true  in  all  cases,  since  individuals  differ  so 
greatly  with  respect  to  the  power  of  transmitting  their  qualities  to  their  progeny.  Murray 
says  in  this  connection: — 

"  Tlxe  instances  in  which  the  foal  does  not  follow  the  sire  are  too  numerous  for  us  to  allow 
that  the  Arabian  maxim  is  worthy  of  being  regarded  as  a  law.  Even  a  casual  inspection  of 
my  own  stables,  or  the  stables  of  any  breeder,  woiild  cause  a  grave  suspicion  to  arise  in  any 
thoughtful  mind  touching  the  Eastern  adage.  I  have,  for  instance,  in  my  stables,  dams 
whose  foals  invariably  resemble  the  sire  in  size,  shape,  color,  style  of  going,  and  even  in  tem- 
perament; and  these  mares  are  valued  by  me  as  almost  beyond  price,  because  of  this  pecu- 
harity.  I  know  beforehand  %vhat  I  shall  get.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  two  other  mares  whose 
colts  invariably  resemble  themselves,  or  some  one  of  their  parental  ancestors.  So  true  is  this, 
that  I  can  calculate  before  the  foal  appears  what  he  will  7iot  be.  although  I  may  not  easily  tell 
what  he  will  be.  ''Such  are  the  facts  in  my  own  stables:  and  they  harmonize  perfectly  with 
the  results  of  observation  in  many  other  breeding  estabhshments.  The  law  plainly  suggested 
by  inference  from  these  facts  is  this,  that  the  animal  with  the  strongest  vitality  marks  the  foal. 


THE  HORSE.  749 

If  the  dam  be  most  highly  organized,  then  the  foal  will  resemble  the  dam;  if  the  sire,  then 
the  foal  will  resemble  the  sire.  This  is  the  law,  as  we  all  know,  in  the  human  family:  if  the 
mother  be  of  nervous,  sanguine  temperament,  and  the  father  lymphatic  and  sluggish,  the 
cMld  will  take  after  the  mother;  if  the  conditions  be  reversed,  the  residt  will  be  the  reverse. 
Exceptions  there  may  be  and  are;  but  the  law  stands  firm,  vindicating  its  truth  with  each 
successive  generation.  I  am  bound,  nevertheless,  to  say  that  this  law  does  not  hold  good  in 
cases  where  we  should  naturally  expect  it  would.  To  illustrate:  According  to  the  law,  when 
a  low-blooded  mare  is  bred  to  a  thoroughbred  horse,  the  foal  should  resemble  the  sire;  but, 
alas !  too  often  he  does  not.  On  the  other  hand,  according  to  the  law,  a  blooded  mare  bred 
to  a  low-blooded  horse  should  bring  forth  a  colt  like  herself  ;  but  neither  is  this  true.  What, 
then,  becomes  of  tlie  law?  I  confess  that  I  do  not  know;  nor  have  I  been  able  to  find  in  the 
works  of  any  author  a  satisfactory  answer  to  the  puzzle.  Practically,  although  I  cannot  phi- 
losophically account  for  my  preference,  yet  practically,  I  say,  we  know  that  it  is  far  better  to 
have  a  high,  fine  organization  in  the  sire,  and  let  the  low  organization,  if  it  must  exist  in 
either  parent,  be  on  the  side  of  the  dam.  The  fact  is,  both  parents  should  be  highly  organ- 
ized, and  anything  short  of  this  introduces  uncertainty  as  to  what  the  result  of  the  experiment 
will  be.  The  only  infallible  rule, — the  best  statement  ever  given  touching  the  reproduction 
of  any  form  of  life, — was  published  by  God  himself  in  His  inspired  word,  when  he  said,  "Let 
the  earth  bring  forth  the  living  creature  after  his  kind."  This,  nevertheless,  must  be  observed, 
that  the  power  to  bring  forth  after  his  kind, — if  by  his  kind  we  mean  personal  resemblances, 
rather  than  generic  attributes, — does  not  belong  to  the  horse  as  a  race,  but  to  the  horse  as  an 
individual;  for,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  the  case  of  Justin  Morgan,  this  faculty  of  repro- 
ducing excellences  is  individual,  and  not  general.  And  so  we  come  back  to  the  same  obser- 
vation previously  made  in  regard  to  what  constitutes  a  valuable  stock -horse, — viz.,  that  the 
best  horse  is  he  who,  being  good  in  himself,  most  surely  and  closely  reproduces  himself  in 
his  offspring;  and  to  this  formula  should  now  be  added  the  words,  when  bred  to  the  mares  of 
the  greatest  variety  of  form  and  temperament." 

As  a  general  rule,  although,  as  we  have  previously  seen  that  individual  cases  will  differ, 
the  purer  or  less  mixed  the  blood,  the  more  likely  are  the  characteristics  of  the  breed  to  be 
transmitted  to  the  progeny,  and  consequently,  the  parent  that  possesses  the  purest  blood,  or 
in  whose  pedigree  the  fewest  crosses  with  other  breeds  are  found,  will  exert  the  most  influence 
upon  the  offspring,  and  be  the  most  largely  represented  in  it. 

In  the  breedmg  of  domestic  animals,  the  male  parent  is  commonly  selected  with  more 
care  than  the  female,  since  one  animal  of  this  kind  impresses  itself  upon  so  large  a  number, 
consequently  it  follows  for  this  reason,  as  the  usual  result,  that  the  sire  exerts  more  influence 
than  the  dam ;  but  when  the  dam  is  of  superior  blood  to  the  sire  the  result  would  be  the 
reverse.  When  both  parents  are  equally  well-bred,  other  conditions  being  equal,  the  influence 
will  be  divided,  the  sire  perpetuating  some  characteristics,  and  the  dam  others. 

What  Horses  to  Breed. — For  the  reproduction  of  its  kind,  whether  in  vegetable  or 
animal  life,  the  best  results  can  only  be  reached  by  employing  for  this  purpose  the  best  and 
highest  types  of  the  species  to  be  perpetuated.  For  this  reason,  the  most  intelligent  and  suc- 
cessful agriculturists  select  the  seed  for  future  crops  from  the  most  thrifty  and  perfectly 
developed  plants,  and  by  this  means  not  only  prevent  deterioration  of  the  variety,  but  fre- 
quently improve  upon  it.  In  the  animal  kingdom  the  same  law  of  selection  is  equally  important. 
Tlie  most  perfectly  developed,  vigorous,  and  healthy  animals  of  the  breed  should  be  selected 
to  reproduce  it. 

The  kind  of  horse  to  be  bred  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be 
appropriated,  whether  it  be  the  stylish  carriage-horse,  the  trotter,  racer,  the  saddle-horse,  the 
general-purpose  or  farm-horse,  or  the  heavy-draft  animal.  Whatever  breed  is  to  be  per- 
petuated, the  best  and  most  perfect  t3rpes  should  be  selected,  and  not  only  this,  but  those 


750  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

possessing  the  purest  blood,  whose  pedigree  may  be  traced  back  to  the  best  stock,  for  it  is 
well  known  to  breeders  of  experience,  that  however  good  an  animal  may  be  in  himself,  if  he 
be  of  mongrel  stock,  his  progeny  will  not  be  likely  to  represent  his  accidental  good  qualities, 
but  will  rather  be  more  liable  to  revert  back  to  their  inferior  ancestry,  it  being  the  natural 
tendency  in  animals  to  revert  back  to  the  original  type.  For  this  reason  those  mares  should 
be  selected  that  are  the  most  closely  allied  to  the  best  blood,  and  only  thoroughbred  or  high- 
grade  stallions  should  be  employed.  Selections,  even  from  thoroughbred  stallions,  should  be 
made  with  care,  for  many  will  be  found  objectionable  for  use;  but  a  low-bred  stallion  should 
ever  be  avoided. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  large  majority  of  the  horses  that  have  distinguished  them- 
selves by  their  achievements  are  the  descendants  of  superior  ancestors,  the  exceptions  being 
very  rare.  At  the  same  time,  circumstances  may  exert  such  a  controlling  influence  that  some 
of  the  most  noted  horses  may  produce  but  ordinary  or  inferior  foals.  The  expenditure  of 
nervous  energies  through  a  long  campaign  upon  the  race-course  is  decidedly  opposed  to  the 
best  physical  condition  for  reproduction,  in  either  sire  or  dam,  and  the  highest  possibilities 
of  either  can  never  be  attained  in  this  respect,  while  their  vital  forces  are  being  used  up  for 
racing  purposes.  This  truth  has  been  signally  exemplified  in  employing,  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, some  of  the  noted  trotting  mares  in  their  old  age,  and  after  their  muscles  and  nerves 
had  been  subjected  to  a  severe  strain,  and  in  a  great  measure  exhausted  in  trotting  perform- 
ances. 

Neither  Flora  Temple,  Lady  Thorne,  nor  Lucy  have  ever  produced  foals  that  have  won 
recognition  in  trotting  circles,  although  the  sires  of  their  progeny  were  of  most  desirable 
pedigree.  Another  important  point,  and  yet  the  most  frequently  overlooked  in  breeding, 
is  in  the  combination;  .the  unskillful  mating  of  the  dam  and  sire  being  the  rule,  rather 
than  the  exception.     There  is  much  truth  in  the  following: — 

"Peculiarity  of  form  and  constitution  will  also  be  inherited.  This  is  a  most  important 
but  neglected  consideration;  for,  however  desirable  or  even  perfect  may  have  been  the  con- 
formation of  the  sire,  every  good  point  may  be  neutralized  or  lost  by  the  defective  structure 
of  the  mare.  The  essential  points  should  be  good  in  both  parents,  or  some  minor  defect  in 
either  be  met,  and  got  rid  of,  by  excellence  in  that  particular  point  in  the  other.  The  unskill- 
ful or  careless  breeder  too  often  so  badly  pairs  the  animals  that  the  good  points  of  each  are 
almost  lost,  the  defects  of  both  increased,  and  the  produce  is  far  inferior  to  both  sire  and  dam." 

Breeders  that  are  careless  in  this  respect  can  expect  nothing  but  inferior  results,  for  it 
must  be  remembered  that  while  the  general  law,  oft  repeated,  that  "like  produces  like"  is 
true  in  the  main,  there  are  many  exceptions,  and  that  where  either  animal  is  deficient  individ- 
ually, or  their  ancestors,  it  is  often  the  case  that  the  undesirable  qualities  are  more  readily 
perpetuated  than  the  desirable  ones,  and,  therefore,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  secure, 
as  far  as  practicable,  a  mutual  adaptation  in  form,  size,  temperament,  disposition,  etc., 
between  the  sire  and  dam. 

Never  breed  an  exceedingly  small  mare  to  a  large  stallion,  or  the  reverse,  as  the  result 
will  be  anything  but  satisfactory.  It  will  sometimes  be  found  that  the  crossing  of  certain 
good  strains  of  horses  will  invariably,  without  any  known  cause,  bring  poor  results.  In 
such  instances  their  crossing  should  be  avoided.  The  frame  of  the  mare  should  be  roomy, 
wide  at  the  hips,  wide-chested,  deep  in  the  girth,  quarters  strong,  and  hocks  rather  wide  apart. 

In  the  selection  of  both  dam  and  sire,  those  qualities  desirable  to  be  possessed  by  the  foal 
should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  represented  in  both  parents.  As  these  qualities  have  already 
been  previously  stated,  a  repetition  will  be  unnecessary  in  this  connection.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
that  in  breeding,  aim  to  secure  all  the  essential  qualities,  and  as  many  of  the  other  desirahle 
ones  as  possible;  therefore,  breed  for  beauty,  style,  speed,  docility,  strength,  endurance,  and 
as  many  of  the  other  qualities  to  be  preferred  as  possible,  combining  with  these  the  size  and 


THE  HORSE. 


751 


form  whicli  are  desirable  in  the  horse  we  wish  to  produce.  Both  animals  should  be  strong, 
vigorous,  and  in  the  best  condition  of  health.  In  this  great  undertaking,  where  so  many  have 
failed,  those  ^vill  meet  with  the  highest  success,  who,  to  zeal  and  enthusiasm  combine 
knowledge  and  patient  effort,  considering  well  beforehand  what  they  wish  to  accomplish,  and 
by  the  use  of  that  knowledge  in  careful  selection  and  combination  aim  for  the  best  results. 


STALLION    "FRANK    ALLEN.         PHOPEKTY    OF   JOHN    B.    FARNUM,    WALTHAM,    MASS. 

Care  of  Stallions.  —  The  following  sensible  method  with  reference  to  the  care  of 
stallions  is  recommended  by  J.  B.  Russell,  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agri- 
culture: — 

"When  a  horse  begins  a  stud  career,  his  owner  should  absolutely  withdraw  him  from 
the  worry  and  excitement  of  training.  Horses  kept  for  service,  and  trained  at  the  same 
time,  will  get  nervous  and  excitable  stock.  But  a  worse  error  still  is  to  put  a  horse  into  a 
condition  of  flesh,  like  a  prize  pig,  in  order  to  brag  of  how  much  he  weighs,  and  to  keep  him, 
without  exercise,  in  the  close  confinement  of  a  box-stall,  until  he  becomes  a  moody,  morose, 
and  often  savage  brute.  Many  stallions  become  partially  insane  under  the  common  treat- 
ment, and  are  a  pest  to  their  owners,  dangerous  to  grooms,  and  beget  vicious  stock.  A 
stallion  should  be  kept  in  good  health  and  moderate  flesh.  His  box  should  be  where  he  can 
have  the  constant  company  of  other  horses,  or  in  sight  of  his  mares.  He  should  have  a  pad- 
dock to  run  in,  or  have  plenty  of  cut  grass  during  his  season.  He  should  be  exercised  in 
double  harness,  or  under  the  saddle  accompanied  by  other  horses,  as  often  as  convenient. 
His  exercise  should  be  brisk  and  blood-stirring,  with  occasional  sharp  work,  so  as  to  get  a 
good  sweat.  Under  such  treatment,  a  stallion,  unless  he  is  naturally  a  vicious  brute,  will  be 
as  cheerful  and  pleasant  to  keep  as  any  mare  is." 

Care  of  Breeding  Mares.  —  It  is  very  essential  that  brood  mares  be  kept  in  good 
condition.     A  half-starved  dam  cannot  produce  a  strong  and  thrifty  foal,  since  her  blood 
45 


752  TnE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

must  nourish  the  young  life  and  contribute  to  its  support  and  growth  until  it  makes  its  en- 
trance into  the  world.  She  should  have  a  liberal  supply  of  food  of  the  best  kind,  and  be 
provided  with  warm  quarters  in  winter.  Moderate  work  up  to  within  two  or  three  weeks  of 
foaling  will  not  prove  injurious;  but  excessive  labor,  such  as  straining,  and  drawing  heavy 
loads,  should  be  avoided.  She  should  be  kept  quiet  and  apart  from  other  horses,  after  the 
first  four  or  five  months.  The  period  of  gestation  varies  somewhat  with  different  mares,  but 
is  usually  from  forty-seven  to  fifty  weeks,  although  sometimes  not  more  than  forty-four 
weeks,  and  occasionally  as  long  as  fifty-six  weeks.  When  the  time  of  foaling  is  near  —  say 
about  two  or  three  weeks  previous  —  she  should  be  put  into  a  large  box  or  stall,  where  she 
should  be  allowed  her  freedom;  this  should  be  done  especially  nights,  while  during  the  day 
she  might,  if  desired,  be  allowed  the  freedom  of  the  yard,  or  near  pasture.  The  box  should 
be  of  large  size,  twelve  by  twenty  feet  being  good  dimensions,  and  thickly  strewn  with  sand, 
gravel,  saw-dust,  or  tan-bark,  over  which  a  bedding  of  straw  or  dry  leaves  should  be  strewn 
to  the  depth  of  about  a  foot. 

Some  mares  will  eat  their  bedding.  If  there  is  any  tendency  in  this  direction,  she  should 
have  a  muzzle  of  wire  put  on  and  wear  it,  except  when  eating  her  rations,  as  it  is  not  well  for  a 
mare  to  be  filled  with  coarse  food  at  such  times.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  everything 
in  the  box  so  arranged  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  her  getting  cast,  should  she  lie  down 
to  roll.  After  foaling,  she  should  still  be  very  liberally  fed.  Stinting  both  mother  and  foal 
at  this  period  will  be  found  very  poor  economy,  for,  if  stunted  in  growth  at  this  early  stage 
of  his  life,  the  young  colt  will  never  wholly  recover  from  the  effect.  During  all  the  period 
of  gestation,  the  mare  should  be  treated  with  the  greatest  kindness.  She  should  never 
receive  a  blow,  or  even  a  harsh  word.     Either  will  sometimes  cause  her  to  slink  the  foal. 

Care  of  Young  Colts.  —  If  the  colt  is  strong  and  vigorous  at  birth,  he  will  not 
require  much  special  attention  ;  but  if  he  is  unable  to  get  on  his  feet  soon  after,  it  is  best  to 
assist  him  to  do  so.  If  he  is  too  weak  to  stand,  he  should  have  his  body  and  limbs  rubbed, 
especially  the  latter,  to  promote  circulation.  A  woolen  cloth  dipped  in  water,  blood-warm, 
should  be  first  used,  after  which  a  dry  woolen  cloth,  to  dry  him  oS,  followed  by  hand-rubbing. 
This  rubbing  will  promote  circulation  throughout  the  entire  system,  and  give  strength  to  the 
muscles.  It  should  be  kept  up  until  he  is  able  to  stand.  If  left  lying  unattended  in  a  weak 
state,  to  take  care  of  himself,  he  will  be  quite  as  liable  to  die  as  to  live.  He  should  be  held 
up  to  the  dam,  so  that  he  can  draw  the  milk  as  soon  as  he  is  strong  enough.  He  should  not 
be  allowed  to  get  chilled,  but  be  kept  warm  and  comfortable.  In  order  to  have  a  colt  become 
a  strong,  vigorous,  and  well-developed  animal,  he  should  be  well  fed.  Never  stint  him  at  all 
at  any  period  of  his  life,  and  especially  at  the  start. 

Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  his  growth  during  his  first  summer  and  autumn,  for 
if  stunted  then,  he  will  never  recover  from  it  under  any  circumstances.  Tliere  is  quite  a 
difference  in  dams  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  milk  they  are  able  to  supply.  As  previously 
stated,  the  dam  should  be  very  generously  fed  in  order  to  produce  the  largest  supply  of  milk 
possible  for  the  foal,  while  if  lacking  at  all  in  quantity,  and  she  fails  to  keep  him  in  good 
flesh  and  steadily  improving,  a  sufficient  supply  of  cows'  milk  should  be  given  him  daily  to 
make  up  the  deficiency.  Skimmed  milk  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  in  such  cases  a 
little  flaxseed  jelly,  oil-meal,  or  cotton-seed  meal  (a  heaped  tablespoonful  night  and  morning, 
to  begin  with),  should  be  mixed  with  it.  This  can  be  gradually  increased  to  a  pint  a  day  by 
the  time  the  colt  is  six  months  old,  or,  if  he  be  of  the  large  breed,  double  this  quantity  may 
be  given.  Oats  should  also  be  given  as  soon  as  they  can  be  eaten.  Many  breeders  bruise 
the  oats  for  them  at  first.  When  the  dam  is  fed,  her  rations  of  oats  should  be  placed  where 
the  colt  may  eat  with  her,  and  it  can  be  depended  upon  that  when  allowed  this  opportunity 
he  will  not  be  long  in  availing  himself  of  it.  A  half  pint  of  oats  at  night  and  in  the  morning 
is  sufficient  to  allow  him  at  first,  which  rations  can  be  increased  to  four  quarts  per  day, 


THE  HORSE.  755 

according  to  his  age  and  size.  If  to  the  above  a  couple  of  quarts  of  wheat-bran  are  added 
twice  a  day,  great  advantage  wOI  be  derived  from  it,  since  the  latter  is  not  only  nourishing, 
but  helps  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  condition  and  is  an  excellent  preventative  of  worms. 

Food  that  will  produce  bone  and  muscle  should  be  given  at  this  growiilg  period,  rather 
than  such  as  will  divert  from  this  to  simply  the  accumulation  of  fat.  The  food  for  all  young 
animals  should  be  given  in  small  quantities  and  often,  and  the  rations  gradually  increased 
according  to  the  wants  of  the  animal.  True  economy  does  not  consist  in  cheap  food,  but 
rather  such  as  is  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  animal,  of  whatever  kind  it  may  be. 

A  floor  of  plank,  cement,  or  hard  material  of  any  kind,  will  be  liable  to  injure  the  feet 
and  legs  of  colts  when  permitted  to  stand  much  on  them.  Soft,  wet  ground,  or  mud,  will  be 
very  apt  to  make  the  hoof  tender,  no  matter  how  highly-bred  or  how  perfect  in  texture  the 
hoof  of  the  ancestry  may  be. 

The  dam,  when  fuUy  recovered  from  foaling,  may  be  put  to  light  work.  The  foal 
should  at  first  be  shut  in  the  stable  during  the  hours  of  work ;  but  when  he  is  sufficiently 
strong  to  accompany  her,  it  will  be  better  for  them  both  to  be  together,  if  the  work  is  slow 
and  does  not  involve  too  much  travel  for  him.  This  will  obviate  the  fretting  of  the  dam  for 
her  colt,  while  he  will  be  able  to  take  more  milk  from  her  and  thrive  better,  and  will  also 
become  familiar  with  the  objects  about  him,  and  among  which  his  life  is  to  be  spent.  When 
over-heated  with  work,  she  should  not  be  allowed  to  suckle  the  colt,  till  she  is  well  cooled  off, 
as  her  milk  in  this  condition  will  have  a  tendency  to  produce  diarrhea  in  the  foal. 

When  a  little  older,  in  case  the  dam  is  used  on  the  road,  the  colt  can  have  his  halter  on 
and  accompany  her,  having  the  halter  tied  to  the  shaft  or  to  the  harness.  By  this  means  he 
is  under  control,  is  not  liable  to  get  injured,  and  will  soon  become  halter-broken. 

Weaning.  —  When  five  or  six  months  old,  according  to  his  vigor  and  size,  the  foal 
may  be  weaned.  It  is  a  good  method  to  halter  both  dam  and  colt,  giving  them  a  single, 
large  stall,  where  they  can  eat  and  rub  noses  together  at  the  same  manger.  The  dam  and 
colt  will  both  be  contented  then,  for  they  will  not  miss  each  other.  The  colt  should  be  un- 
tied and  allowed  once  a  day,  for  a  few  days,  to  relieve  the  udder  of  the  dam.  The  colt  will 
also  eat  at  the  regxilar  feeding-times,  increasing  his  rations,  as  he  is  deprived  of  his  mother's 
milk.  After  a  while  he  can  be  removed  to  his  own  stall.  By  this  means  the  colt  is  nearly 
halter-broken  without  trouble. 

Another  method  frequently  practiced  is  to  put  the  dam  and  colt  in  adjoining  box-stalls, 
for  a  few  days,  where  the  partition  is  so  high  that  they  cannot  get  together,  but  where  thay 
may  see  each  other,  and  allow  the  colt  to  draw  the  milk  once  a  day  for  a  few  days,  after 
which  it  may  be  taken  to  its  winter  quarters.  When  confined  in  a  stall  by  itself,  the  colt 
should  have  the  freedom  of  it,  and  the  stall  should  be  large,  light,  and  airy.  Besides  the 
exercise  it  may  thus  get,  it  should  have  a  run  in  the  yard  an  hour  or  two  every  day,  when  it 
is  not  too  stormy.     Plenty  of  clean  bedding  should  also  be  provided. 

A  seven-months' -old  colt  will  take  from  six  to  seven  quarts  of  wheat-bran  per  day  in  con- 
nection with  other  food,  while  a  yearling  will  take  a  peck  a  day,  together  with  oats  and  hay. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  the  growing  season,  and  material  must  be  furnished  for 
producing  bone,  muscle,  and  nerve,  or  the  animal  will  not  have  sufficient  to  build  up  the 
structure  that  should  go  forward  until  the  complete  size  and  stature  of  the  horse  is  attained. 
A  few  carrots,  cut  fine,  given  with  oats  and  wheat-bran  or  oil-meal,  make  good  rations  for 
colts  about  the  time  of  weaning  and  afterwards.  They  should  not,  however,  be  fed  to  the 
young  colt  in  too  large  quantities.  Good  hay  should  always  be  given  them  in  any  quantity 
that  they  will  eat. 

•  Colts  should  never  be  exposed  to  storms  and  cold  weather,  nor  the  intense  heat  of  the 
summer  sun.  When  out  in  the  open  air  in  cold  weather,  a  warm  shed  should  be  provided, 
into  which  they  may  go  in  the  day-time  when  they  wish,  and  at  night  they  should  be  com- 


756  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER 

fortably  stabled.  In  the  summer  they  should  be  allowed  the  freedom  of  the  pasture,  where 
there  is  plenty,  of  good  grass,  water,  and  shade.  The  shade  should  consist  of  not  only  trees, 
but  a  shed  where  they  may  find  shelter  from  the  hot  sim.  It  is  not  advisable  to  put  colts 
.  into  a  pasture  with  cows.  When  turned  together,  there  is  danger  of  either  the  colts  being 
hooked  by  the  cows,  or  the  cows  kicked  by  the  colts.  Neither  is  it  well  to  put  a  colt  into  a 
pasture  alone;  two  or  more  colts  together  will  be  more  contented  and  do  better  than  when 
alone,  or  with  cows. 

Raising  a  Colt  by  Hand.  —  If  the  dam  should  dry  her  milk,  or  if  for  any  other  reason 
it  becomes  necessary  to  raise  a  colt  by  hand,  it  may  be  done  as  easily  as  raising  a  calf,  lamb, 
or  any  other  young  animal.  The  milk  of  a  cow  that  has  recently  calved  should  be  given  the 
foal.  This  should  be  mixed  at  first  with  about  one-thurd  of  its  quantity  of  warm  water,  and 
sweetened  with  sugar.  After  a  week  or  so,  the  milk  will  not  require  watering.  He  should 
be  fed  four  times  a  day  until  four  or  five  weeks  old,  after  which  twice  or  three  times  a  day 
may  be  sufficient,  if  he  has  learned  to  nibble  fresh  grass  a  little.  It  is  better  to  feed  small 
quantities  and  often,  rather  than  larger  quantities  at  longer  intervals.  Horses  are  naturally 
very  particiilar  about  their  food,  and  the  pail  from  which  the  colt  is  fed  should  be  scalded 
every  time  it  is  used,  to  keep  it  sweet  and  clean.  If  his  bowels  become  constipated,  two  or 
three  tablepoonsfuls  of  olive  oil  may  be  necessary  to  promote  the  proper  laxative  condition. 
Sweetening  his  milk  with  molasses  wiU  sometimes  produce  the  same  result,  where  the  consti- 
pating tendency  is  but  slight. 

He  should  first  be  allowed  to  suck  the  finger  in  feeding,  but  may  be  taught  to  drink  in 

a  few  days.     Wheat  bran,  bruised  oats,  etc.,  should  also  be  given  him  as  soon  as  he  wiU  eat 

them,  according  to  previous  directions  in  feeding  colts.     Care  should  be  used  to  give  him  a 

.  proper  quantity  of  food,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  over-feed,  either  being  alike  injurious. 

The  quantity  required  will  depend  upon  his  size,  age,  etc. 

Castration.  —  The  age  at  which  this  operation  can  best  be  performed  depends  upon 
different  circumstances,  such  as  the  difference  in  breeds,  the  form  of  the  animal,  the  use  to 
which  it  is  to  be  appropriated,  etc.  The  longer  the  colt  remains  entire,  the  better  developed 
will  the  neck  and  fore  parts  of  the  body  become;  for  this  reason,  we  think  it  best  to  delay  it 
as  long  as  practicable.  It  can  be  safely  performed  as  soon  as  the  testicles  have  descended 
into  the  scrotum,  but  when  performed  thus  early  it  will  materially  affect  the  development  of 
the  forehand.  It  is  frequently  done  when  the  colt  is  a  year  old,  and  sometimes  before  it  is 
weaned,  but  as  a  general  rule,  we  think  from  a  year  and  a  half  to  two  years  is  better.  As 
regards  age,  the  young  animal  will  suffer  less  than  those  older,  as  the  parts  are  not  so  well 
developed,  consequently  smaller,  and  their  removal  will  not  produce  such  a  shock  to  the  con- 
stitution. Their  rapid  growth  also  at  this  period  causes  the  wound  to  heal  quickly,  with  less 
tendency  to  a  fever.  The  danger  increases  with  colts  from  two  years  old  and  upwards. 
Castration  is  generally  performed  earUer  on  farm,  than  carriage  horses.  The  National  Live 
Stock  Journal  contains  the  following  valuable  directions  respecting  the  conditions,  prepara 
tions,  etc.,  for  this  operation:  — 

"  Castration  is  often  performed  by  the  owner,  by  a  herdsman,  or  by  some  other  non- 
professional man,  rather  than  the  veterinarian,  and  it  is  therefore  ^specially  important  that  it 
should  be  generally  understood  what  conditions  contribute  to  obviate  the  attending  dangers, 
and  insure  a  successful  result. 

Health.  —  Perfect  health  of  the  animal  is  essential  to  safety.  Any  pre-existing  disease  is 
pretty  certain  to  be  aggravated  by  the  irritation  and  fever  resulting  from  the  operation;  any 
impairment  of  the  nutritive  functions  will  retard  the  process  of  healing  in  the  woimd,  (ft 
induce  an  unhealthy  action  resulting  in  permanent  injury  or  death.  If  disease  germs  are  in 
the  system,  their  development  is  hastened,  and  the  system  has  to  bear  the  attack  of  two 


THE  HORSE.  757 

different  troubles  combined;  or  both  concentrate  their  action  on  the  same  point,  and  the 
extension  of  the  diseased  action  to  the  susceptible  structures  of  the  abdomen  too  often 
precipitates  a  fatal  result.  Thus  strangles,  so  common  in  young  horses,  causes  a  low  type  of 
inflammation  in  the  groin,  with  exudations,  adhesions,  abscesses,  and  even  gangrene.  Gland- 
ers, too,  is  attended  by  the  development  of  the  glanderous  material  in  the  wound  and  else- 
where, and  always  by  a  fatal  issue.  Scarcely  less  injurious  are  influenza,  catarrhal  fever, 
bUious  fevers,  etc.,  etc.,  the  seeds  of  which  find  a  fertile  field  for  their  development  in  the 
system  fevered  by  the  operation. 

The  system  most  favorable  to  success  is  one  in  high  condition,  with  full,  hard  muscles ; 
clear,  bright,  prominent  eye;  smooth,  sleek,  healthy  coat;  pulse  full,  strong,  and  regular; 
and  spirit  lively  and  ardent.  The  best  condition  is,  in  short,  that  of  the  trained  animal,  in 
which  the  wounds  heal  with  that  marvelous  rapidity  which  we  see  in  the  athlete  or  race- 
horse. It  is  not  the  fat  animal,  soft,  flabby,  and  deficient  in  endurance,  but  the  one  that  is 
all  muscle  and  sinew,  and  that  will  not  tire.  Yet,  even  with  this,  it  is  important  to  give  daily 
exercise  after  the  operation.  If  kept  up  in  a  stall,  the  animal  accustomed  to  regular  exertion 
quickly  becomes  plethoric,  and  thus  his  great  powers  of  digestion  and  assimilation  conduce 
to  unhealthy  rather  than  healthy  action  in  the  wound.  If  such  an  animal  must  stand  in  the 
stable  after  the  operation,  his  fine  condition  will  be  rather  prejudicial,  and  should  be  reduced 
somewhat  by  a  dose  of  physic  prior  to  the  operation,  and  a  restricted  diet  after.  A  very  fat 
animal  may  be  advantageously  treated  in  the  same  way.  The  very  poor  are  liable  to  have 
the  healing  process  retarded,  and  to  have  a  low  type  of  inflammation  in  the  wound,  with 
extensive  swelling,  gangrene,  or  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  abdomen,  or,  in 
less  redoubtable  cases,  local  abscess,  or  tumor  of  the  cord.  These  should  have  their  condition 
improved  before  they  are  castrated. 

No  male  should  be  castrated  until  it  has  been  ascertained-whether  there  is  any  hernia 
(rupture)  into  the  scrotum.  The  sack  of  the  scrotum  should  contain  nothing  besides  the 
testicles.  Any  descent  of  abdominal  organ  may  be  felt  at  the  front  and  sides  of  the  testicle, 
and  the  thickening  will  be  continued  upward  beside  the  cord  into  the  abdomen.  If  pressed, 
it  will  return  slowly  at  first,  and  then  suddenly  and  completely.  Such  subjects  should  be 
left  to  the  veterinarian  for  a  special  operation. 

The  Surroundings.  —  The  season  is  a  most  important  consideration.  In  pigs  and  other 
animals  that  tend  to  heal  by  adhesion  of  the  lips  of  the  wound,  and  without  the  formation  of 
matter,  a  cool  or  even  a  cold  season  is  not  prohibitory;  but  in  the  horse,  in  which  all  wounds 
tend  to  form  matter,  and  where  the  dangers  of  inflammation  extending  to  the  abdomen  are 
so  great,  a  temperate  or  even  warm  season  is  the  best.  The  end  of  April  or  May  is  usually 
preferable  as  being  mild,  but  not  hot,  and  at  the  same  time  equable.  From  July  onward  the 
intense  heats  unduly  favor  putrefaction  in  the  products  of  the  wound,  and  excessive  swelling 
in  its  waUs.  At  this  season,  too,  flies  prove  a  source  of  great  annoyance,  and  are  even  liable 
to  infect  and  poison  the  sore  by  coming  direct  from  carrion  or  diseased  surfaces.  So  long  as 
the  nights  are  Kable  to  be  frosty  or  very  cold,  colts  should  not  be  castrated,  unless  they  can 
be  stabled  and  protected.  In  all  cases  the  newly-castrated  animal  should  be  protected  against 
cold  rains  or  dews,  drafts  of  cold  air  in  buildings,  large  drinks  of  ice-cold  water,  and  damp 
bedding.  Wet  weather,  but  above  all  that  which  is  characterized  by  a  succession  of  thunder- 
storms, is  to  be  feared,  not  alone  because  of  the  danger  of  wetting  and  chill,  but  because  at 
such  times  there  is  a  special  tendency  to  rapid  decomposition  in  all  dead  organic  matter,  and 
therefore  to  putrefaction  in  the  secretions  of  the  wounds.  This  tendency  is  familiar  in  the 
souring  of  milk  or  dough,  and  in  the  penetrating  smells  that  rise  from  any  accumulation  of 
damp  vegetable  rubbish.  In  such  a  season,  therefore,  the  operation  should  be  deferred  until 
the  return  of  steady,  clear  weather. 

For  reasons  similar  to  the  above,  crowded,  close,  ill-ventilated,  and  uncleanly  buildings 


758  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

are  most  dangerous,  and  animals  from  such  places  are  best  kept  for  some  time  in  more 
healthy  quarters  prior  to  castration.  The  vicinity  of  slaughter-houses,  rendering-works,  dis- 
secting-rooms, manure-manufactories,  decomposing  dung-heaps,  etc.,  are  to  be  avoided  as 
calculated  to  mduce  unhealthy  action  and  gangrene. 

The  Operator.  —  The  castrator  should  avoid  all  dead,  decomposing,  or  unhealthy  animal 
matter.  Suppurating  wounds,  but  especially  those  not  doing  well,  cases  of  difficult  parturi- 
tion, dead  bodies,  and  all  unmanufactured  animal  products  should  be  carefully  avoided.  If 
the  operator  has  run  the  risk  of  such  contamination,  he  should  wash  his  hands  thoroughly  in 
water  containing  some  carbolic  acid  or  chloride  of  lime,  fumigate  his  clothes  with  the  smoke 
of  burning  sulphur,  and  allow  at  least  twenty-four  hours  to  elapse  before  he  proceeds  to 
operate.  The  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  of  all  instruments  is  no  less  essential,  as  valuable 
animals  are  often  lost  through  the  retention  on  these  of  invisible  particles  in  a  state  of  putre- 
faction." 

The  Operation.  — This  very  delicate  operation,  and  the  one  attended  with  so  much  risk 
to  the  life  of  the  animal,  requires  much  care  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  operator  to  result 
successfully,  as  animals  often  suffer  severely  and  sometimes  die  from  the  effects  of  an  unskill- 
ful operation,  change  of  weather,  or  other  unfavorable  conditions.  W.  H.  Herbert  asserts 
that  "  it  should  never  be  attempted  on  a  living  subject  except  by  a  person  of  experience  and 
skill,"  in  which  opinion  we  fully  concur.  It  will  certainly  be  ipuch  safer  and  more  economi- 
cal in  the  end  to  employ  the  services  of  an  intelligent  and  skillful  veterinarian,  than  for  a 
farmer  to  attempt  to  do  it  himself,  unless  he  has  a  good  knowledge  of  and  experience  in 
such  cases.  No  one  should  think  of  attempting  it  who  does  not  possess  these  requisites. 
The  use  of  chloroform  will  be  found  highly  beneficial  in  such  operations,  and  should  always 
be  employed,  as  it  is  more  humane,  since  it  obviates  aU  pain,  and  also  prevents  the  severe 
struggles  of  the  animal,  which  are  often  attended  with  serious  results. 

The  old  method  was  to  make  an  incision  in  the  scrotum  on  either  side  and  cut  off  the 
testicles,  and  prevent  bleeding  by  a  temporary  compression  of  the  cords  while  they  were 
seared  with  a  hot  iron.  This  was  a  terribly  painful  process  for  the  animal  to  undergo,  and 
is  now  generally  abandoned  for  the  more  humane  and  improved  method. 

The  new  method  of  castrating  with  the  ecraseur  is  a  great  improvement  upon  the  old, 
and  also  very  simple,  especially  to  a  person  having  any  experience  with  the  old. 

In  operating,  an  incision  is  made  through  the  subcutaneous  tissues,  which  thus  exposes  the 
testicle.  The  chain  of  the  ecraseur  is  then  placed  over  that  portion  of  the  cord  intended  to  be 
severed,  and  the  instrument  gradually  tightened  until  the  cord  is  completely  severed.  This 
should  be  done  gradually  and  very  carefully.  But  very  little  hemorrhage  will  follow,  if  it  is 
performed  with  care.     Sometimes  tying  is  resorted  to  to  prevent  bleeding. 

Another  method  is  by  torsion,  and  is  described  by  Youatt  as  follows:  "An  incision  is 
made  into  the  scrotum,  and  the  vas  deferens  is  exposed  and  divided.  The  artery  is  then 
seized  with  a  pair  of  forceps  contrived  for  the  purpose  and  twisted  six  or  seven  times  around. 
It  retracts  without  untwisting  the  coils,  and  the  bleeding  ceases;  the  testicle  is  removed,  and 
there  is  no  sloughing,  or  danger.  The  most  painfid  part  of  the  operation,  that  with  the  firing 
iron  or  the  clamp,  is  avoided,  and  the  wound  readily  heals." 

The  old  method  of  castrating  with  the  clamp  is  an  extremely  cruel  one,  and  should  be 
forever  abolished. 

Castrating  horses  designed  for  farm,  carriage,  and  general-purpose  use,  is  commonly 
practiced  in  this  country  and  England,  as  they  are  thus  more  docile  and  more  easily  man- 
aged; but  in  France  and  in  Oriental  countries  castration  is  rarely  performed,  as  they  are 
thought  to  be  more  hardy  and  possess  greater  courage  and  endurance  without  it. 


THE  HOKSE.  759 

Docking  and  Nicking. — The  custom  of  docking  the  tails  of  horses,  so  prevalent 
some  years  ago,  both  in  England  and  America,  is  as  absurd  as  it  is  cruel,  and  should  become 
forever  obsolete.  It  is  a  great  disfigurement  to  a  horse,  and  many  an  otherwise  beautiful 
animal  has  been  in  a  great  measure  shorn  of  his  beauty  for  life  by  this  means,  while  there  is 
really  no  advantage  to  be  gained  by  it.  The  argument  claimed  in  favor  of  docking  is  that  it 
prevents  the  animal  from  switching  its  tail  over  the  reins,  which  in  many  cases,  with  a  high- 
spirited  horse,  might  cause  him  to  become  frightened  and  the  driver  to  lose  control  over  him. 
All  trouble  from  this  cause  may  be  prevented  by  having  an  iron  or  steel  rod  fastened  from 
four  to  six  inches  above  the  whole  length  of  the  dash-board,  for  the  reins  to  rest  upon.  This 
will  keep  them  so  much  higher  than  the  rump  of  the  horse  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  switch 
his  tail  over  them. 

Nicking  is  a  barbarous  and  inhuman  custom,  formerly  fashionable,  but  now  nearly  obso- 
lete. It  should  be  forever  prohibited  by  law.  The  man  who  practices  it,  justly  deserves  to 
suffer  the  severe  penalties  of  the  law.  A  horse  with  his  tail  shortened  by  docking,  or  weak- 
ened by  nicking,  endures  great  annoyance  from  the  files,  besides  the  suffering  inflicted  at  the 
time  of  the  operation.  Horses  upon  which  the  latter  has  been  practiced  have  sometimes  died 
of  lock-jaw. 

Bleeding. — There  are  very  rare  instances  in  the  treatment  of  horses  in  which  bleeding 
is  beneficial.  The  practice  of  frequent  bleeding,  and  for  almost  every  ailment,  as  followed  in 
the  old  time  heroic  treatment,  we  are  glad  to  record  as  now  obsolete,  except  it  may  be  still 
adhered  to  by  a  few  ignorant  quacks,  or  so  called  "horse  doctors,"  who,  not  knowing  what 
else  to  do  for  the  poor  animal  under  their  charge,  will  generally  administer  a  sufficient 
amount  of  powerful  drugs  to  nearly  kill  him,  and  then  proceed  to  reduce  what  little  vitality 
he  has  left  by  bleeding,  or  they  will  reverse  the  treatment,  and  bleed  first,  and  drug  after- 
ward, and  if  the  horse  manages  to  live  through  it  all,  they  will  take  to  themselves  great 
credit  for  skill  in  the  remarkable  cure  they  have  performed  I 

The  blood  is  that  upon  which  the  vital  forces  depeAj,  containing  the  very  element  of 
Ufa,  and  the  withdrawal  of  it  frequently,  or  in  large  quantities,  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
weakening  to  the  vital  forces  of  the  animal  system.  Nature  generally  supplies  the  proper 
amount  of  blood  required  by  the  system,  and  when  this  amount  is  often  reduced,  there  will 
be  an  unnaturally  vigorous  action  in  the  blood-forming  process,  in  the  effort  to  make  up  for 
the  deficiency  of  bleeding,  which  may  in  time  become  habitual  and  result  in  an  apoplectic 
condition.  It  is  safe  to  assert  as  a  general  rule,  with  few  exceptions,  that  nature  performs 
her  work  best  without  interference  from  man.  In  apoplexy,  staggers,  and  a  few  other 
diseases  or  conditions,  bleeding  may  prove  very  efficacious,  but  it  should  be  done  with  the 
greatest  care,  and  by  the  direction  of  an  intelhgent  veterinarian. 

In  bleeding,  a  fleam  or  lancet  may  be  used.  The  horse  sliould  be  blindfolded  in  order 
to  keep  him  quiet  during  the  operation.  The  jugular  vein  is  generally  selected  for  the 
purpose,  the  point  to  be  chosen  being  about  two  inches  below  the  junction  of  the  two  portions 
of  this  vein,  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw.  If  a  gentle  pressure  be  applied  with  the  finger  of  the 
left  hand,  the  vein  will  enlarge  and  be  distinctly  traced  at  once.  The  edge  of  the  lance  or 
fleam  should  be  placed  directly  in  line  with  the  course  of  the  vein,  and  over  its  center. 
Great  care  must  be  used  not  to  cut  so  deep  that  the  opposite  side  of  the  vein  will  be  opened. 
A  small  quantity  of  blood  drawn  quickly  is  much  more  beneficial  than  a  larger  quantity 
drawn  slowly.  The  quantity  to  be  drawn  will  depend  altogether  upon  the  condition  of  the 
animal,  and  the  purpose  of  the  treatment.  We  are  decidedly  opposed  to  large  quantities 
being  taken  for  any  purpose. 

"When  sufficient  blood  has  been  taken,  the  edges  of  the  wound  should  be  brought  closely 
and  evenly  together,  and  held  so  by  a  small  sharp  pin  being  passed  through  them  carefully, 
and  a  few  hairs  from  the  mane,  or  thread  wound  around  enough  to  cover  the  wound.  The 
animal  should  be  so  tied,  for  a  few  hours,  as  to  prevent  rubbing  the  place  against  anything. 


760  THE  A3IERICAN  PARMER. 

The  Old-Tinie  Method  of  Managing  Colts. — It  was  the  prevalent  opinion  of  our 

forefathers,  that  in  order  to  produce  a  hardy  animal,  it  must  be  subjected  to  hardships  and 
privations;  hence  when  a  colt  was  a  few  months  old,  he  was  usually  turned  out  to  pick  up  a 
living  for  himself  as  well  as  he  could  in  the  pastures,  generally  running  with  other  young 
horses  or  cattle.  When  the  cold  weather  of  winter  set  in,  he  was  in  some  sections  provided 
with  shelter  and  scantily  fed  with  hay,  often  having  to  take  up  with  the  refuse  and  rejected 
portions  of  the  older  and  stronger  stock;  but  in  many  localities  colts  were  turned  out  to  shift 
for  themselves  during  the  entire  winter,  without  shelter  except  what  could  be  found  under 
trees,  fences,  or  on  the  leeward  side  of  an  occasional  hay  stack,  and  would  not  be  seen  by  the 
owner  for  two  or  three  years  except  by  accident.  The  wild  pastures  or  prairies  would  in 
summer  afford  a  comfortable  supply  of  grass,  but  the  scanty  feed  in  the  winter  would  reduce 
his  flesh  to  such  a  degree,  that  were  it  not  for  the  rough,  shaggy  coat  kind  nature  gave  in  her 
sympathy  for  his  protection  in  his  forlorn  condition,  he  would  seem  smaller  in  the  spring  than 
the  previous  autumn,  so  that  in  the  second  year  although  he  would  be  a  httle  larger,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  tell  a  two-year  colt  from  a  yearling  by  his  appearance.  When  the  time  came  that 
he  was  to  be  "broken,"  as  it  was  called,  the  animal  would  be  looked  up  and  driven  to  his 
owner,  and  some  rough  specimen  of  humanity  known  by  the  professional  (?)  term  of  "  horse- 
breaker,"  — a  recognized  character  in  every  country  town  and  village, — would  be  sent  for, 
and  the  poor  animal  put  under  his  charge  to  receive  his  instructions,  which  generally  consisted 
of  blows,  kicks,  and  the  tortures  of  the  bitting  bridle;  who  whipped  him  to  make  him  go  when 
he  did  not  know  what  was  wanted,  or  how  or  which  way  to  go,  and  then  whipped  him  to 
make  him  stop,  when  he  did  not  know  that  he  must.  If  in  his  terror  and  torture  he  reared 
or  balked,  he  received  more  blows  and  kicks  and  jerkings  on  the  cutting  bit,  until  in  his 
fright  and  sufferings  he  was  incapable  of  understanding  what  was  wanted  of  him,  and  would 
either  be  spoiled  in  temper,  if  naturally  spirited, — or  have  all  the  spirit  and  intelligence  taken 
out  of  him  by  such  ignorant  and  cruel  treatment.  After  these  experiences,  he  was  taken  to 
the  blacksmith's  shop  where  his  hoo^  were  often  cut  down  to  the  quick,  the  place  where  he 
stood  not  unfrequently  being  marked  by  the  blood  that  oozed  out,  and  then  shod  in  the  most 
awkward  manner.  Afterward,  under  the  ignorant  opinion  that  nature  did  not  know  how  to 
do  her  work  perfectly,  and  that  the  horse  was  not  complete  without  man  to  rectify  her  mis- 
takes, a  hot  iron  was  procured,  and  the  roof  of  his  mouth  burnt  and  mangled,  to  cure  him  of 
the  "lampers,"  supposing  the  ridges  found  in  every  young  horse's  mouth  to  be  a  disease  or 
unnatural,  and  that  they  prevented  the  horse  from  eating  well.  We  are  glad  to  know  that 
a  great  improvement  has,  for  the  most  part,  been  effected  in  horse  management  within  a  few 
years  past,  and  that  the  practices,  formerly  deemed  necessary,  have  in  the  main  become 
obsolete,  except  perhaps  here  and  there  in  an  occasional  locality  that  may  be  as  far  behind 
the  present  age  in  other  respects  as  in  ideas  on  this  subject,  and  where  the  old  regime  of 
"  breaking  colts  "  is  still  practiced  with  all  its  cruelty,  and  injurious  results. 

The  Present  System  of  Colt  Management. — There  is  an  old  adage  that  ."Half 

the  horse  goes  down  his  throat."  However  true  this  may  be,  it  is  apparent  to  every  intelli- 
gent supervisor  of  young  stock,  that  during  the  growing  or  building  period,  when  there  is 
such  a  demand  for  material  for  structure,  the  animal  must  be  fed  and  cared  for  in  the  most 
judicious  manner.  Believers  in  the  old  time  starving  and  toughening  process  are  at  present 
fortunately  hard  to  find,  and  it  is  now  a  generally  accepted  fact  that  the  first  two  years  of  the 
animal's  life  is  the  time  in  which  to  make  the  horse;  in  other  words,  the  care  and  attention 
bestowed  upon  the  colt  during  this  period  have  more  influence  in  determining  the  future 
value  of  the  animal,  than  that  of  subsequent  years.  It  is  now  generally  understood  by  all 
intelligent  breeders  that  if  the  colt  is  not  kept  growing  he  is  dwarfed  in  size,  and  hence  his 
value  lessened,  and  money  lost  to  the  owner.  He  must  he  kept  growing,  and  in  order  to 
accomplish  this,  he  must  be  supplied  with  material  for  the  purpose.  As  oats  are  the  natural 
food  of  the  horse,  the  little  weanling  should  have  from  two  to  four  quarts  of  bruised  oats  each 


THE  HORSE.  7gl 

day,  according  to  his  age,  and  occasionally  a  little  wheat  bran  and  oil  meal,  besides  all  the 
good  hay  or  ensilage  he  will  eat.  When  the  colt  is  a  year  old  or  more,  he  can  have  a  larger 
quantity  of  oats,  providing  he  has  a  large  yard  for  exercise,  the  aim  being  to  have  him  fit  for 
hght  work  when  three  years  old;  some  breeders  claim  that  by  this  process  the  colt  may  be 
used  a  little  for  hght  work  at  two  years  of  age;  if  used  at  all  at  this  age,  however,  the  work 
should  be  very  light,  or  the  animal  would  be  liable  to  be  injured  seriously.  Heavy  work  at 
this  growing  period  should  always  be  avoided.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  by  this  method  of 
caring  for  colts,  horses  can  be  raised  with  more  profit  to  the  owner,  than  by  the  former 
practice  of  sometimes  keeping  the  animal  until  he  was  five  or  six  years  old  before  making 
him  useful;  and  that  keeping  a  horse  that  length  of  time  before  he  earns  his  living,  is  a  losing 
course  from  the  time  he  is  three  years  of  age.  Mr.  J.  E.  Russell,  Secretary  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Board  of  Agriculture,  says: — 

"  Every  breeder  should  be  fond  of  association  with  animals:  he  should  be  a  judge  of 
form,  health,  and  improvement,  and  he  should  understand  how  to  handle  them.  There  are 
no  secrets  in  the  horse  business  that  men  of  average  intelligence  in  regard  to  animals  cannot 
at  once  master.  Quiet,  patient  ways,  with  low  voice,  and  gentle  but  strong  hand,  will  teach 
a  colt  all  that  he  needs  to  know.  There  are  men  in  every  neighborhood  who  can  break  colts 
safely  to  harness,  and  by  persistent,  careful  practice,  fit  them  to  stand  quietly,  to  stop  at  the 
given  word,  and  to  be  way-wise  on  any  roads.  In  my  county  of  Worcester,  there  are  com- 
munities where  they  take  great  pride  in  educating  oxen;  and  I  have  seen,  at  Worcester  and 
at  Frankhn  County  cattle  shows,  steers  trained  to  an  incredible  point  of  intelUgence  and 
docility.  Boys  that  can  train  a  steer  to  walk  a  chalk-line,  and  to  go  on  his  knees  at  the  word 
of  command,  can  do  wonders  with  horses;  for  the  horse  enjoys  the  companionship  of  man, 
responds  at  once  to  kindness,  and,  next  to  the  dog,  has  the  quickest  intelligence  of  any  of  our 
domestic  animals.  Horses  for  profit  must  be  sold  young,  unless  they  earn  their  living  every 
day.  Leave  speculation  to  jockeys  and  dealers;  seU  when  you  have  a  customer;  sell  when- 
ever a  reasonable  profit  is  offered  to  you.  The  best  time  to  sell  is  before  the  colt  is  foaled, 
to  some  one  who  is  in  love  with  the  dam:  the  next  best  time  is  when  the  foal  is  weaned.  To 
the  common  eye,  all  weanlings  will  make  fine  horses;  and  the  price  of  a  weanling  generally 
pays  more  profit  than  the  breeder  ever  has  offered  to  him  again.  When  your  colt  is  past 
two,  every  hour  that  you  delay  to  sell  is  'burning  daylight.'  Early  maturity  is  one  of  the 
great  advantages  in  thorough  blood;  and  no  man  can  afford  to  breed  from  any  family  that  is 
slow  in  maturing." 

The  best  practice,  and  the  one  followed  by  the  most  successful  managers  of  horses,  is  to 
begin  breaking  or  teaching  the  colt  while  he  is  yet  a  mere  suckling  by  the  side  of  his  dam. 
A  very  Httle  pains  at  this  period  will  teach  the  baby-horse  that  it  has  nothing  to  fear  from  the 
presence  of  man,  and  that  no  harm  can  come  to  it  from  being  handled  from  head  to  foot.  In 
this  way  he  will  soon  become  perfectly  gentle,  will  easily  be  led  by  the  halter,  and  will  stand 
when  tied.  All  the  subsequent  lessons  should  be  by  gradual  approaches ;  the  main  point  being 
to  inspire  him  with  confidence  that  he  will  not  be  harmed.  By  pursuing  this  system  of 
gradual  approaches  with  perfect  gentleness  of  manner  on  the  part  of  the  groom  or  other 
attendant,  there  need  never  be  any  trouble  in  breaking  the  most  fiery-tempered  colt. 

The  most  intelligent  colt  will  be  the  most  easily  managed  by  this  means,  for  once  ha\'ing 
learned  the  lesson  of  confidence  in  his  master,  he  can  readily  be  taught  to  understand  and  do 
what  is  required  of  him,  while  a  sensitive  and  naturally  timid  animal  would  be  spoiled  by 
any  other  course  of  treatment.  It  is  not  will  or  obstinacy  that  are  the  usual  difficulties  to  be 
surmounted  in  breaking  colts,  but  fear,  and  a  failure  to  understand  what  is  required  of  them. 
Rough  treatment  in  the  breaking  process  has  spoiled  the  temper  of  many  a  valuable  animal, 
while  on  the  other  hand  gentle  and  intelligent  instruction  improves  the  disposition  and 
develops  the  speed  and  endurance  of  colts,  qualities  so  excellent  in  roadsters.  The  more 
good  qualities  developed  while  young,  the  greater  will  be  the  merits  of  the  adult  animal. 


762  THE  AMERICAN  FARJIER 

How  much  the  skill  and  genius  of  man  have  added  to  the  value  of  our  improved  breed 
of  horses,  would  be  difficult  to  determine.  Many  a  noted  trotter  would  not  have  sold  for  a 
tenth  the  price  paid  for  him  if  his  fiery,  ungovernable  temper  or  ungainly  stride  had  not 
been  modified  and  improved  by  the  patience,  perseverance,  and  gentle  treatment  of  his 
trainer;  neither  would  Maud  S.  have  sold  for  $21,000  if  her  noted  trainer  had  not  taught  her 
at  four  years  old,  to  trot  a  mile  in  2:11^.  The  same  may  be  said  of  St.  JuUen  and  other  noted 
horses.  Untrained  horses  have  seldom  been  sold  for  high  prices.  By  patience  and  kind  treat- 
ment a  horse  may  be  trained  to  do  anything  required  of  him  that  is  reasonable,  and  not  only 
this,  but  wiU  become  so  attached  to  his  master,  that  he  will  seem  to  take  a  kind  of  pride  and 
pleasure  in  trying  to  please  him  when  he  once  understands  what  is  desired  of  him.  A  recent 
writer,  the  owner  of  several  fine  horses,  expresses  the  following  sensible  and  humane 
opinion: — 

"  We  would  never  have  a  man  on  our  premises  who  would  abuse  a  hoi-se.  The  men 
who  ever  worked  for  us  were  instructed  not  only  to  spare  the  lash,  but  to  spare  the  tongue. 
Rough  language  is  nearly  as  abusive  as  actual  beating.  A  horse  cannot  be  screamed  at  and 
iursed  without  becoming  less  valuable  in  every  particular.  To  reach  the  highest  degree  of 
value,  the  animal  should  be  perfectly  gentle,  and  always  reliable,  but  if  it  expects  every 
moment  that  it  is  in  the  harness  to  be  scolded  and  struck,  it  will  be  in  a  constant  state  of 
nervousness,  and  in  its  excitement  as  liable,  through  fear,  to  do  something  which  is  not 
expected  as  to  go  along  doing  what  you  started  it  to  do.  It  is  possible  to  train  a  horse  to  be 
governed  by  the  voice  almost  as  completely  as  it  is  to  train  a  child,  and  in  such  training  the 
horse  reaches  its  highest  value.  When  a  horse  is  soothed  by  the  gentle  words  of  his  driver 
— and  we  have  seen  him  calmed  down  from  great  excitement  by  no  other  means — it  may  be 
very  faidy  concluded  that  he  is  a  valuable  animal  for  practical  purposes,  and  it  may  be  cer- 
tainly concluded  that  the  man  who  has  such  power  over  him,  is  a  humane  man  and  a  sensible 
one.  But  all  this  simply  means  that  the  man  must  secure  the  animal's  confidence.  Only  in 
exceptional  instances  is  a  horse  stubborn  or  vicious.  If  he  understands  his  surroundings,  and 
what  is  required  of  him  he  gives  no  trouble.  As  almost  every  reader  must  know,  if  the 
animal  when  frightened  can  be  brought  up  to  the  object,  he  will  become  cahn.  The  reason  is 
that  he  understands  that  there  is  nothing  to  fear.  So  he  must  be  taught  to  have  confidence 
in  the  man  who  handles  him,  and  then  this  powerful  animal,  which  usually  a  man  could  not 
manage,  if  it  were  disposed  to  be  vicious,  will  give  no  trouble.  The  very  best  rule,  therefore, 
which  we  would  lay  down  for  the  management  of  the  horse  is  gentleness  and  good  sense  on 
the  part  of  the  driver.     Bad  drivers  almost  invariably  make  bad  horses." 

If  farmers  and  the  owners  of  horses  generally  would  be  more  particular  in  the  choice 
of  those  whom  they  employ  to  have  charge  of  their  animals,  in  all  stages  of  their  growth, 
whether  as  young  colts,  draft  or  carriage  horses,  they  would  not  only  find  it  more  agreeable 
in  having  better  tempered  and  more  easily  managed  horses,  but  also  more  profitable  in  a 
money  point  of  view,  since  such  animals  will  command  a  higher  price  in  the  market  than 
those  made  vicious,  nervous,  and  unmanageable  from  unkind  treatment. 

The  writer  has  known  of  many  valuable  animals  being  utterly  ruined  by  the  bad  man- 
agement and  cruel  treatment  of  so-called  "professionals"  in  colt-breaking.  In  one  instance, 
a  valuable  colt  of  four  years  of  age  was  so  wretchedly  handled  that  in  three  weeks'  time  she 
was  not  worth  a  dollar  for  after-use.  Another  was  so  cruelly  treated  in  the  "  bitting  process  " 
(a  thing  which  no  man  who  truly  loves  his  horse  will  ever  allow),  that,  in  horsemen's  phrase, 
"  she  had  no  mouth;  "  and  when  abused  with  voice  or  whip,  would  drop  her  jaw  back  against 
her  neck,  and  run  away  and  break  things,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  her  driver  to  stop  her.  In 
this  instance  a  naturally  fine  animal  was  ruined,  and  practically  worthless  when  "broken,"  as 
the  expression  is.  Another  animal,  from  the  same  stock  as  the  preceding  ones,  and  now  in 
her  thirtieth  year,  never  was  broken,  in  the  common  meaning  of  the  term,  and  will  not  be 
when  she  dies;  but  willing  and  true  to  bit  or  voice,  she  has  been  faithful  and  fruitful  in  good 


THE  HORSE.  765 

works  all  her  life  long,  perfectly  gentle,  although  a  very  spirited  animal,  but  peculiarly  sen- 
sitive to  harsh  treatment  of  any  kind,  and  would  have  been  rendered  utterly  worthless  by  it. 
«  Halter  Breaking. — The  best  method  of  teaching  a  colt,  is  to  commence  at  birth,  and 

by  gradual  approaches  accustom  him  to  be  handled.  Thus,  by  kindness  and  gentleness,  his 
first  lesson  should  be,  that  he  has  nothing  to  fear  from  man,  but  that  his  master  is  his  friend 
and  protector.  This  lesson  must  invariably  be  first  taught,  in  order  to  attain  the  highest 
success  in  subsequent  efforts,  in  bringing  him  under  complete  subjection,  and  in  developing 
the  best  qualities  of  the  animal.  This  method  of  colt  breaking  was  well  understood  and 
practiced  by  the  ancients,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  writings  of  Xenophon,  which  were  penned 
about  twenty-three  hundred  years  ago,  as  follows: — 

"  Care  must  be  taken,  that  when  the  breaker  receives  the  foal,  he  be  gentle,  tractable, 
and  fond  of  men.  For  he  is  generally  rendered  so  at  home  by  the  groom,  if  the  foal  is 
made  to  understand  that  hunger,  thirst,  and  irritation  are  procured  by  solitude;  and  that 
meat,  drink,  and  freedom  from  irritation  are  procured  by  men.  When  these  things  take 
place,  foals  not  only  love,  but  long  for  men.  It  is  necessary  also  to  touch  those  parts  which, 
when  touched,  give  greatest  pleasure  to  the  horse;  and  these  are  the  hairiest,  and  those  parts 
in  which,  when  he  feels  any  pain,  he  cannot  relieve  himself. 

The  groom  should  be  enjoined  to  lead  him  through  a  crowd,  and  cause  him  to  approach 
all  kinds  of  sights  and  sounds.  "Whichever  of  these  the  foal  may  dread,  it  is  necessary  to 
teach  him,  not  by  harshness,  but  gentleness,  that  they  are  not  dangerous." 

The  young  colt  should  be  handled  every  day,  gently  and  quietly,  patting  or  rubbing  him 
with  the  hand  only  in  those  parts  of  the  body  that  it  is  agreeable  to  him  to  be  touched,  such 
as  the  back,  top  of  the  hips,  under  the  neck  and  head, — places  that  he  cannot  easily  rub  him- 
self, or  touch  with  the  mouth  or  feet.  Horses  do  not  usually  like  to  be  touched  on  the 
*  flanks,  or  the  inside  of  the  stifle,  under  the  breast,  or  on  the  ears,  and  such  places  should  be 
carefully  avoided.     Attentions  of  this  kind  should  be  frequent,  but  never  tiresome  to  him. 

These  instructions  should  begin  during  the  first  week  of  his  life,  for  the  earlier  this  is 
learned,  the  easier  will  it  be  to  teach  him,  and  when  once  taught,  it  will  never  be  forgotten. 
Many  breeders  teach  the  foal  to  be  led  by  the  halter  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks.  If 
the  dam  is  to  be  used  on  the  roau,  the  colt  will,  when  strong  enough,  soon  learn  to  accom- 
pany her  by  having  his  halter  attached  to  the  harness  or  shaft. 

When  being  weaned,  he  may  be  tied  by  her  in  the  stall,  as  previously  recommended, 
which  will  also  further  accustom  him  to  the  halter.  By  commencing  early,  there  is  no  acquired 
habit  to  be  overcome,  and  he  should  be  taught  only  just  what  you  desire  him  to  know.  Let 
him  know  that  you  are  his  friend,  and  by  patient  and  gentle  efforts  he  will  soon  be  able  to 
understand  what  is  desired  of  him,  and,  if  he  has  confidence  in  you,  will  willingly  yield  obe- 
dience. When  he  does  well,  he  should  be  praised  for  it,  and  made  to  understand,  by  gentle 
pats  and  kind  words,  that  it  is  appreciated.  Animals,  even  the  most  stupid,  will  very  quickly 
translate  such  acts  and  words  into  their  true  meaning,  and  the  horse,  being  one  of  the  most 
intelligent  of  the  brute  creation,  will  soon  catch  the  meaning  of  what  is  intended  for  him  to 
know.  Never  pull  him  back  on  the  halter,  as  so  many  ignorant,  so-called  "  horse-breakers  " 
do,  under  the  stupid  idea  that  a  constant  pulling  will  teach  him  to  walk  fast.  It  will  only 
teach  him  the  reverse,  and  to  hang  back,  and  when  this  habit  is  once  acquired,  it  will  be 
almost  impossible  to  break  it. 

The  halter  should  be  of  some  soft  and  strong  material — leather  being  best — which  will 
not  chafe  or  fret  him,  and  it  should  be  made  to  fit  well  and  not  hurt  his  nose  when  he  pulls. 
If  he  should  once  break  the  halter  and  get  away,  it  would  be  a  bad  lesson  that  he  might 
never  forget. 

Never  use  a  rope  for  a  halter  on  an  unbroken  colt,  as  it  would  chafe  and  make  him 
nervous  and  uncomfortable.     With  a  rope  halter,  a  colt  will  be  very  liable  to  pull,  rear,  and 


766  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

throw  himself,  since  the  rope  will  hurt  him,  and  cause  him  to  try  to  get  his  head  out  of  it, 
and  the  more  he  pulls,  the  more  the  hard,  cutting  rope  draws  upon  the  sensitive  flesh,  the 
sHp-noose  tightens  and  pinches  his  nose,  until,  with  pain  and  fright,  his  struggles  to  get  free 
often  result  in  serious  injury  to  the  animal.  Besides  this,  a  horse  that  has  once  had  such  an 
experience  of  pulling  at  the  halter  wiU  always  remember  it,  and  cannot  be  as  well  broken  as 
one  that  has  never  pulled  at  all. 

The  best  method  to  teach  the  colt  to  lead,  if  he  has  not  previously  been  accustomed  to 
it  in  accompanying  the  dam,  is  not  to  go  in  front  and  attempt  to  pull  him  after  you,  but  to 
pull  him  gently  to  one  side,  as  he  will  then  not  be  as  liable  to  brace  himself  and  pull  back, 
and  thus  acquire  the  habit  of  pulling.  After  he  has  been  a  step  or  two  one  side,  let  him  rest 
a  moment,  while  you  pat  him  a  little,  all  the  time  speaking  kindly  to  him;  then  pull  him  gen- 
tly by  the  halter  to  the  other  side,  always  speaking  the  word  "come."  In  a  short  time  he 
will  learn  to  associate  the  word  with  the  act  of  starting,  and  learn  what  it  means.  If  he 
resists,  be  patient  yet  firm.  If  the  resistance  seems  to  be  through  fear,  handle  and  pet  him 
until  he  loses  all  fear  of  you  before  attempting  to  force  him  to  yield. 

If  the  resistance  appears  to  be  obstinacy,  gradually  increase  the  strength  upon  the  halter 
until  he  is  forced  to  yield  to  it.  Never  jerk  or  pull  suddenly  on  the  halter.  After  a  few 
moments  of  rest,  this  may  be  repeated,  always  speaking  to  him  when  you  want  him  to  go ;  by 
this  means  he  will  learn  to  start  when  told. 

Never  forget  to  praise  and  caress  him  when  he  does  well,  but  never  punish  him  at  this 
period. 

After  a  little  patience  on  the  part  of  the  trainer,  and  perhaps  resistance  on  his  part,  he 
will  soon  suffer  himself  to  be  led  wherever  he  is  desired  to  go.  The  trainer  may  be  amused 
at  the  exhibition  of  temper  or  vexation  on  the  part  of  the  colt  during  the  trial,  but  he  must 
never  allow  himself  to  be  angry.  He  must  simply  "hold  his  own,"  never  jerk  or  twitch  on 
the  halter,  but  steadily  and  firmly  enforce  obedience.  Obedience,  pure  and  simple,  without 
enmity  or  fright,  must  be  obtained  to  reach  the  best  results  in  halter-breaking,  and,  in  fact, 
in  everything  pertaining  to  the  training  of  the  colt  at  any  period.  By  once  learning  in  this  . 
manner  that  man  is  stronger  than  he,  he  will  never  forget  it,  and  will  the  more  readily  yield 
obedience  when  he  becomes  stronger  than  man.  Don't  fail  to  encourage  him  by  praise  and 
gentle  pats  when  he  does  well;  he  will  learn  to  love  his  master  for  it,  and  submission  will  be 
pleasure.  If  he  shows  much  temper,  it  must  be  remembered  that  some  of  the  most  intelli- 
gent and  valuable  horses  have  been  naturally  high-tempered,  but  have  been  subdued  and 
made  the  valuable  animals  that  they  were,  through  kindness,  combined  with  firmness  and 
persistence. 

When  visited  in  the  stable,  frequently  carry  him  something  to  eat  that  he  likes;  an 
apple,  piece  of  cake,  or  lump  of  sugar  will  go  far  towards  gaining  his  affection,  and  making 
him  docile  and  submissive.  The  writer  has  known  older  horses  with  vicious  habits  entirely 
reclaimed  in  this  way,  and  who  would  by  this  means  learn  to  regard  the  master's  approach 
as  an  omen  of  good  to  them,  and  whinny  for  him  on  seeing  him  in  the  distance,  and  when 
sufficiently  near  would  fumble  playfully  about  his  pockets  with  their  lips  in  endeavors  to 
find  the  present  he  had  brought.  Such  a  horse,  ninety-nine  times  out  of  a  hiindred,  will 
prove  an  obedient,  faithful  animal.  It  is  said  that  the  way  to  an  animal's  heart,  or  affec- 
tions, is  down  his  throat.  With  how  much  truth  may  this  not  be  practically  applied  to  many 
of  the  human  species.  Although  it  is  to  be  regretted,  it  will  quite  too  frequently  be  found 
with  mankind,  on  a  severe  analysis  of  motives  for  professions  of  friendship  and  esteem,  that 
self-interest  lies  at  the  foundation.  If  it  does  not  form  the  entire  basis,  it  will  too  often  be 
found  to  constitute  some  little  ''  corner-stone  "  in  that  foundation. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  this  principle  respecting  mankind,  we  believe  in  a  generous 
toleration  of  it  in  the  management  of  animals,  and  particularly  horses.     The  colt  should  be 


THE  HORSE.  767 

made  familiar  with  noises  and  startling  objects,  gradually  at  first  by  beginning  with  those  of 
a  mild  character,  ur.til  he  fails  to  be  frightened  at  almost  anything  in  sight  or  sound. 
This  will  prevent  him  from  shying  suddenly  when  used  in  the  harncs.-.  When  well  halter- 
broken,  that  is,  when  he  will  lead  readily  by  the  halter,  and  also  stand  quietly  when  tied,  he 
has  learned  a  valuable  lesson. 

The  Bitting  Process. — A  smooth  bit  that  will  not  hurt  the  mouth  of  the  colt  should 
be  used ;  also,  one  that  has  a  bar  at  each  side  to  prevent  it  from  pulling  through  his  mouth 
either  way. 

This  may  be  attached  to  the  head-stall  of  the  bridle,  without  reins,  and  he  be  allowed  to 
wear  it  an  hour  or  two  each  day,  untU  he  becomes  accustomed  to  it,  and  will  bear  it  without 
trying  to  get  it  out  of  his  mouth.  As  soon  as  he  will  bear  it,  the  reins  may  be  attached.  Do 
not  tire  or  worry  him,  but  let  everything  that  is  new  to  him  be  gradual. 

The  method  of  bitting,  as  followed  by  many  ignorant  horse-breakers,  cannot  be  con- 
demned in  too  strong  terms.  It  is  alike  inhuman  and  injurious  to  the  animal,  and  is  prac- 
ticed under  the  mistaken  idea  that  by  drawing  the  horse's  head  out  of  its  natural  position,  by 
this  torturing  process,  he  will  ever  afterward  carry  it  in  a  graceful  manner. 

The  position  in  which  a  horse  carries  his  head  in  harness  will  depend  mainly  upon  his 
form  and  temper.  A  horse  may  have  ever  so  much  spirit  and  courage,  but,  if  he  have  a 
short  neck  and  perpendicular  shoulder,  no  bitting  bridle  ever  invented  will  give  him  a  grace- 
fully curved  neck,  and  fine  style  of  carriage.  Style  is  something  inherent  in  the  animal,  and 
not  in  the  application  of  any  device  that  may  be  invented  by  man.  The  great  object  of  the 
bitting  bridle  is  to  cause  the  horse  to  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  bit,  and  to  teach  him  to 
obey  the  guidance  of  the  reins.  The  mouth  of  the  colt  is  very  tender  and  sensitive,  and  the 
use  of  any  bit  that  will  cut,  bruise,  and  mangle  the  gums,  tongue,  or  lips,  is  not  only  cruel, 
but  in  time  renders  the  colt  hard-mouthed  and  unmanageable.  Of  course,  it  is  desired  that 
the  horse's  mouth  shall  become  toughened  to  the  use  of  the  bit,  but  this  will  come  gradually 
by  daily  use.  It  is  not,  however,  desirable  that  the  mouth  shall  become  so  injured  by  it  that 
the  bit  will  make  no  impression  whatever.  Mr.  Murray's  opinion  on  this  subject  is  so  much 
in  conformity  with  our  own,  that  we  quote  it  for  the  benefit  of  our  readers: — 

"  To  see  the  bits  that  have  been  invented,  and  the  '  bitting-machines '  that  have  been 
patented  and  sold,  to  serve  this  purpose,  is  enough  to  set  the  satirist  on  edge,  and  arouse  the 
ire  of  the  humane.  The  truth  is,  the  only  use  of  any  'bitting-machine,'  if  it  is  any  thing 
more  than  a  plain  bar-bit  in  a  bridle  without  blinkers  or  check-Hne,  is  to  make  money  for 
some  ignoramus,  and  torture  the  horse.  The  philosophy  of  bitting  horses,  upon  which  these 
'  bitting-machines  '  are  founded,  is  a  fraud  and  folly.  There  is  no  more  need  for  them  in  a 
trainer's  yard  than  there  is  in  a  nursery.  I  make  no  limitation  or  modification  of  this  state- 
ment at  all.  Their  true  name  is  'fool's  machine,'  and  not  'bitting-machine: '  or,  more  prop- 
erly, if  you  wish  to  designate  their  use  and  result  of  it,  call  them  '  machines  to  spoil  horses' 
mouths;'  for  this  appellation  precisely  describes  them.  A  man  using  one  ought  to  be 
indicted  before  the  common  law  of  the  country,  which  should  at  least  be  able  to  prevent 
such  cruelty  to  animals.  If  any  owner  of  a  colt  who  reads  this  owns  or  uses  one  of  these 
'bitting-machines,'  I  urge  him  to  burn  it  or  bury  it,  as  the  most  mischievous  and  hurtful 
thing  that  he  can  have  about  his  stables.  If  I  wished  to  make  my  colts  '  hogged-mouthed  ' 
and  desperate  pullers,  I  would  use  one  of  these  'infernal  machines,'  as  I  have  no  doubt  the 
colts  themselves  call  them,  and  as  they  deserve  to  be  called  by  colts  and  men.  I  will  show 
you  how  this  plan  of  using  these  'machines  '  works. 

"  Now  let  us  begin  to  Mi  a  colt  according  to  the  machine  method.  The  colt,  never  having 
been  even  broke  to  the  halter,  perhaps,  is  led  out  into  a  yard,  the  '  machine '  strapped  on  his 
back,  the  bit  of  iron  or  steel  jammed  into  his  mouth,  the  check-rein  adjusted,  and  the  colt's 
head  drawn  suddenly  up  into  the  air,  and  the  trainer  stands  one  side.     The  colt,  of  course, 


768  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

struggles  and  rears  and  plunges.  He  becomes  enraged,  and  '  fights  the  bit ; '  foam  drops 
from  his  lips;  pretty  soon  it  is  stained  with  streakings  of  blood.  The  iron  bit,  you  see,  as  he 
'  fought  it,'  has  grated  over  the  young  teeth,  cut  into  the  tender  tongue,  and  lacerated  the 
gums  and  lips.  I  have  seen  all  this  done  (it  is  no  fancy  sketch), — seen  blood  come  in  less 
than  two  minutes  after  the  '  bitting-machine '  was  adjusted.  Now,  what  has  been  done?  Sev- 
eral things,  I  reply.  First,  unnecessary  pain  has  been  caused  an  innocent  and  harmless 
creature:  that  alone  is  enough  to  condemn  any  '  machine '  ever  invented.  Secondly,  the 
colt's  mouth  has  been  spoiled  until  the  lacerated  gums  and  lips  and  tongue  can  heal.  Thirdly, 
the  colt's  temper  has  been  soured,  and  no  useful  knowledge  imparted.  These  truths  are  self- 
evident.  But  this  is  not  all.  The 'machine, 'instead  of  being  removed,  is  Ze/C  on;  the  trainer 
goes  to  his  work  in  the  field,  or  to  drive;  and  the  colt  is  left  to  'fight  it  out.'  Now,  examine 
the  matter  a  little.  "What  is  the  true  position  of  things?  This,  I  respond :  The  colt  is  in 
pain.  His  head  is  drawn  up  to  an  unnatural  height;  his  neck,  pulled  into  an  angle  both 
awkward  and  painful,  aches  with  exquisite  suffering.  To  appreciate  the  agony  the  young 
thing  endures,  let  some  one  take  hold  of  your  own  head,  and  draw  it  up  and  backward  as  high 
and  as  far  as  the  bone-structure  and  muscles  will  permit,  and  compel  you  to  stand  with  it  in  that 
position  even  for  five  minutes.  In  this  way  you  will  get  some  idea  of  'bitting-machines,'  and 
the  actual  torture  which  colts  experience  while  being  'bitted '  by  them. 

But  the  evil  of  this  system  is  not  yet  fully  stated.  The  colt,  with  his  head  drawn  up 
and  back,  is  left  in  the  yard,  as  I  have  said,  while  the  trainer  goes  to  his  work  or  to  drive. 
Perhaps  he  stands  an  hour;  perhaps  five  hours;  very  likely  all  day.  For  the  first  few  min- 
utes he  strives  to  keep  his  head  up,  and  the  bit  loose  in  his  mouth,  because  it  pains  him;  but 
pretty  soon  the  muscles  of  his  neck  begin  to  ache.  They  were  never  made  to  hold  up  the 
head  in  that  style,  and  are  actually  unable  to  do  it  for  any  considerable  length  of  time.  Soon 
the  head  sags;  the  pain  in  the  overtasked  muscles  of  the  neck  is  greater  even  than  that 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  bit.  It  is,  you  see,  with  the  colt,  a  choice  between  two  pairs. 
Little  by  little,  the  head  droops;  heavier  and  heavier  the  weight  of  it  is  laid  upon  the  bit; 
and,  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  two,  the  colt  stands  weary  and  stolid,  the  weight  of  his 
head  and  neck  laid  sohdly  down  upon  the  bit.  The  colt  is  being  taught,  you  see,  to  '  take 
the  bit '  with  a  vengeance.  He  is  actually  being  educated  to  '  hog  on  the  bit '  and  be  a  puller. 
The  true  way  to  bit  a  colt  is  not  to  bit  him  at  all;  that  is,  let  him  bit  himself." 

We  remember  trying  the  "  bitting  machine  "  just  once,  about  twenty -five  years  ago,  in 
our  first  attempt  at  colt-breaking,  supposing  it  to  be  a  necessary  part  of  the  operation.  It 
was  a  pet  animal,  a  fine,  spirited  bay  mare  of  the  Morgan  type.  We  shall  never  forget  how, 
after  the  bit  was  put  on,  she  followed  us  around  with  a  mute  appeal  in  her  eyes  to  have  it 
taken  off,  occasionally  rubbing  her  head  against  our  shoulder,  the  sweat  meanwhile  starting 
from  every  pore,  making  her  bright  bay  coat  nearly  black  as  it  became  wet. 

After  about  ten  minutes  of  this  method  of  experiment  in  colt-breaking,  we  were  con- 
vinced of  the  error  of  using  it,  and  the  agony  it  was  inflicting  upon  our  pet  horse,  and  it 
was  immediately  removed  and  never  put  on  again,  though  we  kept  her  until  she  died  of  old 
age,  which  was  at  about  thirty  years,  after  having  proved  one  of  the  most  styHsh  and  best 
roadsters  in  the  country.  We  have  also  been  equally  successfiil  in  breaking  other  horses,  but 
never  have  tolerated  the  cruel  bitting  process.  We  believe  more  horses  are  either  injured,  or 
utterly  ruined  by  it,  than  by  almost  any  other  means. 

Breaking  to  Harness. — This  may  be  done  when  the  colt  is  about  two  years  old,  or  even 
younger,  and  after  he  has  been  well  Jialter-broken  and  accustomed  to  the  bit.  Many  do  this 
when  the  foal  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  months  old.  The  more  he  has  been  gentled  by  fre- 
quent handling  previous  to  this  time,  the  easier  will  all  subsequent  instructions  become.  He 
must  not  only  become  accustomed  to  the  harness,  but  must  be  taught  to  stand  quietly  while 
the  harness  is  being  put  on  and  taken  off.     Portions  of   the  harness « should  be  put  on 


THE  HORSE.  769 

gradually,  permitting  him  first  to  smell  of  it  and  touch,  it  with  his  nose.  Animals,  especially 
the  horse,  depend  much  upon  the  sense  of  smell  in  becoming  acquainted  with  objects  about 
them,  and,  having  once  in  this  way  become  familiar  with  things,  they  will  rarely  ever  be 
afraid  of  them  afterwards. 

The  harness  should  fit  him  loosely  at  first,  until  he  becomes  a  little  accustomed  to  it, 
when  it  can  be  gradually  tightened.  He  should  first  be  allowed  to  stand  an  hour  or  so  with 
the  harness  on,  after  which  he  can  be  led  about,  and  thus  become  used  to  it  while  walking. 
Nothing  should  ever  be  done  to  frighten  or  worry  him,  but  at  the  same  time  he  should  be 
taught  to  yield  to  his  trainer  by  firmness  and  kindness.  When  being  led  about,  he  should 
occasionally  be  stopped  at  the  place  of  unharnessing,  and  allowed  to  stand  about  the  length 
of  time  that  would  be  required  to  remove  or  put  on  the  harness;  by  this  means  he  will  learn 
to  stand  quietly  for  this  purpose.  This  should  be  repeated  for  several  days  in  succession^ 
until  this  lesson  is  thoroughly  learned.  After  this  he  can  be  taught  to  obey  the  motion 
of  the  reins.  It  is  a  good  plan,  also,  to  accustom  him  to  pressure  against  the  breast  and 
shoulders  by  fastening  strong  cords  or  straps  into  each  side  of  the  collar,  and  by  pulling, 
gently  at  first,  cause  him  to  use  his  strength  to  pull  against  it;  by  this  means  he  will  get  an 
idea  of  drawing. 

The  sulky  is  much  the  best  vehicle  to  use  in  breaking  a  colt.  It  should  be  Hght,  but  it 
is  important  that  it  have  very  strong  shafts.  After  becoming  accustomed  to  the  harness,  and 
before  being  attached  to  the  sulky,  the  colt  should  first  be  led  up  to  it,  and,  by  smelling  of  it 
and  touching  it  with  his  nose,  learn  that  it  is  nothing  from  which  he  has  any  cause  to  fear. 
He  may  then  be  attached  to  it,  which  should  be  done  as  quietly  and  carefully  as  possible. 

Some  prefer  to  have  the  colt  at  this  point  in  breaking  driven  with  another  horse.  If  the 
latter  method  is  practiced,  the  horse  should  be  one  of  the  most  gentle  and  submissive,  also 
one  the  colt  has  been  accustomed  to  be  with.  We  have  always  been  accustomed  to  drive  a 
colt  singly  while  breaking,  and  prefer  this  method.  Ever3rthing  about  the  harness  and  sulky 
should  be  very  strong,  that  no  accident  may  be  liable  to  occur,  for  if  the  colt  should  chance 
to  break  away  he  would  never  forget  it,  and  would  be  liable  to  be  a  runaway  at  any  period 
of  his  after-life. 

The  method  we  have  found  most  successful  is  to  attach  the  old  farm  horse,  with  whom 
the  colt  is  well  acquainted,  (or  it  may  be  his  dam,)  to  a  wagon,  and  have  this  team  start  in 
front  of  him  slowly,  keeping  a  few  yards  in  advance  of  the  colt  team.  In  this  way  he  will 
more  readily  understand  what  is  required  of  him,  and  be  more  wUling  to  follow  where  he 
has  such  company  to  lead.  It  wUl  often  be  found  that  when  a  turn  in  the  road  may  chance 
to  hide  the  forward  team  from  sight  for  a  moment,  the  colt  wiU  whinny  anxiously,  and  hasten 
his  gait  to  catch  up. 

Teach  a  hoi-se  to  depend  much  upon  the  voice,  which  should  never  be  harsh  and  abusive. 
By  this  we  do  not  mean  to  be  understood  that  we  favor  the  custom  of  such  as  are  constantly 
shouting  and  talking  to  a  horse  while  driving.  We  have  seen  some  drivers  that  we  would 
gladly  have  seen  gagged,  or  their  voice  stopped  by  some  other  effectual  means,  and  whose  con- 
stant "whoas,"  "get  ups,"  "take  cares,"  and  similar  commands  and  countermands  were 
enough  to  puzzle  and  disgust  any  animal,  as  well  as  human  beings.  A  quiet  driver  is  always 
the  best  driver,  but  when  he  does  speak,  he  should  be  understood  and  obeyed. 

The  horse  should  be  taught  the  meaning  of  but  few  words,  yet  these  he  should  learn 
thoroughly,  and  when  they  are  spoken  to  him,  he  should  learn  to  heed  them.  By  this  means 
many  a  serious  result  to  an  accident  or  fright  of  the  animal  may  be  prevented.  A  horse 
who  knows  his  master's  voice,  and  is  accustomed  to  obey  it,  and  who  feels  that  his  master  is 
his  protector  and  friend,  will  be  much  more  Ukely  to  stop  at  his  word,  when  frightened,  than 
one  who  has  learned  to  fear  his  master's  voice  and  lash,  when  an3rthing  unusual  happened. 

If  there  is  any  tendency  in  a  colt  to  balk,  let  him  stand  a  few  moments,  and  then  by 


770  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

gentle  words  or  a  few  pats  encourage  him  forward.  Never  use  the  whip  under  such  circum- 
stances. Never  get  into  a  quarrel  with  him.  The  best  way  to  avoid  this  is  to  be  patient, 
gentle,  and  firm,  giving  him  time  to  understand  what  is  wanted,  and  to  make  up  his  mind  to 
do  it.  A  horse  is  naturally  spirited,  sensitive,  and  timid,  and  although  a  very  intelligent 
animal,  yet  he  must  have  time  to  fully  comprehend  what  is  wanted  before  he  can  perform 
what  is  required  of  him.  Everything  is  strange  and  new  to  him,  and  a  little  haste  might 
confuse  or  frighten  him,  especially  if  he  be  of  a  nervous  temperament,  to  the  extent  that  he 
might  be  wholly  unable  to  understand  what  was  for  the  time  wanted. 

Teach  him  to  stand  quietly  while  you  are  getting  into  the  vehicle,  and  until  you  tell  him 
to  go.  This  may  be  soon  accomplished  by  getting  in  and  sitting  a  while  before  starting, 
always  speaking  the  word  when  you  wish  him  to  start,  and  never  under  any  circumstances 
allowing  him  to  start  of  his  own  accord.  The  habit  acquired  by  some  horses  of  starting 
before  the  driver  is  half  in  the  carriage,  is  a  pernicious  one,  and  is  more  the  fault  of  the 
trainer  in  permitting  it,  than  of  the  colt. 

A  colt  should  never  have  his  temper  spoiled  by  being  teased  or  annoyed  in  any  way. 
More  horses  are  made  vicious  in  .this  way  than  in  any  other.  He  should  never  be  over-exer- 
cised, or  discouraged  by  loads  that  are  too  heavy  for  him  to  draw.  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  whatever  is  done  should  be  done  quietly  and  in  a  gradual  way,  no  hurrying,  no  bustle  or 
confusion.  Always  be  true  to  your  teachings  to  your  colt;  never  contradict  yourself,  teaching 
him  one  thing  this  week,  and  the  opposite  the  next.  He  will  remember  this  if  you  do;  it  will 
confuse  him,  and  be  as  likely  to  make  him  do  wrong  as  right.  His  lesson  must  be  made  as 
plain  for  him,  as  for  you.  Never  put  blinders  on  him  while  being  broken,  or  at  any  other 
time. 

We  know  of  an  owner  and  trainer  of  several  colts  who,  when  he  goes  into  the  pasture 
among  them,  will  have  them  all  about  him,  as  gentle  as  pet  kittens,  rubbing  their  noses 
against  him,  and  each  seeming  to  be  jealous  of  the  attentions  he  bestows  upon  the  others; 
who  run  to  meet  him  when  they  see  him  coming,  and  who  whinny  after  him  when  he  leaves 
them.  His  method  is  simply  to  begin  gentling  the  colts  from  birth  by  frequently  handling 
them,  and  by  kindness,  gentleness,  yet  firmness,  never  deceiving  them,  and  always  encourag- 
ing and  rewarding  their  obedience.  Disobedience  he  rarely  punishes  with  the  whip,  but  gen- 
erally by  abstaining  from  the  little  attentions  and  tit-bits  that  are  given  as  rewards  at  other 
times. 

These  are  the  best  means  of  subduing  a  colt  and  making  him  obedient  without  crushing 
his  spirit.  Such  training  makes  much  of  the  difference  between  a  worthless  and  valuable 
horse,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  qualities  that  make  an  animal  vicious  and  ungovern- 
able will,  under  judicious  treatment,  make  a  spirited  yet  obedient  horse,  one  possessing  great 
intelligence  and  appreciative  of  praise  or  rebuke.  If  it  is  thoiight  that  the  directions  given 
require  too  much  time  and  labor,  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  horse  is  a  very  valuable 
animal,  and  that  the  labor  bestowed  upon  him  at  this  period  greatly  increases  his  value  by 
making  him  more  serviceable,  readily  managed,  safe,  and  reliable,  and  when  once  well  broken 
the  lesson  learned  will  be  for  a  lifetime,  never  to  be  forgotten. 

Teaching  a  Colt  to  Back.— This  may  be  done  by  standing  in  front  of  him  and 
taking  hold  of  the  reins  with  either  hand,  give  a  slight  pressure  upon  the  bit,  at  the  same 
time  speaking  the  word  "back." 

He  will  thus  be  made  to  step  backward  a  httle,  and  by  a  few  repetitions,  always  speaking 
the  word,  as  at  first,  he  will  soon  learn  to  associate  the  movement  with  it.  This  is  an 
unpleasant  and  awkward  lesson  for  him  to  learn,  as  it  is  not  natural  for  any  animal  to  walk 
backward,  and  time  should  be  taken,  in  order  not  to  try  his  temper  and  make  him  obstinate. 
A  few  trials  each  day,  for  a  few  days,  will  generally  accomplish  it  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner,  and  with  a  slight  drawing  upon  the  reins  while  standing  back  of  him,     "WTien  he 


THE  HORSE.  771 

has  learned  to  go  in  a  harness,  this  lesson  should  be  frequently  repeated.  WhUe  being 
broken  to  the  wagon  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  him  attached  to  it,  and  taken  where  there  is 
an  incline,  where  the  wagon  will  itself  tend  to  run  backward,  down  hill,  thus  making  it  easy 
for  him  to  back  it  at  first.  After  having  accompUshed  this  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  trainer, 
he  can  be  tried  on  level  ground,  and  thus  by  degrees,  adding  after  a  time  a  slight  weight  and 
increasing  it,  he  may  learn  perfectly  the  (to  him)  difficult  lesson. 

In  the  same  manner  he  may  learn  what  the  word  "  whoa  "  means,  and  to  obey  it  also, 
and  to  stop  by  a  pressure  upon  the  bit. 

Breaking  to  the  Saddle. — This  is  learned  by  first  putting  a  saddle  upon  him,  leav- 
ing the  belts  very  loose,  and  omitting  the  back  straps,  allowing  him  to  stand  in  the  stable 
with  it  on  for  an  hour  or  two  each  day,  tightening  gradually  the  belly-band.  After  two  or 
three  days  put  on  the  back  straps,  and  continue  to  tighten  the  belly-band  until  it  is  as  tight 
as  is  customarily  worn.  He  should  then  be  led  about  until  he  becomes  accustomed  to  the 
feehng  of  the  saddle  while  walking,  and  when  this  is  thoroughly  learned  a  light  weight,  hke 
a  small  bag  of  grain,  may  be  laid  across  it.  In  this  way  he  will  learn  to  carry  a  weight. 
He  should  first  be  ridden  by  one  he  is  well  acquainted  with,  and  who  has  charge  of  him. 
No  colt  should,  however,  carry  a  heavy  weight,  such  as  a  rider,  for  instance,  until  his  back 
has  become  sufficiently  strong  to  enable  him  to  do  so  without  injury.  The  saddle  gait  can 
afterward  readUy  be  taught.  The  mounting  and  dismounting  should  be  done  very  carefully 
and  quietly  at  first,  in  order  not  to  frighten  the  animal. 

The  Age  for  Working  Colts. — Although  for  many  reasons  it  is  very  desirable  to 
break  the  colt  when  young,  yet  it  is  not  well  for  him  to  work  hard  until  he  has  attained  his 
full  growth  and  strength.  The  cause  of  so  many  horses  breaking  down  early,  is  doubtless 
due  to  over-work  during  the  growing  period,  and  before  the  bones  have  become  sufficiently 
hardened,  or  the  muscles  fully  developed.  By  working  a  colt  hard  he  will  become  an  old 
horse  when  he  should  be  only  in  his  prime.  Although  it  may  be  expensive  to  kept  a  colt  doing 
but  comparatively  little  when  he  is  four  or  five  years  old,  yet  it  will  pay  better  in  the  end  than 
to  over-work  him,  for  he  will  last  enough  longer  to  more  than  make  up  for  it.  Every  horse 
should  work  at  least  two  hours  a  day;  they  require  exercise  in  order  to  promote  health,  and, 
mai^  horses  suffer  for  want  of  such  exercise,  being  kept  idle  in  close,  confined  stables. 
Either  extreme  is  injurious.  Although  a  colt  may  do  some  Ught  work  at  four,  he  should  not 
be  put  to  hard  service  until  he  is  six  or  seven  years  old.  By  such  humane  and  considerate 
treatment  on  the  part  of  his  owner,  he  may  be  made  to  do  good  service  until  he  is  from 
twenty  five  to  thirty  years  old,  or  even  longer,  while  many  hard-worked  colts  become  horses 
that  are  past  their  usefulness  at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years. 

How  to  Prevent  a  Colt  from  being  Easily  Frightened.— There  is  a  great 
difference  in  horses  with  respect  to  their  shying  and  becoming  easily  frightened  while  being 
driven.  The  temperaments  of  animals  differ  as  much  as  those  of  the  human  family,  and 
some  horses  are  naturally  more  nervous  and  timid  than  others.  But  this  can  be  corrected  in  a 
great  measure  by  taking  pains  to  permit  a  horse  to  examine  and  smell  of  everything  that  looks 
new  and  strange  to  him.  Everyone  who  has  had  any  experience  with  horses,  or  has  been  at 
all  observing,  will  know  that  the  natural,  and,  in  fact,  the  only  way  in  which  a  horse  can 
obtain  a  (to  him)  satisfactory  knowledge  of  objects,  is  to  smell  of  them;  also  to  sometimes 
feel  of  them  with  his  nose.  He  seems  to  have  no  confidence  in  simply  looking  at  an  object, 
and  when  greatly  frightened  at  anything  startling,  will  generally  cease  to  fear  it  afterward, 
if  he  can  apply  his  nose  to  it  for  a  moment,  and  examine  it  in  this  way,  thus  assuring  him- 
self that  it  will  not  harm  him.  And  a  horse  should  always  be  permitted  to  do  this.  Some 
of  the  most  timid  and  nervous  of  horses  can  be  greatly  improved  in  this  way,  and  many 
serious  accidents  prevented.  To  whip  a  horse  for  being  frightened,  is  the  most  stupid  of 
46 


772  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

blunders,  for  he  will  be  all  the  more  liable  to  fear  the  same  or  similar  objects  again,  and  such 
a  course  will  therefore  increase  the  evil,  rather  than  correct  it.  When  breaking  a  colt,  he 
should  be  permitted  to  examine  everything  used  about  him  in  this  way,  the  harness,  saddle, 
wagon,  and  when  an  object  on  the  road  startles  him,  he  should  be  led  up  towards  it  carefully, 
and  by  kind  words  and  pats  be  assured  that  it  is  all  right  by  smelling  it. 

When  young  horses  are  being  driven  to  the  city  or  busy  town  for  the  first  time,  and 
have  to  encounter  so  many  strange  sights  and  sounds,  if  carefully  and  gently  treated,  they 
will  soon  lose  all  fear  without  at  the  same  time  losing  their  courage. 

Mr.  Rarey  tells,  in  his  lectures,  an  incident  of  a  timid  horse  shying  at  a  buSalo  robe. 
His  ignorant  and  brutal  owner  tied  him  fast  so  that  he  could  not  get  free,  and  laid  a  buffalo 
robe  on  him.  The  poor  animal  died  almost  instantly  from  fright.  Had  he  been  permitted 
to  approach  the  robe  gradually  and  smell  of  it  a  moment,  he  would  probably  never  have  been 
frightened  at  a  robe  afterward. 

Balking. — This,  in  the  colt,  we  beUeve  to  be  mainly  due  to  ill  treatment  or  misman- 
agement on  the  part  of  the  trainer.  In  horses  this  vice  may  generally  be  corrected  by 
patience  and  kindness,  but  never  by  blows,  kicks,  jerking  at  the  bit,  and  angry  tones.  Only 
the  most  ignorant  and  stupid  of  drivers  will  resort  to  such  measures. 

Cases  have  come  to  our  personal  knowledge  where  balky  horses  have  been  beaten  by 
brutal  men  until  they  died  from  the  effects  in  a  few  hours  afterward,  and  yet  this  excessive 
cruelty  did  not  result  in  making  the  horse  go.  We  recall  an  incident  of  this  kind,  of  which 
we  afterward  had  authentic  knowledge,  that  occurred  in  a  small  country  town,  where  a  horse 
persistently  refused  to  draw  even  an  empty  buggy.  The  whip  was  applied  without  effect, 
and  as  the  crowd  that  collected  about  the  exasperated  animal  knew  of  no  other  way  of 
accomplishing  the  object,  it  was  continued  by  different  members  of  the  company,  taking 
turns,  when  one  became  tired.  The  poor  horse  died  from  the  effect  of  the  brutal  treatment 
in  the  course  of  twelve  hours,  but  during  none  of  the  time  that  he  was  receiving  it,  did  it 
have  the  effect  of  making  him  go.  Some  of  the  so-called  "  leading  men  "  of  that  country 
town  were  among  that  crowd,  and  helped  administer  the  blows,  one  or  two  members  of  Chris- 
tian churches,  yet  none  took  measures  to  have  this  inhuman  treatment  stopped. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  known  the  most  vicious  and  obstinate  balkers  cured  of  |^is 
vice  by  a  few  kind  words  or  pats,  or  perhaps  a  bit  of  apple  or  sugar  given  him  to  eat. 
Horses  are  very  susceptible  to  kindness,  and  can  be  persuaded  by  this  means,  when  the  most 
severe  punishment  would  only  result  in  exasperating  and  exciting  them. 

Sometimes  very  slight  causes  will  tend  to  make  a  horse  balk ;  it  may  be  produced  by 
fright  or  by  the  collar  not  fitting  well;  by  its  pressing  more  upon  some  parts  of  the  shoulder 
than  others;  sometimes  from  the  coldness  of  the  collar;  or  the  load,  may  be  too  heavy,  or  the 
shoulder  sore.  It  is  most  frequently  caused,  we  believe,  by  improper  treatment  while  the 
horse  was  being  broken,  and  the  tendency  once  acquired,  it  is  not  easily  cured.  Whatever 
may  be  the  cause,  there  is  one  thing  that  should  be  remembered  and  observed  in  such  cases, 
and  that  is,  never  whip  a  halky  horse.  Robert  Jennings,  veterinary  surgeon,  says  in  his  work 
entitled  "  The  Horse  and  His  Diseases:  " 

"  This  species  of  restiveness  is  one  of  the  most  provoking  vices  of  the  horse,  and  it  can 
be  successfully  combatted  only  by  a  man  of  the  most  imperturbable  temper  The  slightest 
sign  of  vexation  only  increases  the  evil,  and  makes  the  animal  more  and  more  troublesome 
each  time  that  he  refuses  his  work.  Many  a  thick-headed,  quick-tempered  driver  flies  into 
a  passion  and  beats  or  otherwise  abuses  his  horse  on  the  least  symptom  of  balking,  until  the 
animal  becomes  utterly  worthless  from  a  confirmation  of  the  habit. 

Asa  rule,  it  may  be  stated  that  horses  balk  from  nervousness  or  unsteadiness  of  dispo- 
sition; if  npt,  indeed,  from  an  over-anxiety  to  perform  their  work.  Nervous  weU-bred 
horses  are  more  susceptible  to  the  influences  which  induce  balking,  than  are  coldblooded, 


THE  HORSE.  773 

more  indolent  ones.  A  high-mettled  horse,  when  carelessly  driven,  will  start  suddenly 
against  his  collar,  fail  to  start  his  load,  draw  back  from  the  pain  which  the  concussion  causes, 
rush  at  it  again,  and  again  draw  back,  until  it  becomes  impossible  for  his  driver  to  steady 
him  in  his  collar  for  a  dead  pull.  If  to  all  this  be  added  a  smart  cut  with  the  whip,  and  n 
fiercely-spoken  word — with,  perhaps,  a  blow  over  the  nose,  or  a  stone  in  the  ear — every  fear 
or  vicious  feeling  of  the  horse  will  be  summoned  into  action,  and  the  animal  will  become 
entirely  unmanageable,  requiring  to  be  left  for  an  hour  or  two  in  his  position,  before  he  gets 
sufficiently  calm  to  be  induced  to  move.  There  may  occasionally  be  a  horse  which  cannot  be 
made  to  draw  steadily  by  the  most  careful  treatment,  but  the  cases  are  exceedingly  rare  in 
which  gentle  treatment  and  firmness,  a  patient  persistence  in  mild,  authoritative  command, 
and  judicious  coaxing,  would  not  either  prevent  the  formation  of  the  habit,  or  cure  it  when 
formed. 

To  cure  the  habit  of  balking  is  not  an  easy  matter,  and  it  is  possible  only  by  the  kind- 
est treatment.  If  the  horse  shows  fear  by  his  excited  manner,  or,  by  looking  about  him 
wildly,  that  he  is  expecting  a  blow,  you  may  be  sure  that  he  has  received  hard  usage  under 
similar  circumstances,  and  that  he  must  be  convinced  by  caresses  and  kind  words  that  you 
will  treat  him  gently.  You  must  recollect  that  the  horse  cannot  understand  your  language, 
and  that  while  he  is  confused,  he  will  misinterpret  every  sign  which  you  may  make  to  him. 
He  must  feel  confidence  in  your  kind  intentions,  whether  it  takes  an  hour  or  all  day  to  con- 
vey it  to  him,  before  you  can  do  anything  to  cure  him  of  his  trick. 

If  you  have  him  harnessed  to  a  light  wagon  on  a  smooth  road,  where  it  will  afford  but 
little  resistance,  you  may,  by  repeated  trials,  convince  him  that  it  is  a  simple,  easy  matter  to 
draw  it;  and  you  should  continue  to  exercise  him  from  day  to  day  with  the  same  light  load, 
and  afterward  increase  it  gradually,  until  you  have  trained  him  to  a  quiet  manner  of 
starting,  or  of  going  up  a  hill,  or  elsewhere,  where  he  has  been  accustomed  to  balk." 

Another  writer  gives  the  following  sensible  advice:  "  Almost  any  team,  when  first 
balked,  will  start  kindly  if  you  let  them  stand  five  or  ten  minutes,  as  though  there  was 
nothing  wrong,  and  then  speak  to  them  in  a  steady  voice,  and  turn  them  a  little  to  the  right 
or  left,  so  as  to  get  them  both  in  motion  before  they  feel  the  pinch  of  the  load.  But  if  you 
want  to  start  a  team  that  you  are  not  driving  yourself,  that  has  been  whipped  and  otherwise 
mismanaged  for  some  time,  go  to  them  and  hang  the  lines  on  their  hames,  or  fasten  them  to 
the  wagon,  so  that  they  will  be  perfectly  loose;  make  the  driver  and  spectators  (if  there  are 
any)  stand  off  some  distance  to  one  side,  so  as  not  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  horses; 
loosen  the  check-lines,  so  that  they  can  get  their  heads  down,  if  they  choose;  let  them  stand 
a  few  minutes  in  this  condition,  until  you  see  that  they  are  a  little  composed.  While  they 
are  standing,  you  should  be  about  their  heads  gentling  them;  it  will  make  them  a  httle  more 
kind.  When  you  are  ready  to  start,  stand  before  them,  and,  as  you  seldom  have  but  one 
balky  horse  in  a  team,  get  as  near  the  front  of  him  as  you  can,  and,  if  he  is  too  fast  for  the 
other  horse,  let  his  nose  come  against  your  breast:  this  will  keep  him  steady,  for  he  will  go 
slow  rather  than  run  on  you;  turn  them  gently  to  the  right,  without  letting  them  puU  on  the 
traces,  as  far  as  the  tongue  will  let  them  go;  stop  them  with  a  kind  word,  gentle  them  a 
httle,  and  then  turn  them  back  to  the  left,  by  the  same  process.  You  will  have  them  under 
your  control  by  this  time,  and  as  you  turn  them  again  to  the  right,  steady  them  in  the  collar, 
and  you  can  take  them  where  you  please. 

There  is  a  quicker  process  that  will  start  a  balky  horse,  but  not  so  sure.  Stand  him  a 
little  ahead,  so  that  his  shoulders  will  be  against  the  collar,  and  then  take  up  one  of  his  fore 
feet  in  your  hand,  and  let  the  driver  start  them,  and  when  the  weight  comes  against  his 
shoulders  he  will  try  to  step;  then  let  him  have  his  foot,  and  he  will  go  right  along.  If  you 
want  to  break  a  horse  from  balking,  that  has  long  been  in  that  habit,  you  ought  to  set  apart 
a  half  a  day  for  that  purpose.     Put  him  by  the  side  of  some  steady  horse;  have  check-lines 


774  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

on  them;  tie  up  all  the  traces  and  straps,  so  that  there  will  be  nothing  to  excite  them;  do  not 
rein  them  up,  but  let  them  have  their  heads  loose.  "Walk  them  about  together  for  some  time 
as  slowly  and  lazily  as  possible;  stop  often  and  go  to  your  balky  horse  and  gentle  him.  Do 
not  have  any  whip  about  him,  but  keep  him  just  as  quiet  as  you  can.  He  will  soon  learn  to 
s'.art  off  at  the  word,  and  stop  whenever  you  tell  him. 

As  soon  as  he  performs  right,  hitch  him  in  an  empty  wagon ;  have  it  stand  in  a  favorable 
position  for  starting.  It  would  be  well  to  shorten  the  stay-chain  behind  the  steady  horse,  so 
that,  if  it  is  necessary,  he  can  take  the  weight  of  the  wagon  the  first  time  you  start  them. 
Do  not  drive  but  a  few  rods  at  first;  watch  your  balky  horse  closely,  and  if  you  see  that  he 
is  getting  excited,  stop  him  before  he  stops  with  his  own  accord;  caress  him  a  little,  and  start 
a^ain.  As  soon  as  they  go  well,  drive  them  over  a  small  hill  a  few  times,  and  then  over  a 
large  one,  occasionally  adding  a  little  load.     This  process  will  make  any  horse  true  to  pull. 

When  we  remember  that  we  are  dealing  with  dumb  brutes,  and  reflect  how  difficult  it 
must  be  for  them  to  understand  our  motions,  signs,  and  language,  we  should  never  get  out 
of  patience  with  them,  because  they  don't  Understand  us,  or  wonder  at  their  doing  things 
wrong.  With  all  our  intellect,  if  we  were  placed  in  the  horse's  situation,  it  would  be  difficult 
for  us  to  understand  the  driving  of  some  foreigner,  of  foreign  ways  and  foreign  language. 
We  should  always  recollect  that  our  ways  and  language  are  unknown  to  the  horse,  and 
should  try  to  practice  what  we  could  understand,  were  we  the  horse,  endeavoring  by  some 
simple  means  to  work  on  his  understanding  rather  than  on  the  different  parts  of  his  body. 
All  balked  horses  can  be  started  true  and  steady  in  a  few  minutes'  time;  they  are  willing  to 
pull  as  soon  as  they  know  how,  and  I  never  yet  found  a  balked  horse  that  I  could  not  teach 
to  start  his  load  in  fifteen,  and  often  less  than  three  minutes'  time. 

In  the  first  place,  never  teach  your  horse  to  balk,  by  giving  hira  a  greater  load  than  he 
can  carry,  or  requiring  him  to  go  up  too  steep  a  hill  without  permitting  him  to  stop.  If  you 
tell  him  to  stop,  in  going  up  a  steep  hill,  it  is  better  than  to  allow  him  to  do  it  of  his  own 
a'^cord.  If  he  finds  he  can  stop  of  his  own  will,  and  start  when  he  pleases,  he  will  soon  learn 
t3  do  it  when  he  ought  not  to.  If  at  any  time  he  stops  without  your  stopping  him,  give  him 
a  sharp  cut,  and  make  him  go  on,  even  if  you  think  he  ought  to  stop  at  that  very  place;  but 
soon  yourself  give  him  an  opportunity  to  stop.  This  will  teach  him  that  he  is  to  stop  only  at 
your  will,  and  that  you  are  not  unreasonable  in  your  demands." 

Use  of  the  Check-Rein.  —  It  is  very  true,  as  a  certain  author  has  said,  that  "  the 
horse  has  to  work  very  hard  for  his  living,  and  he  has  a  right  to  be  so  harnessed  as  to  do  his 
work  in  the  way  most  easy  to  himself."  If,  in  drawing  a  heavy  load,  a  horse  has  his  head 
held  back  in  an  unnatural  position  by  a  check-rein,  he  cannot  throw  his  weight  into  the  col- 
lar, and  give  his  body  that  position  that  will  enable  him  to  use  his  strength  most  advantage- 
ously. If  any  one  doubts  this,  let  him  attempt  to  draw  a  heavy  load  himself,  with  his  head 
held  back  by  a  stout  strap  attached  to  a  belt  about  his  body  in  such  a  manner  that  he  cannot 
bend  forward,  but  must  of  necessity  maintain  an  upright  position.  In  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland  it  is  a  very  rare  thing  to  see  a  check-rein  used  upon  a  draft  horse,  while  in  the 
United  States  it  is  quite  too  rare  to  see  a  horse  without  one. 

Thfe  tight  check-rein  is  not  only  painful  to  the  horse,  but  no  good  results  to  the  driver 
from  its  use,  except  in  case  of  a  horse  being  vicious  and  unmanageable;  he  may  then  be 
more  easily  controlled.  A  horse  with  his  head  drawn  back  in  an  unnatural  position  by  the 
check-rein  not  only  has  his  power  to  draw  lessened,  but  cannot  as  well  see  where  to  step,  and 
is  more  liable  to  stumble,  while  if  he  does  stumble  he  cannot  as  readily  recover  himself.  A 
tight  check-rein  has  also  a  tendency  to  produce  disease,  injures  a  horse's  mouth,  and  frets 
and  worries  him.  The  effects  of  its  use  are  described  as  follows  by  John  A.  McBride, 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery  in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College:  "I  will 
briefly  consider  the  effects  of  the  check-rein,  —  (1)  upon  the  circulation  of  the  blood ; 
(2)  upon  the  veins;  (3)  upon  the  arteries. 


THE  HORSE. 


775 


1.  Its  effects  upon  the  circulation  of  the  blood. — It  will  appear  very  evident  that  this  contrivance 
must  seriously  interfere  with  the  return  of  blood  from  the  brain,  and  thus  lead  to  an  accumu- 
lation of  venous  blood,  producing  eventually  a  state  of  coma,  the  severity  of  which  will 
depend  upon  the  duration  and  intensity  of  the  compression;  and,  further,  it  must  impede 
the  flow  of  arterial  blood  to  the  brain.  This  deficiency  of  arterial  blood  is  characterized  by 
a  want  of  nervous  sensation,  and  a  disarrangement  of  the  nervous  parts. 

2.  Its  effects  upon  the  veins. — The  sudden,  intermittent,  and  violent  muscular  action  of 
the  neck,  together  with  pressure  of  the  lower  jaw,  would  induce  more  or  less  permanent 
distension  of  the  veins,  which  in  all  probability  would  ultimately  become  varicose. 

3.  Its  effects  upon  the  arteries.  — The  pressure  of  tlie  blood  within  the  vessels,  and  the  un- 
natural muscular  contraction  of  the  neck,  would  lead  to  laceration  of  their  inner  coats, 
resulting  in  enlargement  of  the  vessels,  and  thus  form  aneurisms. 

The  consequences  of  the  above  conditions  would  lead  to  increased  pressure  upon  the 
nerves  of  the  neck,  causing  pain  to  the  animal,  and,  further,  it  would  predispose  the  unfor- 
tunate victim  of  fashion  to  such  diseases  as  megrims,  apoplexy,  coma,  inflammation,  and 
softening  of  the  brain." 


NATURAL    POSITION. 


tJNNATUI  \l     1     t-IIlDN 


Youatt  says:  "  Roaring  is  an  unnatural,  loud,  grunting  sound,  made  by  the  animal  in  the 
act  of  breathing,  when  in  quick  action  or  on  any  sudden  exertion ;  it  is  manifest  unsoundness, 
as  impairing  the  function  of  breathing.  Among  other  causes  of  it,  is  that  which  the  folly,  as 
well  as  cruelty,  of  man  has  introduced  —  the  system  of  tight  reining." 

The  leading  veterinary  surgeons  of  Europe  and  America  denounce  its  use,  both  on 
humane  and  sanitary  principles,  and  its  continued  use  seems  to  be  simply  to  conform  to  the 
caprice  of  fashion,  regardless  of  the  consequences. 

The  overhead  check  is  fully  as  objectionable  m  all  respects  as  any  other,  while  it  pro- 
duces a  very  awkward  carriage  in  a  horse,  since  the  neck  and  head  are  kept  drawn  back 
unnaturally  high,  while  to  relieve  the  neck  the  horse  throws  his  nose  out,  giving  him  a  gait 
about  as  graceful  as  that  of  a  camel. 

Whenever  the  check-rein  is  used  at  all  on  the  horse,  it  should  be  made  so  lor^  that  he 
can  drop  his  head  when  going  up  hUl,  as  far  as  he  would  without  one.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  farmers  and  horse  owners  generally  will  give  this  subject  more  attention,  and  look  upon 
it  in  its  true  light.  The  logic  of  the  old  Scotch  stage-driver  on  this  point  could  not  weU  be 
controverted,  when  he  said,  ''We  dinna  use  'em.  You  winna  get  half  their  power  with 
'em  crimped  up  so." 

Frosty  Bits.  —  Never  put  a  frosty  bit  in  a  horse's  mouth.  If  iron  bits  are  used  in 
severe  weather,  always  warm  them  by  putting  them  m  water,  holding  them  in  the  hands  a 


776  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

moment,  or  by  some  other  means,  rather  than  cause  the  animal  so  much  suffering  as  would 
be  incurred  by  inserting  a  frosty  bit,  which  will  be  liable  to  result  in  not  only  pain  at  the 
time,  but  a  sore  tongue  and  mouth  which  will  be  constantly  irritated,  sometimes  rendering  it 
difficult  to  eat  the  food  given  them,  causing  loss  of  appetite  and  consequent  loss  of  strength. 

The  use  of  the  India-rubber  as  well  as  the  leather  bit  is  to  be  recommended  during  the 
cold  season,  since  tliey  obviate  the  evil  effects  of  iron  or  steel  in  frosty  weather. 

Bliuders.  —  These  are  not  only  a  useless  but  an  objectionable  appendage  to  a  bridle, 
and  are  without  doubt  in  many  cases  the  cause  of  diseased  eyes  and  bhndness.  Besides,  a 
horse  is  more  apt  to  take  fright  when  he  can  get  only  a  partial  view  of  an  object,  than 
if  he  could  obtain  a  full  view  of  it.  Sudden  or  loud  startUng  sounds,  like  those  from  a  loco- 
motive, would  be  much  more  likely  to  frighten  a  horse  when  his  eyes  are  so  blinded  that  he 
cannot  tell  from  whence  the  sounds  proceed.  A  nervous,  timid  horse  would  naturally  think 
it  something  terrible  in  pursuit  of  him,  and  run  to  get  away  from  it,  and  a  serious  accident 
might  be  the  result,  while  if  he  could  see  the  object,  this  might  be  avoided.  A  recent  writer 
has  well  said  of  blinders:  — 

"  We  know  not  who  invented  this  instrument  of  horse  torture,  but  we  know  he  did  not 
understand  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  eye  of  a  horse.  Human  vision  is  binocular  — 
that  is,  we  see  the  same  object  with  both  our  eyes,  and  so  adjust  the  axis  of  vision  that  the 
object  appears  single,  though  seen  with  two  eyes.  But  the  eyes  of  the  horse  are  placed  on 
the  sides  of  the  head,  and  the  axis  of  each  eye  is  nearly  at  angles  with  the  longitudinal  line 
of  the  body,  so  that  it  is  impossible  that  the  same  object  can  be  distinctly  seen  by  both  eyes. 
Now,  by  blinding  the  eye  in  the  direction  in  which  it  was  intended,  in  its  construction,  that 
it  should  see,  it  is  forced  to  use  an  oblique  vision,  as  if  we  should  cover  the  front  of  our 
optics  and  be  compelled  to  see  only  by  the  comers  of  our  eyes.  This  unnatural  and  con- 
strained use  of  the  eye  must,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  impair  vision,  if  not  entirely  destroy 
it.  The  object  for  which  the  blind-bridle  is  used  is  not  accomplished  by  it.  A  horse  is  more 
readily  frightened  when  he  cannot  see  the  object  of  his  dread,  than  if  he  can  have  a  fair  view 
of  it.  Nineteen  out  of  every  twenty  horses  you  see  in  harness  have  blind-bridles  on,  and  if 
you  ask  the  owner  to  explain  its  benefits,  or  why  he  uses  it,  he  will  be  utterly  unable  to 
give  a  rational  answer." 

Clipping  Horses.  —  The  advocates  of  this  practice  claim  it  to  be  a  means  of  promoting 
the  general  health  of  the  animal,  and  a  prevention  of  colds  and  lung  fever,  also  that  it 
increases,  at  the  same  time,  his  activity  and  appetite.  The  main  advantage  claimed  for  it  is, 
that  when  a  horse  with  a  heavy  coat  has  been  driven  in  cold  weather  sufficient  to  cause  his 
hair  to  become  wet  with  perspiration,  and  as  soon  as  he  halts  is  liable  to  take  cold,  even 
when  immediately  blanketed,  since  the  hair  remains  wet  so  long;  that  clipping  and  keeping 
the  animal  blanketed,  except  while  being  driven,  will  obviate  the  evil. 

The  opponents  of  clipping,  on  the  other  hand,  assert  that  it  is  not  only  cruel,  being  the 
cause  of  much  unnecessary  sufEering  from  insufficient  protection  against  the  cold,  but  that  it 
is  equally  injurious  to  the  health,  frequently  producing  disease  and  death.  There  may 
be  instances,  and  doubtless  are,  where  horses  may  receive  such  careful  attention  that  clipping 
will  do  ifc  injury,  and  by  this  means  they  may  be  enabled  to  perform  more  labor  and  with 
greater  dispatch  than  when  undipped;  but  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  Nature's  method  is 
best,  and  when  she  gives  him  a  fine,  short  summer  coat  that  lies  smoothly  upon  his  skin,  and 
a  heavier  and  coarser  covering  for  winter,  she  knows  better  than  man  what  is  best  for  the 
animal. 

Besides,  very  few  horses  when  clipped  are  sufficiently  well  protected  to  be  furnished  with 
a  fair  substitute  for  the  coat  that  has  been  removed,  the  hood  and  blanket  only  covering  the 
head  and  upper  portion  of  the  body,  while  the  under  portions  and  limbs  are  entirely  exposed. 


THE  HORSE.  777 

But  few  clipped  horses  are  provided  with  a  protection  for  the  head,  the  only  covering  com- 
monly used  being  a  blanket,  so  that,  even  under  the  most  favoring  conditions,  cKpped  horses 
must  of  necessity  suffer  more  or  less  from  exposure,  while,  with  the  common  treatment 
received  from  careless  and  indifferent  drivers,  much  injury  must  result  from  clipping.  It  is 
true  that  a  horse  will  be  more  active,  and  have  a  more  voracious  appetite  after  being  clipped 
than  before,  but  whether  this  is  a  healthful  indication  may  be  doubted.  All  animals  that  are 
not  suflBciently  protected  from  the  cold  will  require  a  greater  amount  of  food  to  be  kept  in 
good  condition,  than  those  that  are  kept  comfortably  warm.  This  is  a  fact  with  which  every 
one  is  familiar. 

Now,  if  by  removing  the  coat  we  increase  the  demand  for  food,  thus  unduly  stimulat- 
ing the  digestive  organs,  and  taxing  them  to  furnish  a  supply  of  fat  and  heat  sufficient  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  the  covering,  the  question  naturally  arises,  "Will  not  the  extra  labor 
required  of  the  organs  of  digestion  have  a  tendency  to  produce  disease?  And  can  it  be  truly 
a  promoter  of  health? 

Again:  since  clipping  has  a  tendency  to  increase  the  activity  of  a  horse,  the  keen  air 
exciting  him  and  greatly  increasing  his  ambition  to  go,  there  is  great  liability  of  clipped 
horses  being  driven  beyond  their  capacity  for  endurance,  while  at  the  time,  there  may  be 
no  indications  of  it;  and  we  believe  that  clipped  horses,  as  a  rule,  are  generally  over  driven, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  results  from  exposure  to  colds  and  other  evils  from  lack  of  care  after- 
ward. That  clipped  horses  really  suffer  from  the  cold,  need  not  be  questioned  by  any  one 
who  has  ever  been  at  all  observing  in  noticing  the  shivering  of  the  animals  on  being  exposed 
to  the  cold  atmosphere,  after  their  blankets  are  removed. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  of  the  most  intelligent  veterinary  surgeons,  that  many  diseases 
are  directly  traceable  to  clipping,  among  which  are  those  resulting  from  exposure  to  the  cold, 
the  shock  occasioned  by  severe  changes  in  the  weather,  and  over-exertion.  The  evil  effects 
of  clipping  may  not  always  be  perceived  at  once,  some  being  gradual  in  their  development. 
Several  cases  of  string-halt  have  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  writer,  which  were  indisputably 
the  result  of  clipping.  Clipped  horses  are,  of  course,  much  more  easily  taken  care  of  than 
those  uncUpped,  since  they  require  less  grooming  to  be  kept  clean;  for  this  reason  indolent 
grooms  are  very  apt  to  favor  the  practice,  whatever  the  result  to  the  horse.  It  is  stated  by 
high  authority,  that  inflammation  of  the  lungs  has  become  a  prevalent  disease  among  horses 
since  the  custom  of  blanketing  them  constantly  in  the  stable  was  introduced.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  this  practice  causes  greater  sensitiveness  to  the  skin,  and  increased  liability  to  take 
cold,  than  when  the  blanket  is  only  used  as  a  covering  after  profuse  sweating,  or  when  the 
animal  is  standing  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Where  a  well-bred  horse  is  put  in  the  stable  before  cold  weather  commences,  and  is 
well  groomed  and  kept  blanketed  except  when  being  used,  his  coat  will  be  about  as  short  as 
in  summer,  or  at  least  short  enough  for  appearance,  and  to  admit  of  drying  off  readily  when 
sweaty.  The  coat  of  a  horse  that  has  been  clipped  does  not  come  out  as  evenly  in  the  spring 
as  one  that  is  undipped,  and  rarely  looks  quite  as  well  afterward.  Never  trim  the  hair  at 
the  heels  much,  if  at  all.  The  hair  inside  the  ears  should  never  be  cut,  nor  the  long  hairs  or 
feelers  about  the  eyes  and  nostrils;  they  were  designed  by  nature  to  be  of  great  utility  to  the 
animal. 

Stables,  and  Stable  Management.  —  The  stables  for  horses,  and,  in  fact,  for  all 
animals,  should  be  in  a  healthy  location,  free  from  dampness,  and  with  plenty  of  pure  air. 
They  should  also  be  on  the  sunny  side  of  a  building,  if  practicable,  for  the  sunlight  has  a 
healthful  and  stimulating  effect. 

The  stalls  should  be  roomy,  with  partitions  sufficiently  long  and  high  to  prevent  the 
horses  from  kicking,  or  biting  each  other.  Some  recommend  having  the  partition  so  high 
that  they  cannot  see  each  other,  but  we  do  not  favor  this,  as  horses  are  social  animals,  and 


778  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

enjoy  the  company  of  others.  Box-stalls,  where  the  horse  can  be  free  from  the  halter,  and 
also  exercise  a  little,  are  greatly  to  be  preferred.  Horses  that  are  worked  hard  every  day 
would,  we  believe,  last  much  longer  if  they  could,  when  out  of  harness,  have  the  entire  free- 
dom of  large  box-stalls.  The  stables  should  be  kept  clean,  and  well  ventilated.  Horses 
possess  a  very  acute  sense  of  smell,  and  greatly  dislike  offensive  odors.  Besides,  the  breath- 
ing of  air  freighted  with  the  odors  of  excrement,  both  liquid  and  solid,  and  carbonic-acid  gas 
generated  from  the  lungs  of  the  animals  in  breathing,  is  very  injurious  to  the  system.  It 
poisons  the  blood,  and  is  the  cause  of  many  diseases. 

The  ammoniacal  vapors  of  ill-kept  stables  produce  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  irritate 
the  throat  and  lungs,  so  that  blindness,  cough,  or  asthma  may  be  the  consequence.  Glanders 
is  more  frequently  caused  by  breathing  the  impure  air  of  stables  than  by  contagion.  The 
drainage  of  stables  should  receive  particular  attention,  and  the  arrangement  for  the  manure 
should  be  such,  whether  in  pits  or  otherwise,  that  the  foul  odors  from  it  cannot  affect  the 
air  of  the  stable.  The  floor  of  a  stall  should  be  as  nearly  level  as  practicable  and  admit  of 
drainage,  for  if  it  slopes  much  there  will  be  a  liability  of  lameness  by  straining  the  ligaments 
and  membranes.     The  slope  should  not  exceed  two  inches. 

The  litter  under  the  horses'  feet  should  be  kept  dry  and  clean.  Standing  on  hot,  ferment- 
ing manure  will  cause  the  hoofs  to  become  soft,  and  will  produce  lameness.  A  sufficient 
amount  of  light  in  the  stable  is  indispensable  to  the  health  of  a  horse.  No  animal  can  thrive 
for  a  long  time  in  a  dark  stable.  Horses  that  are  kept  in  dark  stables  will  also  be  more  lia- 
ble to  shy  when  brought  out  suddenly  into  the  light;  but  this  is  of  minor  importance 
compared  with  the  injury  caused  the  eye  from  having  this  sudden  change  from  darkness  to 
bright  sunlight.  The  sight  by  this  means  becomes  in  time  impaired,  which  frequently  results 
in  total  blindness. 

While  dark  stables  are  to  be  avoided,  the  opposite  extreme  of  a  glare  of  light  is  equally 
objectipnable,  as  far  as  the  effect  upon  the  eye  of  the  horse  is  concerned.  The  stables  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  light  from  the  windows  will  not  shine  into  the  faces  of  the  animals, 
or  fall  upon  the  eyes  from  the  front,  but  rather  from  the  rear  or  side.  A  strong  reflected 
light  should  also  be  avoided.  It  is  well  to  have  the  interior  of  the  stables  colored  with  a 
neutral  tint  to  the  distance  of  seven  or  eight  feet  from  the  floor,  to  avoid  the  glare  that  would 
be  occasioned  by  a  white  wall  throughout. 

We  have  previously  said  so  much  respecting  the  necessity  of  pure  air  for  mankind  and 
animals,  that  a  repetition  here  is  unnecessary.  All  stables  should  have  ventilators  so  con- 
structed that  the  foul  air  can  escape,  and  the  pure  air  find  an  unobstructed  entrance.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  that  in  securing  good  ventilation  the  animals  are  not  exposed  to  a 
draught  of  air.  When  the  stables  are  not  occupied,  the  doors  and  windows  should  be  left 
open,  if  the  weather  will  admit.  The  stables  should  be  kept  as  comfortable  for  the  horses  as 
possible,  both  winter  and  summer. 

As  a  glossy  coat  is  supposed  to  be  produced  by  Ti  very  warm  stable,  many  grooms  sacri- 
fice ventilation  to  this  idea,  and  not  only  keep  the  stable  too  warm,  but  poorly  ventilated.  In 
a  warm,  and  properly  ventilated  stable,  we  doubt  whether  blanketing  is  desirable,  but  in  cold 
stables,  where  horses  will  not  be  sufBciently  warm  without  this  protection,  it  may  be  found 
necessary.  Where  blankets  are  used  as  a  covering  for  horses  in  stables,  a  moderate  tempera, 
ture  and  moderate  amount  of  clothing  will  be  better  than  a  low  temperature  and  an  undue 
amount,  or  a  high  temperature  and  slight  clothing.  About  55°  Fahr.  is  estimated  to  be  a 
good  mean,  or  desirable  temperature  for  stables. 

The  feet  and  legs  of  the  horse  should  receive  good  care,  as  these  are  the  first  to  fail,  and 
are  subject  to  the  greatest  number  of  diseases.  After  severe  or  protracted  exertion,  a  horse 
should  be  rubbed  down  dry.  The  legs  should  be  well  rubbed  with  the  hand,  which  will  tend 
to  prevent  swelled   legs,  stiff  joints,   contracted  tendons,   etc.     When  the  legs  are  of  an 


THE  HORSE.  779 

unnatural  heat  from  over-driving,  bandaging  with  wet  cloths  will  reduce  the  feverish  temper- 
ature, and  prevent  wind-galls. 

Horses  that  are  not  used  for  work  should  have  some  exercise  every  day.  Always  use 
the  curry-comb  lightly,  for  the  skin  of  the  horse  is  very  sensitive,  and  rough  usage  in  this 
respect  will  cause  him  much  nervous  irritation  and  pain.  When  tied  in  the  stall,  the  halter 
should  be  sufficiently  long  to  admit  of  the  horse  lying  down  in  a  comfortable  position,  yet  at 
the  same  time  care  should  be  used  that  it  be  not  so  long  as  to  permit  him  to  get  his  foot  over 
it,  and  thus  be  thrown  down  and  get  cast.  Serious  results  sometimes  follow  carelessness  in 
this  respect. 

Feeding. — Improper  feeding  is  the  prolific  cause  of  disease  in  horses,  especially  to  those 
used  upon  the  farm,  and  for  draught.  Horses  should  always  be  fed  regularly,  and  in  such 
quantities  as  will  keep  them  in  good  condition.  Horses  that  work  hard  will  require  nearly 
twice  the  amount  of  food  that  an  idle  horse  does,  other  conditions  being  equal,  while,  of 
course,  a  large  horse  will  need  a  much  larger  amount  than  a  small  one.  The  amount  of  food 
required  will  therefore  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  the  amount  and  kind  of  work 
performed  by  him.  Enough  food  should  be  given  under  any  circumstances  to  supply  the 
waste  of  the  system. 

Due  regard  should  also  be  had  to  age  and  constitution,  as  well  as  to  size  and  the  amount 
of  labor  performed.  It  is  estimated  that  horses  that  work  require  about  two  per  cent,  of 
their  weight  as  a  daily  allowance  of  food.  From  fourteen  to  sixteen  pounds  of  grain,  and 
the  same  of  good  hay,  is  regarded  as  a  generous  allowance  for  a  hard-working  horse  of  large 
size.  The  American  cavalry  horses  are  allowed  about  fourteen  quarts  of  oats,  and  an  equal 
amount  of  hay,  and  are  fed  three  times  a  day.  The  English  cavalry  horses  have  a  little  less, 
which  is  an  allowance  of  ten  quarts  of  oats  and  twelve  pounds  of  hay,  three  times  a  day. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  a  horse  a  "good  feeder,"  but  some  horses  are  gluttons,  and  in 
such  cases  it  is  not  well  to  give  them  all  the  food  they  will  crowd  down.  A  light  feeder  is 
apt  to  be  a  tender  animal,  and  lack  endurance. 

Grain  of  some  kind  should  always  be  given  horses  that  work  hard.  Hay  or  grass  a^ne 
is  not  sufficient  to  sustain  a  horse  that  labors  hard,  because  there  is  not  sufficient  nuti-iment 
in  either  to  supply  the  waste,  while  a  horse  that  has  his  stomach  distended  with  such  coarse, 
bulky  material  as  hay  alone,  is  in  no  condition  to  work,  providing  it  met  the  demand  of  the 
system.  When  worked  hard,  the  food  should  be  chiefly  oats,  with  some  hay;  when  not 
working,  less  grain  and  more  hay  may  be  fed,  or  the  feed  may  be  chiefly  hay,  with  a  moder- 
ate quantity  of  oats  or  other  grain.  Oats  seem  to  be  the  natural  food  of  horses,  and  are  to  be 
preferred  to  any  other  kind  of  grain.  They  supply  more  nourishment  and  flesh  making 
material  than  any  other  kind  of  food.  Barley  is  also  good.  Com  is  rather  heating,  and 
should  never  be  fed  alone.  It  is  best  when  ground,  and  given  in  connection  with  other  food. 
New  corn  should  never  be  fed  to  horses  in  large  quantities,  as  it  affects  them  very  injuriously; 
many  valuable  animals  have  been  lost  by  eating  soft  com.  New  oats  and  new  hay  should 
not  be  fed  in  connection,  and  never  in  large  quantities,  but  should  be  mixed  in  part  with 
that  which  is  old. 

Roots  are  excellent  for  horses,  when  being  fed  on  dry  food.  Carrots  are  the  most  valua- 
ble roots  for  this  purpose,  and  many  horsemen  feed  regularly  with  them  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, they  taking  the  place,  in  part,  of  the  grain  rations. 

A  ration  of  one-half  carrots  and  one-half  oats  is  thought  to  be  equivalent  to  a  full 
ration  of  oats,  while  it  has  been  found  that  horses  that  perform  but  little  work  will  keep  in 
good  condition  on  hay  and  carrots  alone.  Raw  potatoes  given  occasionally,  as  well  as  apples, 
are  also  very  beneficial.  The  former  are  especially  valuable  for  horses  troubled  with  worms. 
The  English  feed  beans  in  connection  with  oats  and  hay  to  hunters,  and  horses  that  work 
hard.     Beans  are  heating,  and  should  be  given  only  in  small  quantities,  and  never  regularly. 


780  THE  AMERICAN  PARMER, 

Bran  and  linseed  are  used  also  for  special  purposes, — sometimes  as  a  substitute  for  regular 
feed,  and  sometimes  in  addition  to  it. 

Poor  hay  or  damaged  corn  should  never  be  given  to  horses.  The  latter  will  bring  on 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  skin  diseases.  Cut  hay  is  much  better  than  that  which  is  not 
cut.  Hay  sprinkled  with  water  in  which  a  little  salt  has  been  dissolved  is  much  relished  by 
horses.  Cut  hay  moistened  with  warm  water  makes  a  good  feed  for  them.  When  meal  or 
bran  is  fed,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  it  with  moistened,  cut  hay.  Oats  moistened  with  water 
are  preferred  to  dry,  being  more  easily  masticated  and  digested.  A  warm  mash  is  good  for 
horses,  especially  after  a  hard  day's  work,  which  is  made  by  turning  boiling  water  on  bran 
and  stirring  it  until  it  is  well  moistened. 

A  horse  should  not  be  driven  hard  or  put  to  hard  work  for  an  hour  or  more  after  eat- 
ing. The  custom  of  most  farmers  of  taking  a  horse  immediately  from  his  feed  to  hard  work 
is  very  injurious.  Violent  exercise  in  man  or  beast  should  never  be  taken  until  digestion  has, 
at  least,  been  partially  accomplished.  A  working  horse  should  also  have  an  hour's  rest  at 
noon.  A  horse  designed  for  rapid  work  should  not  be  allowed  much  hay  at  morning  or  noon, 
but  grain  principally.  At  night  he  may  be  given  a  larger  quantity  of  hay  in  connection  with 
grain. 

The  evening  before  a  long  journey,  an  extra  amount  of  food  should  be  given.  Time 
will  thus  be  allowed  for  its  digestion  and  extra  nourishment  will  be  obtained  for  the  extra 
labor  to  be  performed. 

While  on  the  road,  it  is  always  well  to  feed  in  small  quantities  and  often,  rather  than  to 
overload  the  animal's  stomach  after  a  long  fast,  attended  with  great  exertion  and  weariness, 
which  would  be  liable  to  produce  staggers,  or  apoplexy.  When  a  horse  refuses  food  and 
water,  he  is  in  no  condition  to  be  driven.  Never  feed  a  horse  much  when  he  is  heated  and 
exhausted.  Give  him  a  little  wet  hay,  and  a  few  sips  of  water,  and  after  he  is  rubbed  down 
and  cooled  off,  he  may  have  his  usual  drink  and  rations. 

Watering. — Horses  that  are  allowed  free  access  to  water  will  drink  little  at  a  time  and 
often,  and  where  stalls  are  so  arranged  that  a  constant  supply  of  pure  water  can  be  had  at 
any  time,  we  believe  such  horses  will  be  kept  in  much  better  condition  than  those  that  are 
watered  at  long  intervals,  and  frequently  stinted  in  the  supply,  or  drink  too  large  a  quantity, 
from  the  thirst  produced  by  long  abstinence.  Where  horses  are  stinted  in  water,  a  feverish 
condition  of  the  system  will  be  liable  to  be  the  result,  together  with  a  loss  of  condition. 

Where  horses  do  not  have  free  access  to  water,  they  should  be  watered  four  times  a  day. 
The  old  idea  of  stinting  horses  in  water  is  not  only  unreasonable  and  injurious,  but  cruel; 
being  fed  upon  dry  hay  and  grain,  they  require  drink  often,  and  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
quench  thirst.  The  plan  of  permitting  horses  to  have  access  to  water  at  all  hours  in  the  stall 
is  meeting  with  much  favor  at  present,  and  experience  thus  far  proves  that  it  is  highly  bene- 
ficial, and  to  be  recommended,  where  practicable. 

Spring  or  well  water  is  not  generally  as  good  for  horses  as  that  from  ponds  and  streams,  as 
it  is  generally  liard  and  cold,  they  much  preferring  soft  water,  and  that  which  is  slightly  warm. 
It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  allow  a  horse  to  become  accustomed  to  drinking  very  warm  water, 
for  if  obliged  to  drink  cold  water  at  any  time  it  will  be  liable  to  cause  coUc.  Never  allow  a 
horse  to  drink  freely  when  heated.  Permit  him  to  take  a  few  sips  only  to  cool  his  mouth, 
rub  him  off  until  he  is  dry,  first  with  a  wisp  of  straw,  and  then  with  a  briish,  rubbing  his 
legs  also  well  with  the  hand.  When  cool,  give  him  his  drink  first,  and  then  his  food.  When 
on  the  road,  always  let  him  drink  whenever  he  likes. 

The  water  given  horses  should  always  be  of  the  best  quality.  Horses  are  peculiarly  sen- 
sitive respecting  the  water  they  drink,  and  are  easily  made  sick  by  impurities.  The  pail, 
tank,  or  other  receptacle  for  the  water  should  always  be  kept  very  clean ;  in  fact,  the  water 
given  horses  should  be  as  clean  as  that  used  by  the  household  for  drinking  purposes.  They 
should  never  be  driven  hard  immediately  after  eating  or  drinking  freely. 


THE  HORSE.  783 

Groomillg. — While  horses  that  are  constantly  vised  on  the  farm  or  in  draft  and  exposed 
to  the  weather  do  not  require  very  much  grooming,  carriage-horses  and  those  that  are  stabled 
a  portion  of  the  time  require  considerable  care  in  this  respect.  The  Agriculturist  contains 
the  following  sensible  hints  on  this  subject,  by  T.  L.  NeviU,  which  so  fully  coincide  with  our 
own  views  that  we  give  them  in  his  own  language: — 

"  Good  grooming  is  essential  for  preserving  a  horse's  health  and  appearance.  A  fine  coat 
and  tender  skin  should  not  be  touched  with  the  curry-comb,  but  be  brushed  very  gently.  If 
there  are  any  urine  or  dung  stains,  let  them  be  washed,  using  a  sponge  deftly,  so  as  not  to 
extend  the  wet  dirty  place.  By  making  this  the  first  operation  the  wet  spots  have  time  to 
dry,  whUe  the  other  parts  of  the  work  are  being  done. 

If  a  curry-comb  must  be  used,  have  the  smoothest  one  that  can  be  found,  and  use  it  but 
sparingly.  In  the  hands  of  some  men  the  curry-comb  is  a  barbarous  instrument  of  torture. 
Applied  with  a  long,  sweeping  motion,  without  regard  to  the  shape  of  the  body,  or  the  even- 
ness with  which  it  is  held,  it  will  make  a  poor  animal  shrink  and  shiver.  The  skin  is  often 
seriously  hurt  by  the  angles  of  the  comb,  when  carelessly  and  heavily  handled.  A  short 
motion,  back  and  forth,  does  the  work  more  effectively  and  humanely  than  the  severe  appli- 
cation of  the  comb  described.    The  horse  will  learn  not  to  dislike  it,  if  he  finds  he  is  not  hurt. 

In  cleaning  a  horse,  commence  at  the  head  with  the  brush,  having  it  in  one  hand,  and 
the  curry-comb  in  the  other.  Brush  every  part  of  the  body  and  limbs  thoroughly,  laying  the 
hairs  in  their  natural  direction,  and  going  through  them  to  the  skin.  Remove  dust  from  the 
brush  by  occasionally  scraping  it  on  the  curry-comb.  The  brushing  is  to  be  followed  by  a 
good  rubbing  with  wisps,  and  the  coat  finally  laid  by  the  application  of  a  cloth.  A  thorough 
cleaning  of  the  head  cannot  be  effected  without  removing  the  halter,  and  be  careful  not  to 
hurt  the  eyes,  or  other  sensitive  parts. 

The  mane  and  tail  have  now  to  be  combed.  If  the  hairs  are  knotted,  go  through  them, 
taking  a  small  lock  at  a  time,  straightening  and  separating  the  whole.  When  once  properly 
done,  there  will  be  but  little  trouble  afterwards.  Sometimes  a  very  thick  mane  has  to  be 
turned  over  the  neck  to  get  at  the  underside.  No  two  hairs  are  to  be  left  sticking  together. 
Some  short  ones  may  stick  up  obstinately  on  the  wrong  side.  If  so,  damp  them  with  a 
sponge  and  try  to  bring  them  into  place  with  the  brush.  If  very  rebellious,  they  must  be 
plaited,  and  a  small  bit  of  lead  twisted  in  the  ends  to  bring  them  right. 

Sometimes  a  horse  with  very  abundant  mane  will  come  up  from  grass  with  it  hanging 
on  both  sides  of  the  neck.  Do  not  allow  any  knowing  groom  to  cut  it  off  from  one  side.  If 
this  is  done  it  will  soon  present  a  bristly,  unsightly  appearance,  that  will  take  months  of 
growth  to  cure.  A  httle  patience,  careful  combing,  wetting,  brushing,  and  perhaps  plaiting 
and  leading  of  these  thick  manes,  will  soon  bring  them  into  place,  and  make  a  wonderful 
improvement  in  the  horse's  appearance.  A  portion  of  the  mean  on  the  poll  should  be  cut 
away  to  allow  the  bridle  to  sit  snugly,  and  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  bristly  tuft." 

Hints  on  Driving,  and  Draft. — Never  use  a  horse  for  work  of  any  kind  when  sick 
or  lame.  All  horses  should  have  some  exercise  every  day,  since  exercise  promotes  a  healthy 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  imparts  vigor  to  the  whole  animal  system.  In  driving,  do  not 
keep  up  a  constant  talking  to  the  horse;  he  will  soon  learn  to  pay  no  attention  to  what  you 
say.  Quiet  drivers  are  always  the  most  successful  ones.  Never  trust  your  horse  entirely  to 
himself,  but  keep  your  hand  steady  on  the  reins,  just  sufficient  to  feel  his  mouth  with  the  bit. 
This  will  obviate  accidents  from  stumbling.  By  being  thus  on  your  guard  you  can  best  pre- 
vent shying  or  the  accidents  that  may  be  caused  by  it  or  sudden  fright.  By  this  means  you 
keep  the  animal's  attention  without  irritating  him. 

There  is  a  vast  and  important  difference  between  a  tight  check-rein  and  a  moderately- 
tightened  rein,  although  not  generally  understood.  Tlie  first  is  injurious  in  many  respects, 
and  may  make  a  horse  stumble  from  not  being  able  to  see  where  to  step,  and  also  prevents 


784  THE  A5IERICAN  FARMER. 

him  from  recovering  himself  well  when  he  does  stumble.  But  the  latter  is  a  steady  support 
to  the  head  given  by  the  hand  of  the  driver.  Avoid  a  constant  hard  pull  on  the  bit,  for  it 
hardens  the  horse's  mouth  and  pains  and  irritates  him. 

Never  pull  up  suddenly  and  sharply  unless  it  is  necessary,  because  this  is  not  only  painful 
to  the  horse,  but  tries  his  chest,  neck,  and  fore-legs.  Do  not  acquire  the  foolish  habit  of  con. 
tinually  jerking  on  the  reins,  or  using  the  whip.  The  first  injures  and  hardens  the  horse's 
mouth;  besides,  he  will  not  know  what  is  reaUy  meant  when  both  reins  and  whip  are  used  in 
earnest.  Be  careful  to  see  that  the  horse's  collar  fits  well  and  causes  him  no  irritation.  Ill- 
fitting  collars  or  those  that  are  too  tight  are  the  cause  of  much  injury  to  horses.  The  follow- 
ing, from  the  "London  Horse  Book,"  contains  much  truth  and  may  serve  to  caU  the  attention 
of  those  who  have  been  indifferent  and  careless  in  this  respect: — 

"  A  horse-collar  is  frequently  looked  upon  as  merely  a  ring  for  the  neck,  to  which  the 
traces  are  to  be  aflBxed;  whereas,  there  is  no  part  of  the  harness  which  is  so  important  and 
which  ought  to  fit  so  accurately.  How  often  is  a  little  collar  only  fit  for  a  pony  jammed  on 
the  neck  of  a  much  larger  animal,  so  that  every  pull  he  makes  must  give  the  feeling  of  stran- 
gulation, and  that  wiU  in  all  probability  cause  some  kind  of  fit  if  long  continued,  besides  its 
Kability  to  gall  and  wring  the  poor  animal's  shoulders.  When  this  has  taken  place,  the  work 
cannot  be  fairly  performed;  and  to  do  it  at  all,  the  anguish  of  the  poor  horse  must  be 
indescribable. " 

A  badly-fitting  coUar  will  also  frequently  cause  horses  to  balk  that  are  otherwise  per- 
fectly docile  aad  easily  managed. 

In  using  the  saddle,  the  same  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  it  is  sufBciently  large 
and  bears  evenly  on  the  horse's  back.  A  saddle  that  is  too  small  or  does  not  fit  well  wUl 
chafe  and  gall  the  horse  most  painfully. 

The  wheels  of  the  vehicle  should  be  kept  well  greased.  This  not  only  saves  much  of 
the  wear  occasioned  by  constant  friction,  but  renders  the  draft  much  easier.  It  is  estimated 
that  well-oiled  wheels  save  one-half  the  work  of  draft.  In  taking  a  long  journey  drive 
slowly  at  the  beginning  and  near  the  end,  increasing  the  rate  of  speed  between  the  two 
extremes;  this  permits  him  to  get  warm  and  cool  by  degrees,  which  is  always  the  best 
method.  Never  stop  long  in  cold,  wet,  or  windy  weather,  and  never  in  any  weather  when 
the  horse  is  warm  and  sweaty  without  putting  a  blanket  over  him  as  a  protection  against 
taking  cold. 

"When  stopping  on  going  up  a  hiU,  always  block  the  wheel  with  a  stone,  otherwise  the 
whole  weight  of  the  wagon  and  load  are  drawing  on  the  collar,  straining  his  limbs  and  back 
and  preventing  him  from  breathing  well.  Always  let  a  horse  have  water  often  when  being 
driven,  and  in  moderate  quantities.  Never  allow  him  to  suffer  thirst.  Never  throw  water 
on  his  limbs  when  he  is  warm.  Never  overload  an  animal  at  any  time.  This  is  not  only 
cruel  and  unjust  to  the  horse,  but  equally  unprofitable  to  yourself.  Always  so  harness  the 
horse  and  arrange  his  load  that  he  may  be  able  to  use  his  strength  to  the  best  advantage. 
Give  him  the  free  use  of  his  head,  discarding  check-reins  and  bUnders,  and  see  that  his  collar 
and  harness  fit  well,  are  properly  adjusted,  and  will  neither  cramp,  chafe,  nor  irritate  him. 

There  should  always  be  a  suitable  proportion  between  the  horse  and  the  vehicle.  The 
shafts  should  be  neither  too  high  nor  too  low,  but  nearly  on  a  level  in  draught,  though  sloping 
slightly  upwards.  The  horse  draws  in  a  level  Une,  and  the  shafts  and  traces  should  therefore 
be  nearly  level. 

Horses  should  not  be  long  used  without  being  fed.  Nose-bags  are  very  convenient  to 
put  the  feed  in  during  the  intervals  of  rest  when  out  in  the  field  at  work.  There  should  be 
leather  or  other  durable  material  at  the  bottom,  in  order  to  retain  the  food  well,  while  above 
they  should  be  of  open  texture  or  porous,  to  permit  the  animal  to  breathe  freely.  Something 
should  be  given  the  horse  to  rest  it  upon  in  order  to  eat  at  the  bottom,  otherwise  he  will  be 


HORSE-SHOEING.  785 

obliged  to  keep  tossing  it  up  for  nearly  every  mouthful,  which,  gets  the  dust,  etc.,  into  his 
eyes  and  nostrils. 

The  feet  of  horses  should  be  examined  every  night  after  work,  to  ascertain  whether  any 
stone  may  have  worked  its  way  between  the  shoe  and  hoof.  If  so,  it  should  be  removed  at 
once,  as  lameness  will  be  produced,  if  it  is  allowed  to  remain  there  over  night.  In  aU  cases 
in  the  care  of  animals,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  they  are  susceptible  to  pain,  weariness, 
hunger,  and  thirst,  as  well  as  mankind,  and  to  consider  how  we  should  like  to  be  treated 
were  we  in  their  place. 


HORSE-SHOEING. 

THE  foot  of  the  horse  is  inclosed  in  a  horny  case  called  the  hoof,  which  corresponds  to 
the  nail  or  claw  of  other  mammals.  The  fore  part  of  the  hoof  is  the  thickest,  it  being 
about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  gradually  growing  thinner  towards  the  back. 
Near  the  heel  it  curves  inward,  forming  what  are  called  the  bars.  These  are  a  prolongation 
of  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  and  their  object  is  evidently  to  protect  the  frog,  and  strengthen  the 
foot  generally. 

In  the  natural  state  of  the  foot,  the  bars  are  quite  prominent;  but  in  horses  that  have 
been  improperly  shod,  they  are  sometimes  scarcely  to  be  seen, 
having  been  cut  away  under  the  mistaken  idea  that  this  mutilation 
is  essential  in  shoeing  a  horse.  The  outer  portion  of  the  hoof  is 
called  the  wall ;  it  furnishes  support  to  the  body,  and  gives  pro- 
tection to  the  internal  parts.  The  front  of  the  wall,  or  crust  of 
the  hoof,  is  called  the  toe,  the  hindmost  part  the  heel,  and  the  inter- 
mediate parts  the  quarters.  In  the  middle  and  back  part  of  the 
foot,  within  the  bars,  is  an  elastic,  horny  substance  of  triangular 
form,  or  rather  like  a  sharp-pointed,  V  with  the  point  tm-ned 
towards  the  toe.     It  occupies  about  one-fourth  of  the  sole,  and  is 

piQ_  I  horsk's  foot,      called  the  frog.     Its  use  is  to  form  a  kind  of  elastic  cushion  on 

The  above  cut  shows  the  Kround  ^^lich  the  horse's  foot  rests,  and  which  greatly  reduces  the  tre- 
recefvfn"  a  8hoe'^''an(f  marks'l-OTy  mendous  shock  and  f orce  of  the  jar  occasioned  by  the  hoof  striking 
distinctly  the  difference  between   tjjg  hard  ground,  Or  pavement.     When  at  rest,  and  with  every  step, 

the  curvature  of  the  outer  and  in-  t?  i        r  j         f^ 

ner  quarters. -o,  the  toe-rasped   the  natural  foot,  unshod,  permits  the  frog  to  rest  upon  the  ground, 

away    to   receive    the   turned-up  '  ^   "  ^  r  to  ' 

shoe;  a  1,  the  inner  toe;  a  3.  the   the  frog  at  the  same  time  pressing  directly  upon  the  navicular 

outer  toe;  b  1,  the  inn£r  quarter;  ^  i  o  j       l- 

b  2,  the  pufer  quarter;  c  1,  the   -joint,  and  the  tendons  which  are  beneath  it. 

inner  heel  ;  cX  the  outer  heel;  d    ''         ' 

rfrf,  the  sole;  ««,  the  crust  or  wall  It  evidently  Corresponds  to  the  elastic,  epidermic  pads  on  the 

of  the  hoof;//,  the  bars;  g  g.tha  •'  ^  ,  ^  ^ 

commissures;  A  k  I,  the  frog;  h,    soles  of  the  feet  of  such  animals  as  the  lion,  tiger,  camel,  dos,  cat, 

the  part  immediately  under  the  ...  .  o;         » 

navicular  joint ;  k.  the  oval  cleft   etc.      The   great  mistake  made  by  ignorant  farriers,   in  cutting 

of  the  frog;  ;,  the  elevated  bound-  ,         .°  ,     y        /  t,      ,  , 

ary  of  the  cleft;  t  i,  the  bulbs  of   away  this  important  part  of  the  foot,  can  readily  be  seen,  when 

the  heels.  ■'  .  ,   .  •  i         i 

once  Its  use  and  importance  are  considered. 
The  sole  is  that  part  of  the  foot  which  has  a  nearly  plane  or  slightly  concave  surface, 
and  extends  from  the  frog  to  the  wall  of  the  hoof.  It  is  homy  and  hard,  yet,  at  the  same 
time,  somewhat  elastic.  The  outer  or  non-sensitive  portion  of  the  sole  protects  the  inner 
portion  from  injury,  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  also  aids  the  wall  in  sup- 
porting the  weight  of  the  horse.  The  sensitive  portion  of  the  sole,  lying  next  to  the  outer  or 
non-sensitive,  aids  the  horse  in  traveling,  through  the  sense  of  touch,  so  that  he  can  place 
his  foot  on  the  ground  in  such  a  way  as  to  favor  it.  It  also  furnishes  the  outer  sole  with 
material  for  its  growth  or  replacement,  when  worn  away. 


786 


THE  A3IERICA^  FARMER. 


Tlie  internal  structure  of  the  hoof  is  illustrated  on  a  previous  page  in  this  department, 
in  connection  with  the  pastebns  (which  see).  At  birth,  the  foot  of  the  colt  is  in  form  more 
like  a  cloven  than  a  solid  foot,  the  sides  being  folded  or  rolled  together  under  the  sole.  The 
hoof  is  soft  and  fibrous,  but  soon  hardens,  and  grows  rapidly.  It,  however,  wears  off  quit« 
evenly,  as  to  general  appearance,  but  more  at  the  toe  than  elsewhere,  especially  on  gravelly 
soils  or  stony  pastures,  gi%'ing  the  foot  of  a  year-old  colt  a  proportionately  large  frog  with 
prominent  bars,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2. 

Col.  M.  C.  Weld  says,   in  the  columns  of   the  American  Agri- 
culturist :  — 

"  Time  makes  few  changes  in  the  general  form  of  colt's  feet  up  to 
the  age  of  four,  when  they  begin  to  be  handled  by  farriers.    I  suppose,  I 
if  my  pastures  had  not  been  so  stony,  I  would  have  been  obliged  tol 
rasp  off  the  feet  now  and  then  to  keep  them  regular,  but  as  it  was,  1 
saw  no  occasion  to  do  so.     One  thing  I  have  noticed  which  has  inter- 
ested me  much.     It  is  this:  as  the  weight  of  the  animal  increased,  the 
quarters  showed  a  weakness,  and  notches  of  greater  or  less  extent  were  ^^'^-  ^-  —  ^'^^'^  ^  foot, 
worn  at  each  side  of  the  hoof  at  the  'quarters.'  just  in  front  of  the        '^^  ^^°  years. 
bars.     So  marked  was  this  in  some  cases,  that  the  foot  lost  its  round  look  altogether,  and 
appeared  much  like  Fig.  3  when  seen  turned  tip. 

It  seems  that  Nature  gives  great  prominence  to  the  bars.  It  is  they  which  form  the 
inside  buttresses  to  the  walls  of  the  foot ;  and  against  them  the  horn 
grows  so  tough  and  strong,  that  natural  calks,  as  it  were,  are  formed. 
In  our  shoeing  of  horses  we  disregard  some  of  the  plainest  and  broadest 
hints  given  by  Nature,  for,  instead  of  setting  the  heel-calks  where  they 
are  set  by  Nature,  we  extend  the  shoe  out  behind  the  heel,  and  place  , 
the  calks  back  of  the  foot. 

The  naked  foot  at  the  bottom  is  flatfish,  somewhat  saucer-shaped, 
rounding  up  at  the  edge  in  front,  and  much  rounded  up  at  the  heels,  so 
that  when  set  down  in  trotting,  the  heels  strike  first,  and  the  foot  rolls 
forward  upon  the  flat  foot;  and  when  picked  up  rolls  forward  upon  the  ^"^-  ^>  f'Hovisa  quar- 
toe.     When  walking  the  foot  seems  to  be  placed  flat  upon  the  ground,  ^^"^^ 

but  the  roUing  motion  is  obsen'ed  when  it  is  picked  up.     How  distressing,  then,  it  must  be 
to  the  horse  to  have  all  this  natural  roll  done  away  with  by  the  sharp-edged  or  calked  shoes. 

It  is  clear  to  me  that  the  formation  caused  by  the  bars,  and  the  toughness  of  the  horn 
where  the  bars  are  attached,  give  horses  sure  footing  upon  slippery  and  rocky  places.  The 
frog  gives  surer  footing  upon  the  ice,  as  it  is  of  so  soft  a  nature  that  it  clings  to  the  smooth 
surface  —  just  as  a  person  slips  less  upon  the  ice  if  he  has  on  india-rubbers." 

The  hoof  is  somewhat  elastic,  and  when  the  weight  of  the  horse  is  thrown  upon  it,  the 
softer  cushion,  or  frog,  presses  firmly  upon  the  earth  ;  consequently,  it  aids  very  materially 
to  prevent  slipping  on  the  ice,  besides  giving  support  to  the  foot,  when  it  is  not  cut  away  in 
shoeing.  Wild  horses  seem  to  have  hoofs  sufBciently  strong  to  support  the  body  without 
artificial  protection;  but  when  used  in  constant  service,  on  hard  roads  and  stony  pavements, 
it  has  been  the  custom  in  all  civilized  countries  to  furnish  a  protection  to  the  foot,  and  after 
many  experiments,  iron  was  found  most  serviceable  for  this  purpose.  Horse-shoeing  was 
introduced  into  England  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  has  since  that  time  been  generally 
regarded  as  a  necessity;  but  within  a  few  years  public  attention  has  been  directed,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  by  writers  in  both  Europe  and  America,  to  the  importance  of  doing  away 
entirely  with  shoeing,  and  permitting  the  foot  to  remain  as  nature  formed  it.  unmutilated 
and  unshod,  whatever  the  service,  or  the  character  of  the  foundation  upon  which  it  may  rest. 
A  medium  between  the  two  extremes  of  shoeing  and  bare  feet,  is  the  use  of  "tips,"  which 


HORSE-SHOEING.  78T 

serve  as  a  protection  only  to  the  forward  part  of  the  hoof,  which  is  most  subject  to  wear, 
while  the  other  portion  remains  in  its  natural  state. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  tlie  diseases  of  the  feet,  and  much  of  the  lameness  in 
this  locality,  is  due  principally  to  improper  shoeing,  and  the  cutting  away  of  the  bars,  frog, 
and  sole, — those  portions  designed  by  the  Creator  as  a  protection  and  support  to  the  foot  of 
that  truly  majestic  and  wonderful  animal, — the  horse. 

If  horses  are  to  be  shod,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  shoeing  be  performed 
in  such  a  manner  that  this  process  shall  prove  a  benefit,  rather  than  a  detriment  to  them,  and 
the  shoe  serve  as  an  added  protection  to  that  already  given  by  nature,  instead  of  cutting 
away  and  mutilating  the  natural  supports,  and  substituting  a  poor  one  in  their  place.  There 
is  no  department  of  horse  management  that  requires  so  much  discretion,  and  the  exercise  of 
such  good,  sound  judgment  as  shoeing,  and  yet  there  is,  at  the  same  time,  no  part  of  horse 
management  that  is,  as  a  general  practice,  so  badly  performed,  and  in  which  there  is  so  little 
skill  and  good  sense  displayed  as  in  shoeing;  ignorance  and  obstinate  stupidity  being  the 
rule  with  those  that  perform  this  business,  rather  than  the  exception. 

We  are  glad  to  know  that  there  are  exceptions  to  be  met  occasionally.  Shoeing,  when 
necessary,  may  justly  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  evil,  and  too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  by 
the  blacksmith  in  preventing  the  many  ills  resulting  from  faulty  work  of  this  kind. 

"When  an  unshod  hoof  that  has  never  been  tampered  with  rests  upon  an  even,  hard, 
unyielding  surface,  the  portions  that  maintain  the  weight  are  the  edge  of  the  crust  all 
around,  and  the  frog.  Where  the  surface  is  uneven,  the  sole,  being  slightly  concave,  sus- 
tains a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  weight,  according  to  the  degree  of  unevenness  of  the  sur- 
face, caused  by  stones,  frozen  clods,  etc. 

On  ordinarily  level  roads,  the  hoof  wears  quite  evenly  in  traveling,  but  where  the  sur- 
*  face  is  uneven  or  gravelly,  the  toe  will  wear  away  faster  than  the  other  portions.  "Tips," 
or  the  "half-moon  shoe,"  made  thin  and  nicely  fitted,  will  protect  this  portion  of  the  hoof  in 
such  cases,  and  permit  the  frog  to  rest  upon  the  ground,  as  it  always  should. 

A  shoe,  of  whatever  style,  should  always  be  so  fitted  that  it  will  permit  the  frog  to  rest 
upon  the  ground,  and  the  frog  and  bars  should  never  be  cut;  simply  let  them  alone,  as  nature 
formed  them,  and  never  permit  a  stupid  blacksmith  to  cut  and  mutilate  your  horses'  feet  after 
the  barbarous  fashion  so  commonly  seen.  The  sole  should  not  be  cut,  and  the  crust  or  wall 
of  the  hoof  should  only  be  cut  sufEcient  to  make  the  shoe  fit  well,  and  to  reduce  it  to  the 
form  and  length  to  which  it  would  naturally  wear  away  if  unshod,  as  the  hoof  will  continue 
to  grow  when  protected  by  the  shoe,  and  will  require  slight  paring  on  this  account. 

The  wall  of  the  hoof  should  not  be  made  thin  and  weak  by  rasping.  The  shoe  should 
never  extend  outside  the  crust  of  the  hoof ;  if  it  does,  there  will  be  danger  of  interfering  or 
cutting.  If  the  calks  on  the  toe  of  the  fore  feet  are  too  large,  or  the  hoofs  too  long,  there 
will  be  a  liability  of  the  horse  throwing  his  hind  feet  against  the  heels  of  the  gple  of  the  fore 
feet  in  trotting,  since,  when  thus  shod,  the  fore  feet  will  not  naturally  be  placed  as  far  for- 
ward, within  an  inch  or  two,  as  they  would  otherwise  be,  and  over-reaching  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  caused  by  such  improper  shoeing,  and  remedied  by  correcting  this  evil. 

It  would  be  a  very  rare  thing  indeed  to  find  a  horse  accustomed  to  go  unshod,  to  inter- 
fere or  over-reach.  Fleming,  one  of  the  best  writers  on  this  subject,  recommends  the  follow- 
ing pattern  of  shoe: 

"  If  the  sole  of  the  hoof  has  not  been  mutilated  by  the  knife,  it  does  not  require  to  be 
covered  by  the  shoe,  as  Nature  has  furnished  an  infinitely  better  protection.  Wide  surface 
slioes  can,  therefore,  be  at  once  dispensed  with;  and  a  narrow  shoe — made  of  the  very  best 
and  toughest  iron,  adapted  for  traveling  on  slippery  roads,  and  for  aiding  foot  and  limb,  and 
sufficient  to  withstand  wear  for  four  or  five  weeks — is  all  that  is  required.  We  will  there- 
fore conclude  that  the  upper  or  foot  surface  should  be  the  whole  width  of  the  shoe,  and 


788  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

plane, — not  beveled, — for  we  have  seen  that  the  sole  was  destined,  particularly  at  its  junction 
with  the  wall  in  front,  to  sustain  weight.  We  also  know  that  it  is  advantageous  to  the  whole 
foot  and  limb  to  allow  J.he  sole  as  wide  and  general  a  bearing  as  possible,  so  that  one  part 
may  reheve  the  other;  the  sole  coming  to  the  aid  of  the  wall,  and  the  frog  interposing  to 
share  the  fatigue  imposed  upon  both,  as  well  as  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the  hinder  parts  of 
the  foot,  flexor-tendons,  and  limb,  and  keep  a  firm  grasp  of  the  ground  by  its  elastic  and 
adhesive  properties. 

The  shoe  applied  to  the  foot,  then,  should  have  its  hoof-surface  flat,  in  order  that  it  may 
sustain  the  wall  and  as  much  of  this  strong  portion  of  the  sole  as  its  width  permits.  This  is 
contrary  to  the  usual  practice,  which  only  allows  the  wall  to  rest  on  a  narrow  surface,  and 
bevels  off  the  remainder  of  the  shoe  to  prevent  contact  with  the  sole.  Many  years'  experi- 
ence of  this  plain  foot-surfaced  shoe  in  various  regions  of  the  globe,  and  on  feet  of  every 
kind  and  quality,  has  proved  the  soundness  of  this  view.  The  foot  is  brought  as  near  to  a 
state  of  nature,  when  the  greater  part  of  its  plantar  surface  supports  the  weight  of  the  body, 
as  man  can  hope  to  achieve  while  submitting  the  horse  to  an  artificial  existence. 

A  light,  thin  shoe  is  always  preferable  to  a  heavy,  thick  one ;  as  the  narrowness  of  the 
metal  insures  a  good  foothold, — in  this  respect  imitating  the  wall, — while  its  thinness  brings 
the  sole,  frog,  and  bars  in  closer  approximation  to  the  ground." 

Miles  recommends  that  the  frog,  except  in  very  rare  instances,  should  never  be  cut  or 
pared.  He  says:  "  The  first  stroke  of  the  knife  removes  this  thin,  horny  covering  altogether, 
and  lays  bare  an  under  surface,  totally  unfitted,  from  its  moist,  soft  texture,  for  exposure,  either 
to  the  hard  ground  or  the  action  of  the  air;  and  in  consequence  of  such  unnatural  exposure  it 
scon  becomes  dry  and  shrinks:  then  follow  cracks, — the  edges  of  which  turning  outwards 
form  rags;  these  rags  are  removed  by  the  smith  at  the  next  shoeing,  whereby  another  such 
surface  is  exposed,  and  another  foundation  laid  for  other  rags;  and  so  on,  until  at  last  the 
protruding,  plump,  elastic  cushion,  interposed  by  nature  between  the  navicular  joint  and  the 
ground,  and  so  essential  to  its  preservation  from  injury,  is  converted  by  the  mischievous 
interference  of  art  into  the  dry,  shrunk,  unyielding  apology  for  a  frog,  to  be  seen  in  the  foot 
of  almost  every  horse  that  has  been  regularly  shod  for  a  few  years.  The  frog  is  provided 
within  itself  with  two  very  efficient  modes  of  throwing  oil  any  superfluous  horn  it  may  be 
troubled  with;  and  it  is  very  unwise  in  man  to  interfere  with  them:  the  first  and  most  com- 
mon is  the  separation  from  its  surface  of  small  bran-like  scales,  which,  becommg  dry,  fall  off 
in  a  kind  of  whitish  scurf,  not  unlike  the  dust  that  adheres  to  Turkey  figs.  The  other, 
which  is  upon  a  larger  scale,  and  of  rarer  occurrence,  is  sometimes  called  "  casting  the  frog." 
A  thick  layer  of  frog  separates  itself  in  a  body,  and  shells  ofE  as  deep  as  a  usual  paring  with 
a  knife;  but  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  there  is  this  very  important  difference  between  the 
two  operations:  nature  never  removes  the  horny  covering  until  she  has  provided  another 
horny  covering  beneath,  so  that,  although  a  large  portion  of  the  frog  may  have  been  removed, 
there  still  remains  a  perfect  frog  behind,  smaller,  it  is  true,  but  covered  with  horn,  and  in 
every  way  fitted  to  sustain  exposure;  while  the  knife,  on  the  contrary,  removes  the  horny 
covering,  but  is  imable  to  substitute  any  other  in  its  Stead.  My  advice,  therefore,  is  to  leave 
the  frog  to  itself;  nature  will  remove  the  superfluous  horn,  and  the  rags  can  do  no  harm,  and 
if  unmolested  will  soon  disappear  altogether." 

Lafosse's  System  of  Shoeing. — Lafosse,  the  noted  French  veterinarian  and  author, 
recommends  the  following  method  of  shoeing: 

"To  prevent  horses  slipping  on  the  dry,  glistening  pavement — pavi  sec  et  plomhe — it  is 
necessary  to  shoe  them  with  a  crescent-shaped  shoe, — that  is,  a  shoe  which  only  occupies  the 
circumference  of  the  toe,  and  whose  heels  gradually  thin  away  to  the  middle  of  the  quarters, 
so  that  the  frog  and  heels  of  the  hoof  bear  on  the  ground,  and  the  weight  be  sustained 
behind  and  before,  but  particularly  in  the  latter,  because  the  weight  of  the  body  falls  heaviest 


HORSE-SHOEING.  789 

there.  The  shorter  the  shoe  is,  the  less  the  horse  slips ;  and  the  frog  has  the  same  influence 
in  preventing  this  that  an  old  hat  placed  under  our  own  shoes  would  have  in  protecting  us 
from  slipping  on  ice. 

It  is  necessary,  nevertheless,  that  hoofs  which  have  weak  walls  should  be  a  little  longer 
shod,  so  that  the  gradually  thinning  branches  reach  to  the  heels,  though  not  resting  upon  them. 
For  horses  which  have  thin,  convex  soles, — -^ijerfi  combles, — these  long  shoes  should  be  also 
used;  and  the  toes  should  be  more  covered  to  prevent  the  sole  touching  the  ground:  at  the 
same  time  the  shoe  must  be  so  fitted  that  it  does  not  press  upon  the  sole,  and  the  heels  and 
frog  rest  upon  the  gro'ond.  This  is  the  only  true  method  of  preserving  the  foot,  and  restor- 
ing it.  ...  A  horse  which  has  its  heels  weak  and  sensitive  ought  to  be  shod  as  short  as 
possible,  and  with  their  branches — epomjes — so  that  the  frog  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground ; 
because  the  heels,  having  nothing  beneath  them,  are  beneBted  and  relieved. 

Crescent  shoes  are  all  the  more  needful  for  a  horse  that  has  weak,  incurvated  quarters, 
as  they  not  only  relieve  them,  but  also  restore  them  to  their  natural  condition.  Horses 
which  have  contusions  at  the  heels — hleimes,  corns — should  also  be  shod  in  this  manner;  and 
for  cracks — sand-cracks — at  the  quarter  it  is  also  advantageous.  The  sole,  or  frog,  should 
never  le  pared ;  the  wall  alone  should  be  cut  down,  if  it  is  too  long.  When  a  horse  cuts  him- 
self with  the  opposite  foot,  the  inner  branch  of  the  shoe  ought  to  be  shorter  and  thinner 
than  the  outer.  In  order  that  the  shoe  wear  a  long  time,  I  have  used  a  nail  of  my  invention, 
the  head  of  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  and  the  aperture  in  the  shoe  of  the  same  shape, 
and  exactly  filled  by  the  nail.  However  much  the  shoe  may  be  worn,  it  is  always  retained 
in  its  place. 

This  kind  of  nail  possesses  three  other  advantages:  one,  that  it  is  less  liable  to  be  broken 
at  the  neck,  because  it  exactly  fits  the  stamped  hole;  the  other,  that  it  is  smaller,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, not  likely  to  press  on  the  sensitive  part  of  the  foot;  and,  lastly,  that  it  does  less 
damage  to  the  horse." 

In  another  connection,  he  recommends  shoeing  horses  kept  for  general  service,  as 
follows: — "The  shoes  must  not  be  too  long,  or  project  beyond  the  heels,  but  only  reach  the 
bars;  neither  must  the  hoofs,  behind  or  before,  be  pared.  The  wall,  or  crust,  alone  should 
be  diminished  in  proportion  as  it  may  be  too  long.  This  should  be  done  evenly;  and  neither 
the  sole  nor  frog  must  be  cut :  ftie  latter  should  be  allowed  to  project,  if  possible,  above  the 
shoe,  so  that  it  may  come  into  contact  with  the  groimd.  The  shoe  ought  to  be  about  the 
same  strength  throughout,  or  a  little  thicker  and  wider  in  the  outer  branch  of  the  fore-foot, 
and  thin  at  the  heels  of  the  hind  one.  Be  careful  to  stamp  the  nail-holes  on  the  same  line, 
not  in  a  zigzag  manner.  The  holes  should  not  be  too  coarse,  as  there  is  then  danger  of 
pricking  the  horse,  or  binding  the  hoof  with  the  stalk  of  the  nail. 

The  shoe  should  be  stamped  coarser  outside  than  inside,  because  it  may  be  necessary  to 
leave  it  wider  outside.  Do  not  bend  the  shoes  in  adjusting  them,  nor  arch  them:  they 
ought  to  be  nearly  flat;  though  they  might  be  slightly  curved,  so  as  to  preserve  the  wall  of 
the  hoof.  They  should  also  follow  the  outline  of  the  hoof,  —  a  little  more  to  the  outside  than 
the  inside.  When  fitting,  the  shoe  should  not  be  kept  too  long  a  time  on  the  hoof,  for  fear 
of  heating  it.  With  this  shoeing  we  may  travel  on  slippery  ground  or  grass  land,  in  using 
for  each  shoe  two  nails  with  long  heads,  which  will  prevent  the  horse  from  slipping.  Also 
during  frost,  on  paved  roads,  ice,  or  snow,  use  these  nails,  as  they  prevent  slipping;  the 
roads  being  hard,  three  nails  are  required;  two  in  the  outer  branch,  and  one  in  the  inner. 

These  short  shoes,  thin  at  the  heels,  have  caused  the  horses  to  walk  on  their  frogs,  which 
are  their  points  of  support;  and  those  which  were  lame  at  the  heels  are  sound  again;  those 
also  whose  inside  quarters  were  contracted,  bent  over,  and  split  (sand-crack),  have  been  cured. 
It  has  been  the  same  with  horses  whose  quarters  and  heels  have  been  contracted  {encastelS): 
these  have  been  widened,  and  have  assumed  a  proper  shape.  The  same  may  be  said  of  those 
47 


790  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

whose  soles  were  convex  (comhle),  and  which  went  lame  with  long  shoes.  My  method  has 
also  preserved  those  horses  which  had  a  tendency  to  thrush  {vulgo,  fie)  and  canker  of  the 
frog  {crapaudy" 

The  Goodenough  Shoe.  —  This  shoe  is  made  upon  the  principle  that  the  proper  way 
to  shoe  a  horse's  foot  is  to  permit  the  frog  to  rest  upon  the  ground;  the  inventor,  whose 
name  it  bears,  having  this  idea  of  frog-pressure  in  mind,  succeeded  in  producing  a  shoe  that 
has  been  extensively  used  and  highly  recommended  by  the  best  authorities  on  farriery. 

It  is  stated  by  those  who  have  become  most  familiar  with  its  use,  that  corns,  quarter- 
cracks,  thrush,  shrunken  frogs,  contracted  heels,  and  many  other  of  the  evil  effects  of  improper 
shoeing,  have  been  cured  by  the  use  of  this  shoe  alone,  without  any  other  application. 

This  shoe  is  always  applied  cold,  and  is  fitted  by  cutting  out  just  enough  of  the  crust  to 
have  it  fit  in  well,  being  imbedded  as  it  were  in  the  crust,  and  leaving  the  sole  and  frog  as 
much  exposed  as  possible,  neither  of  which  are  ever  cut.  It  is  a  very  light  shoe  with  five 
calks  or  bearings,  a  lower  surface  similar  in  form  to  the  natural  foot,  and  is  bevelled  on  both 
surfaces,  the  nail-holes  being  counter-sunk. 

Mr.  Russell,  present  Secretary  of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  says  of  this  shoe: 
"My  reason  for  using  the  Goodenough  shoe  was  because  it  kept  the  principle  continually 
before  the  man  who  was  shoeing,  and  enabled  him  to  shoe  the  horse  with  frog-pressure.  The 
heel  of  the  Goodenough  Shoe  is  drawn  thin.  It  is  a  roUed  shoe,  and  it  is  rolled  thin.  The 
shoe  is  also  bevelled  on  each  side.  It  is  bevelled  on  the  foot-surface,  the  part  of  the  shoe 
that  goes  against  the  foot;  so  that  the  bearing  of  the  horse  comes  upon  the  outer  wall  of  the 
hoof  entirely.  It  is  bevelled  on  the  inside,  which  prevents  the  balling  of  snow,  or  suction  in 
mud ;  which  is  a  very  important  matter.  And  then,  in  rolling  up,  it  is  corrugated.  There 
are  three  depressions  in  which  the  nails  are  counter-sunk,  so  that  the  heads  of  the  nails  do 
not  strike  the  ground  until  the  shoe  is  very  well  worn  down.  Any  man  who  will  take  the 
pains  can  shoe  his  horse  in  the  same  way  without  the  use  of  any  special  shoe  for  that 
purpose." 

The  Charlier  System.  —  This  is  an  improved  French  method  of  shoeing  horses,  and 
consists  simply  of  a  little  rim  of  iron  put  about  the  hoof,  set  in  a  groove,  so  that  the  whole 
bottom  of  the  horse's  foot,  frog,  bars,  sole,  and  all,  comes  upoSi  the  groimd  the  same  as  if  the 
animal  were  barefoot,  the  shoe  serving  as  a  protection  to  the  rim  or  crust  of  the  hoof.  This 
mode  of  shoeing  njakes  a  very  nice  job,  requiring  the  best  workman  to  execute  it  satis- 
factorily, and  would  doubtless  prove  too  expensive  to  become  generally  adopted  in  this 
country. 

Shoe  Tips.  —  These  area  narrow,  thin,  crescent-shaped  protection  for  the  front  por- 
tion of  the  hoof,  which  is  that  part  most  readily  worn  away.  They  leave  the  sole,  bars, 
frog,  quarter,  and  heel  entirely  untouched,  the  hoof  having  no  artificial  protection  except  at 
the  front,  as  previously  indicated.  They  are  highly  recommended  by  those  who  have  used 
them,  and  approach  the  nearest  to  bare  feet  of  any  method  of  shoeing.  Mr.  Murray  says 
of  them:  — 

"  They  are  a  most  excellent  form  of  shoe.  I  speak  from  experience,  and  not  from  theory 
alone.  I  have  used  horses  of  eleven  hundred  pounds  weight,  in  farm-work  and  ordinary 
family  service,  on  the  road,  for  months  together,  with  no  protection  to  their  feet  save  these 
tips,  and  found  that  their  feet,  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  were  in  a  most 
unsatisfactory  condition,  grew  strong  and  well ;  and  I  recommend  this  form  of  shoeing  to  all 
my  readers  whose  horses  are  exercised  or  worked  in  the  country.  Indeed,  I  am  under  the 
impression  that  the  feet  of  many  horses  would  need  no  other  protection  even  for  city  service. 
It  is  astonishing  how  fast  the  foot  will  develop  and  increase  when  once  brought  in  contact 
with  the  ground.     Take  o£E  those  high-heeled  shoes  from  your  horse,  friend,  which  you  have 


HORSE-SHOEING.  79I 

caused  to  be  put  on  him  in  order  to  keep  his  frog  from  the  ground,  and  let  it  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  ground  at  every  step.  For  a  few  days,  or  even  for  a  few  weeks,  your  horse 
may  favor  himself  somewhat;  but  Nature  will  soon  accommodate  herself  to  the  new  liberty 
granted  her;  viz.,  the  liberty  of  helping  herself.  She  will  soon  build  up  a  frog,  such  as  you 
never  saw  in  your  life, — a  large,  overlapping  pad  of  gutta-percha-like  substance,  wide  and 
thick,  that  feels  no  more  the  concussion,  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  stone  pavement, 
than  the  buffer  under  a  railroad  car  feels  the  jolts  as  the  train  is  being  whirled  along." 

Mr.  Russell,  previously  quoted,  says: — ''A  horse  condemned  to  wear  heavy  shoes  to 
which  heel  and  toe  calkins  are  afExed,  begins  to  fail  from  that  moment.  At  the  age  when 
he  should  be  in  the  fullest  enjoyment  of  his  strength,  he  is  called  old.  And  few  of  our 
horses  live  out  half  their  days,  the  great  cause  of  their  decline  being  from  disease  of  the 
feet;  all  of  which  are  caused  by  ignorant  shoeing.  In  the  management  of  colts  on  a  farm, 
they  should  not  be  shod  until  they  come  to  rapid  and  long-continued  labor  on  hard  roads; 
and  then  the  lightest  possible  appKcation  of  iron  should  be  made.  The  safest  way  is  to  let 
the  hind-feet  be  bare,  and  to  shoe  the  fore-feet  with  tips  or  crescents  of  iron  that  only  cover 
the  toe.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  frog  is  the  natural  level  of  the  horse's  foot,  and 
the  hoof  must  be  trimmed,  keeping  that  ever  in  view." 

Mr.  E.  F.  Bowditch,  of  Massachusetts,  gives  his  method  of  shoeing,  as  foUows: — "My 
way  of  shoeing  is  to  get  a  level  bearing  on  the  horse's  foot,  and  keep  the  frog  on  the  ground; 
never  have  any  heel  or  toe  calk,  except  when  it  is  absolutely  necessary  in  winter.  The  last 
winter,  I  rode  my  saddle  mare  (and  of  course  my  neck  is  worth  more  to  me  than  anything 
else  I  own)  on  glare  ice,  with  a  small  bit  of  iron,  about  four  inches  long,  curled  around  her 
toe,  and  with  a  very  small  toe-calk.  I  recollect  galloping  out  on  the  ice,  where  the  men  were 
at  work  cutting  it,  and  I  had  no  fear  of  her  slipping,  although  the  horse  that  was  marking 
the  ice,  that  had  calks  on  two  inches  high,  did  slip." 

Mr.  Bowditch  further  states  that  he  established  a  little  forge  on  his  own  farm  for  his 
own  protection,  and  because  he  could  not  get  a  blacksmith  to  do  as  he  wanted  him  to  do. 
They  did  not  believe  in  light,  three-quarter  round  shoes,  and  Mr.  B.  did;  and  where  horses 
have  had  their  feet  abused  for  many  years  he  would  use  nothing  but  "tips,"  having  the  heels 
entirely  bare.     In  reference  to  preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe,  he  says:  — 

"  One  great  thing  is  to  take  off  as  little  as  possible.  You  merely  want  to  cut  a  little  bit 
off  of  the  edge  where  your  shoe  is  going;  so  that,  when  you  have  got  your  iron  on,  the  frog 
will  be  sure  to  come  down,  and  take  the  jar  on  the  foot.  No  matter  if  there  is  a  large  flake 
which  stands  off;  leave  it  there,  for  it  may  save  the  horse  from  getting  hurt  when  going 
down  hill.  There  may  be  a  piece  of  iron  in  the  road  (a  nut,  as  happened  in  one  case  to  myself), 
and,  if  the  horse  steps  on  that,  it  may  lame  him.  That  flake  is  dead:  it  is  worn  off  on  the 
road,  and  sometimes  drops  off  in  the  road  or  in  the  stable." 

He  never  touches  the  "  frog  "  in  any  way, 'no  matter  how  ragged ;  and  is  also  very  care- 
ful not  to  touch  the  "  bars  "  unless  they  strike  before  the  shoe,  when  he  would  shave  off  a 
little.  In  reference  to  a  case  where  the  frog  had  shrunken  up  into  the  foot,  and  the  benefits 
of  a  frog -bearing  in  such  a  case,  he  says:  — 

"  It  will  benefit  the  horse  if  that  method  of  shoeing  is  kept  up;  I  know  that  by  expe- 
rience. I  very  often  have  cripples  come  to  my  forge ;  and,  when  they  get  to  going  well, 
they  go  back  to  their  own  blacksmith;  their  owners  do  not  think  it  worth  while  to  bring 
them  to  me.  When  the  little  mare  called  the  'corpse,'  that  I  drive,  came  to  me,  her  heel 
was  about  an  inch  and  three-quarters  wide,  and  her  frog  was  the  size  of  my  little  finger. 
Now  she  has  a  frog  that  fills  up  almost  the  whole  of  her  foot.     .     .     . 

I  have  been  interested  in  shoeing  horses  for  several  years,  and  I  never  have  had  any 
trouble  with  mv  own  horses'  feet  from  the  effects  of  shoeing.  Nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  thousandths  of  all  the  trouble  in  horses'  feet  come  from  shoeing;  in  fact,  practically  all. 


792  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

To  illustrate:  this  'corpse'  that  I  speak  of,  that  I  drive  fast  down  hill  occasionally, 
belonged  to  a  friend  of  mine,  and  was  in  the  knacker's  yard  to  be  killed.  She  was  to  be 
killed  because  the  doctor  who  had  her  in  charge  wanted  her  legs  as  specimens  of  inflamma- 
tory rheumatism.  I  asked  my  friend,  as  a  favor,  if  he  would  let  me  take  her,  because  I  did 
not  think  she  had  inflammatory  rheumatism,  and  I  would  like  to  try  and  cure  her;  and,  if  I 
did  not  succeed,  the  legs  should  go  to  the  veterinary,  who  wanted  them  as  specimens.  I  had 
to  bring  her  sixteen  miles;  and  it  took  me  eight  hours,  with  a  man  leading  her,  and  a  boy 
l^ehind  switching  her;  and,  as  they  express  it  in  the  country,  'every  leg  was  in  front  of  her.' 
She  had  a  little  shrivelled  frog.  I  cut  her  hoofs  very  low  indeed,  until  I  got  a  little  bit  of 
frog-bearing;  but  it  hurt  her  to  put  her  foot  to  the  ground.  The  frog  had  no  life  in  it,  no 
circulation.  About  two  months  after  I  took  her,  I  thought  I  would  try  her,  and  see  if  it  was 
inflammatory  rheumatism.  She  took  her  eighteen  miles  in  an  hour  and  a  half,  although  she 
was  a  little  lame.  I  was  satisfied  she  would  come  out  perfectly  sound.  To-day  I  am  driving 
that  mare.  She  has  never  had  her  frog  off  of  the  ground  since  I  had  her,  winter  or  summer. 
Her  heel  is  steadily  growing  wider,  and  her  frog  is  growing  every  day.  I  have  driven  her, 
within  the  last  fortnight,  from  Boston  to  my  farm,  some  twenty-three  miles.  I  can  do  that 
with  this  little  mare  in  an  hour  and  forty  minutes,  and  repeat  it  the  same  day  in  an  hour  and 
forty-five  minutes,  and  she  will  not  go  lame  a  single  step.  She  will  go  in  the  middle  of  the 
road,  and  step  on  stones  without  flinching." 

The  instances  already  given  are  sufficient  to  prove  the  evil  effects  of  faulty  shoeing,  and 
the  best  method  of  remedying  them. 

The  Best  Method  of  Shoeing. — That  shoeing  is  undoubtedly  best  which  consists  in 
taking  away  as  small  a  portion  of  the  natural  support  of  the  foot  as  possible,  without  cutting 
the  frog  bars,  or  sole,  and  at  the  same  time  giving  increased  strength  and  protection,  leaving 
the  foot  free  to  maintain  those  points  of  support  that  in  a  state  of  nature  it  always  has;  in 
fact,  the  nearer  we  follow  the  natural  form  and  tread  of  the  foot,  the  better. 

Shoes  should  never  be  worn  longer  than  four  or  five  weeks  without  being  removed,  as 
contraction  of  the  hoof  and  corns  will  be  liable  to  be  the  result,  if  resetting  is  neglected  longer 
than  this  period. 

Barefooted  Horses. — Although  the  shoeing  of  horses  has  long  been  common  in 
most  of  the  civilized  portions  of  the  world,  still  there  are  many  parts  where  horses  are  per- 
mitted to  go  year  after  year  without  shoes,  even  on  rough  roads,  and  under  such  conditions  are 
said  to  remain  sound,  being  less  troubled  with  lameness  and  diseases  of  the  feet  and  limbs 
than  where  shoeing  is  practiced.  , 

The  attention  of  some  of  the  leading  writers  on  horse  management  has  for  a  few  years . 
past  been  directed  towards  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  dispensing  with  shoes  altogether, 
and  permitting  horses  to  go  unshod.  They  claim  that  more  evil  than  good  results  from 
shoeing;  that  it  is  entirely  unnecessary,  and  that  if  horses  could  be  allowed  to  go  unshod, 
great  benefit  would  be  derived.  The  opponents  of  the  practice  claim  that  horses  used  on 
hard  pavements,  or  in  constant  service  on  common  country  roads,  will  soon  become  tender- 
footed  and  lame  from  the  wearing  away  of  the  hoof,  and  also  that  such  horses  would  be  lia- 
ble to  serious  injury  from  slipping  in  freezing  weather. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  there  are  hundreds  of  horses  used — unshod — with  success  in 
London  over  the  pavements  of  stone,  wood,  and  asphalt.  This  method,  if  practicable,  would 
certainly  save  the  farmer  considerable  expense  for  shoeing  during  the  year.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  much  of  the  lameness  of  horses  results  from  improper  shoeing,  and  that  when 
lame  from  this  cause,  one  of  the  best  remedies  in  such  cases  is  to  remove  the  shoes,  and  per- 
mit the  animal  to  run  in  the  pasture  awhile,  or,  if  in  winter,  he  should  be  allowed  the  exer- 
cise  that  a  large  box-stall  affords;  also  the  yard,  when  the  weather  will  admit.     Horses  that 


HORSE-SHOEING.  793 

have  been  accustomed  to  wear  shoes  should  not  have  them  removed,  and  be  put  at  once  to 
hard  work  on  rough  roads,  for  this  will  be  liable  to  make  them  tender-footed.  The  hoof 
will  also  be  apt  to  split  and  break.  If,  in  such  cases,  the  animal  could  be  turned  into  a  pas- 
ture on  damp  soil,  or  where  there  is  wet  grass,  for  a  few  days,  the  hoofs  will  become  softened, 
when  they  can  be  trimmed  or  rasped  off  evenly.  If  put  to  hard  work  before  the  nail-holes 
— or  those  portions  of  the  wall  that  have  been  split  or  weakened  by  them — are  worn  off, 
there  will  be  a  liability  of  the  hoofs  being  further  injured. 

It  would  be  well  to  give  horses  that  have  been  accustomed  to  wear  shoes,  the  protection 
which  tips  afford  for  a  time,  until  the  hoofs  become  hardened,  if  they  are  to  be  put  to  much 
service. 

Probably  some  horses  have  had  their  hoofs  injured  to  such  an  extent  by  bad  shoeing  and 
nailing,  that  more  time  would  be  required  to  permit  the  hoof  to  become  repaired  by  the 
natural  process,  than  could  be  profitably  spared  by  the  owner.  The  quality  of  the  hoof  differs 
with  different  horses,  some  having  much  harder  hoofs  than  others.  The  only  way  to  tell 
whether  a  horse's  hoofs  are  tough  or  tender  is  to  test  them  thoroughly  after  the  broken  and 
damaged  portions  are  removed  or  worn  away. 

A  Western  gentleman  of  large  experience  with  horses  says: — "  We  have  long  been  con- 
vinced of  the  folly  of  keeping  horses  shod  the  year  round,  and  at  present  we  allow  all  of  our 
horses  to  go  barefoot  most  of  the  time,  and  some  of  them  are  constantly  on  the  road,  and 
most  of  the  time  on  paved  streets.  We  keep  our  horses  shod  only  during  the  rough  and 
slippery  roads  of  mid-winter.  If  farmers  could  save  a  part  of  their  blacksmith  bill,  and  at  the 
same  time  improve  their  horses,  it  would  be  a  decided  gain." 

Col.  M.  C.  Weld — a  high  authority  on  all  that  pertains  to  horse-management — gives  his 
practice  as  follows: — "With  me  it  is  a  great  desideratum  to  have  my  horses  shod  as  small  a 
part  of  the  year  as  possible.  Tliey  are  surer-footed;  their  feet  are  in  better  order;  they 
travel  freer  on  short  journeys — I  have  not  tested  them  on  long  ones;  they  do  not  injure  one 
another  by  kicking,  and  it  is  a  saving  of  expense.  In  fact,  considering  the  number  of  ail- 
ments brought  about  by  bad  shoeing  and  poor  blacksmiths,  and  the  number  of  horses  hope- 
lessly ruined  by  this  means,  and  the  fact  that  there  are  parts  of  the  world  where  the  roads 
are  even  rockier  and  rougher  than  ours,  where  the  art  of  farriery  is  unknown,  and  the  horses 
are  all  driven  and  ridden  barefoot,  that  we  in  the  country  ought  to  do  the  same,  and  let  our 
horses  go  barefoot  just  as  much  as  possible." 

We  doubt  whether  horses  would  be  benefited  by  going  entirely  without  shoes  the  year 
round  in  those  latitudes  where  ice  forms  during  the  winter,  although  many  who  have  tested 
the  plan  assert  its  practicability,  but  we  do  believe  that  the  majority  of  horses  might  go 
unshod  with  benefit  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year,  and  it  would  be  to  the  advantage  of 
farmers  and  horse-owners  generally  to  have  less  iron  and  steel,  and  more  common  sense, 
employed  in  the  management  of  their  horses'  feet. 

Kesnlts  of  Improper  Shoeing. — Faulty  shoeing,  as  previously  stated,  is  the  cause 
of  many  of  the  ills  which  horses  are  obliged  to  endure,  good  shoeing  being  the  exception 
rather  than  the  common  practice.  Among  the  many  evils  that  result  from  improper  shoe- 
ing may  be  mentioned  the  cutting  away  of  the  bars  and  frog,  thus  weakening  the  support  and 
protection  of  the  foot;  the  thin  paring  of  the  sole,  which  removes  the  protection  of  tlie  inner 
sole  from  both  the  ground  and  the  atmosphere,  making  the  horse  tender-footed,  and  causing 
the  natural  moisture  of  the  hoof  to  become  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere,  until  it  becomes  dry 
and  cracks.  Then  there  is  the  breaking  oS  of  the  walls  of  the  hoof  by  the  nail-holes,  the 
drawing  of  the  nails  too  tightly,  the  use  of  the  rasp  in  making  a  groove  for  clinching  the 
nails;  the  cuttmg  and  filing  of  the  edges  of  the  hoof  that  project  beyond  the  shoe;  the 
opportunity  of  foreign  substances,  such  as  stones,  gravel,  or  earth,  becoming  wedged  between 
the  shoe  and  sole;  the  uneven  pressure  of  the  shoe  on  different  portions  of  the  sole;  the 


794  THE  A5IERICAN  FARMER. 

searing  of  the  hoof  to  make  the  shoe  fit  better;  the  uneven  grow'th  of  the  hoof  sometimes 
seen  when  the  shoe  is  left  on  too  long;  the  injury  to  the  hoof  in  removing  nails,  and  from 
driving  them  into  the  sensitive  portion  of  the  sole  in  fastening  on  a  shoe.  Sometimes  the 
nail  sphts  in  driving,  and  one  thin  blade  of  iron  goes  into  the  sensitive  portion  of  the  foot, 
and  the  other  through  the  wall.  Instances  of  lock-jaw  have  been  known  to  occur  from  this 
very  cause.  In  order  to  have  the  foot  look  round,  and  give  it  a  finished  appearance,  some 
stupid  blacksmiths  rasp  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  thus  weakening  it  and  causing  it  to  become 
brittle  and  crack,  it  not  being  suflBciently  strong,  vmder  such  treatment,  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  body,  and  the  concussion  produced  on  hard  pavements  and  rough  roads. 

Much  injury  is  done  the  hoof  by  the  violence  and  carelessness  often  connected  with 
removing  a  shoe,  thus  breaking  and  tearing  portions  of  the  wall.  These  and  many  other  evils 
might  be  mentioned  as  the  direct  result  of  improper  shoeing.  Blacksmiths  cannot  take  too 
much  pains  in  informing  themselves  respecting  the  best  modes  of  shoeing,  or  in  the  practice 
of  their  art  when  it  is  thoroughly  understood. 

Brittle  Hoofs. — There  is  a  great  difference  in  animals  with  respect  to  the  quality  of 
the  hoof, — some  being  of  a  soft,  porous  nature,  others  hard,  firm,  and  capable  of  enduring 
much  wear,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  drought  and  moisture,  without  being  appar- 
ently affected  by  them.  The  quality  of  the  hoof  is  transmitted  with  just  as  much  certainty 
as  that  of  any  other  characteristics,  some  breeds  or  families  of  horses  invariably  having 
large  flat  feet  and  hoofs  of  an  open,  porous  nature,  while  others — such  as  the  Arabian  breed, 
for  instance, — have  a  small,  narrow  hoof  of  the  firmest,  toughest,  and  most  compact  quality. 
This  is  not  only  true  of  breeds,  but  of  individuals;  the  quahty  of  the  hoof  of  the  parent 
determining  largely  that  of  the  offspring.  Aside  from  the  difference  in  quahty,  there  are 
conditions  that  affect  and  modify  the  character  of  the  hoofs  of  horses,  long-continued  warm, 
dry  weather  having  a  tendency  to  cause  the  hoof  to  become  brittle,  while  moisture  or  damp- 
ness has  the  opposite  tendency.  Improper  shoeing,  as  previously  stated,  will  cause  the  worst 
form  of  brittleness  of  hoof.  Imperfect  nourishment  wUl  also  affect  the  quahty  of  the  hoof, 
as  well  as  the  hair,  and  cause  it  to  become  dry  and  brittle  in  character. 

The  Xational  Live  Stock  Journal  contains  the  following  on  this  subject:  ''  It  is  not 
habitual  dr3mess  that  injures;  it  is  the  alternation  of  rain  and  drouth.  The  evil  effects  of 
moisture  may  be  largely  warded  off  by  smearing  the  moistened  foot  ■nath  some  impervious, 
oily  agent  before  exposing  it  to  the  drying  process.  In  this  way  the  moisture  that  has  been 
absorbed  by  the  horn  is  retained,  the  sudden  drying  and  shrinking  are  obviated,  and  the 
horn  remains  elastic  and  comparatively  tough.  As  it  is  often  needful  to  soak  the  foot  in 
warm  or  cold  water,  or  in  poultices  in  cases  of  disease,  it  is  all-important  that  the  above- 
named  precaution  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind,  and  that  the  softened  foot  should  be 
smeared  throughout  with  some  hoof-ointment  before  it  is  allowed  to  dry  and  harden.  For 
this  purpose  nothing  is  simpler  or  better  than  a  mixture  in  equal  parts  of  wood-tar  and 
whale-oil  or  lard.     This  may  be  smeared  on  the  foot  every  other  day. 

In  addition  to  the  changes  of  weather,  the  frequent  standing  in  rotting  dung-heaps,  or  in 
pools  of  decomposing  hquid  manure,  may  be  named  as  causes  of  brittle  hoofs.  In  the  dung- 
heap  there  is  not  only  the  moisture  and  steam  soaking  and  softening  the  hoof,  but  there  is 
abundance  of  ammonia-gas,  which  is  especially  calculated  to  soften,  dissolve,  and  destroy  the 
horn.  Rotten  manure  and  putrid  hquids,  therefore,  are  much  more  injurious  than  pure 
water,  muddy  pools,  or  wet  clay.  Again,  the  emanations  of  this  kind  are  far  from  conducive 
to  general  health,  so  that  they  prove  hurtful  in  two  ways  —  first,  by  directly  destroying  the 
substance  of  the  hoof,  and,  secondly,  by  reducing  the  animal  vigor,  the  power  of  digestion 
and  assimilation,  and  the  power  of  secreting  good  horn.  Standing  in  such  decomposing 
organic  matter  is  still  more  injurious,  however,  when  the  animal  is  confined  to  a  stall  or  box, 
for  here  the  injurious  effect  of  inactivity  is  added  to  the  above-named  conditions. 


HORSE-SHOEING.  795 

Not  the  least  among  the  causes  of  brittle  hoofs  is  disease  of  the  foot.  And  this  may 
result  from  injuries  inflicted  at  a  distance,  as  weU  as  from  those  acting  directly  on  the  foot. 
Of  the  first  class  are  especially  to  be  named  founder  from  an  over-feed  of  grain,  or  a  drink  of 
cold  water  when  heated  and  fatigued.  In  both  instances  the  trouble  begins  with  the  stomach 
and  digestive  organs,  which  become  congested  and  irritated  by  the  indigestion,  or  the  reaction 
from  the  chilling  effect  of  the  cold  ;  the  irritation  extends  to  the  skin;  and  the  foot,  being 
that  part  of  the  skin  which  is  most  abundantly  supplied  with  blood,  and  most  sensitive,  is 
the  most  severely  affected.  Such  inflammations  of  the  foot  may  be  so  severe  as  to  cause 
shedding  of  the  hoof,  extreme  distortion  of  the  hoof,  or  merely  drying,  hardening,  shrinking, 
contraction,  imperfect  nourishment,  brittleness,  and  loss  of  substance. 

The  same  result  sometimes  follows  on  an  overdose  of  purgative  medicine,  which,  prim- 
arily, irritates  the  stomach  and  bowels,  but,  secondarily,  implicates  the  skin  and  feet  by 
sympathy. 

The  perfect  integrity  of  the  hoof  is  only  to  be  obtained  in  the  progeny  of  a  good  stock, 
in  which  health,  growth,  and  vigor  have  been  persistently  secured,  by  suitable  food,  air, 
exercise,  and  general  care;  all  inflammation  or  other  diseases  of  the  foot  must  be  carefuUy 
guarded  against  by  a  most  watchful  attention  to  this  part  alike  in  shoeing,  stabling,  and 
exercise.  When  a  foot  has  suffered  in  any  way,  whether  from  drying  after  excessive  moist- 
ure, from  long  standing  on  a  dry  floor,  from  freezing  in  cold  weather,  from  over-driving  and 
concussion,  or  otherwise,  the  irritation  should  be  relieved  by  a  soothing  application,  like  a 
poultice,  or  a  standing  place  in  wet  clay,  in  warm  or  in  cold  water,  to  be  followed  in  every 
case  by  a  daily,  or,  at  least,  a  frequent,  use  of  a  hoof-ointment.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
growth  of  the  horn  may  be  hastened  by  a  tar  or  turpentine  ointment,  or  by  the  application 
of  a  weak  solution  of  cantharides  —  one  part  of  powdered  cantharides  to  25  or  30  parts  of 
alcohol  —  around  the  hair  at  the  top  of  the  hoof.  "When  a  good  firm  horn  is  wanted,  this 
must  never  be  applied  so  as  to  induce  severe  inflammation,  which  would  increase  the  produc- 
tion of  horn,  but  only  of  an  open,  unresisting  quality  of  the  same,  ready  to  yield  or  break 
under  tension  or  concussion. 

Gentle  daily  friction,  or  the  application  of  the  above  preparation,  as  often  as  may  be 
necessary  to  keep  up  a  free  flow  of  blood  to  the  part,  is  all  that  is  required.  In  very  weak, 
brittle  feet  there  is  often  an  advantage  in  applying  a  leather  sole  beneath  the  shoe,  with  a 
layer  of  tar  and  tow  between  it  and  the  sole.  This  obviates  concussion,  and  favors  growth. 
Again,  broken  parts  of  the  wall  may  sometimes  be  temporarily  repaired  by  filling  the  breach 
with  a  mixture,  in  equal  parts,  of  gutta  percha  and  gum  ammoniac.  This  will  give  some 
support  to  the  part,  and  a  more  equal  bearing  to  the  shoe,  until  the  hoof-waU  has  had  time  to 
grow  down  anew." 

Stopping  the  feet  frequently  will  obviate  brittleness  of  the  hoof,  which  is  sometimes 
caused  by  the  horse  being  seldom  or  irregularly  worked,  and  kept  most  of  the  time  in  a  dry 
stable. 

Stopping  the  Feet.  — This  consists  of  filling  the  entire  under  portion  of  the  hoof 
with  some  substance  that  will  serve  to  impart  moisture  to  the  foot.  It  will  always  be  foxmd 
beneficial  when  the  hoofs  are  dry  and  brittle,  or  when  there  is  any  tendency  to  feverishness 
in  the  feet.  For  horses  that  are  confined  much  of  the  time  in  dry  stables,  this  process  is 
almost  a  necessity,  but  too  often  neglected  in  stable  management.  Some  writers  on  horse 
management  claim  that  the  feet  of  all  horses  should  be  stopped  as  often  as  every  other  night. 
The  best  material  for  this  purpose,  and  what  is  always  convenient  to  obtain,  is  fresh  cow- 
manure,  mixed  with  one-fourth  part  of  clay.  Either  wet  clay  or  cow-manure  alone  are  also 
highly  recommended  for  the  purpose.  Wet  oakum  and  linseed-meal  are  also  very  good. 
Youatt  recommends,  in  case  of  wounds,  cow-manure  with  a  fourth  part  clay  beaten  mto  it, 
and  a  little  tar  added,  but  says  that  the  use  of  tar  in  a  common  stopping  is  too  stimulating 


796  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

and  drying.  The  stopping  should  be  always  carefully  removed  before  the  horse  leaves  the 
stable  for  use. 

Lampas.  —  This  is  very  improperly  considered  a  disease  by  certain  ignorant  farriers, 
and  the  brutal  practice  of  burning  down  the  bars  with  a  hot  iron  is  frequently  resorted  to  as 
a  remedy.     Lampas  is  a  swelling  of  the  bars  of  the  mouth,  and  is  found  in  all  colts  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  and  occasionally,   though   rarely,  in  old 
(g?^^?^  ]  'm>wiii  T|   horses,  since  the  teeth  of  the  horse  continue  to  grow  during  his 

entire  life.     Sometimes  the  swelling  extends  to  a  level  with  the 
LAMPAS  IRON.  ^^^^  ^^  j,^^  teeth,  and  even  beyond  them.     This  condition  may  be 

produced  from  inflammation  of  the  gums  when  the  colt  is  shed- 
ding his  temporary  teeth,  or  from  some  feverish  tendency  in  the 
c»  flwSn'y'K'^ts^"^  system.    It  frequently  occurs  when  a  young  horse  has  been  taken 
v^'&TMM'^^^  from  grass  and  fed  on  grain.     Over-feeding,  with  insufficient  ex- 
K^  ercise,  will  also   sometimes   cause   it.     Generally,  this  difficulty 
requires  no  treatment,  and,  if  left  to  itself,  the  swelling  will  soon 
pj/*^  subside.     But  when  it  interferes  with  the  mastication  of  the  food, 

it  will  be  well  to  lance  the  gum  or  bars  of  the  mouth,  the  bleeding  of  which  will  reduce  the 
inflammation,  the  lancing  to  be  performed  where  the  most  inflammation  exists.  This  may  be 
done  with  a  lance  or  a  common  pocket-knife,  by  making  a  few  slight  incisions  across. 
Sometimes  the  cutting  of  the  tushes  and  grinders  will  produce  the  swelling  in  the  mouth,  and 
when  this  is  the  case  —  which  can  readily  be  determined  by  examining  the  localities  —  the 
gum  should  be  lanced  over  the  tooth,  the  same  as  children's  gums  are  sometimes  lanced  in 
teething.     Warm  mashes  should  be  given  at  such  times. 

Jennings  recommends  that,  after  lancing,  the  mouth  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh,  two  ounces  to  a  pint  of  water,  or  a  solution  of  alum  and  water,  this  to  be 
repeated  twice  a  day  for  three  or  four  days,  during  which  time  bran  mashes  or  flax-seed 
gruel,  with  a  small  quantity  of  new  grass,  should  be  given.  Also,  that  no  hay,  oats,  or  com 
be  given  for  a  week,  after  the  expiration  of  which  time  the  teeth  will  be  in  condition  to  mas- 
ticate such  food. 

Treatment  of  Old  or  Disabled  Horses.  —  A  horse  that  has  served  his  master 
faithfully  many  years  is  justly  entitled  to  kind  and  considerate  treatment  in  old  age.  It 
is  too  frequently  the  case  that  after  a  horse  becomes  advanced  in  years,  and  his  usefulness 
somewhat  impaired,  he  is  sold  to  some  unscrupulous  person  who  will  either  over- work  and 
otherwise  ill-treat  the  faithful  creature,  or  who  will  sell  him  to  some  one  of  a  numerous  class  of 
men  who  are  too  poor  to  own  a  good  horse,  but  who  for  a  few  dollars  will  purchase  an  old  or 
otherwise  partially-disabled  animal,  and  get  all  the  work  he  can  out  of  him,  at  the  same  time 
keeping  him  with  the  least  possible  expense.  There  are  already  too  many  of  these  abused, 
half-starved  creatures  to  be  seen  in  every  city  and  town,  the  sight  of  which,  more  than 
almost  anything  else,  strikingly  impresses  one  with  a  sense  of  man's  inhumanity. 

The  selling  of  the  faithful,  patient  old  farm-horse  to  a  sharp-eyed  jockey  is  frequently 
done  in  a  thoughtless  manner  by  many  a  kind-hearted  farmer,  who,  if  he  would  stop  to 
reflect  a  moment  upon  the  suffering  this  act  of  his  would  bring  upon  the  noble  animal,  would 
refuse  to  do  it.  There  is  another  class  of  farmers  to  whom  the  few  dollars  that  such  a  sale 
would  bring  in  return  would  far  outweigh  the  feeling  of  gratitude  or  conscience  in  the  con- 
sideration, and  to  such  we  suppose  this  appeal  in  behalf  of  the  faithful  old  horse  would  be 
futile;  but  we  hope  and  believe  this  class  to  be  in  the  minority,  and  the  nobler  elements  to 
largely  predominate.  He  who  will  cause  by  his  act,  or  permit  cruelty  to  be  perpetrated 
upon  any  of  the  creatures  God  has  given  us,  is  himself  guilty,  nearly,  if  not  fully,  to  the 
extent  of  him  who  perpetrates  directly  the  cruel  act,  since  he  either  causes  or  permits  what  he 


HOUSE-SHOEING.  799 

might  easily  prevent,  and  is  tlierefore  responsible.  No  horse  should  be  made  to  labor  beyond 
his  strength,  at  any  age,  and  all  horses  are  entitled  to  kind  treatment  and  good  care.  When 
a  horse  becomes  so  old  or  otherwise  unfitted  for  service  that  it  does  not  pay  to  keep  him,  and 
the  owner  feels  that  he  cannot  afiord  to  keep  him  simply  for  the  good  he  has  done,  or  has 
not  sufficient  affection  for  him  to  still  care  for  him  after  he  ceases  to  be  paying  property,  let 
him  be  humanely  killed  by  a  rifle-ball  shot  through  the  brain,  rather  than  sell  him  to  be 
abused  and  wear  out  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  suffering  and  neglect.  Old  horses  should 
be  fed  much  with  warm  mashes,  oats,  and  cut  feed. 

Carrots  are  especially  good  for  old  horses,  to  the  extent  that  they  have  been  very  appro- 
priately called  the  regenerator  of  old,  worn-out  horses,  as  well  as  those  that  have  been  over- 
worked, poorly  fed,  and  otherwise  improperly  treated.  Such  horses  when  allowed  a  generous 
diet  of  carrots,  in  connection  with  other  food,  will  gain  in  condition  very  rapidly.  They  will 
soon  put  on  flesh,  and  the  coat  become  materially  improved.  Carrots  seem  to  supply  horses 
with  new  blood,  and  thus  restore  their  youth  for  a  time.  Horses  are  very  fond  of  them  and 
will  eat  them  greedily.  If  fed  upon  them  in  large  quantities  for  a  long  time,  however,  the 
effect  is  lessened,  as  the  body  becomes  accustomed  to  them,  and  the  result  is  less  marked. 
Care  should  be  used  while  thus  feeding  to  give  the  animal  sufficient  exercise,  as  there  will  be 
a  tendency  to  apoplexy  where  this  is  neglected,  and  such  stimulating  food  long  given  in  large 
quantities. 

Care  of  Hariiesst^. — Harnesses  that  are  constantly  surrounded  with  the  fumes  of 
ammonia  will  become  stiff  and  hard,  as  the  ammonia  will  have  a  tendency  to  absorb  or  eat 
up  the  oil  contained  in  the  leather.  For  this  reason  nice  harnesses  should  never  be  hung 
where  the  ammonia  from  the  air  of  the  stable  will  reach  them.  A  harness-room  or  closet 
should  be  done  off  in  the  barn  or  wagon-house  for  the  purpose,  which  will  also  keep  them 
free  from  dust.  The  walls  should  not  be  whitewashed,  as  the  lime,  coming  in  contact  with 
the  leather,  would  injure  it.  Long  pegs  or  hooks  should  be  fastened  in  the  wall  about  sis 
feet  from  the  floor  for  hanging  the  harnesses  on.  Two  hooks  will  be  sufficient  for  one 
harness,  one  for  the  bridle  and  collar,  the  latter  hung  with  the  small  end  up  and  outside  the 
bridle,  and  the  other  for  the  harness,  which  should  be  hung  by  the  saddle.  By  this  arrange- 
ment they  are  hung  in  proper  order  for  putting  on  the  horse. 

On  taking  the  harness  from  the  horse,  the  dust  and  rain  or  perspiration  should  all  be 
wiped  off  with  a  piece  of  chamois  skin,  or  woolen  cloth.  When  nearly  dry,  the  portions  that 
were  damp  should  be  again  rubbed  with  another  cloth  or  chamois  skin  kept  for  the  purpose, 
until  they  are  soft  and  pliable.  The  plated  mountings  and  bits  should  be  cleaned  by  rubbing 
with  a  cloth  slightly  oiled.  Harnesses  require  occasional  special  cleaning  and  oiling  in  order 
to  prevent  the  leather  from  becoming  stiff  and  hard.  They  are  more  injured  by  use  and 
require  more  care  in  summer  than  in  winter,  as  they  are  more  frequently  soaked  by  the  rains, 
wet  with  perspiration  from  the  horses,  and  subjected  to  heated  and  dry  atmosphere.  If  kept 
well  oiled,  the  injurious  effects  of  these  conditions  may  be  in  a  great  measure  obviated. 

HoTV  to  Clean  and  Oil  a  Harness.— There  are  various  methods  and  applications 
employed  for  cleaning  and  softening  harnesses,  the  most  common  of  which  is  to  first  wash 
with  soap  and  warm  water,  followed  by  rinsing  in  clear,  soft  water,  and  afterwards  apply  oil; 
neats-foot  oil  being  generally  used.  Another  method  is  to  oil  the  harness  well,  by  which 
means  the  dirt  on  it  is  softened,  after  which  wash  it  thoroughly  with  soap  r/.id  water,  and  rinse 
it  as  before,  afterwards  applying  some  one  of  the  many  preparations  for  the  pui-pose,  which  will 
both  oil  the  leather  and  improve  its  color.  By  oiHng  before  washing,  the  oil  penetrates  the 
leather  and  prevents  the  water  from  saturating  it  and  making  it  hard.  Castor  oil  is  highly 
recommended  by  some  for  this  purpose.  A  preparation  of  equal  parts  of  oil  and  tallow, 
colored  with  lamp-black  and  a  small  portion  of  Prussian  blue,  makes  a  very  good  appUcation 


800  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

for  harnesses  after  they  have  been  washed  and  dried.  Castor  oil  will  endure  the  effects  of 
the  atmosphere  and  moisture  much  longer  than  neats-foot  oil,  and  when  used  will  not  require 
applying  as  often.     A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  castor  and  neats-foot  oil  is  frequently  used. 

Le  Bourellier  et  le  Sellier,  a  French  work,  gives  the  following  recipe  for  restoring  old  and 
stiS  leather: — Melt  over  the  fire,  in  a  metallic  vessel,  eight  pounds  of  very  pure  beeswax, 
stirring  it  until  it  is  all  melted ;  then  introduce  one  pound  of  litharge,  which  has  been  pulver- 
ized in  water,  dried,  and  passed  through  a  fine  sieve.  Leave  it  on  the  fire,  and  stir  it  until 
all  of  the  soluble  part  of  the  htharge  is  incorporated  with  the  wax;  remove  the  vessel  from 
the  fire,  and  when  the  mixture  shall  have  lost  a  portion  of  its  heat,  incorporate  with  it,  little 
by  little,  one  pound  and  a  half  of  very  fine  ivory  black  of  the  best  quahty;  replace  it  on  the, 
fire,  and  stir  it  incessantly  until  the  wax  commences  to  boil  again;  then  remove  it  and  allow 
it  to  get  nearly  cool.  Then  add  to  it  spirits  of  turpentine,  until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  a 
paste.     More  turpentine  may  from  time  to  time  be  added,  as  may  become  necessary. 

Cleaning  the  Plate. — When  tarnished,  the  plate  of  a  harness  may  be  cleaned  by 
rubbing  with  common  whiting  for  polishing  silver.  If  badly  tarnished,  rub  first  with  whiting 
wet  with  soapsuds,  afterwards  with  dry  whiting.  No  acids  should  be  used;  it  will  be  hable 
to  destroy  the  plate.  Steel  mountings  should  be  kept  bright  by  rubbing  with  a  cloth 
containing  a  veiy  little  sweet  oil,  never  enough  to  be  perceptible  on  the  surface  of  the  steel. 

Treatment  of  Sick  Horses. — As  soon  as  a  horse  is  discovered  to  be  sick  he  should 
be  placed  apart  fi'om  others,  both  for  his  own  welfare  and  that  o^  other  horees  that  may  be 
stabled  with  him,  as  contagious  diseases  may  be  c6mmunicated  by  the  confined  air  of  the 
stalls.  The  sick  animal  should  have  warm,  airy,  and  well-ventilated  quarters,  which  should 
be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  He  should  also  be  provided  with  a  good,  soft  bed  of  clean  straw 
or  leaves.  He  should  be  handled  very  gently,  and  always  approached  in  a  quiet  manner, 
avoiding  all  unnecessary  noise,  or  anything  that  would  have  a  tendency  to  disturb  or  irritate 
him,  for  sick  animals,  hke  sick  people,  hke  to  be  qmet  and  undisturbed,  and  are  equally 
affected  by  irritating  causes.  Good  nursing  and  simple  remedies  are  much  to  be  preferred 
for  sick  animals,  as  well  as  for  sick  persons.  Never  use  a  horse  that  is  not  well.  If  he 
refuses  his  food,  or  seems  ailing,  he  is  in  no  condition  for  work. 

Diet  for  Sick  Horses. — This  will  depend  much  upon  the  nature  of  the  disease,  the 
degree  of  development,  its  intensity,  etc.  Rush  recommends  that  "  in  acute  diseases  no  food 
whatever  be  given  until  improvement  has  taken  place,  and  even  then  only  in  a  sparing  man- 
ner ;  the  articles  of  diet  most  suitable  are  bran,  oats,  hay,  carrots,  Swede  turnips,  and  green 
food,  either  grass  or  clover.  The  bran  may  be  given  either  dry  or  wet,  whichever  way 
the  animal  prefers  it.  Oats  may  be  given  mixed  with  bran,  either  raw  and  crushed  or  whole 
and  boiled.  It  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  animal  without  food  and  water  for  a  half  hour 
before  and  after  administering  medicine."  A  warm  mash  of  bran  is  excellent,  also  boiled 
flax-seed,  potatoes,  either  raw  or  boiled,  and  a  few  sweet  apples. 

Pulse  of  the  Horse. — It  may  not  be  known  to  all  having  the  care  of  horses  that 
the  pulse  of  the  horse  can  most  conveniently  be  felt  close  to  the  junction  of  the  head  with 
the  neck,  in  the  lower  jaw,  a  Uttle  back  of  where  the  sub-maxiUary  artery  and  vein,  and  the 
parotid  duct  come  from  under  the  jaw.  The  ordinary  number  of  pulsations  in  a  common 
farm  horse  in  temperate  climates  is  thirty-six  per  minute,  while  that  of  the  thoroughbred 
will  be  from  forty  to  forty-two.  It  is  somewhat  increased  by  hot  weather,  and  greatly  so  by 
a  hot  climate. 

It  is  stated  by  reliable  authority  that  the  pulse  of  a  thoroughbred  horse  will  be  about 
ten  degrees  higher  in  New  Orleans  than  in  New  York.  The  ordinary  practice  of  feeling  the 
pulsations  of  the  heart  through  the  sides  determines  only  the  number  of  beats  in  the  minute, 
while  by  that  of  the  jaw,  as  described,  determines  not  only  this,  but  the  manner  in  which  the 
blood  passes,  and  the  quantity. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  801 

DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

THE  diseases  of  horses  are  very  numerous,  some  of  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  others,  in  their  early  stages,  even  by  the  most  skilled  veterinarian;  it  is  therefore 
not  advisable  for  an  inexperienced  person  to  attempt  to  prescribe  in  such  cases,  since 
a  successful  treatment  of  sick  animals  necessitates,  not  only  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
whole  animal  system,  but  also  the  symptoms  and  nature  of  the  disease,  as  well  as  the  nature 
and  action  of  the  remedies.  When  a  horse  seems  slightly  ailing,  it  will  frequently  be  found 
that  good  nursing,  rest,  and  judicious  feeding  for  a  few  days  are  all  that  will  be  necessary  to 
restore  him. 

Nature  effects  cures  more  frequently  in  spite  of  powerful  drugs,  than  with  any  assistance 
they  may  afford.  There  are,  however,  instances  of  acute  disease  where  prompt  attention  will 
be  necessary;  and  under  such  circumstances  a  good  veterinarian,  if  procurable,  should  be 
sent  for,  but  beware  of  ignorant  "quacks"  who  administer  powerful  drugs  of  which  they 
know  little,  into  animals  of  which  they  know  less,  and  which  would  either  render  recovery 
impossible,  or  cause  a  needless  amount  of  suffering  to  the  poor  animal. 

There  may  be  cases  of  sickness  or  accidents  where  immediate  action  is  necessary,  which, 
if  delayed  a  sufficiently  long  time  to  send  for  aid,  might  endanger  the  life  of  the  animal. 

Again,  there  are  ailments  of  a  trifling  nature,  requiring  the  most  simple  remedies,  where 
it  would  be  wholly  unnec^sary  to  secure  the  advice  of  a  veterinarian,  and  which  any  person 
of  good  judgment  could  treat  who  was  at  all  famUiar  with  horses  and  their  management.  In  any 
case,  it  is  well  for  those  ha\'ing  the  care  of  horses  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  nature  of 
the  more  common  diseases  and  their  remedies. 

We  do  not,  however,  approve  the  practice  so  frequently  seen  among  horsemen  of  con- 
stantly dosing  horses  with  all  sorts  of  nostrums,  torturing  them  with  applications  of  every 
nature,  both  external  and  internal,  which  would  be  sufBcient  to  make  even  a  well  animal 
sick. 

Blistering  should  never  be  resorted  to,  except  in  cases  of  real  necessity.  Firing  is  a 
barbarous,  cruel  practice,  and  should  become  forever  obsolete.  Deep  burning  often  results  in 
inflammation  and  ulceration  that  may  with  difficulty  be  healed,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
more  injury  than  benefit  results  from  this  mode  of  treatment.  Blisters  are  only  beneficial  as 
a  counter  irritant,  and  are  seldom  necessary. 

Good  care  and  kind  treatment,  which  comprise  the  observance  of  sanitary  laws  and 
humane  considerations  in  all  respects,  will  have  a  tendency  to  keep  animals  in  a  vigorous  and 
healthy  condition  to  the  extent  that  but  little  if  any  medicine  will  ever  be  required.  The 
majority  of  diseases  to  which  horses  are  subject  are  due,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  to  a 
lack  of  ventilation  in  stables,  as  well  as  a  lack  of  cleanliness  in  stable  management,  in  other 
respects.     Herbert  very  justly  remarks: — 

"It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  more  than  one-half  the  ailments  of  horses  arise,  in  the 
first  instance,  from  bad  management, — or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  from  absence  of  all  man- 
agement,— from  an  improper  system  of  feeding,  from  ill-constructed,  un ventilated,  filthy 
stabling,  from  injudicious  driving,  and  neglect  of  cleaning.  When  disease  has  arisen,  it  is 
immediately  aggravated  and,  perhaps,  rendered  ultimately  fatal,  either  by  want  of  medical 
aid,  or,  what  is  far  more  frequent  as  well  as  far  more  prejudicial,  ignorant,  improper,  and 
often  violent  treatment,  either  on  a  wrong  diagnosis  of  the  affection,  or  on  a  still  more  wrong 
system  of  relieving  it.  Over-medicining  and  quacking  slightly  ailing  horses  is  the  bane  of 
half  the  private  stables  in  cities,  and  of  nearly  all  the  farm  stables  in  the  country ;  and  one 
or  the  other,  or  both  combined,  cause  the  ruin  of  half  the  horses  which  "go  to  the  bad  "  every 
year. 

There  is  no  quack  on  earth  equal  to  an  ignorant,  opinionated  groom;  and  every  one. 


802  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

now-a-days,  holds  himself  a  groom,  who  is  trusted  with  the  care  of  a  horse,  even  if  he  do 
not  know  how  to  clean  him  properly,  or  to  feed  him  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  his  working 
hours.  Every  one  of  these  wretched  fellows,  who  has  no  more  idea  of  a  horse's  structure  or 
of  his  constitution  than  he  has  of  the  model  of  a  ship  or  the  economy  of  an  empire,  is  sure 
to  have  a  thousand  infallible  remedies  for  every  possible  disease,  the  names  of  which  he 
does  not  know,  nor  their  causes,  origin,  or  operation;  and  which,  if  he  did  know  their  names, 
he  is  entirely  incapable  of  distinguishing,  one  from  the  other.  These  remedies  he  applies  at 
haphazard,  wholly  in  the  dark  as  to  their  effect  on  the  system  in  general,  or  on  the  particular 
disease,  and,  of  course,  nine  times  out  of  ten  he  applies  them  wrongfully,  and  aggravates 
fifty-fold  the  injury  lie  affects  to  be  able  to  relieve. 

These  are  the  fellows  who  are  constantly  administering  purgative  balls,  diuretic  balls, 
cordial  balls,  on  their  own  hook,  without  advice,  orders,  or  possible  reason — and  such  balls, 
too!  some  of  them  scarcely  less  fatal  than  a  cannon  ball — who  are  continually  drugging 
their  horses  with  nitre  in  their  food,  under  an  idea  that  it  is  cooling  to  the  system  and  that  it 
makes  the  coat  sleek  and  silky;  never  suspecting  that  it  is  a  violent  diuretic;  that  its  opera- 
tion on  the  kidneys  is  irritating  and  exhausting  in  the  extreme,  and  that  the  only  way  in 
which  it  cools  the  animal's  system  is  that  it  reduces  his  strength,  and  acts  as  a  serious  drain 
on  his  constitution. 

These,  lastly,  are  the  fellows  who  are  constantly  applying  hot  oils,  fiery  irritants,  and 
stimulants,  to  wounds,  strains,  bruises,  or  contusions,  which  in  themselves  produce  violent 
inflammation,  and  to  which,  requiring  as  they  do  the  use  of  mild  and  soothing  reme- 
dies, cold  lotions,  or  warm  fomentations,  the  application  of  these  stimulating,  volatOe 
essences  is  much  what  it  would  be  to  administering  brandy  and  cayenne  to  a  man  with  a 
brain  fever.  It  should  therefore  be  a  positive  rule  in  every  stable,  whether  for  pleasure  or 
farm  purposes,  that  not  a  drachm  of  medicine  is  ever  to  be  administered  without  the  express 
orders  of  the  master. 

The  more  ordinary  diseases  and  affections  of  the  horse  are  very  similar  to  those  with 
which  we  are  affected  ourselves;  their  treatment  is  always  analogous,  often  almost  exactly  iden- 
tical ;  the  processes  by  which  rehef  is  to  be  obtained  are  the  same,  and  the  medicines  do  not 
materially  differ  from  those  suitable  to  the  human  race.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  any 
intelligent  man,  gifted  with  good  reasoning  powers  and  not  deficient  in  observation,  who 
knows  how  to  keep  his  own  bodily  health  in  a  good  state,  and  to  deal  with  his  own  ordinary 
ailments,  can,  within  twelve  months,  quahfy  himself  to  treat  a  horse  in  all  the  cases  that  are 
likely  to  befall  him,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  as  well  as  anybody  else,  and  fifty  times 
better  than  the  stable-keepers,  who  will  sneer  at  his  efforts  until  they  perceive  that  they  are 
successful,  and  then  will  suddenly  discover  that  the  means  he  took  are  precisely  those  which 
themselves  recommended. 

The  things  of  great  importance  which  he  has  to  learn,  in  order  to  guard  against  danger, 
are,  how  much  depletion  the  system  of  a  horse  can  endure  without  danger,  and  what  extent 
of  purgation  his  bowels  can  resist  undamaged.  And  to  these  questions  it  may  be  answered, 
generally,  that  the  horse  can  bear  much  more  depletion  and  less  purgation  than  is  generally 
imagined,  especially  of  the  drastic  drugs  usually  exhibited.  We  are  very  decided  opponents 
of  purgatives  in  general,  and  have  been  gratified  by  observing  that  the  recent  cause  of  veter- 
inary practice,  both  in  France  and  England,  is  tending  to  the  entire  abandonment  of  the  old 
system;  according  to  which,  every  horse,  whether  anything  ailed  him  or  not,  was  put 
through  two  annual  courses  of  purgation,  each  of  three  doses,  in  the  Spring  and  Fall,  beside 
having  to  bolt  a  diuretic  ball  fortnightl)',  or  oftener,  according  to  the  whim  of  the  groom, 
when  his  kidneys  no  more  required  stimulation  than  his  hocks  did  bUstering." 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  generally  easier,  by  proper  management  and  good  care,  to  prevent  dis- 
eases than  to  cure  them  after  they  have  been  contracted,  the  former  wiU  always  prove  the 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 


803 


better  method  in  all  respects.  The  following  cut,  copied  from  Kendall's  Treatise  on  The 
Horse,  shows  the  location  of  many  of  the  common  diseases  of  the  bones  and  joints  of  this 
animal. 


SKELETON    OF    THE    HORSE. 


Anchylosis.  —  This  is  a  stifEening  of  the  joints  caused  by  the  bone  becoming  united  by 
bony  material  instead  of  the  natural  ligament.  It  is  generally  produced  by  extreme  hard 
service,  and  especially  in  horses  that  are  too  young  for  hard  work  and  before  the  bones  and 
joints  are  sufficiently  strong  to  endure  the  strain.  The  bones  of  the  back  and  loins,  as  well 
as  the  Hmbs,  are  liable  to  become  ailected  in  this  manner.  "When  this  difBculty  exists  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  the  back,  the  horse  will  be  stiff-backed,  and  consequently  turns  around, 
lies  down  and  gets  up  with  some  difBculty.     There  is  no  cure  for  it. 

Blood  Spavin.  —  This  is  a  somewhat  soft  swelling  caused  by  an  enlargement  of  the 
sack  which  contains  the  lubricating  fluid  of  the  hock  joint,  giving  it  a  rounded  appearance. 
Young  horses  and  colts,  especially  if  overdriven  or  worked  hard,  are  more  liable  to  have 
this  form  of  spavin  than  older  horses.  It  does  not  always  cause  lameness,  unless  the  horse  is 
worked  sufficiently  hard  to  aggravate  the  evil.  It  may,  however,  be  justly  regarded  as  unsound. 
n3ss,  and  lessens  very  materially  the  value  of  the  animal.  Blood  spavin  is  caused  by  bog  spavin, 
and  results  when  the  distended  sack  of  lubricating  fluid,  which  produces  the  latter,  becomes 
so  enlarged  that  the  vein  which  passes  over  it  is  compressed  between  this  enlargement  and 
the  skin,  to  the  extent  that  the  blood  is  impeded.  The  accumulation  of  blood  in  the  vein,  in 
consequence,  distends  it,  this  distension  generally  reaching  as  far  as  the  next  valve,  and  we 
have  what  is  called  Mood  spavin.     Wben  once  reduced,  it  is  liable  to  occur  again. 

Entire  rest  for  a  time,  together  with  frequent  bathing  of  the  affected  parts  with  cold 
water,  rubbing  carefully  with  the  hand,  and  bandaging,  are  generally  the  most  successful 


804  THE  AiEERICAN  FARMER 

methods  of  treatment.  In  the  use  of  the  bandage,  the  compression  should  be  upon  the 
swelling.  Compresses  or  spring  trusses  are  very  useful  for  this  purpose.  Blistering  is  fre- 
quently recommended,  and  more  frequently  practiced  for  this  difficulty,  but  rarely  results 
with  any  permanent  benefit. 

Bloody  Urine.     (See  H.ematdria.) 

Bog  Spavin.  —  An  enlargement  generally  in  front  of  the  hock  joint,  while  in  blood 
spavin  the  swelling  is  not  only  in  front  but  extends  to  the  inside  and  outside.  Treatment  the 
same  as  for  blood  spavin  (which  see). 

Bone  Spavin.  —  Bone  spavin,  or  spavin  proper,  is  an  enlargement  of  the  hock  joints 
caused  by  a  growth  of  bony  matter  which  generally  involves  the  heads  of  the  splint  and  com- 
mon bones,  and  the  small  bones  with  which  they  connect.  Strains  by  hard  labor  will  produce 
it,  or  anything  that  causes  the  weight  and  concussion  to  be  thrown  principally  upon  the  inner 
splint  bone  and  produce  inflammation  of  the  cartilaginous  substance  that  unites  it  to  the 
shank  bone,  thus  inducing  a  bony  deposit  at  this  point.  Raising  the  outer  heel  higher  than 
the  inner  one  in  shoeing  in  order  to  prevent  interfering,  will  sometimes  cause  spavin. 

It  generally  makes  its  appearance  upon  the  inside  of  the  hock,  and  in  front  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  joint.  There  is  always  a  lameness  and  considerable  pain  while  spavin  is  forming, 
even  in  its  earliest  stages,  and  is  most  noticeable  when  a  horse  is  first  taken  out  of  the  stable. 
After  being  driven  a  short  distance,  the  lameness  will  seem  to  subside,  but  ■«'ill  make  its 
appearance  again  after  standing  a  short  time,  and  starting  again.  Sometimes  horses  are  so 
lame  from  spavin  that  they  are  rendered  entirely  useless,  while  it  is  not  infrequent  that  horses 
with  large  spavins  are  only  sKghtly  lame,  or  a  little  stiflE  in  their  gait.  The  pain  and  lame- 
ness is  usually  less  severe  after  the  bony  process  is  completed. 

Bone-spavin  is  the  most  serious  kind  of  spavin  with  which  a  horse  can  be  affected.  If 
properly  treated  in  the  first  stages,  it  is  frequently  cured,  but  no  cure  can  be  effected  after  a 
considerable  amount  of  bony  formation  has  taken  place.  When  taken  early,  rest,  with  a  little 
exercise, — such  as  that  taken  by  a  horse  in  being  turned  into  a  pasture, — together  with  the 
use  of  counter  irritants  on  the  part  affected, — such  as  blistering, — will  usually  prove  benefi- 
cial. Never  resort  to  firing;  it  is  a  barbarous  practice,  and  invariably  results,  not  only  with 
no  benefit,  but  in  a  positive  injury. 

After  a  considerable  growth  of  bony  material  has  taken  place,  no  treatment  whatever 
will  be  able  to  cause  an  amount  of  absorption  sufficient  to  produce  a  cure.  The  wisest  course 
to  pursue  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  and  the  one  recommended  by  some  of  the  best 
veterinarians,  is,  to  turn  the  animal  out  to  grass,  supplying  him  with  cooling  yet  nutritious 
food,  and  that  which  is  moderately  loosening  to  the  bowels.  Constipation  or  other  feverish 
tendencies  should  be  avoided.  During  this  time  the  joint  affected  may  be  bathed  twice  a 
day,  for  a  week  or  more,  with  salt  and  vinegar,  after  which  the  blistering  salve,  or  a  substi- 
tute, may  be  applied  to  the  spavin,  care  being  used  to  judiciously  regulate  the  application 
according  to  the  effect  it  produces,  avoiding  over-irritation.  Sometimes  one  application  will 
be  sufficient;  in  other  cases  it  will  need  to  be  applied  again  in  three  or  four  days.  After 
produomg  considerable  irritation,  the  spavin  may  be  permitted  to  heal  imtil  all  the  heat  and 
inflammation  have  subsided,  when  the  treatmeut  may  be  again  renewed.  Avoid  blistering 
too  severely,  as  the  difficulty  may  by  this  means  be  aggravated;  an  inflamed  sore  may  be 
produced  in  this  way  that  will  be  difficult  to  heal. 

Another  method  of  treatment  in  the  first  stages,  is  the  application  of  cold  water  until  the 
inflammation  is  rediiced;  this  should  be  thoroughly  applied  the  same  as  for  any  other  inflam- 
mation, after  reducing  which  an  application  to  cause  absorption  of  the  bony  material  should 
be  made  as  follows: — Mercurial  ointment,  four  ounces;  powdered  cantharides,  a  half  ounce; 
oil  of  rosemary,  two  drachms.     Mix  these  well  together,  and  apply  to  the  spavin  daily.     The 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 


805 


cartilaginous  substance  that  has  not  already  changed  to  bone,  can  generally  be  absorbed  by 
thoroughly  rubbing  the  part  with  oleate  of  mercury  daily  for  a  few  days. 

A  nother  preparation  frequently  employed  by  veterinarians  in  such  cases  is  aqua  ammo- 
nia, one  ounce;  olive  oil,  two  ounces;  mix  these  and  add  oU  organum,  two  ounces;  half  an 
ounce  of  oil  of  wormwood;  one  ounce  spirits  of  turpftntine;  camphor  gum,  one  ounce-  one 
pint  of  alcohol;  mix  thoroughly,  and  apply  three  times  a  day. 

A  blister  for  spavin — aside  from  that  already  given — may  be  made  of  one  ounce  of 
pulverized  cantharides,  mixed  with  three  or  four  ounces  of  lard.  In  applying  it,  chp  off  the 
hair  over  the  bunch,  and  rub  in  this  mixture  well  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  One  such 
application  will  generally  be  sufficient  to  produce  the  counter  irritant  required.  After  two 
days,  apply  sweet  oil  to  soften  and  heal  the  skin. 

As  has  previously  been  stated,  a  bone-spavin  is  a  serious  matter,  and  when  once  the 
bony  material  is  formed  to  a  considerable  extent,  or  when  anchylosis  has  taken  place,  no  cure 
can  be  effected. 

Although  spavin  is  caused  by  strains  and  overwork,  yet  it  is  hereditary  to  a  peculiar 
degree,  the  progeny  of  a  spavined  sire  or  dam  being  very  liable  to  be  affected  in  this  manner 
at  an  early  age.     For  this  reason,  such  horses  should  never  be  used  for  breeding  purposes. 

Bots. — These  are  the  larvae  of  the  bot-fly,  which  infests  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  and, 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  produces  injurious  results.  The  horse  bot-fly  [Gastrophilus  equi),  a 
species  of  the  gadfly,  lays  its  eggs  on  the  hair  of  the  horse,  generally  on  the  knees  and  sides 
of  the  animal.  In  licking  himself,  the  eggs,  or  small  worms  that  are  hatched  from  them 
adhere  to  the  tongue,  and  are  carried  with  the  food  into  the  stomach.  The  larvae  are  pro- 
vided with  a  hook,  on  either  side  of  the  mouth,  by  which  means  they  attach  themselves  to 
the  inner  portion  of  the  stomach,  and  there  remain  feeding  upon  the  mucus  for  about  a  year. 
After  attaining  a  considerable  size,  and  undergoing  certain  changes,  they  release  their  hold, 
and,  passing  into  the  bowels,  are  eventually  removed  with  the  natural  evacuations.  This 
usually  occurs  late  in  the  spring.  The  maggot  buries  itself  in  the  ground,  where  it  changes 
to  a  chrysalis,  and,  after  a  few  weeks,  escapes  from  its  confinement  a  perfect  fly.  The  female 
soon  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  parts  of  the  horse  which  he  is  accustomed  to  hck.  and  in  this 
manner  the  insect  continues  to  be  propagated.  It  is  supposed  that  the  bots,  by  their  attach- 
ment to  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  do  not  produce  pain,  and  that  they  cannot  be  removed  by 
any  medicine  which  will  not  injure  the  horse  to  have  administered. 

Their  presence  may  be  indicated  by  loss  of  flesh,  and  an  unthrifty  coat.  The  best  treat- 
ment is  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  animal  by  a  generous  supply  of  nutritious  food,  so 
that  the  system  may  not  become  debilitated,  and  the  general  health  suffer.  Tonics  are  some- 
times administered,  but,  as  a  general  rule  in  such  cases,  good  care  and  generous  feeding  will 
obviate  the  evil  without  the  use  of  drugs. 

Sometimes  the  bot-worm  is  found  in  the  rectum,  and  may  be  seen  about  the  anus  and 
under  the  tail,  proving  very  troublesome  to  the  animal.  Injections  of  linseed  oil,  or  tobacco 
smoke,  will  generally  remove  them.  There  is  a  disagreement  among  breeders  and  veterina- 
rians as  to  the  extent  of  the  injury  done  by  the  bot-fly. 

Broken  Wind.    (See  Heaves.) 

Bruises  or  Contnsions. — Bathe  in  lukewarm  water  as  soon  as  practicable,  accom- 
panied with  rubbing  by  the  hand,  after  which  apply  freely  tincture  of  arnica  two  or  three 
times  a  day.     The  sooner  this  treatment  is  received  after  the  injury,  the  better. 

Burns. — Linseed  oil,  or  sweet  oil,  should  be  applied  with  bandages  when  the  skin  has 
been  removed,  and  the  parts  be  kept  as  much  from  the  air  as  possible. 

When  the  skin  is  unbroken  and  no  bhster  formed,  bathing  in  pure  cider  vinegar  will  be 
found  an  excellent  remedy. 


806  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Capped  Ankles. — This  difficulty  is  generally  produced  by  the  same  cause  as  capped 
hocks,  and  the  treatment  should  be  the  same. 

Capped  Elbow. — (Shoe  boil.)  This  is  a  tumor,  formed  just  behind  the  shoulder, 
caused  by  the  pressure  against  the  calk  or  heel  of  the  shoe  while  the  horse  is  lying  down. 
The  best  treatment  is  first  to  remove  the  cause  by  the  changing  or  shortening  the  calks  of 
the  shoe,  or  by  the  use  of  pads  in  the  stable  that  will  protect  this  part  of  the  body.  K  the 
tumor  contains  pus,  it  will  be  best  to  open  it,  ajid  allow  it  to  discharge,  afterwards  washing 
out  the  wound  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  and  allow  it  to  heal. 

If  the  tumor  is  hard,  seems  separate  from  the  skin,  and  shows  no  signs  of  pus  forma- 
tion, it  may  be  carefully  removed  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  the  location  treated  as  a  common 
wound.  If  callous  simply,  the  washes  or  ointments  recommended  for  spavin  will  prove 
beneficial,  but  it  will  require  some  time  and  repeated  applications  to  remove  the  blemish. 

Capped  Hock. — The  point  of  the  hock  is  sometimes  injured  by  the  horse  kicking  in 
the  stable,  hard  blows  received  in  this  locality,  etc.  It  sometimes  occurs  from  lying  upon  an 
unevenly  paved  stable  with  but  little  bedding.  In  such  cases,  there  generally  appears  a  soft, 
watery  tumor,  which  is  the  enlargement  of  the  mucus  sack. 

When  the  injary  is  not  very  severe,  making  cooling  applications  will  sometimes  prove 
beneficial,  to  be  followed  by  the  use  of  iodine  ointment.  Blistering  will  sometimes  prove 
necessary,  and  quite  beneficial,  to  be  repeated  after  the  skin  is  healed,  if  the  first  is  not  effect- 
ual. In  extreme  cases,  where  the  tumor  is  large  and  does  not  yield  to  other  treatment,  a 
seaton  is  sometimes  passed  through  it,  and  kept  open  until  the  discharge  becomes  somewhat 
of  the  nature  of  pus,  after  which  wash  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  and  permit  it  to 
heal. 

Colic. — This  is  a  very  common  disease  among  horses,  and  frequently  proves  fatal. 
There  are  two  forms  of  it,  spasmodic  and  flatulent  colic.  The  former,  as  its  name  indicates,  is 
of  a  spasmodic  nature,  and  sometimes  terminates  fatally  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

TJie  causes  of  spasmodic  colic  are  the  drinking  of  cold  water  when  the  animal  is  in  a 
heated  condition;  sometimes  exposure  to  cold  winds  or  draft  when  heated;  costiveness; 
unwholesome  food ;  green  food  given  in  too  large  quantities  when  the  animal  is  not  accus- 
tomed to  it  or  when  he  is  heated  will  sometimes  cause  it;  feeding  with  new  corn  will  not  unfre- 
quently  produce  it;  also  an  overcrowding  of  the  stomach  with  food  of  any  kind.  Hard 
water  will  cause  the  colic  in  some  horses.  There  also  seems  to  be  a  predisposition  to  it  in  cer- 
tain cases,  and  a  horse  that  has  once  had  it  is  quite  liable  to  have  it  again.  When  recovering 
from  the  colic,  a  horse  should  be  fed  on  warm  bran  mashes,  and  be  allowed  to  drink  only 
water  that  is  blood-warm,  for  two  or  three  days,  as  cold  water  might  bring  it  on  again. 

Symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic. — Youatt  thus  describes  the  symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic, 
also  the  method  of  distinguishing  it  from  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  as  follows: — 

"The  attack  of  colic  is  usually  very  sudden.  There  is  often  not  the  slightest  warning. 
The  horse  begins  to  shift  his  posture,  look  round  at  his  flanks,  paw  violently,  strike  his  belly 
with  his  feet,  lie  down,  roll,  and  that  frequently  on  his  back.  In  a  few  minutes  the  pain 
seems  to  cease,  the  horse  shakes  himself  and  begins  to  feed;  but  on  a  sudden  the  spasm 
returns  more  violently,  every  indication  of  pain  is  increased,  he  heaves  at  the  flanks,  breaks 
out  in  a  profuse  perspiration,  and  throws  himself  more  violently  about.  In  the  space  of  an 
hour  or  two,  either  the  spasms  begin  to  relax  and  the  remissions  are  longer  in  duration,  or  the 
torture  is  augmented  at  every  paroxysm,  the  intervals  of  ease  are  fewer  and  less  marked,  and 
inflammation  and  death  supervene. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  807 


SYMPTOMS    OF    COLIC. 

Sudden  in  its  attack,  and  without  any  warning. 

Pulse  rarely  mucli  quickened  in  the  early 
period  of  the  disease,  and  during  the  inter- 
vals of  ease,  but  evidently  fuller. 

Legs  and  ears  of  natural  temperature. 

Relief  obtained  from  rubbing  the  belly. 

Relief  obtained  from  motion. 

Intervals  of  rest  and  ease. 

Strength  scarcely  afEected. 


SYMPTOMS    OF    INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BOWELS. 

Gradual  in  its  approach,  with  previous  indica- 
tions of  fever. 

Pulse  very  much  quickened,  but  small,  and 
often  scarcely  to  be  felt. 

Legs  and  ears  cold. 

Belly  exceedingly  painful,  and  tender  to  the 
touch. 

Pain  evidently  increased  by  motion. 

Constant  pain. 

Great  and  evident  weakness." 
As  many  of  the  symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic  are  similar  to  those  of  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  such  as  pawing,  kicking  at  the  belly,  looking  round  at  the  flanks,  rolling  violently, 
etc.,  it  will  be  highly  essential  to  distinguish  between  the  two  by  the  difference  in  symptoms 
as  previously  given,  since  the  treatment  for  the  former  might  prove  very  injurious,  if  not 
fatal,  in  the  latter. 

Treatvient  for  spasmodic  colic. — Having  determined  the  symptoms  t6  be  those  of  spas- 
modic colic,  and  not  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  the  remedy  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as 
possible,  as  delay  is  hazardous.  Various  remedies  have  been  foimd  beneficial  in  such  cases, 
when  promptly  administered.  One  tablespoonful  of  chloroform  mixed  with  a  gill  of  whisky 
and  a  pint  of  warm  water  will  often  stop  the  pain  almost  immediately.  This  should  be 
accompanied  with  an  injection  of  warm  soapsuds,  using  castile  soap,  or  flax-seed  water,  made 
by  turning  boiling  water  on  flax-seed,  letting  it  stand  until  blood-warm,  then  strain  out  the 
seeds.  A  pint  of  linseed  oil  and  a  quart  of  warm  water  makes  an  excellent  injection.  If 
chloroform  is  not  at  hand,  a  pint  of  warm  water  in  which  as  much  salt  as  possible  has  been 
dissolved  may  be  used  as  a  substitute.  This  can  be  administered  by  a  drenching  horn  or 
long-necked  bottle. 

Another  remedy  is  one  ounce  of  sulphuric  ether,  one  ounce  of  laudanum,  and  a  pint  of 
raw  linseed  oil.  At  the  same  time  an  injection  as  above  given  will  prove  very  beneficial  in 
getting  the  bowels  to  act  promptly.  If  this  does  not  give  relief  in  an  hour  the  dose  may  be 
repeated.  A  very  simple  as  well  as  excellent  remedy,  and  one  always  at  hand,  is  a  table- 
spoonful  of  saleratus  mixed  with  a  pint  of  sweet  milk  and  given  at  a  single  dose. 

Some  veterinarians  use  spirits  of  turpentine  in  cases  of  colic,  but  we  consider  it  very 
objectionable,  as  having  a  tendency  to  irritate  and  inflame  the  throat  and  bowels,  especially  if 
there  is  any  tendency  to  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  as  is  usually  the  case.  As  previously 
stated,  clysters  wiU  greatly  aid  in  exciting  the  bowels  to  action.  Rubbing  the  bowels  with 
the  hand  or  a  warm  flannel  cloth  is  also  good.  Occasionally  walking  the  horse  about  (never 
trot  or  gallop  him)  will  also  serve  the  same  purpose.  Bleeding  is  sometimes  resorted  to  when 
other  remedies  fail,  but  we  believe  that  where  good  may  be  done  once  in  a  thousand  cases, 
injury  would  result  in  the  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine. 

Flatulent  colic,  sometimes  called  "  windy  colic,"  is  a  very  different  form  of  disease  from 
spasmodic  colic,  and  is  caused  by  an  inflation  of  the  bowels  with  gas  produced  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  undigested  food  in  the  stomach  or  large  intestines.  This  distention  is  some- 
times so  great  as  to  cause  strangulation  or  a  rupture  of  the  colon  or  caecum,  producing  instant 
death.  The  cause  is  usually  overloading  the  stomach,  or  giving  improper  food  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  symptoms  at  flrst  are  similar  to  those  of  spasmodic  colic,  but  after  a  time  (gener- 
ally from  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours),  if  not  previously  checked,  the  belly  becomes 
considerally  increased,  being  most  prominent  on  the  right  flank. 

Treatment  for  flatulent  colic. — Relief  will  be  effected  by  the  getting  rid  of  the  gas  that  is 
inflating  the  bowels.     For  this  purpose  try  first  an  injection,  and  if  it  results  in  the  escape  of 
48 


803  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

gas,  good  will  have  been  accomplished.  If  the  animal  seems  constipated,  a  dose  of  oil  or 
aloes  may  bring  relief.  Walk  the  animal  about,  but  do  not  permit  him  to  exercise  violently, 
such  as  rolling  or  trotting,  as  in  severe  cases  of  distention  there  would  be  danger  of  rupture. 
In  severe  cases,  where  delay  might  prove  hazardous,  and  all  other  remedies  fail,  the  trochar 
is  sometimes  used  for  the  escape  of  the  gas,  the  puncture  being  made  in  the  middle  of  the 
right  flank.     No  one  should  however  resort  to  this  remedy,  unless  skilled  in  its  use. 

Corns. — These  are  found  in  the  angle  of  the  hoof  between  the  bars  and  quarters,  near 
the  heel,  and  are  generally  caused  by  improper  shoeing,  or  the  shoe  being  worn  too  long, 
which  results  in  the  hoof  growing  over  the  shoe,  bringing  the  pressure  of  the  weight  upon 
the  sole.  Placing  the  shoe  on  in  such  a  manner  that  the  pressure  comes  upon  the  sole  will 
also  cause  corns.  An  established  corn  is  very  troublesome,  and  will  sometimes  produce  per- 
manent lameness.  Horses  with  low,  weak  heels  and  thin,  flat  soles  are  apt  to  have  bruises 
of  this  kind.  Old  corns  are  difBcult  to  cure,  but  those  recently  formed  yield  more  readily  to 
treatment,  frequently  disappearing  with  proper  shoeing,  that  will  remove  the  pressure  from 
the  part  affected.  A  bar  shoe  that  relieves  the  bar  from  pressure,  and  throws  it  upon  the 
frog  will  often  prov^  highly  beneficial.  This  should  not,  however,  be  worn  for  more  than  two 
successive  shoeings.  The  corn  should  be  pared  out  very  thin,  and  dressed  every  day  with 
the  following  mixture:  1  drachm  of  chloride  of  zinc,  2  oz.  of  glycerine,  and  6  oz.  of  water. 
Upon  cutting  away  the  horn  over  the  corn,  a  red  or  dark  purple  spot  will  be  found,  the 
latter  showing  the  corn  to  be  a  deep-seated  one.  After  paring  the  part,  it  can  be  determined 
whether  there  is  any  matter  or  blood  underneath;  if  there  be  any,  a  small  opening  should 
be  made  through  the  horn  for  its  discharge. 

When  suppuration  has  taken  place,  a  poultice  should  be  applied  until  the  corn  is  softened, 
after  which  the  horny  portion  above  it  can  be  removed.  The  corn  should  then  be  kept 
dressed  with  a  solution  of  one  grain  chloride  of  zinc  to  one  ounce  of  water. 

In  all  cases  the  most  important  part  of  the  treatment  is  to  remove  the  cause  of  the  di£E- 
culty,  by  proper  shoeing. 

Cough. — A  chronic  cough  in  a  horse  is  difficult  to  cure,  and  frequently  leads  to  other 
troubles. 

St3ep  half  a  pound  of  flax-seed  in  boiling  water,  and  when  nearly  cold  mix  both  seeds 
and  tea  with  his  food  every  day,  for  a  week  or  so.  Give  him  also  a  tablespoonful  of  the 
following  once  or  twice  each  day:  extract  of  belladonna  1  oz. ;  powdered  muriate  ammonia, 
3  oz. ;  powdered  liquorice,  5  pz. ;  powdered  sal  nitre,  2  oz. ;  honey,  1  lb. ;  Barbadoes  tar,  1  lb. ; 
powdered  ginger,  -^  oz.     Mix  thoroughly  before  using. 

The  best  way  to  administer  it,  is  to  cover  an  old  bit  with  a  piece  of  cloth  well  fastened 
on,  and  smear  it  with  a  tablespoonful  of  the  paste,  before  putting  it  in  the  mouth.  The 
horse  will  suck  it  off  in  half  an  hour  or  so,  after  which  remove  the  bit. 

Another  remedy,  often  very  effectual:  1  oz.  balsam  of  fir,  dissolved  in  two  ozs.  sweet 
spirits  of  nitre,  to  which  add  4  ozs.  of  the  syrup  of  garlic;  dose,  a  tablespoonful  night  and 
morning. 

A  simple,  and  sometimes  very  quick,  remedy  is  found  by  steeping  2  parts  liquorice  root, 
2  parts  slippery  elm  bark,  4  parts  flax-seed  together,  and  giving  two  or  three  times  a  da.y. 

Crib-Biting. — This  is  a  vice  that  is  sometimes  acquired  by  a  colt  when  teething,  or 
by  horses  that  are  too  highly  fed,  and  but  little  used.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that 
horses  that  are  not  sufBciently  fed  will  form  the  habit,  from  not  having  their  hunger 
appeased.  Sometimes  it  seems  to  be  from  mere  idleness,  and  not  having  anything  else  to  do 
the  horse  bites  his  manger. 

When  once  the  habit  is  well  established,  it  is  a  difBcult  one  to  cure,  and  an  inveterate 
cribber  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  hard  case. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  809 

Horses  will  also  form  the  habit  by  imitation,  from  seeing  others.  A  young  horse  may 
sometimes  be  cured  by  turning  him  out  in  a  pasture  for  several  weeks,  and  not  permit  him 
to  occupy  a  stall  during  that  time.  By  this  means  the  habit  will  be  frequently  forgotten.  A 
strap  buckled  rather  tightly  round  the  neck,  and  thus  compressing  the  wind-pipe,  is  also 
pretty  sure  to  check  the  evil,  and  frequently  to  cure  it;  but  it  is  an  objectionable  one,  as  it 
must  be  constantly  worn  to  prove  effectual,  and  its  pressure  is  apt  to  bring  on  a  greater  evil, 
which  is  an  irritation  of  the  wind-pipe,  and  which  leads  to  roaring. 

Muzzles  and  certain  patent  halters  have  also  been  used  to  some  extent;  also  covering 
the  wood  work  with  sheet-iron,  etc. 

The  best  remedy  that  we  have  ever  known,  is  to  mix  cayenne  pepper  and  brown  soap 
together,  forming  a  paste,  and  apply  it  in  numerous  places  within  reach  of  the  horse,  and 
especially  to  those  parts  of  the  manger  or  wood-work  wherever  the  marks  of  his  teeth  are 
discerned.  It  should  be  lightly  applied,  and  the  place  disguised  by  having  a  little 
dust  sifted  over  it,  so  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  distinguish  its  locality.  He  will  soon  evi- 
dently entertain  the  opinion  that  the  whole  wood-work  tastes  the  same,  and  let  it  entirely 
alone. 

A  five-ring  halter  with  a  piece  of  sheet-iron  or  zinc  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  heart,  and  so 
attached  to  the  halter  that  when  the  neck  is  arched  in  the  act  of  cribbing,  the  point  of  the 
piece  will  prick  the  skin  under  the  lower  jaw,  will  frequently  cure  the  habit. 

Always  keep  a  little  rock  salt  within  their  reach,  where  they  can  get  it  when  they  wish. 

Curl). — This  is  one  of  the  numerous  diseases  of  the  hock,  and  consists  of  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  back  of  it,  three  or  four  inches  below  the  point,  and  results  from  a  strain  to 
either  the  ligament  which  binds  the  tendons  or  of  the  sheath  of  the  tendons.  Any  sudden 
action  of  the  animal  that  brings  a  strain  upon  this  part,  such  as  leaping,  severe  galloping  over 
uneven  ground,  or  a  violent  check  while  galloping,  will  be  liable  to  produce  it.  Pulling  a 
horse  up  suddenly  on  his  haunches  while  going  rapidly  at  any  gait  wOl  also  not  unfrequently 
cause  it. 

It  will  usually  produce  lameness  and  may  justly  be  considered  unsoundness,  although 
some  horses  will  have  curbs  for  years  without  being  lame.  It  may  be  best  detected  by  a 
side  view  of  the  leg. 

The  inflammation  should  first  be  reduced  by  frequently  bathing  the  part  in  cold  water, 
or  in  vinegar,  in  which  a  little  salt  has  been  dissolved.  A  wet  bandage  is  good  if  it  can  be 
made  to  fit  the  leg,  but  it  is  difficult  to  keep  a  bandage  on  without  obstructing  the  movement 
of  the  joint. 

It  is  very  essential  that  an  animal  thus  strained  should  be  allowed  perfect  rest  for  a 
time.  Arnica  is  also  valuable  for  relieving  the  soreness.  Cold  water  in  which  saltpeter  has 
been  dissolved,  applied  sufBciently  to  keep  the  leg  constantly  wet  for  a  few  days,  is  used  very 
Successfully  by  some  veterinarians. 

In  cases  of  long-standing  blistering  may  be  necessary,  and  the  same  treatment  given  as 
for  ring-bone. 

Diabetes. — This  disease  is  rare  in  the  horse,  and  when  once  fully  established  is  regarded 
as  incurable.  It  may,  however,  be  cured  in  its  early  stages,  by  removing  the  cause,  which  is 
generally  the  use  of  strong  diuretics  or  unwholesome  food,  that  has  a  tendency  to  induce  an 
increased  action  of  the  kidneys.  The  hay  and  oats  should  be  of  the  very  best  quality. 
Mow  burnt  hay  has  a  tendency  to  produce  this  disease.  The  administering  of  powerful  nos- 
trums, which  act  upon  the  kidneys,  as  is  frequently  done  by  many  ignorant  persons  having 
the  care  of  horses,  (and  usually  without  the  knowledge  of  the  owner.)  will  sometimes  prove 
the  secret  of  this  difficulty.  In  the  first  place,  in  this  disease,  the  most  careful  attention 
should  be  given  respecting  the  quaUty  of  the  food. 


310  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Carrots  and  other  green  food,  such  as  potatoes,  are  very  good,  given  with  oats  and  bran. 
Flax-seed  steeped  in  water  for  several  hours,  should  be  liberally  given.  In  connection  with  this, 
give  one  drachm  of  iodine  of  iron,  and  from  ten  to  twelve  grains  of  opium  once  a  day.  A 
moderate  dose  of  opium  administered  twice  a  day  is  also  an  excellent  remedy  in  some  cases. 

Bleeding  for  this  disease,  according  to  the  old  time  method  of  practice,  is  one 
of  the  worst  things  that  could  be  done,  and  should  never  be  permitted  under  any  circum- 
stances. 

Diarrhea. — Flax-seed  gruel  mixed  ynth  the  food  is  very  soothing  to  the  bowels  in 
cases  of  diarrhea  or  dysentery.  In  connection  with  this  give  1  oz.  prepared  chalk,  12  grains 
pulverized  opium;  tincture  of  aconite  root,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  drops.  Mix  in  a  little 
water  and  give  in  one  dose.  If  relief  does  not  follow  in  three  or  four  hours  after  adminis- 
tering the  above,  repeat  the  dose.  Feed  with  good  hay  and  oats,  giving  a  warm  bran  mash 
(wheat)  every  other  day;  also  every  day  a  half  pound  of  flax-seed  that  has  been  steeped  in 
hot  water  several  hours. 

Another  very  good  remedy,  where  the  disease  assumes  a  chronic  form,  is  to  give  one  of 
the  following  balls  every  day,  until  three  are  used;  afterwards  two  the  next  week,  and  one 
the  week  following:  Barbadoes  aloes  16  dr.;  nitrate  of  potash  18  dr.;  sulphate  of  iron  2  oz. ; 
powdered  gentian  2  oz. ;  powdered  capsicum  3  dr.,  and  Venice  turpentine  suiScient  to  make 
into  six  balls. 

Distemper. — This  is  a  kind  of  contagious  disease  among  horses,  characterized  by  a 
swelling  between  the  bones  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  which  generally  terminates  in  an  abscess. 
Horses  that  have  it  should  be  kept  apart  from  all  others.  Feed  warm  bran  mash  and  green 
food  principally;  keeping  the  animal  warm  and  comfortable,  while  at  the  same  time,  the  sta- 
ble should  be  well  ventilated,  also  kept  clean  and  free  from  offensive  odors. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  poultice  the  abscess  until  it  breaks,  or  is  ready  to  be 
opened.  After  the  abscess  has  discharged,  the  appetite  will  return.  The  animal  will  then 
require  a  generous  amount  of  nutritious  food  to  recover  its  former  condition  and  strength. 
Eest  and  good  nursing  are  better  than  medicine  in  such  cases. 

Epizootic.  —  This  disease  has  been  known  also  under  the  names  of  contagious  influ- 
enza, epidemic  catarrh,  contagious  catarrhal  fever,  etc.  It  is  estimated  that  from  the  time 
of  its  first  appearance,  which  was  in  Canada  in  September,  1872,  and  during  the  winter  of 
1'873,  the  epizootic  influenza  destroyed  1,500  horses  and  mules  in  New  York  city,  or  about 
4  per  cent,  of  the  entire  number  it  contained.  The  immediate  cause  of  this  disease  is,  with- 
out doubt,  blood  poisoning  from  germs  floating  in  the  air,  and  it  generally  proves  most 
malignant  and  contagious  in  large,  overcrowded  and  ill-ventilated  stables. 

The  early  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  a  general  weakness,  hanging  of  the  head ;  shiv- 
ering of  the  body  and  trembling  of  the  limbs;  watery  discharge  from  the  nose,  and  sometimes 
a  watery  Appearance  of  the  eyes;  loss  of  appetite;  staring  hair;  weak,  quick  pulse  and  rapid 
breathing.  A  horse  thus  affected  seems  reluctant  to  lie  down,  and  stands  in  an  unnatural, 
strained  manner,  his  legs  seeming  to  prop  up  his  body.  The  bowels  are  generally  somewhat 
constipated,  and  the  urine  much  less  in  quantity  than  in  health.  The  discharge  from  the 
nose  becomes  of  a  white,  yellow,  or  greenish  hue,  and  is  quite  copious.  In  some  cases  the 
throat  becomes  very  sore  and  ulcerated,  the  swelling  showing  externally,  the  animal  refus- 
ing to  eat. 

It  is  always  best  in  the  first  place,  since  prevention  is  much  easier  than  cure,  to  avoid,  as 
far  as  possible,  all  diseases  of  this  nature  by  allowing  the  animals  an  abimdant  supply  of  pure 
air,  and  the  observance  of  other  sanitary  conditions,  which  can  only  be  secured  through 
proper  ventilation  and  cleanliness  of  the  stables.  The  following  methods  of  treatment  are 
condensed  from  that  recommended  by  Dr.  James  Law,  of  Cornell  University. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  811 

In  the  treatment  of  this  disease  everytMng  that  has  a  debilitating  or  depressing  tendency 
should  be  carefully  avoided,  such  as  bleeding,  purging,  unduly  stimulating  the  kidneys,  vio- 
lent blistering,  depressing  sedatives,  etc.  In  the  regular  and  uncomplicated  form  of  this 
disease,  nearly  all  suffering  with  it  wiU  recover  without  the  use  of  medicine  under  good  nurs- 
ing, and  with  an  abundant  supply  of  pure,  fresh  air.  The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a 
cool,  dry  bos  that  is  well  ventilated,  and  pro%aded  with  a  good,  clean  litter,  clothing  him 
comfortably  in  order  to  avoid  all  tendency  to  a  chiU,  and  bandaging  his  legs  loosely.  The 
skin  should  be  carefully  brushed  or  curried,  the  clothes  changed  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
and  the  animal  kept  quiet  and  still,  except  perhaps  giving  him  a  little  exercise  in  the  shelter 
and  sunshine.  Feed  with  bran  mashes,  boiled  oats  or  barley,  turnips,  carrots,  or  other 
roots  in  small  quantities  and  often,  so  as  not  to  cloy  the  appetite.  For  drink,  a  quart  or  two 
of  water  nearly  cold,  or  cold  oatmeal  or  flax-seed  gruel,  should  be  frequently  given.  The 
action  of  the  kidneys  and  bowels  should  be  moderate,  but  never  excessive.  It  wUl  be  better 
to  obviate  a  tendency  to  costiveness  by  frequent  injections  of  water  that  is  blood-warm,  — 
three  or  four  quarts  at  a  time,  —  or  by  a  half  pint  of  molasses,  or  three  ounces  of  sulphate  of 
soda  added  to  the  same  quantity  of  water. 

If  necessary  to  give  a  laxative,  it  should  be  done  with  care,  the  dose  rarely  exceeding 
one-third  the  usual  quantity,  as  violent  purging  would  be  very  hazardous.  Mild  febrifuge 
diuretics  may  be  used  to  advantage,  such  as  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  in  half-ounce  doses  given 
twice  a  day,  or  liquor  of  acetate  of  ammonia  in  ounce  doses  four  times  a  day,  in  the  water- 
gruel  drank.  When  the  cough  proves  especially  violent  and  painful,  a  drachm  each  of  anodynes, 
such  as  belladonna  and  camphor,  may  be  added  to  the  above  diuretics  with  advantage. 

The  cough  may  be  further  relieved  by  causing  the  animal  to  inhale  warm  water  vapor 
several  times  a  day  for  an  hour,  which  is  most  conveniently  done  by  saturating  chaff  bran,  or 
other  simple  agent,  with  boihng  water  and  placing  it  in  a  nose-bag,  which  is  hung  on  the 
animal's  nose  by  means  of  a  strap  crossing  behind  the  ears.  Counter-irritants  often  prove 
beneficial.  If,  however,  inflamed  and  sore  throat  seem  extreme,  a  poultice  may  be  applied 
with  advantage  a  day  previous  to  blistering,  or  the  throat  may  be  well  fomented  with  warm 
water  for  an  hour,  and  then  wrapped  in  a  sheep-skin  with  the  wool  turned  inward.  Oil  of 
turpentine,  which  has  been  largely  used  as  a  counter-irritant  in  many  cases,  is  objectionable 
on  the  ground  of  causing  so  much  local  irritation  without  bKstering,  as  to  drive  some 
excitable  horses  almost  to  distraction. 

The  throat  and  chest  where  the  disease  has  been  located  may  often  be  greatly  benefited 
by  producing  an  irritation  by  rubbing  in  a  thin  pulp  of  ground  mustard  and  water,  and  then 
covering  up.  This  may  be  replaced  by  a  soap  liniment,  composed  of  six  ounces  of  soap, 
three  of  camphor,  and  a  pint  each  of  proof  spirit,  liquor  ammonia,  and  linseed  oil,  to  be 
applied  frequently  at  short  intervals,  and  be  well  rubbed  in.  If  a  more  active  blister  is 
wanted,  an  ointment  may  be  used  composed  of  a  drachm  and  a  half  of  powdered  cantharides, 
a  scruple  of  camphor,  ten  drops  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  an  ounce  of  lard.  The  hair  should 
be  cut  off  and  the  blister  rubbed  in,  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  hair.  After  it  has 
acted,  the  skin  should  be  kept  soft  and  pliant  by  rubbing  it  with  fresh  lard. 

Any  of  these  irritants  should  be  applied  to  a  limited  space  only,  and  not  exceeding  the 
bounds  of  the  inflammatory  action,  as  the  best  results  are  thus  secured.  For  this  reason  a 
careful  examination  of  the  chest  especially,  should  always  be  made  before  making  such  an 
application.  As  the  mouth  becomes  cooler  and  more  moist,  and  the  ptilse  softer  and  less 
frequent,  a  more  stimulating  treatment  is  desired.  At  first,  two  drachms  each  of  gentian, 
powdered  cinchona,  niter  and  sal  ammoniac  may  be  given  night  and  morning,  or  if  the 
debihty  is  very  great,  the  last-named  agent  may  be  replaced  by  four  drachms  of  carbonate 
ammonia  made  into  a  bolus  with  linseed-meal,  or  dissolved  in  a  half  pint  of  water  and 
repeated  three  or  four  times  a  day. 


812  THE  AJEERICA37  FARMER. 

In  cases  marked  by  a  daily  remission,  a  dose  of  thirty  grains  of  siilphate  of  quinia  may 
prove  effectual  in  preventing  the  paroxysm,  if  given  an  hour  or  two  before  the  period  when 
it  was  in  the  habit  of  appearing.  During  convalescence,  gentian,  cinchona,  and  other  tonics 
axe  desirable,  with  alcoholic,  ammoniacal,  or  other  stimulants,  if  there  is  much  debility  or 
prostration.  The  diet  should  be  tempting  and  nutritious,  supplied  often,  fresh  and  frequently 
varied,  care  being  taken  at  all  times  to  counteract  any  sudden  suppression  of  the  bowels  and 
kidneys,  or  even  the  nasal  passages. 

Farcy.  —  Farcy  and  glanders  are  regarded  as  but  different  types  or  stages  of  the  same 
disease;  there  is,  however,  a  great  difference  in  their  symptoms  and  progress.  They  both 
are  caused  by  Ijlood  poisoning,  and  are  generally  due  to  bad  stable  management,  the  neglect 
of  proper  sanitary  conditions,  etc.  They  are  liable  to  be  found  in  poorly-ventilated  stables, 
where  many  horses  are  crowded  together.  Absorption  of  the  virus  from  glandered  or 
farcied  horses  is  also  another  cause  of  farcy,  as  it  is  very  contagious.  This  disease  is  generally 
characterized  by  a  rough,  unhealthy-looking  coat,  the  swelUng  of  one  limb,  sometimes  the 
swelling  of  the  head,  especially  the  miizzle,  loss  of  flesh  and  strength  accompanied  with  erup- 
tions on  different  parts  of  the  body,  etc.,  which  break  and  discharge;  in  fact,  it  would  be 
almost  impossible  to  describe,  in  a  limited  space,  the  many  forms  that  this  disease  assumes  in 
different  stages,  and  in  different  cases. 

Farcy  differs  from  glanders  in  being  much  more  slow  in  its  progress  than  the  latter,  and 
in  involving  the  lymphatic  system,  while  glanders  attacks  the  nasal  mucus  membrane.  Both 
are  regarded  incurable,  although  in  a  mild  form  of  farcy,  nutritious  and  generous  diet, 
green  food,  and  remedies  that  may  be  employed,  will  prove  beneficial  to  a  certain  extent. 
Carrots  are  excellent  to  form  a  part  of  the  diet  in  such  cases. 

Farcy  is  very  contagious  to  man  as  well  as  horses,  and  those  having  charge  of  animals 
thus  affected  cannot  be  too  cautious  with  regard  to  becoming  infected  with  it.  For  this 
reason,  many  of  the  best  veterinarians  recommend,  when  it  is  ascertained  for  a  certainty  that 
a  horse  has  this  disease,  that  he  be  killed  at  once,  and  the  body  deeply  buried,  that  no  ani- 
mal may  be  contaminated  by  it.  From  five  to  ten  grains  of  hydriodate  of  potash  given  daUy 
in  connection  with  three  drachms  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  two  drachms  of  gentian,  have  been 
found  beneficial,  at  the  same  time  using  an  external  application  to  the  swollen  parts,  of  equal 
portions  of  mercurial  ointment  and  lard,  well  rubbed  in. 

Another  method  of  treatment  is  as  follows:  —  A  tablespoonful  of  sulphite  of  soda  once  a 
day  for  a  week,  to  be  followed  by  a  tonic  to  improve  the  general  condition  of  the  animal,  con- 
sisting of  pulv.  copperas  ^  lb.,  pulv.  gentian  ^  lb.,  pulv.  fenugreek  i  lb.,  pulv.  elecampane 
^  lb.  Mix  thoroughly  and  give  a  tablespoonful  once  a  day.  Everything  used  about  the 
diseased  animal,  whether  in  clothing,  grooming,  or  feeding,  should  be  kept  from  all  healthy 
animals,  while  it  is  of  course  equally  essential  that  the  animal  himself  should  be  kept  apart 
from  others.  This ,  disease  is  very  deceptive,  and  it  frequently  happens  that  when  the 
symptoms  are  most  favorable,  the  ulcers  healed,  and  the  swelling  disappeared,  that  it  will 
Jsreak  out  again  and  prove  fatal  in  a  short  time.     (See  Glanders.) 

Fistula.  —  In  horses,  a  fistula  is  most  liable  to  occur  upon  the  withers  or  top  of  the 
head ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  called  by  farriers  poU-evil.  It  is  a  deep,  chronic  abscess  which 
discharges  pus  through  fistulous  pipes  to  the  surface.  They  are  generally  caused  by  blows, 
galls,  or  strains,  and  are  usually  fonned  from  wounds  of  long  standing,  neglected  sores,  etc., 
and  are  most  frequently  found  in  old,  overworked,  and  poorly -kept  hoi-ses. 

In  old  cases,  where  the  bone  is  involved,  cure  will  be  impossible,  and  the  animal  had 
better  be  humanely  killed,  and  put  out  of  misery.  If  the  bone  has  not  been  reached  by 
the  abscess,  the  pipe  leading  from  it  should  be  cut  open  carefully  with  a  sharp  knife,  the 
direction  of  the  pipe  being  determined  by  a  probe,  and  the  wound  washed  thoroughly  with 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  813 

warm  water.  "Wash  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  the  following  mixture:  chloride  of  zinc, 
1  dr. ;  carbolic  acid,  3  dr. ;  water,  one  pint.  Sometimes  a  thorough  application  of  hot  caustic 
solutions  is  essential  before  using  the  wash,  in  order  to  make  the  flesh  heal. 

Founder  (Laminitis). — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lamina  of  the  horse's  foot,  and 
may  be  caused  by  overdriving,  exposure  to  cold  when  perspiring,  thus  suddenly  checking 
perspiration,  overfeeding,  or  giving  food  and  cold  water  in  large  quantities  too  soon  after 
excessive  work;  long  continued  driving  on  hard  pavements  or  frozen  ground,  improper  shoe- 
ing, driving  through  a  deep  stream  or  river  when  warm,  etc. 

This  disease  has  two  forms — the  acute  and  chronic;  the  former  may  be  cured,  if  properly 
treated,  and  taken  in  season,  but  the  latter  is  considered  incurable,  although  it  may  be  con- 
siderably relieved.  This  disease  resembles  rheumatism  in  many  respects,  and,  hke  that,  the 
acute  form  is  attended  with  fever  and  pain.  The  fore-feet  are  generally  affected,  and  some- 
times the  muscles  of  the  chest. 

A  foundered  horse  will  be  known  by  his  peculiarly  mincing  gait,  as  though  it  hurt  him 
to  put  his  fore-feet  upon  the  ground ;  by  a  hot,  contracted  hoof  ;  by  resting  his  fore-foot  upon 
the  toe,  and  also  by  keeping  his  fore-feet  stretched  out  as  far  as  possible,  so  that  the  weight 
of  the  body  will  rest  on  the  heel,  instead  of  the  toe. 

Treatment  of  Acute  Founder. — Perfect  rest  is  essential.  Give  the  horse  a  large  stall,  and 
a  good  deep  bedding  of  clean  straw.  He  may  thus  be  induced  to  lie  down,  which  will  relieve 
the  pain  of  the  feet  by  removing  the  weight  from  them,  and  aid  in  producing  a  cure.  Where 
the  inflammation  is  very  great,  it  may  be  necessary  to  sling*  the  horse  up  so  that  his  hoofs 
will  not  touch  the  floor. 

The  shoes  should  also  be  removed.  Some  veterinarians  apply  warm  poultices  to  the 
hoofs,  but  we  prefer  cloths  wet  in  ice  water,  applied  frequently,  to  be  continued  for  several 
hours,  and  occasionally  for  two  or  three  days,  if  necessary.  This  reduces  the  inflammation 
and  pain.  From  fifteen  to  twenty  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  should  be  given  in  about  half 
a  pint  of  cold  water  every  four  hours,  until  six  doses  have  been  given.  Give  mashes, 
grass,  carrots,  or  potatoes,  with  oats,  for  a  few  days;  also  all  the  water,  and  as  often  as  the 
animal  will  drink.  When  recovering,  and  well  enough  to  exercise  some,  turn  the  horse  out 
to  grass  to  remain  until  the  cure  is  completed. 

It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  let  the  horse  stand  in  about  six  inches  of  sawdust,  wet  a  little 
once  or  twice  a  day,  for  two  or  three  weeks,  when  recovering  from  acute  founder,  or  in 
chronic  founder.  This  gives  a  soft  floor  to  stand  upon,  and  keeps  the  hoofs  moist  and 
soft. 

Treatment  for  Chronic  Founder. — Nothing  can  be  done  for  this  form  of  the  disease,  except 
to  reheve  it  somewhat.  The  entire  hoof  should  be  frequently  wet;  also  kept  well  oiled  with 
castor  or  linseed  oil.  The  oiling  should  extend  up  to  the  skin,  and  cover  the  sole.  A  soft 
floor,  such  as  earth,  sawdust,  or  tan-bark,  occasionally  wet,  should  be  provided  in  the  stable. 
A  protection  of  sole-leather,  or  similar  substance,  sometimes  proves  highly  beneficial  by 
being  put  on  over  the  sole  before  setting  the  shoe,  allowing  it  to  come  to  the  edge  of  the  wall 
of  the  hoof,  so  that  the  nails  may  be  driven  through  it  in  fastening  on  the  shoe.  A  filling  of 
cotton,  saturated  with  tar  and  oil,  should  be  put  in  between  the  leather  and  the  sole. 

Fracture. — In  surgery,  fractures  are  distinguished,  according  to  their  nature,  by  the 
terms  simple,  compound,  complicated,  comminuted,  etc.  A  simple  fracture  is  when  the  bone 
only  is  divided,  and  there  is  no  woimd  to  admit  air  to  the  seat  of  the  fracture.  By  compound 
fracture  is  meant  that  there  is  such  a  wound.  A  complicated  fracture  is  one  in  which  some 
other  serious  injury  is  inflicted  near  it,  such  as  the  rupture  of  the  osseous  tissues,  important 
nerve  trunk,  or  blood  vessel,  by  the  broken  bone,  or  when  the  fracture  extends  into  the  cav- 
ity of  the  joint. 


814  THE  A3IERICAN  FARMER. 

A  comminuted  fracture  is  where  the  bone  is  broken  or  crushed  into  several  small  pieces. 
In  cases  of  simple  fracture  a  horse  may  (■vrith  proper  treatment)  so  far  recover  from  the 
injury  as  to  be  made  useful  for  many  purposes,  and  when  such  an  accident  happens  to  a  val- 
uable animal,  it  will  pay  to  take  the  trouble  to  accomplish  it.  In  the  other  forms  of  fracture 
mentioned,  it  will  generally  be  useless  to  attempt  a  cure,  and  the  animal  had  better  be  killed 
at  once,  and  relieved  of  his  suffering. 

Tlie  treatment  of  a  fracture  should  be  such  that  the  portions  of  the  bones  broken  shall 
be  restored  to  their  original  position,  and  held  there  by  some  means  that  wiU  keep  them 
secure  in  place  until  they  have  united,  and  at  the  same  time  will  not  cause  discomfort  or 
injury  to  the  patient. 

A  friend  of  the  writer  had  a  valuable  pet  horse  that  had  its  leg  broken  above  the  knee, 
by  accidentally  falling  off  a  steep  dechvity  while  running  in  the  pasture.  Although  many 
ad\'ised  kilUng  the  animal,  the  owner,  being  greatly  attached  to  him,  did  not  follow  the  advice, 
but  had  the  limb  properly  placed  and  bandaged,  and  the  horse  taken  to  a  large  spreading 
apple  tree  in  the  orchard, — it  being  summer, — and  slung  up  to  one  of  the  strong  branches, 
just  enough  to  relieve  the  hmbs  of  the  weight  of  the  body. 

A  hoUow  was  then  made  in  the  groimd  directly  under  the  broken  leg,  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  its  hitting  anything.  An  awning  tent  was  constructed  about  him,  so  as  to  keep 
off  the  storm,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  open  on  all  sides  in  pleasant  weather.  This  anunaJ 
recovered  to  the  extent  that  he  has  been  used  for  a  carriage-horse  for  several  years,  there 
being  no  indication  of  the  former  injury  except  that  the  broken  hmb  is  not  quite  as  strong 
as  the  others,  but  even  this  is  only  detected  when  he  has  become  very  tired  from  an  unusually 
long  journey. 

In  setting  a  fractured  limb,  the  bones  should  be  placed  in  their  former  position  so  that 
when  grown  together  the  Umb  will  be  of  the  same  length  as  the  corresponding  one,  and  also 
to  secure  the  most  strength  possible.  The  broken  surfaces  should  be  brought  closely 
together.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  apply  a  coating  of  tar  to  the  leg  a  few  inches  above  and  below 
the  fracture ;  then  wrap  the  whole  leg  in  cotton-batting,  just  enough  to  keep  the  splints  from 
hurting  the  skin,  and  place  over  this,  splints  cut  from  wood,  that  wiU  rest  evenly  upon  the 
leg.  There  should  be  four  or  five  splints  placed  about  the  leg  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep 
the  bones  in  plfice.  All  uneven  spaces  under  them  should  be  filled  with  cotton.  Over  these, 
carefully  wrap  strong  bandages  several  times  around,  and  secure  them  by  pins  or  soft  cord, 
so  that  they  shall  not  become  loosened.  The  bandages  will  require  being  sufEcientlj'  tight  to 
hold  all  securely  in  place,  and  at  the  same  time  should  not  be  so  tight  as  to  prevent  a  proper 
circulation  of  blood  in  the  limb.  The  splints  should  be  carefully  examined  every  day  to  sec 
that  they  have  not  become  displaced. 

A  little  tincture  of  arnica  poured  over  the  fracture  wUl  relieve  the  soreness,  and  it  may 
be  well  to  give  the  animal  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  root  every  five 
or  six  hours  during  the  first  twenty-four,  to  lessen  the  fever  and  pain  somewhat.  The  horse 
should  have  plenty  of  nutritious  food,  and  all  the  water  he  will  drink,  if  given  frequently. 
Green  food,  such  as  fresh  grass,  carrots,  turnips,  or  potatoes,  should  be  given  in  connection 
with  oats.     A  bran  mash  should  also  be  given  occasionally. 

When  a  horse  thus  injured  is  kept  in  a  stable,  it  will  be  well  to  make  a  hole  in  the 
floor  underneath  the  foot  of  the  broken  leg,  to  avoid  its  touching  anything,  and  admit  of  its 
hanging  in  a  natural  position.  It  is  considered  imnecessary  by  some  to  sling  the  horse  up  to 
reheve  the  limb  in  case  of  fracture,  but  we  regard  it  as  a  sure  precaution  against  any  dis- 
placement of  the  bones,  which  would  be  liable  to  occur  if  this  were  not  done.  In  slinging 
the  animal,  he  should  not  be  entirely  elevated  from  the  ground,  but  to  the  extent  that  he 
may  be  able  to  relieve  himself,  and  rest  from  standing.  The  broken  limb  should  always  have 
the  earth  hoUowed  out  under  it,  or  some  other  means  employed  to  permit  it  to  hang  free 
from  aU  obstructions  and  obviate  hitting  against  anything. 


DISEASES  OP  THE  HORSE.  815 

Galls,  whicli  in  farriery  means  sores  produced  by  the  friction  of  the  saddle,  or  any  part 
of  the  harness,  are  best  remedied  by  removing  the  cause  and  see  that  every  part  of  the  har- 
ness and  saddle  fit  properly,  and  there  is  no  uneven  pressure,  since  it  is  better  to  prevent 
such  evils  than  to  cure  them.  Apply  twice  a  day  some  of  the  following  mixture:  Lauda- 
num, two  ounces;  tannin,  two  drachms.  When  partially  healed,  pulverized  charred  leather 
and  lard,  well  mixed  and  applied,  will  aid  in  the  healing  process,  and  also  prevent  the  hair 
from  growing  out  white. 

"Washing  the  galled  places  with  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  or  dressing  with  equal  parts  of 
mutton-tallow  and  beeswax,  melted  together,  are  also  good  remedies.  In  all  cases,  there 
should  be  allowed  no  pressure  upon  the  part  until  it  is  perfectly  healed. 

Where  there  is  a  liability  of  an  abscess  forming,  such  as  where  lumps  are  formed  or  the 
skin  callous,  take  out  the  stuffing  from  the  collar  directly  over  where  the  injury  lies;  this 
will  relieve  the  pressure  at  that  point.  In  all  cases  of  galls  there  should  be  no  friction  on  the 
part,  during  the  healing  process,  by  the  wearing  of  the  collar  or  harness.  Give  nature  a 
chance  to  repair  the  injury  and  she  will  generally  do  it  unaided. 

An  old  stage-driver  of  long  experience  that  we  used  to  know,  and  who  was  noted  for 
keeping  his  teams  sound,  always  washed  the  shoulders  and  breasts  of  his  horses  as  soon  as 
the  harness  was  taken  ofl^,  using  cold  water  in  the  summer  and  lukewarm  water  in  the  win. 
ter.  After  rubbing  nearly  dry,  he  washed  them  daily  with  a  decoction  of  smartweed  {Poly- 
gonum hydropipv)  in  the  summer,  when  there  was  most  danger  of  galled  shoulders. 

In  the  winter  he  used  the  sraartweed  only  about  once  a  week,  and  his  horses  never  had 
sore  necks  or  shoulders,  though  in  constant  and  hard  usage  upon  the  road. 

Glanders. — This  is  the  worst  disease  with  which  a  horse  may  be  afflicted,  and  a  glan- 
dered  horse  is  a  dangerous  animal  to  have  about,  since  the  contagion  is  very  easily  communi- 
cated both  to  man  and  animals.  There  are  instances  of  those  having  died  of  it  who  have  had 
charge  of  horses  with  this  disease.  It  is,  therefore,  the  safer  and  better  way  to  kUl  a  glan- 
dered  horse  at  once.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  lack  of  cleanKness,  poor  ventilation  in 
stables,  catarrhal  diseases,  reduced  and  weakened  condition  of  the  system,  lung  fever,  and 
any  disease  that  may  generate  pus,  and  which  by  being  absorbed  by  the  system  poisons  the 
blood. 

The  first  stage  of  this  disease  is  characterized  by  a  dark  hue  of  the  nostrils,  accompanied 
by  a  discharge  of  thin,  transparent  fluid.  Tliis  may  possibly  continue  for  months.  The  dis- 
charge eventually  becomes  thicker,  of  a  gluey  consistency,  and  the  Uning  membrane  of  the 
nostrils  has  sores  upon  it.  This  ulceration  of  the  nose  will  generally  extend  into  the  throat. 
The  coat  will  be  rough  and  unhealthy-looking,  and  frequently  the  animal  becomes  hide-bound. 
The  legs  also  swell,  and  the  body  wastes  away  in  flesh.  If  the  discharge  from  the  nostril  of 
a  glandered  horse  should  come  in  contact  with  a  wound  or  a  mucous  surface,  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  lining  of  the  nostril,  it  will  produce  a  similar  disease.  The  danger  attending 
the  persons  having  the  care  of  such  horses  is  so  great,  and  the  disease  so  very  contagious  to 
other  animals  that,  as  previously  stated,  no  cure  should  be  attempted,  and  a  well-directed 
buUet  through  the  brain  will  prove  the  best  remedy  in  such  cases. 

Grease  (Scratches). — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  skin  of  the  heels  of  the  horse. 
It  sometimes  is  found  in  the  fore-feet,  but  more  frequently  in  the  hind  ones.  Swelled  legs 
will  sometimes  degenerate  into  this  disease.  Grease  is  caused  mainly  by  bad  stable  manage- 
ment; permitting  the  mud  and  dirt  to  dry  and  remain  in  the  heels,  cutting  away  the  hair  that 
gives  a  natural  protection  to  the  heels;  wet  and  filthy  stables;  standing  in  the  cold  when  the 
heels  are  wet;  or  washing  them  and  permitting  them  to  dry  ofi  by  evaporation.  Untrimmed 
horses  are  less  liable  to  have  them  than  those  from  whose  legs  and  heels  the  hair  has  been 
closely  cut.     Some  horses  seem  to  have  a  constitutional  tendency  to  this  disease.     There  is 


81(3  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

generally  a  white,  greasy  discharge  from  the  heels  of  the  horse,  accompanied  with  a  hot  and 
tender  swollen  skin,  which  cracks  open  and  sometimes  sloughs  off,  lea\T.ng  a  sore  that  is  diffi- 
cult to  heal. 

Treatment. — "Wash  the  parts  with  Castile  soap  and  warm  water,  then  rinse  with  clear 
warm  water  and  wipe  dry.  Apply  at  once  a  solution  of  30  grs.  of  chloride  of  zinc  and  one 
pint  of  water.  After  about  ten  minutes  apply  a  liberal  quantity  of  glycerine  to  the  parts. 
If  the  case  is  very  obstinate  and  does  not  yield  to  this  treatment,  increase  the  quantity  of 
zinc  to  40  or  45  grs.,  and  apply  as  before.     Feed  the  animal  liberally,  giving  part  green  food. 

Another  remedy  that  has  proved  very  effectual  in  some  cases  is  to  wash  the  parts  as 
before,  and  wet  them  three  times  a  day  with  the  following  mixture:  Sulphate  of  copper, 
2  oz. ;  hot  water,  1  pint ;  carbolic  acid,  ^  oz.  After  a  few  days  of  the  above  treatment,  apply 
the  following  twice  or  three  times  a  day:  Tincture  of  aloes  comp.,  4  oz. ;  glycerine,  3  oz. ; 
tannic  acid,  2  dr. ;  tincture  of  opium,  2  oz. 

Grease  takes  many  different  types,  and  requires  treatment  accordingly.  In  cases  that  do 
not  yield  to  local  treatment,  it  may  be  well  to  give  some  simple  altei-ative,  such  as  2  dr.  of 
pure  cream  of  tartar,  2  dr.  of  powdered  saltpetre,  and  4  dr.  of  flowers  of  sulphur.  Such  a 
dose  may  be  mixed  with  the  food  every  evening  during  the  week,  and  continue  every  other 
week  as  long  as  may  be  necessary.  At  the  same  time  some  one  of  the  above-mentioned 
remedies  for  treatment  of  the  heels  should  be  adopted,  or  the  following:  "Wash  the  heels  as 
previously  recommended,  and  apply  twice  or  three  times  a  day  this  mixture:  2  oz.  of  crude 
carbolic  acid,  2  oz.  of  glycerine,  and  15  oz.  of  raw  linseed  oil. 

Gripes.   (See  Colic.) 

Heaves. — This  disease  greatly  lessens  the  value  and  usefulness  of  a  horse,  and  is  due  to 
the  rupture  or  enlargement  of  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs.  It  is  either  preceded  or  accom- 
panied by  a  cough,  which  is  quite  characteristic,  being  very  short  and  followed  by  wheezing. 
"When  driven  quickly  for  a  short  time,  a  horse  with  this  disease  breathes  with  difficulty,  the 
inspirations  being  very  short  and  rapid.  This  disease  is  hereditary,  and  no  animal  having  it 
should  ever  be  used  for  breeding  purposes.  Narrow-chested  horses  are  more  liable  to  it  than 
those  with  broad,  deep  chests,  since  the  latter  admit  of  more  room  for  the  expansion  of  the 
lungs  in  breathing.  Horses  that  devour  large  quantities  of  coarse  food,  are  worked  hard 
with  their  stomachs  distended  with  it,  and  are  greedy  feeders,  are  very  liable  to  have  the 
heaves. 

This  disease  cannot  be  cured,  since  it  is  impossible  for  any  medical  skill  to  repair  the 
ruptured  or  enlarged  cells  of  the  lungs,  but  considerable  may  be  done  to  palliate  the  evil. 
Attention  to  the  quality  of  the  food  is  of  great  importance.  Instead  of  large  quantities  of 
food  being  given  that  require  much  room,  such  as  coarse  hay,  etc.,  that  which  is  nutritious 
and  requires  but  small  compass  should  be  fed,  such  as  a  liberal  supply  of  oats  and  a  small 
amount  of  hay.  Chaff  is  considered  objectionable,  as  it  is  rapidly  eaten,  and  thus  distends 
the  stomach  too  much.  Carrots,  potatoes,  and  other  green  food  are  useful  in  such  cases.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  wet  the  oats  and  also  the  little  hay  that  is  given.  A  half  pound  of  flax-seed 
on  which  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  has  been  turned  and  permitted  to  stand  over  night  is  also 
good  to  give  frequently,  mixing  both  the  tea  and  seeds  with  the  food.  Bran  mashes  are 
excellent.  The  following,  given  in  tablespoonful-doses  daUy,  is  good:  Powdered  licorice,  3 
oz. ;  powdered  nitrate  of  potash,  4  oz.;  Barbadoes  tar,  1  lb.;  mix  thoroughly. 

Hematuria  (Bloody  Urine). — The  cause  of  this  cannot  always  be  determined,  but 
it  generally  proceeds  from  some  great  strain  or  a  severe  blow.  Sometimes  pure  blood  is 
discharged,  at  other  times  it  is  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  urine.  Perfect  rest  and  cooHng 
food  are  the  very  best  remedies. 


DISEASES  OF  TUE  HOKSE.  817 

Hide-Bouild. — This  usually  arises  from  a  deficiency  in  the  quality  or  quantity  of  food, 
and  also  frequently  occurs  in  lingering  diseases  that  emaciate  and  weaken  the  body.  In 
this  disease  the  skin  adheres  to  the  body.  Nutritious  food  in  liberal  quantities  and  variety 
should  be  given.  Wheat-bran  and  corn  meal  made  into  a  warm  mash  is  excellent.  Cut  hay, 
oats,  cari'ots,  potatoes,  and  other  green  food  should  also  be  fed. 

Influenza.     (See  Epizootic.) 

Inflammation  of  the  Bladder. — Inflammation  is  sometimes  located  in  the  body  of 
the  bladder,  and,  again,  only  in  the  neck  of  it. 
The  symptoms  are  quite  similar  to  those  of 
inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  The  causes  are 
generally  the  presence  of  some  irritating  matter 
in  the  urine,  or  stone  in  the  bladder.  If  there 
is  considerable  fever,  give  one  scruple  of  aconite 
every  two  hours.  Where  there  is  much  pain, 
the  same  quantity  of  belladonna  may  be  given. 
If  the  evacuations  of  the  bladder  are  obstructed, 
the  careful  use  of  the  catheter  should  be  em- 
ployed. Difficulty  in  urinating  is  sometimes  due 
to  a  foul  sheath,  and  can  frequently  be  relieved 
by   cleansing  the   same    properly   with    warm 

water   and  a  sponge,   and    giving   small    doses    of         The  above  cnt  shows  the  location  of  eomo  of  the  inter- 
•,  nal  organs  of  the  horse.    Fig.  1,  the  lun»;s;  2,  the  stomach; 

nilre.  3^  the  colon;  4,  the  diaphragm;  5,  the  bladder. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels. — This  disease  is  one  which  frequently  terminates 
fatally.  The  causes  are  various,  and  may  be  exposure  to  the  cold,  drinking  cold  water  in 
large  quantities  when  warm,  overdriving,  diarrhea,  constipation,  and  sometimes  it  follows 
violent  attacks  of  colic.  The  symptoms  are  very  severe,  and  continuous  pain  in  the  bowels. 
It  varies  from  colic  in  this  respect,  the  latter  being  intermittent  with  intervals  of  rest.  The 
general  difference  in  the  symptoms  between  this  disease  and  the  latter  have  already  been 
given  under  Colic  (which  see). 

When  constipation  seems  to  be  the  cause,  a  quart  of  raw  linseed  oil  should  be  given. 
It  would  also  be  well  to  give  injections  of  warm  flax-seed  tea,  or  thin  gruel,  from  which  the 
seeds  have  been  carefully  strained.  These  can  scarcely  be  too  copious,  for  the  sooner  the 
bowels  can  be  made  to  act  without  irritating  them,  the  better.  If  the  disease  proceeds  from 
diarrhea,  or  over-purging,  give  an  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  opium,  and  twenty-five  drops  of 
the  tincture  of  aconite  in  a  half  pint  of  water.  Give  for  drink,  flax-seed  gruel.  If  the  cause 
is  other  than  those  mentioned,  give  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  drops  every  three  hours,  also 
injections  of  thin  flax-seed  gruel,  or  warm  water,  (the  first-mentioned  is  best,)  until  the  bowels 
move.  The  belly  should  have  blankets  wrung  out  in  hot  water  applied,  and  renewed  as  often 
as  every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  rubbing  on  first  over  the  belly  with  the  hands  carefully 
ground  mustard  made  into  a  thin  paste  with  vinegar.  This  will  act  very  quickly  as  a 
counter-irritant,  and  will  have  a  tendency  to  relieve  the  internal  inflammation. 

Some  veterinarians  recommend  bleeding,  and  there  is  quite  a  diversity  of  opinions 
respecting  it  in  this  disease;  we  are  inclined  to  the  belief  that  in  the  large  majority  of  cases 
bleeding  would  be  objectionable.  Clysters  of  gruel  should  be  continued  for  two  or  three 
days  in  some  cases,  in  order  to  keep  the  bowels  open  and  free. 

The  limbs  should  be  rubbed  with  the  hands  to  promote  circulation,  also  bandaged  to  be 
kept  warm.  The  body  should  be  kept  warm,  though  not  uncomfortably  so,  but  the  air  of 
the  stable  should  be  cool  and  pure.  Avoid  drafts  of  air  in  securing  good  ventilation. 
Bran  mashes  and  flax-seed  steeped  in  hot  water,  together  with  green  food  should  be  given. 


818  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

Oats  and  bay  should  not  be  allowed  during  the  attack,  but  may  be  given  gradually,  a  little  at  a 
time,  as  the  horse  gets  better.  Anything  that  would  have  a  tendency  to  irritate  the  bowels 
should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Inflammation  of  the  KidneySi — This  is  by  no  means  a  rare  disease  in  horses,  and 
it  is  also  one  which  is  usually  treated  more  unskillfuUy  than  almost  any  other.  Some  of  its 
causes  are  the  improper  use  of  nitre  or  other  diuretics,  poor  food,  over-work,  exposure  to  cold 
after  being  heated,  or  under  the  saddle  a  long  time,  being  out  in  a  cold  storm  with  the  rain 
dripping  upon  the  loins;  also  a  strain  in  the  loins. 

The  symptoms  are  short,  quick  breathing,  accompanied  with  fever,  quick  pulse,  disinch- 
nation  in  the  animal  to  walk  or  move  the  hind  legs,  but  when  he  does  so,  keeps  them  unnatur- 
ally wide  apart.  The  urine  will  also  be  scanty  and  dark-colored,  frequently  bloody.  A  pres- 
sure with  the  hand  upon  the  loins  over  the  kidneys  wUl  prove  tenderness  and  soreness  in  this 
locality,  by  the  manner  of  the  animal. 

Clothe  the  horse  warmly,  and  avoid  drafts  of  cold  air.  Apply  a  paste  of  ground  mus- 
tard wet  with  vinegar  to  the  loins,  by  rubbing  it  into  the  hair  with  the  fingers;  afterwards 
keep  clothes  wet  in  hot  water  upon  the  loins;  or  a  sheep-skin  with  the  skin  side  inward  may 
be  kept  there,  to  induce  perspiration  in  that  locality,  a  fresh  one  being  applied  after  a  few 
hours,  as  the  first  becomes  wet. 

Give  all  the  flax-seed  tea  the  animal  will  drink,  and  keep  the  bowels  open  by  injections 
of  the  same,  or  warm  water.  About  twenty  grains  of  powdered  opium  may  be  given  two  or 
three  times  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours  during  the  first  stages.  If  there  is  much  fever, 
twenty  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  may  also  be  given  with  benefit,  to  be  repeated  a  few  times 
at  intervals  of  four  hours,  until  the  fever  abates.  Rest  for  four  or  five  weeks,  and  careful 
usage  for  some  time  wiU  be  necessary,  as  this  disease  is  slow  in  recovery,  and  will  be  liable  to 
return  unless  some  such  precaution  is  taken.  Always  allow  plenty  of  cool  drink  to  the  ani- 
mal with  this  disease. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs  (Lung  Fever  —  Pneumonia).— This  disease  is 
usually  caused  by  taking  a  sudden  cold,  such  as  may  be  contracted  by  the  horse  on  being 
taken  from  an  ill-ventilated,  warm  stable,  and  driven  against  a  cold,  sharp  wind,  or  in  a  snow 
or  cold  rain  storm ;  a  change  from  a  warm  stable  to  a  colder  one ;  standing  exposed  to  a  draft 
of  air  in  the  stable;  exposure  to  cold  after  being  heated  by  hard  work  or  driving;  turning 
the  horse  out  to  pasture  early  in  the  spring  before  the  weather  has  become  sufBciently  warm , 
working  the  animal  when  he  is  not  in  proper  condition,  or  putting  too  much  hard  work  upon 
one  that  has  not  been  accustomed  to  it. 

The  first  symptom  and  the  surest  in  this  disease  is  a  chLU,  the  animal  almost  invariably 
being  taken  with  an  attack  of  shivering,  and  seems  to  be  cold  all  over.  This  soon  passes  off 
and  is  succeeded  by  a  general  warmth  of  the  body,  or  more  commonly  by  a  fever  heat,  and 
cold  legs  and  ears.  The  pulse  wiU  be  quick  and  wiry,  and  the  breathing  difficult.  A  pecu- 
liar crepitating  sound  will  be  heard  from  the  lungs,  if  the  ear  is  applied  to  the  chest  or  neck. 
The  horse  has  a  generally  dejected  air,  drops  his  head,  and  does  not  seem  inclined  to  he 
down,  or  change  his  position. 

The  animal  should  be  kept  warmly  clothed,  and  the  legs  bandaged,  but  the  stable  should 
be  suppUed  with  pure  fresh  air  by  the  most  perfect  system  of  ventilation,  which  will  be 
an  abundance  of  pure  air  without  exposing  the  animal  to  a  draft. 

Keep  the  bowels  open  by  giving  part  green  food,  such  as  carrots,  turnips,  and  potatoes, 
if  the  animal  will  eat, — feeding  little  at  a  time  and  often;  if  not,  and  there  is  any  costiveness, 
a  moderate  dose  of  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  given  (not  castor  oil).  Give  plenty  of  water,  or, 
what  is  better,  flax-seed  tea.  Rub  a  mustard  paste,  made  of  ground  mustard  and  vinegar,  on 
the  sides  and  chest,  in  the  locality  dii-ectly  over  the  lungs  (which  can  be  determined  by  the 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  819 

previous  small  cut,  showing  position  of  the  internal  organs), — and  give  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  root  in  a  half  pint  of  cold  water  until  five  or  six  doses 
have  been  given,  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  hours. 

Hay  tea,  oat  meal  gruel,  warm  bran  mashes,  and  raw  eggs  may  be  given  with  benefit  in 
severe  cases.  Coarse  food,  such  as  hay,  should  not  be  allowed  until  the  animal  is  somewhat 
relieved. 

Keep  the  animal  loose  in  a  large  box  stall,  with  plenty  of  clean  bedding.  He  should  be 
kept  quiet  and  undisturbed.  When  he  lies  down  (unless  it  be  from  very  weakness),  it  may 
be  regarded  as  a  favorable  symptom.  Do  not  make  him  get  up  after  he  has  lain  down;  rest 
will  do  him  more  good  than  medicine. 

Great  care  will  need  to  be  used  in  feeding  as  he  gets  better,  in  order  not  to  overload  the 
stomach,  but  to  give  a  suflBcient  amount  of  nutritious  food  to  strengthen  and  build  up  the 
animal.  It  should  be  in  small  quantities  and  often,  for  some  time.  This  is  a  slow  disease, 
and  its  effects  are  very  exhausting  and  lingering,  and  there  is  a  liability  of  its  recurrence 
unless  great  caution  is  taken  against  taking  cold.  Chest  protectors  for  horses  that  are  driven 
in  cold,  windy,  or  stormy  weather  would  be  of  much  utility  in  preventing  this  disease. 

Lainiiiitis.     (See  Founder.) 

Lice. — The  skin  of  the  horse  is  extremely  sensitive,  and  if  for  any  reason  it  becomes 
infested  with  lice,  the  irritation  and  annoyance  will  be  enough  to  almost  distract  a  nervous 
animal. 

Horses  that  have  been  sick  with  a  lingering  disease,  and  are  in  a  run-down  condition,  or 
that  have  a  skin  disease,  will  sometimes  be  troubled  in  this  way.  Or  if  the  stall  be  near 
where  fowls  are  kept,  this  may  be  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  Anoint  the  skin  with  Hnseed 
oil,  sweet  oil,  or  melted  fresh  lard,  and  after  an  hour  or  two  wash  off  with  castile  soap  and 
water,  taking  a  portion  of  the  body  at  a  time,  afterward  rinsing  with  clear  water,  and  wiping 
dry. 

Lockjaw.     (See  Tetanus.) 

Lung  Fever.     (See  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs.) 

Mange  (Itch).  —  This  disease  usually  makes  its  first  appearance  on  the  neck  at  the 
root  of  the  mane,  and  unless  treated  in  season  will  be  liable  to  extend  upward  to  the  head, 
or  down  to  the  withers  and  back,  sometimes  extending  over  the  whole  body.  It  is  an  erup- 
tion which  causes  intense  itching,  and  after  the  breaking  of  the  watery  vesicles  the  hair  falls  off, 
leaving  a  bare  spot  covered  with  scurf.  It  is  a  very  contagious  disease,  and  is  originally 
caused  by  neglect  of  cleanliness,  and  lack  of  nutritious  food.  Cattle  and  horses  with  this 
disease  will  communicate  it  to  each  other  by  the  least  contact.  The  disease  is  produced  by  a 
very  small  insect  which  burrows  in  the  skin,  causing  the  irritation  and  destroying  the  hair 
follicles.  The  most  simple,  and  one  of  the  best  methods  of  treatment,  is  to  wash  off  the 
scurf  from  the  skin  with  castile  soap  and  lukewarm  water,  and  if  there  are  any  scabs  formed, 
soak  and  break  them  up  so  that  the  ointment  applied  may  reach  the  insect  readily.  Wipe 
dry  and  rub  thoroughly  into  the  skin  an  ointment  of  equal  quantities  of  sulphiu-  and  lard, 
well  mixed. 

It  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  give  in  the  same  connection  two  or  three  ounces  of 
sulphur  mixed  with  the  food.  The  ointment  should  be  repeated  once  a  day  until  a  complete 
cure  is  effected,  being  washed  off  with  castile  soap  and  lukewarm  water  after  it  has  been  on 
five  or  six  hours.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  let  the  animal  be  in  the  warm  sun  for  a  time  after  it 
has  been  applied. 

Carbolic  acid  washes,  a  decoction  of  tobacco,  and  other  remedies  are  frequently  used  with 
good  effect,  but  the  sulphur  ointment  is  to  be  jpreferred. 


820  THE  AJIERICAN  FARMER. 

Megrims.  —  This  disease  is  a  mild  form  of  apoplexy,  and  is  a  pressure  of  blood  upon 
the  brain,  caused  by  an  unusual  flow  of  blood  to  that  organ.  Various  causes  contribute  to 
this  disease,  such  as  excessive  exercise  in  a  hot  day,  violent  blows  upon  the  head,  tight  col- 
lar or  check-rein,  the  two  latter  of  which  would  prevent  the  blood  from  circulating  freely, 
and  from  returning  from  the  head,  which  would  unduly  distend  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
brain.     Youatt  describes  the  symptoms  as  follows:  — 

"When  the  horse  is  driven  rather  quickly,  he  will,  without  any  premonitory  symptoms, 
suddenly  stop,  shake  his  head,  and  exhibit  evident  giddiness,  and  half-unconsciousness.  This 
will  soon  pass  over,  and  he  will  go  on  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

When  the  attack  is  more  serious,  he  will  fall  without  the  slightest  warning,  or  suddenly 
run  round  once  or  twice,  and  then  fall.  He  will  lie  insensible,  or  struggle  with  the  utmost 
violence.  In  five  or  ten  minutes  he  wUl  begin  gradually  to  come  to  himself;  he  will  get  up 
and  proceed  on  his  journey,  yet  somewhat  dull,  and  evidently  afEected  and  exhausted  by 
what  had  happened,  although  not  seriously  or  permanently  HI. 

A  predisposition  to  a  second  attack  almost  always  remains,  and  it  is  a  long  time  before 
the  blood-vessels  recover  their  former  tone.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  horse  that  has  had 
a  second  attack  of  the  megrims  is  never  to  be  trusted." 

The  treatment  should  be  modified  according  to  the  cause  of  the  difBculty.  Bleeding  at  the 
moment  of  attack  should  be  resorted  to,  in  severe  cases.  If  the  animal  is  constipated,  a  mod- 
erate dose  of  physic  should  be  administered.  Rest  and  careful  nursing  for  a  while,  together 
with  judicious  feeding,  will  be  better  for  the  animal  than  drugs,  in  the  majority  of  cases.  A 
covering  worn  over  the  head,  but  not  resting  upon  it,  will  prove  very  beneficial  in  protecting 
the  brain  from  the  hot  sun.  These  are  supported  by  a  wire  and  fastened  to  the  head-stall, 
and  are  much  used  on  draft-horses  in  many  localities. 

Navicular  Disease.  —  This  is  sometimes  called  -'foot  disease,"  and  is  an  inflammation 
of  a  small  bone  in  the  interior  of  the  foot,  called  the  navicular  bone.  Improper  shoeing,  and 
overwork  on  rough  roads  and  hard  pavements,  are  the  principal  causes.  It  may  be  best 
determined  by  an  imnatural  degree  of  heat  in  the  foot,  although  the  symptoms  are  somewhat 
obscure.  Remove  the  shoe  and  soak  the  hoof  in  water  that  is  quite  warm,  from  half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  every  day.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  poultice  the  foot 
to  further  reUeve  the  pain  and  inflammation.  The  horse  should  have  a  long  period  of  rest, 
extending  from  two  to  six  months.  It  is  a  disease  that  is  slow  of  recovery,  while  if  there  be 
a  relapse,  a  cure  may  be  regarded  as  very  doubtful.  It  is  highly  important  that  it  receive 
attention  in  the  first  stages.  A  blister  applied  around  the  coronet  will  frequently  prove  highly 
beneficial,  while  in  severe  cases  a  frog-seaton  should  also  be  inserted,  and  a  discharge  encouraged 
by  a  daily  dressing  of  it  with  the  tincture  of  cantharides.  In  about  three  or  four  weeks  the 
seaton  may  be  removed,  and  another  blister  apphed.  The  horse  should  then  be  turned  out 
to  pasture  and  permitted  to  run  for  three  or  four  months.  Particular  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  horse  shod  properly  after  recovery. 

Hygienic  management  in  the  stable  is  also  very  important  in  such  cases.  Some  prefer  a 
cold  bath  for  the  foot  instead  of  warm,  but  we  have  always  found  the  latter  most  beneficial. 

Ophthalmia.  —  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  eye,  which  is  liable  to  recur  at  regular 
intervals,  and  frequently  terminates  in  total  blindness  to  one,  or  both  eyes.  It  is  sometimes 
called  "moon  blindness."  The  attacks  are  usually  rather  sudden;  the  lid  becomes  swollen, 
and  water  drips  from  the  comer  of  the  eye.  The  eye  is  very  sensitive,  and  there  is  an  aver- 
sion to  the  hght.  This  disease  frequently  terminates  in  a  cataract.  Pure  air  and  cleanliness 
in  the  stables  are  of  the  first  importance,  and  any  carelessness  in  this  respect  will  increase 
the  difficulty. 

Treatment  should  commence  during  the  first  stages.     Sometimes  a  seaton  put  in  about 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  821 

an  incli  below  the  corner  of  the  eye,  will  result  in  a  cure.  Thread  a  sharp  darning-needle 
with  hair  from  the  mane,  then  pinch  up  a  httle  skin  a  full  inch  directly  below  the  corner  of 
the  eye,  and  push  the  needle  through,  drawing  the  hair  in,  and  tying  a  knot  in  each  end  to 
prevent  the  hair  getting  out.  Leave  it  there  eight  or  ten  days,  turning  it  a  little  each  day. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  grind  the  point  of  the  needle  to  make  it  sufficiently  sharp,  and  the  hair 
should  be  left  long  enough  at  each  end  to  take  hold  of  readily.  The  food  should  be  laxative, 
and  the  stable  moderately  dark,  the  head  to  be  so  placed  that  the  light,  either  direct  or 
reflected,  shall  not  fall  upon  the  face.  Keep  wet  sponges  on  the  eyes,  and  frequently  bathe 
the  hds  with  the  following  lotion:  —  Tincture  of  opium,  i  oz. ;  tincture  of  belladonna,  3  dr.; 
powdered  acetate  of  lead,  1  dr.;  rose  water,  2  oz. ;  soft  water,  12  oz. 

Occult  Spavin. — This  is  quite  similar  to  bone  spavin,  except  there  is  in  it  no  percep- 
tible enlargement,  the  location  of  the  disease  being  within  the  joint.  Because  there  is  no 
enlargement  of  the  joint  exteriorly,  this  difBculty  is  often  mistaken  for  hip  lameness.  It 
should  be  treated  the  same  as  Bone  Spavin  (which  see). 

Overreaching. — This  frequently  results  from  improper  shoeing,  and  may  be  remedied 
by  removing  the  cause.  It  consists  in  striMng  the  heel  of  the  fore-feet  with  the  toe  of  the 
hind  shoe,  which  sometimes  makes  a  bad  wound.  It  may  be  prevented  by  rounding  off  the 
inside  edge  or  rim  of  the  hind  shoes.  When  a  bruise  has  been  inflicted  by  overreaching, 
apply  tincture  of  arnica  hberally  as  soon  as  practicable. 

Pink  Eye. — This  is  a  common  term  used  to  denote  a  form  of  influenza  in  which  the 
eyes  become  bloodshot  and  swollen,  accompanied  by  a  watery  discharge  more  or  less  abun- 
dant. It  takes  its  name  from  the  color  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eyelid,  which  is 
pink,  bright  red,  or  a  very  dark  red,  according  to  the  degree  of  congestion  of  its  blood 
vessels.  Sometimes  this  inflamed  condition  of  the  eye  is  followed  by  the  formation  of  pus, 
and  the  swelling  of  the  hmbs.  It  is  also  frequently  accompanied  by  symptoms  of  lung  fever, 
bronchitis,  or  an  inflamed  condition  of  the  bowels,  according  to  the  type  and  severity  of  the 
disease,  as  well  as  the  symptoms  of  influenza. 

Rest  and  good  nursing  will  do  more  for  the  animal  than  medicine.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  observe  the  best  sanitary  conditions  in  stable  management,  and  prevent  the  animal  from 
taking  cold.  Judicious  feeding  is  essential,  while  plenty  of  drink  should  be  given.  Small 
doses  of  saltpetre  are  very  beneficial.  Avoid  a  strong  light  in  the  stable.  Bandaging  the 
limbs  to  keep  them  warm,  and  blanketing  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  external  air, 
are  of  great  advantage.  The  treatment  should  vary  according  to  the  type  of  the  disease,  as 
recommended  in  epizootic  or  influenza. 

Poll  Evil. — This  is  a  fistulous  ulcer  that  sometimes  makes  its  appearance  at  the  top  of 
the  head  or  just  behind  the  ears  of  the  horse.  It  may  be  caused  by  a  violent  blow,  hitting 
or  rubbing  this  part  against  anything  with  sufficient  force  to  produce  inflammation,  or  pulling 
against  a  tight  halter.  Straining  the  Hgaments  of  the  muscles  by  high  checking  or  sudden 
tight  reining  wOl  sometimes  cause  it. 

The  skin  becomes  hot,  tender,  and  swollen,  and  a  tumor  frequently  forms.  The  horse 
should  not  have  a  halter  pressing  upon  the  locality,  but  go  loose  in  a  shed  or  large  box-stall. 
In  the  early  stages,  the  inflammation  should  be  reduced  by  keeping  a  sponge  or  cloth  wet  in 
cold  water  constantly  on  the  parts,  or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  strong  vinegar  and  water 
with  tincture  of  arnica  added  in  the  proportion  of  a  quart  each  of  the  former,  to  two  ounces 
of  the  latter.  When  the  inflammation  has  been  reduced,  and  there  is  hardness,  indicating  a 
tendency  to  tumor  formation,  apply  daily  an  ointment  of  one  drachm  of  iodine  mixed  thor- 
oughly with  one  ounce  of  lard.  If  the  tumor  suppurates,  it  will  be  best  to  open  it,  which 
should  be  done  when  the  pus  becomes  near  enough  the  skin  to  be  felt  by  the  finger  shghtly 
soft  beneath.     The  opening  should  be  lengthwise  with  the  neck. 


822  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

When  tlie  pus  has  been  discharged  cleanse  the  wound  and  its  surroundings  with  a 
sponge  and  warm  water,  and  afterwards  wash  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  a  solution  of  six- 
teen grains  of  chloride  of  zinc  to  a  pint  of  soft  water.  If  it  does  not  heal  readily  under  this 
treatment  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  insert  a  seaton,  as  in  cases  of  fistulas  of  long 
standing. 

Pneumonia.     (See  Inflammation  op  the  Lungs.) 

Quarter-Crack.    (See  Sand-Ceack.) 

B;ingl)One. — This  disease  is  so  called  because  it  constitutes  a  bony  growth  around  the 
pastern  bone.  It  frequently  spreads  quite  rapidly,  and  not  only  involves  the  pastern  bones, 
but  the  cartilages  of  the  foot.  It  is  generally  found  among  heavy  draft  horses  and  such  as 
are  overworked  on  hard  roads  and  pavements,  although,  like  bone  spavin,  a  tendency  to  this 
disease  may  be  hereditary,  and  occasionally  a  young  colt  will  be  found  with  this  bony 
enlargement.     The  treatment  should  be  similar  to  that  for  bone  spavin  (which  see). 

Roaring. — This  is  an  unnatural  sound  made  by  some  horses  when  drawing  the  air  into 
their  lungs,  especially  while  traveling  fast,  and  results  from  some  obstruction  of  the  trachea 
or  windpipe.  It  is  due  to  various  causes,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  continued  use  of  a 
tight  check-rein,  which  keeps  the  head  of  the  animal  in  an  unnatural  position,  compressing 
the  larynx  until  it  becomes  permanently  distorted,  and  does  not  permit  a  free  passage  of  air 
into  the  lungs.  A  tight  throat-latch  will  also  produce  the  same  result.  Chronic  cough  and 
catarrhal  colds  sometimes  terminate  in  roaring.  When  this  disease  is  once  established  it  is 
difficult  to  cure.  The  best  treatment  that  we  can  recommend  is  to  remove  the  cause  as  far  as 
possible  by  discontinuing  the  use  of  the  check,  and  permit  the  throat-latch  to  be  worn  as 
loose  as  practicable.     This  disease  may  be  regarded  as  hereditary. 

Sand-Crack. — This  is  a  separation  of  the  laminss  of  the  hoof,  forming  a  crack  up  and 
down  its  wall.  When  it  occurs  in  the  front  part  of  the  hoof  it  is  called  a  "toe-crack,"  and 
when  on  one  side,  "  quarter-crack."  It  usually  begins  at  the  coronet,  the  thin  edge  parting 
and  extends  until  it  often  divides  the  entire  hoof.  It  more  frequently  occurs  in  the  inner 
quarters  than  elsewhere,  and  is  often  caused  by  improper  shoeing.  It  also  indicates  brittle- 
ness  of  the  hoof,  which  is  due  to  a  certain  extent  to  its  quality,  also  to  diseases  in  this  locality, 
the  frequent  wetting  and  drying  of  the  feet,  dry,  hot  weather,  impaired  nutrition,  overwork, 
low  condition  of  the  animal,  and  impure  state  of  the  blood. 

This  difficulty  should  receive  attention  in  its  early  stages,  and  the  animal  given  entire 
freedom  from  work.  Nutritious  food  should  also  be  given  in  liberal  quantities,  and  the  best 
sanitary  conditions  observed  in  stable  management.  We  believe,  in  interfering  as  little  as 
possible  with  a  sand-crack,  except  to  keep  it  free  from  sand  and  dirt.  There  should  be  no 
cutting,  firing,  or  rasping,  as  sometimes  recommended.  An  application  of  the  solution  of 
three  grains  of  chloride  of  zinc  to  an  ounce  of  water  twice  a  day,  together  with  daily  wash- 
ing with  Castile  soap  and  warm  water,  will  prove  very  beneficial.  Castor  or  linseed  oil 
applied  to  the  external  surface  of  the  hoof  will  also  counteract  the  brittle  tendency  of  the 
hoof  in  a  great  measure.     (See  Brittle  Hoop,  on  a  previous  page.) 

If  the  animal  is  to  be  used,  the  crack  should  be  filled  with  lint  saturated  with  the  solu- 
tion previously  recommended,  which  should  be  kept  in  place  with  a  piece  of  cloth  covered 
with  tar,  which  will  keep  out  the  gravel  and  other  foreign  substances.  This  should  be 
removed  and  the  crack  washed  out  at  night.  If  the  crack  extends  through  the  crust  so  as  to 
cause  lameness,  it  will  require  considerable  time  to  complete  a  cure,  and  such  are  serious  cases. 
Tlie  more  a  horse  is  used  that  has  a  cracked  hoof,  the  more  danger  is  there  of  increasing  the 
difficulty.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  turn  a  horse  out  to  pasture, — if  it  occurs  in  summer, — and 
permit  him  to  remain  there  until  completely  cured.  In  severe  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to 
apply  a  blister  to  the  coronet,  Just  above  the  crack. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  823 

M.  Defay,  a  French  veterinarian,  has  discovered  a  preparation  which  he  recommends 
for  sand-cracks  or  fractured  hoofs,  and  which  he  claims  forms  a  hard  and  durable  cement. 
The  precaution  necessary  for  its  successful  application,  is  to  carefully  remove  all  traces  of 
grease  in  the  crack  and  about  the  edges,  with  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac,  sulphide  of  carbon, 
or  ether.  As  we  have  never  tested  its  merits,  we  are  not  able  to  express  an  opinion  as  to 
its  utility  for  this  pui-pose.  The  recipe  for  the  cement  is  as  follows:  —  Take  one  part  of 
coarsely -powdered  gum  ammoniacum,  and  two  parts  of  gutta-percha,  in  pieces  the  size  of 
a  hazelnut.  Put  them  in  a  tin  lined  vessel,  over  a  slow  fire,  and  stir  constantly  until 
thoroughly  mixed.  Before  the  thick,  resinous  mass  gets  thoroughly  cold,  mould  it  into 
sticks  like  sealing-wax.  The  cement  will  keep  for  years,  and,  when  required  for  use,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  cut  oS  a  sufficient  quantity,  and  remelt  it  immediately  before  application. 

Scratches.     (See  Grease.) 

Sore  Shoulder.     (See  Galls.) 

Spavin.     (See  Bone  Spavin.) 

Splent  or  Splint.  —  This  is  a  bony  growth,  generally  located  upon  the  inside  of  the 
fore-leg  of  the  horse,  a  little  below  the  knee-joint.  It  is  usually  caused  by  overworking  a 
young  horse.  The  treatment  recommended  is  the  same  as  that  for  Bone  Spavin  (which 
see). 

Staggers.     (See  Megrims.) 

Strangles.     (See  Distemper.) 

Strains  or  Sprains.  —  The  wrenching  or  torsion  of  the  muscles  or  tendons  will  gen- 
erally be  succeeded  by  pain,  lameness,  and  swelling.  Stonehenge  thus  defines  strains  of  this 
nature: — " Muscular  strains  consist  of  an  absolute  tearing  of  the  fibrous  tissue  composing 
the  muscles:  or  else  of  such  an  approach  to  a  disruption  as  to  have  an  equally  prejudicial 
effect  in  producing  lameness.  In  some  cases  the  whole  of  a  small  bundle  of  fibers  is  torn 
across;  but  this  is  not  the  usual  degree  in  which  strains  occur,  and  the  most  common  amount 
of  mischief  is  only  a  slight  separation  of  a  few  of  the  very  small  fibers  of  which  the  bundle  is 
composed;  and  this  state  is  then  generally  spread  over  a  considerable  surface,  producing 
considerable  soreness  from  inflammation.  Tendinous  and  ligamentous  strains  are  very  simi- 
lar in  their  nature,  and  consist  either  in  an  absolute  tearing  apart  of  these  fibers,  or  such  an 
approach  to  this  as  to  cause  great  inflammation,  and  consequent  incapacity  for  using  them. 
Sometimes  what  is  supposed  to  be  a  strain  of  the  tendon  is  really  an  inflammation  in  its 
sheath,  which  causes  great  swelling  and  pain,  and  the  limb  is  thereby  rendered  quite  useless 
for  the  time  being." 

Bathing  the  parts  in  tincture  of  arnica  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  injuries  of  this 
nature.  "Where  the  skin  is  not  broken,  hot  fomentations  of  vinegar  and  water  appHed  with 
flannel  bandages,  and  renewed  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  until  the  inflammation  is  reduced, 
is  an  excellent  remedy,  and  considered  by  many  the  best  possible  treatment.  Where  there 
is  much  acute  inflammation  and  swelling,  linseed  or  carrot  poultices  will  prove  beneficial. 
The  bandages  should  also  be  kept  tight  in  such  cases. 

Stringhalt.  —  This  is  an  involuntary  action  or  contraction  of  the  muscles  which  causes 
one  or  both  of  the  hind -legs  to  be  raised  higher  in  walking  than  is  natural.  It  may  be 
regarded  as  unsoundness,  and  greatly  injures  the  appearance  of  the  animal,  but  does  not 
much  interfere  with  his  service.     It  is  incurable. 

Tetanus  (Lockjaw).  — This  is  one  of  the  most  painful  and  fatal  diseases  to  which  a 
horse  is  subject.     It  generally  proves  fatal,  and  when  recovery  does  take  place  it  is  usually 
very  slow,  and  extends  over  several  months.     The  disease  derives  its  name  from  the  fact 
49 


824  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

that  the  muscles  of  the  jaw  are  so  affected  that  the  mouth  become  immovably  closed.  It 
usually  results  from  some  injui-y  to  the  foot,  such  as  the  stepping  on  a  nail  and  driving  it 
into  the  sensitive  portion,  or  from  a  prick  in  shoeing.  It  not  unfrequently  follows  castration. 
the  docking  and  nicking  of  the  tail,  or  other  injuries.  A  sudden  exposure  to  cold  after  being 
heated  has  also  been  known  to  produce  it. 

Tetanus  is  a  disease  of  the  nerves,  caused  by  an  injury  to  one  of  them,  the  effect  of 
which  extends  to  the  entire  nerve  organization.  When  it  terminates  fatally,  it  is  generally 
from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  day  after  receiving  the  injury.  The  animal  should  be  kept  as 
quiet  as  possible,  and  nothing  of  an  exciting  nature  permitted. 

The  difficulty  with  the  treatment  of  this  disease  is,  that  it  usually  becomes  well  estab- 
lished before  it  is  discovered,  when  remedies  will  have  less  effect  than  at  an  earher  period. 
It  would  always  be  well  to  take  suitable  precautions  against  it  whenever  the  hoof  is  injured 
by  being  punctured  by  a  nail  or  other  substance.  We  once  lost  a  beautiful  and  valuable  animal 
with  this  disease,  from  stepping  on  a  nail  while  on  the  road.  As  soon  as  the  accident 
occurred,  the  horse  stopped,  held  up  her  injured  foot,  and  looked  back  to  us. 

We  immediately  got  out  of  the  carriage,  and,  on  examining  the  foot,  foimd  the  naO. 
which,  on  being  withdrawn,  did  not  indicate  by  any  blood  following,  or  the  length  of  the 
nail,  that  the  puncture  was  a  deep  one,  but  she  died  of  lockjaw  from  the  effect  five  days 
afterward,  after  the  most  intense  suffering. 

When  an  injury  of  this  kind  occurs  it  would  be  well  to  take  precautionary  measures  by 
remo%'ing  the  shoe  and  soaking  the  foot  and  limb  in  warm  water  for  an  hour  or  more,  as  soon 
as  possible  afterward,  at  the  same  time  rubbing  it  gently  with  tlie  hand.  Then  apply  tinc- 
ture of  arnica  from  the  knee  down,  rubbing  it  in,  and  getting  as  much  as  possible  into  the 
hole  made  by  the  nail. 

A  hot  poultice  for  the  foot  and  Hmb  would  also  prove  beneficial.  Such  treatment  fol- 
lowed immediately  after  receiving  the  injury,  would  have  a  tendency  to  wai'd  off  the  disease. 
The  bowels  should  be  kept  moderately  laxative,  and  a  plenty  of  water  and  flaxseed  gruel 
given  for  drink. 

When  it  is  discovered  that  the  animal  has  the  disease,  the  shoe  should  be  removed,  and 
the  foot  carefully  examined  to  see  if  there  is  any  nail  or  foreign  substance  in  it;  if  such  are 
found,  pull  them  out,  and  treat  as  above  recommended.  Give  the  following  dose:  An  ounce 
of  powdered  aloes,  haH  a  drachm  of  podophyllin,  and  two  drachms  each  of  nitre  and  ginger. 
Make  into  two  balls  with  mucUage,  and  give  both  at  the  same  time.  Injections  of  flaxseed 
tea  or  warm  water  will  aid  also  in  keeping  the  bowels  open.  If  there  should  be  any  diflB- 
sulty  in  evacuating  the  bladder,  the  catheter  should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Opium 
is  also  a  valuable  agent  in  this  disease,  and  may  be  given  in  doses  of  from  one  to  two 
drachms. 

The  animal  should  be  tempted  to  eat  nutritious  food  by  putting  it  occasionally  to  his 
mouth,  or  between  his  grinders.  Carrots  or  apples  are  excellent;  also  warm  bran  mashes. 
Rub  the  body  gently,  especially  along  the  neck  and  spine.  Keep  him  warm  by  blanketing, 
and  induce  perspiration. 

In  the  middle  of  the  day,  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  pleasant,  and  not  uncomfortably 
hot,  let  him  be  out  in  the  sunshine  a  while.  Keep  up  the  natural  functions  of  the  animal 
system,  and,  above  all,  keep  him  soothed  and  quiet.  Have  no  strangers  about  him,  or  loud 
talking,  or  noise  of  any  kind :  neither  permit  him  to  be  harnessed,  but  keep  him  as  quiet  as 
possible. 

TllOl'OXIglipilli — This  is  a  disease  similar  to  bog  spa\'in,  and  projects  on  both  sides  of 
the  hock,  from  one  side  of  the  joint  to  the  other,  forming  a  round  swelling.  The  treatment 
should  be  similar  to  that  of  Boo  Spavin  (which  see). 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE.  825 

Thrush. — This  disease  consists  of  inflammation  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  inner  or 
sensible  frog,  attended  by  a  discharge  of  pus.  It  is  caused  by  foul  stables  and  neglect  of  the' 
feet. 

The  remedy  is  to  remove  the  cause,  by  giving  proper  attention  to  cleanliness.  The  feet 
should  be  washed  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water  at  morning  and  night,  carefully  remov- 
ing the  loose  and  decayed  portions  of  the  frog;  dry  the  parts  thoroughly,  after  which  apply 
the  following  mixture  between  the  crevices  of  the  frog:  Barbadoes  tar,  eight  ounces;  melted 
lard,  one  ounce;  sulphuric  acid,  half  an  ounce.  Cover  with  tow  and  a  leather  sole  and  keep 
from  stepping  in  the  wet. 

Another  remedy  equally  good  is  to  cleanse  the  foot  as  above  indicated,  then  dust  in  a 
little  of  the  following:  Calomel,  two  drachms;  powdered  sulphate  of  copper,  three  drachms; 
carbolic  acid  ten  drops.  Cover  with  tow,  etc.,  as  in  previovisly  given  remedy.  When  the 
liquid  discharge  has  ceased,  fill  the  cleft  with  tar,  and  continue  to  apply  this  if  necessary,  for 
a  week  or  two. 

Toe-Craek.    (See  Sand-Crack.) 

Tread.     (See  Over-reaching.) 

Warts. — Where  the  warts  are  very  small,  they  may  be  cut  off  close  to  the  skin  with  a 
pair  of  scissors,  and  the  place  touched  with  lunar  caustic.  If  the  stem  is  large,  tie  a  thread 
of  waxed  silk  around  quite  tight,  gradually  tightening  it  each  day.  This  method  deprives  it 
of  its  nutriment  from  the  skin,  and  it  will  drop  ofE  in  a  few  days.  It  is  said  that  an  applica- 
tion of  indigo  dissolved  to  the  consistency  of  thick  paint,  and  applied  daily  to  warts  will 
remove  them  without  soreness.  Having  never  tried  the  latter  we  cannot  vouch  for  its  cor- 
rectness. 

Windgalls. — These  are  soft  swellings  or  enlargements  near  the  fetlocks  of  horses, 
produced  by  strains  or  overdri\'iug.  Tight  bandages,  and  astringent  lotions  may  be  applied 
with  benefit.  A  piece  of  cork  placed  over  the  swelling,  and  covered  with  bandages  suiEcient 
to  keep  it  down,  is  sometimes  used.  They  are  similar  to  blood  spavin,  and  should  be  treated 
accordingly.     (See  Blood  Spavin.) 

Worms. — Salt  seems  to  be  obnoxious  to  worms;  therefore  have  a  good  piece  of  rock 
salt  in  the  manger  at  all  times,  or  a  sufficient  amount  of  common  salt,  within  reach  of  the 
animal.  Common  purgatives  will  often  bring  away  large  numbers.  The  following  is  a  good 
remedy:  Tartar  emetic,  2  dr. ;  ginger,  1  scruple;  1  pint  linseed  oil ;  half  pint  mola.sses.  Give 
half  an  hour,  every  other  morning,  before  feeding-time.  Also,  flaxseed  tea  every  day.  An- 
other good  remedy  is  spirits  of  turpentine  and  quassia  tea;  first  beating  the  turpentine  with 
the  yolks  of  eggs,  to  cause  it  to  mix  readily.  To  a  pound  of  quassia  chips,  add  three 
quarts  of  boiling  water.  When  cold,  strain  off  the  tea,  (which  is  a  sufficient  dose  for  an 
adult  horse)  and  add  the  turpentine;  giving  in  proportionate  quantities  as  follows:  For  a 
colt  six  months  old,  a  half  ounce  of  spirits  of  turpentine;  a  year  old,  one  ounce;  two  years. 
H  ounces;  three  years,  2  ounces;  four  years,  three  ounces.  Give  every  other  day,  in  the 
morning  before  feeding.  Feed  with  nutritious  food  —  a  mixture  of  green  food  being  very 
beneficial.  Raw  potatoes  are  excellent  for  horses  troubled  with  worms.  An  injection  of  a 
quart  of  linseed  oil  will  prove  the  best  remedy  for  remo\'ing  the  smaller  worms  [ascaris), 
which  often  cause  such  serious  irritation  and  annoyance  about  the  anus. 


82(3  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

THE  ASS. 

THE  ass  is  a  native  of  Central  Asia  and  Africa  and  belongs  to  the  genus  Asinns  and 
family  Equidae.  It  is  of  smaller  size  than  the  horse,  and  is  characterized  by  long 
ears,  the  absence  of  warts  on  the  hind  legs,  and  a  tuft  of  long  hair  at  the  extremity 
of  the  tail.  Its  color  is  generally  gray,  marked  with  a  dorsal  streak  of  a  darker  hue,  and  a 
similar  one  across  the  shoulders.  There  are  also  white  and  black  varieties,  though  less  com- 
mon than  the  former.  This  animal  was  probably  domesticated  by  man  before  the  domesti- 
cation of  the  horse,  and  has  proved  a  most  valuable  servant,  possessing,  as  it  does,  great 
strength,  endurance,  patience,  and  docility.  The  first  mention  of  the  ass  in  the  Scriptures  is 
in  the  account  of  the  going  of  Abraham  into  Egj'pt,  at  the  time  of  the  great  famine  in 
Palestine. 

A  wild  variety  of  the  ass  is  now  found  in  Abyssinia,  and  some  other  localities,  and 
although  differing  somewhat  from  the  domestic  variety,  it  resembles  it  in  many  respects.  It 
has  cross-bands  on  its  legs,  a  mark  occasionally  seen  in  the  domestic  breeds.  There  seems  to 
be  a  natural  aversion  in  this  animal  to  cross  the  smallest  stream  of  water,  a  trait  which  is  also 
seen  in  the  camel,  while  it  delights  to  roll  itself  in  the  dust  and  sand,  which  fact  would 
argue  in  favor  of  the  desert  regions  as  its  original  home.  The  wild  ass  is  a  spirited  animal 
of  great  speed,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  chase  in  Persia,  where  its  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed  as  food.  In  Oriental  countries  they  are  employed  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  the 
practice  of  riding  them  in  traveling  is  very  common.  Careful  selection  and  more  humane 
treatment  than  this  animal  usually  receives,  shows  that  it  is  capable  of  great  improvement, 
and  possesses  qualities  that  have  never  been  fully  appreciated.  In  Southern  Europe,  especially 
in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Malta,  it  has  been  carefully  bred  and  greatly  improved. 

Yafieties,  etc. — The  different  breeds  of  the  ass  are  supposed  to  be  quite  as  numerous 
as  those  of  the  horse.  The  Maltese  and  Spanish  breeds  are  considered  by  American  breeders 
the  best  variety  from  which  to  propagate.  The  small  size  of  the  ass  ia  cold  countries  is  due 
fully  as  much  to  neglect,  as  to  the  severity  of  the  climate.  It  is  said  that  in  the  north  of 
India,  where  it  is  used  among  the  lowest  castes,  it  does  not  attain  a  height  greater  than  that 
of  the  Newfoundland  dog.  In  Persia  there  are  two  breeds,  one  large,  heavy,  and  slow,  used 
principally  for  burden,  and  another,  considerably  smaller  and  more  active,  used  for  the 
saddle.  In  Spain  there  is  still  a  greater  difference  seen.  The  Arabs  and  Persians  breed 
them  as  carefully  as  we  do  our  best  horses,  and  are  perfectly  familiar  with  their  pedigree. 
Darwin  states  that  in  Syria  there  ai-e  four  distinct  breeds: — "A  light  and  graceful  animal 
with  agreeable  gait,  used  by  ladies,  an  Arab  breed,  reserved  exclusively  for  the  saddle,  a 
stouter  animal,  used  for  plowing  and  various  purposes,  and  the  large  Damascus  breed,  with 
peculiarly  long  body  and  ears." 

The  ass  is  but  little  used  in  the  United  States  except  for  breeding  purposes  in  producing 
mules.  Tliey  are  bred  to  a  certain  extent  throughout  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  but 
principally  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri  In  Kentucky, 
whei-e  mules  are  in  great  demand,  and  where  they  are  raised  with  much  care  from 
imported  animals  of  an  average  height  of  fourteen  hands,  they  have  been  raised  to  fifteen 
and  even  sixteen  hands  in  height.  Jennets,  or  female  asses,  are  used  principally  in  this 
country  for  breeding  jacks,  and  are  not  numerous.  A  superior  Maltese  jack  was  presented 
to  General  Washington,  in  1787,  by  La  Fayette,  and  is  believed  by  some  to  have  been  the  first 
of  this  breed  ever  sent  to  this  country.  The  description  given  of  him  by  Mr.  Custis  is  that 
of  a  moderate-sized  animal,  clean  limbed,  very  active  and  spirited,  and  possessing  the  ferocity 
of  a  tiger;  color  dark  brown  and  nearly  black,  white  belly  and  muzzle,  and  manageable  with 
safety  only  by  one  grown.     This  animal  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  his  progeny  was  highly  prized. 


THE  MULE.  829 

It  is  believed  that  Gen.  George  Washington  was  the  pioneer  in  the  business  of  mule- 
breeding  in  this  country.  It  seems  that  previous  to  1783  there  were  very  few  mules  in  the 
country;  and  these  were  such  inferior  animals  that  farmers  were  very  much  prejudiced 
against  them;  consequently  there  were  few  jacks,  and  no  disposition  to  increase  the  stock. 
Washington,  however,  became  convinced  that  the  introduction  of  mules  generally  among 
Southern  planters  would  prove  a  great  blessing  to  them,  because  these  animals  are  longer 
lived,  less  Hable  to  disease  or  injury  by  careless  help,  are  well  suited  to  a  hot  climate,  and  will 
work  on  shorter  feed  than  horses.     A  recent  writer  says,  respecting  this  subject: — 

"  It  becoming  known  that  the  illustrious  Washington  desired  to  stock  his  Mt.  Vernon 
estate  with  mules,  the  king  of  Spain,  in  1787,  sent  him  a  jack  and  two  jennets  from  the 
royal  stables,  and  La  Fayette  sent  another  jack  and  jennet  from  the  Island  of  Malta.  The  first 
was  of  a  gray  color,  sixteen  hands  high,  and  of  a  sluggish  nature.  He  was  named  the  Royal 
Gift.  The  other  was  called  the  Knight  of  Malta;  he  was  about  as  high  as  the  former,  and 
lithe  and  fiery,  even  to  ferocity.  The  two  sets  of  animals  gave  him  the  most  favorable  oppor- 
tunity of  making  improvements  by  cross-breeding,  the  result  of  which  was  the  favorite  jack 
Compound,  because  he  partook  of  the  best  points  in  both  originals.  The  General  bred  his 
brood  mares  to  these  jacks,  even  taking  those  from  his  family  coach  for  that  purpose,  and 
produced  such  superb  mules  that  the  country  was  all  agog  to  breed  some  of  the  same  sort, 
an(i  they  soon  became  quite  common.  This  was  the  origin  of  improved  mules  in  the  United 
States." 

The  teeth  of  the  ass  are  similar  to  those  of  the  horse,  and  the  age  of  the  animal  is  indi- 
cated, as  in  the  horse,  by  the  changes  that  occur  at  different  periods  during  their  growth. 


THE   MULE. 


As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing,  the  improved  mules  of  our  country  owe  their 
origin  to  the  intelligent,  and  therefore  successful  management  of  Gen.  Washington,  a 
man  who  could  be  "  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  country- 
men," and,  when  he  saw  the  necessity,  also  the  first  in  breeding  mules  for  his  countrymen  to 
use.  As  is  well  known,  a  mule  is  a  hybrid,  the  produce  of  a  jackass  and  a  mare,  while  a 
hinny  is  the  produce  of  a  female  ass  and  a  horse,  and  is  therefore  half-horse  and  half-ass, 
the  same  as  a  mule;  but  there  is  a  wide  difference  between  them.  The  hinny  has  the  voice, 
the  mane,  and  the  tail,  and  very  much  of  the  form  of  the  horse;  while  in  all  of  these  par- 
ticulars the  mule  resembles  the  ass  more  strongly  than  the  dam. 

The  mule  is  an  exceedingly  hardy  animal,  and  admirably  adapted  to  hard  work  in  hot 
weather,  such  as  would  be  too  severe  for  either  the  ox  or  horse;  for  this  reason  it  is  pecu- 
liarly valuable  in  the  Southern  States,  for  farm  use,  and  all  kinds  of  heavy  work.  Mules  are 
also  used  quite  extensively  in  the  Western  States,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  New  England. 
North  of  40°  they  are  used  much  less  than  south  of  this  latitude,  while  beyond  43°  they  are 
rarely  employed.  There  has  recently  been  an  increasing  demand  for  mules  for  exportation 
to  Europe,  which  has  given  a  new  impetus  to  the  trade.  St.  Louis  is  the  principal  mule 
market  in  the  United  States,  although  they  are  raised  in  various  sections,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Texas,  as  previously  stated,  being  the  States 
in  which  they  are  bred  in  the  greatest  numbers. 

Eeouoiny  of  Mule-Labor.  —  Being  longer-lived  and  more  hardy  than  the  horse,  the 
working  period  of  the  mule  is  considerably  longer,  while  it  will  thrive  with  less  care.  A 
well-bred  mule,  with  proper  care,  will  out-wear  two  horses.     Mules  do  not  become  frightened 


830  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 

as  easily  as  horses,  and  when  friglitened  are  not  as  Uable  to  run  away.  A  good  mule-team 
costs  much  less  than  a  proportionately  good  horse-team,  while  a  mule  is  raised  to  a  working 
age  much  more  cheaply  than  a  horse. 

Mules  may  be  kept  at  less  expense  than  horses,  and  are  not  subject  to  as  many  diseases, 
while  those  they  may  have  are  more  easily  cured.  On  the  other  view  of  the  subject,  a  horse 
may  be  used  for  pleasure  driving,  or  for  all  purposes,  while  a  mule  is  suited  only  for  heavy 
work,  and  purposes  of  draft.  Judge  Hinckley,  of  Northampton,  Mass..  formerly  a  breeder  of 
mules,  always  kept  a  team  of  them  for  performing  the  drudgery  of  farm  work,  much  prefer- 
ing  them,  after  an  experience  of  fifty  years,  to  horses  for  this  purpose,  although  he  kept  his 
stables  full  of  horses  besides.  One  paii-  thirty  years  old  were  particularly  serviceable,  having 
outlived  several  generations  of  horses,  and  though  tte  latter  were  often  out  of  condition  and 
sick,  the  mules  never  were.  One  of  his  stock,  forty-five  years  old,  was  perfectly  able  to  per- 
form his  share  of  labor. 

Another  gentleman  who  used  mules  for  over  thirty  years,  says:  —  "From  repeated 
experiments  I  have  found  that  three  mules  from  fourteen  and  a  half  to  sixteen  hands  high, 
capable  of  performing  any  work  a  horse  is  usually  put  to,  and  which  were  kept  constantly  at 
work,  consumed  about  the  same  quantity  of  hay,  and  only  one-half  the  provender  which  was 
given  to  two  middling  sized  coach  horses,  only  moderately  worked.  I  am  satisfied  that  a 
large-sized  mule  will  not  consume  more  than  three-fifths  to  two-thirds  the  food  to  keep  him 
in  good  order,  that  will  be  necessary  for  a  horse  performing  the  same  labor.  The  expense 
of  shoeing  a  mule  the  year  round,  does  not  exceed  one-third  that  of  the  horse,  his  hoofs  being 
harder,  more  horny,  and  so  slow  in  their  growtt,  that  shoes  require  no  removal,  and  hold  on 
till  worn  out;  and  the  wear,  from  the  lightness  of  the  animal,  is  much  less. 

Mules  have  been  lost  by  feeding  on  cut  straw,  and  corn  meal ;  in  no  other  instance  have 
I  known  disease  in  them,  except  by  inflammation  of  the  intestines,  caused  by  the  grossest 
exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  and  excessive  drinking  cold  water,  after  severe  labor,  and  while  in 
a  high  state  of  perspiration.  It  is  not  improbable  that  a  fanner  may  work  the  same  team  of 
mules  for  twenty  years  without  having  a  farrier^s  bill  presented  to  him.  In  my  experience 
of  thirty  years,  I  have  never  found  but  one  mule  inclined  to  be  vicious,  and  he  might  have 
been  easily  subdued  while  young.  I  have  always  found  them  truer  pullers,  and  quicker 
travelers,  with  a  load,  than  horses.  Their  vision  and  hearing  are  much  more  accurate.  I 
have  used  them  in  my  family  carriage,  in  a  gig,  and  under  the  saddle,  and  have  never  known 
one  to  start  or  run  from  any  object  or  noise,  a  fault  in  the  horse  that  continually  causes  the 
maiming  and  death  of  numerous  human  beings. 

The  mule  is  more  steady  in  his  draught  and  less  likely  to  waste  his  strength  than  the 
horse,  hence  more  suitable  to  work  with  oxen,  and  as  he  walks  faster,  will  habituate  them  to 
a  faster  gait.  In  plowing  among  crops,  his  feet  being  small  and  following  each  other  so 
much  more  in  a  line,  he  seldom  treads  down  the  ridges  or  crops.  The  facility  of  instructing 
him  to  obey  im.plicitJy  the  voice  of  the  driver  is  astonishing.  The  best  plowing  of  tillage  land 
that  we  ever  saw,  we  have  had  performed  by  two  mules  tandem,  without  lines  or  driver." 

Mules  have  been  driven  eighty  miles  in  a  day  without  injury,  although  this  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  and  it  is  too  much  to  expect  of  any  animal,  yet  it  shows  how  much  they  are 
capable  of  enduring.  Mr.  Ellicott,  of  Patuxent  Furnaces,  states  that  out  of  one  hundred 
mules  in  the  works,  they  have  not  lost,  on  an  average,  one  in  two  years,  while  he  does  not 
recollect  that  they  have  ever  had  one  that  was  wind-broken.  They  are  rarely  defective  in 
the  hoof,  and  though  kept  shod,  shoeing  is  not  as  necessary  as  with  horses.  Their  skin  is 
tougher  than  that  of  a  horse,  and  they  are  consequently  not  as  much  annoyed  by  the  flies, 
and  do  not  suffer  so  much  with  the  heat  in  summer.     Mr.  Morris,  of  Pennsylvania,  says:  — 

"  Being  a  dealer  in  this  class  of  live-stock,  and  coming  in  almost  daily  contact  with  their 
niuleships,  I  have  learned  their  dispositions  and  habits  pretty  thoroughly,  and  having  learned 


THE  MULE.  ^^i 

their  full  worth  on  the  farm,  have  entirely  discarded  horses  for  farm-work,  knowing  from 
actual  experience,  that  mules  make  a  far  more  economical  farm  team  than  do  horses." 

Although  mules  will  thrive  on  coarser  and  considerably  less  fare  than  horses,  yet  it  is 
always  the  most  economical  and  pays  best  to  give  either  horses  or  mules,  or  in  fact  any  kind 
of  stock,  a  plenty  of  good  food  without  overfeeding  them.  We  believe  the  mule  should  be 
fed  with  as  good  food  as  horses,  and  that  they  require  as  much  in  proportion  to  their  size. 

Breeding  Mules. — The  breeding  of  mules  in  America  began  with  much  spirit  in  the 
New  England  States,  soon  after  the  Revolutionary  war.  They  were  then  bred  as  an  article 
of  commerce,  being  at  first  shipped  exclusively  to  the  West  Indies,  but  afterwards  to  the 
South  and  West,  for  use  in  the  sugar-mills,  and  other  plantation  work.  At  first  the  breeding 
animals  were  very  inferior,  both  sires  and  dams,  the  stock  produced  being  held  in  derision 
where  they  were  bred,  but  in  those  days  anything  blessed  with  long  ears,  and  called  a  mule, 
commanded  a  remunerative  price  and  ready  sale.  As  a  natural  consequence,  a  prejudice 
was  established  against  the  whole  mule  family,  which  has  to  this  period  never  been  entirely 
removed  in  certain  localities. 

The  improved  mule,  an  American  production  and  superior  animal,  has  been  largely 
introduced  in  the  West,  and  to  some  extent  all  over  the  country,  besides  being  imported  to 
Europe  quite  extensively.  The  size  of  the  mule  most  profitable  to  raise  for  use  in  the  West 
and  South  is  from  fourteen  and  a  half  to  fifteen  and  a  half  or  sixteen  hands  in  height,  since, 
other  conditions  being  equal,  size  is  the  measure  of  strength.  It  is  found  in  mule-breeding 
that  the  jack  should  be  a  spirited  animal,  and  not  less  than  fifteen  hands  high,  and  that  the 
best  mules  result  from  crossing  such  with  improved  blooded  mares.  The  noted  jacks,  Mam- 
mouth  and  Warrior,  which  have  so  improved  the  stock  of  this  country,  were  imported  to 
Kentucky  from  Spain  about  the  year  1837,  at  a  cost  of  §5,000  each.  These  animals  were 
si.xteen  hands  high,  of  fine  quality,  and  greatly  improved  the  size  of  the  jack  stock  by  their 
crossing  with  the  common  jennets  of  the  State.  They  were  the  result  of  crossing  the  jacks 
of  Malta  with  jennets  of  Spain. 

In  breeding  mules,  it  is  highly  important  that  the  jack  be  of  the  height  previously  men- 
tioned, in  order  that  the  progeny  be  of  good  size;  also  that  they  lie  intelligent,  active,  and 
spirited  animals,  that  these  other  good  qualities  be  also  perpetuated.  It  is  likewise  of  equal 
importance  that  the  best  mares  be  used, — blooded  mares, — and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  finer 
the  mare  the  better  the  mule  product,  unless  too  small. 

Mr.  E.  F.  Spencer  of  Kentucky,  a  gentleman  of  large  and  successful  experience  in  mule- 
breeding,  gives  the  result  of  his  observation  and  experience  in  this  department  as  follows: — 

"  During  the  breeding  season,  beginning  here  in  March,  the  jack  should  have  a  lot  suffi- 
ciently large  to  supply  him  with  grass  at  night;  but  in  the  day  he  should  be  kept  in  a  tight 
stable.  The  lot  should  be  located,  if  possible,  where  no  horse  stock  can  come  to  the  fence; 
for  if  they  do,  a  vigorous  jack  will  fret  through  the  night  and  may  become  vicious,  and  some- 
times will  bite  horses  through  the  fence. 

They  frequently  fret  from  this  cause  till  they  get  poor  in  flesh  and  unserviceable.  If 
permitted  to  run  in  the  lot  during  the  day,  you  may  feed  him,  three  times  a  day,  four  to  six 
ears  of  good  sound  corn,  and  two  bundles  of  sheaf  oats,  cut  up  to  the  band,  I  have  found 
by  experience  this  to  be  the  better  plan.  If  the  breeder  has  no  grass  lot,  he  should  feed  com 
and  oats,  the  latter  cut  fine  enough  to  make  chop  feed.  This  is  a  feed  composed  of  oats  cut 
up  and  corn -meal  ground  fine — fine  enough  for  family  purposes.  Put  a  little  salt,  if  not 
every  time  it  is  fed,  at  least  frequently;  and  don't  feed  too  much  at  first,  to  avoid  founder — 
or  the  new  meal  may  cause  colic. 

A  jack  should  be  permitted  to  serve  one  or  two  mares  at  two  years  of  age;  but  be  care- 
ful not  to  breed  the  jack  intended  for  mares  to  jennets  before  you  have  bred  him  to  at  least 
half  a  dozen  mares;  and,  in  breeding,  do  not  let  him  serve  more  than  two  a  day, — one  in  the 


832  THE  A^IERICAN  Fx\.RJIEK. 

morning  and  tlie  other  in  the  evening, — and  not  over  forty  the  first  3'ear,  nor  more  than  sixty 
any  year.  IE  more  are  bred,  permanent  injury  to  the  jack  is  likely  to  result.  In  litigated 
cases  which  have  come  under  my  notice,  the  testimony  has  generally  shown  that  moi-e  jacks 
have  been  injured  by  breeding  to  too  many  mares  at  three  years  old,  than  at  any  other  age. 

Caution  should  be  used  during  the  season  to  have  the  jack  securely  haltered  through  the 
day,  for  some  few  will  watch  for  an  opportunity,  when  the  groom  is  off  his  guard,  and  bite 
seriously.  I  once  had  a  jack,  seemingly  docile,  seize  his  groom  by  the  back,  and  bite  him 
severely.  Jacks,  generally,  are  docile;  but  until  you  find  out  the  disposition  of  your  jack, 
you  had  better,  during  the  breeding  season,  give  him  no  chance  to  do  mischief.  The  appli- 
cation of  a  good  hickory  will  soon  cure  his  viciousness. 

A  jennet  will  carry  her  foal  12  months,  and  a  jack  foal  often  13  months;  and  the  owner 
should  be  present,  if  possible,  when  she  foals,  for  the  young  of  this  kind  of  stock  are  more 
liable  to  be  smothered  than  mule  or  horse  colts. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  j'oung,  healthy  jack  will  get  his  best  colts  the  first  sea- 
son; and  if  you  are  using  your  jack  yourself,  never  permit  him  to  be  over-bred. 

If  your  jack  is  15  to  15^  hands,  and  has  that  height  by  inheritance,  through  his  ances- 
try, you  can,  by  breeding  him  to  mares  of  good  size,  confidently  rely  upon  having  good- 
sized  mules. 

The  well-bred  mule,  if  properly  treated  after  being  weaned,  will  grow  the  first  year  six, 
and  the  second  year  three  inches;  and  if  well  kept  in  this  way  for  two  years,  will  have 
attained  its  height.  Of  course,  if  poorly  fed  and  cared  for  during  the  first  and  second  years, 
they  will  not  mature  until  three  years  old;  but  the  stunting  business  costs  the  owner  one 
year's  additional  interest,  feed,  attention,  and  care,  which  never  pays." 

Mules  bred  in  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky,  are  generally  known  to  be 
superior  to  those  of  most  of  the  other  sections  of  the  country,  owing,  probably  to  the  fact  of 
the  improved  jacks  being  used  there  more  extensively  with  blooded  mares. 

Breakiug  and  General  Management  of  Mules. — The  general  rules  to  be  observed 
in  breaking  colts,  and  horse  management,  are  equally  applicable  to  mules;  hence,  do  not 
require  repetition  in  this  connection. 

Mules  are  too  often  neglected  and  abused,  and  from  such  treatment  are  frequently  made 
vicious  and  stubborn  from  mere  self-defense.  They  are  frequently  termed  stupid  and  obsti- 
nate, but  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  where  they  are  found  such,  it  is  due  more  to  the  ignorance, 
stupidity,  and  brutality  of  those  that  reared,  broke,  or  have  driven  them,  than  that  of  the 
animal.  Mules  are  naturally  affectionate  and  patient,  and  should  be  kindly  treated.  When 
thus  treated,  they  are  very  docile,  and  jield  readily. 

Their  ears,  like  those  of  the  horse,  are  peculiarly  sensitive,  and  tender;  hence  when 
handling  them,  it  should  be  done  very  carefully,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  know 
that  they  are  not  to  be  annoyed,  or  harmed  in  any  way.  This  will  help  much  in  overcoming 
their  naturally  timid  dispositions,  and  when  they  find  that  they  are  not  to  be  abused,  they 
will  be  kind  and  submissive. 

The  mule's  ears  are  so  extremely  sensitive,  that  a  scratch  or  the  slightest  injury  to  them 
will  make  them  afraid,  and  have  a  tendency  to  arouse  stubbornness;  and  it  will  be  with  the 
greatest  difiBcuIty  in  such  cases,  tliat  they  will  for  a  long  time  afterward  submit  quietly  to  be 
haltered.  Mr.  Morris,  of  Pennsylvania,  previously  referred  to,  says  respecting  mule-break- 
ing: "  There  is  a  great  prejudice  existing  against  mules  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  this  is  most  generally  the  case  where  they  are  least  used,  and,  consequently,  but  little  is 
known  of  their  good  qualities,  and  they  are  accused  of  being  vicious,  stubborn,  and  ready  to 
kick  at  anything  coming  within  reaching  distance.  How  common  the  remark,  '  .\s  stubborn 
as  a  mule.' 


THE  MULE.  833 

A.nd  yet  some  of  the  very  traits  that  are  so  much  decried  in  the  mule,  are  the  very  best 
traits  that  either  mule  or  horse  could  possess.  "What  is  wanted,  is  to  '  train  a  mule  up  prop- 
erly in  the  way  it  should  go,'  and  my  word  for  it,  'when  it  is  old  it  will  not  depart  from  it.' 
We  should  use  kindness  instead  of  abuse,  and  there  would  seldom  be  any  kicking  or  bitinc;, 
and  the  mule  will  learn  far  quicker  than  most  horses  what  is  wanted.  Mules  are  naturally 
very  timid  animals,  and  have  a  great  deal  of  curiosity.  The  latter  trait  I  have  often  observed 
in  driving  a  number  of  loose  mules  along  the  public  highway.  They  will  stop  and  notice 
every  strange  object  along  the  road,  and  will,  occasionally,  turn  off  on  by-roads  to  gaze  at 
something,  and  yet,  to  show  how  quickly  they  learn,  and  how  easily  managed,  after  a  day's 
driving,  a  few  calls  from  the  driver  will  generally  bring  them  back  to  the  main  road.  Some, 
occasionally,  are  very  roguish,  and  seem  to  take  a  delight  in  running  far  enough  away  from 
the  drove  to  cause  the  driver  some  uneasiness,  but,  with  a  little  patience  and  firmness,  they 
are  soon  broken  of  the  habit.  Mules  have  also  a  very  affectionate  disposition,  but  one  pecu- 
liarity of  theirs  (and  this  same  trait  is  peculiar  to  the  elephant)  is  that  of  remembering  and 
resenting  an  injury;  therefore,  the  more  quietly  we  go  about  handling  and  breaking  them, 
the  less  trouble  we  wiU  have  with  them,  and  the  less  disposition  they  will  ever  possess  to  kick 
at  any  one.  A  showman  once  announced,  whilst  performing  his  bear,  that  'he  broke  him  with 
kindness,'  adding  'and  a  club.'  My  advice  in  breaking  mules  is,  be  sure  to  adopt  the  kind- 
ness part  of  it,  but,  under  no  circumstances,  use  the  club.  Many  a  mule  is  spoiled  by  ignorant 
and  thoughtless  persons  seizing  it  by  the  ear  and  holding  on  to  that  sensitive  organ  until  the 
mule  becomes  so  much  afraid  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  bridle  it.  Some  can  never  be 
entirely  cured  of  the  timidity  thus  produced." 

Hon.  J.  B.  Smith,  of  Pennsylvania,  says:  "  I  had  the  pleasure,  once,  of  owning  a  pair  of 
mules.  I  bought  them  when  they  were  two  years  old,  and  made  up  my  mind  that  they  could 
be  broken  the  same  as  a  horse,  if  treated  in  the  same  way.  I  got  a  friend  to  assist,  and  we 
went  to  work  and  broke  them  the  same  as  colts,  using  them  kindly;  and  a  better  pair  of 
mules  never  were  used.  Any  one  could  drive  them.  I  could  hitch  them  into  a  buggy 
together,  and  they  would  go  well.  All  you  would  have  to  say  was  'go.'  A  mule  lives  on 
less  than  a  horse,  does  more  work,  and  is  less  liable  to  die. 

"  In  our  minds  they  are  very  valuable.  We  drive  one  into  a  gang-way  half  a  mile,  taking 
a  light  for  loading.  After  the  car  is  loaded  and  the  mule  started,  he  will  find  his  way  out 
over  the  proper  track  without  any  light  at  all.  Then  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  start  him  again, 
and  he  will  go  back  to  where  they  are  mining.  I  believe  the  mule  should  have  the  same 
treatment  as  the  horse,  and  then  he  will  have  as  kind  a  disposition.  If  3'ou  whip  and  scold 
him  every  time  he  does  anything  wrong,  and  make  a  '  scape-goat '  of  him  generally,  in  course 
of  time  he  will  not  mind  anybody,  not  even  yourself.  But  if  you  treat  him  right,  he  will  do 
right  in  return." 

We  lay  it  down  as  a  general  principle,  that  any  animal  is  far  more  valuable  for  service  of 
any  kind,  and  hence  worth  more  money,  for  simply  the  kind  and  humane  treatment  it  has 
received  from  birth  to  maturity,  and  that  much-abused  animal,  the  mule,  is  no  exception  to 
this  principle. 

Slioeiug. — All  that  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  shoeing  of  horses  applies  with 
equal  force  to  the  shoeing  of  mules, — the  half-brother  of  the  horse.  Do  not  permit  the  frog 
or  sole  of  the  foot  of  the  mule  to  be  cut,  any  more  than  that  of  the  horse,  for  it  will  be  sure 
to  bring  injury  to  the  feet  sooner  or  later.  If  a  mule  is  troublesome  about  being  shod,  blind- 
fold him  by  putting  a  bandage  before  his  eyes,  and  he  will  generally  yield.  Timidity  and 
fear  of  being  harmed  will  generally  be  the  cause  of  resistance  in  such  cases,  rather  than 
obstinacy.  When  they  cease  to  fear  man,  and  have  confidence  in  his  kind  intentions,  they 
will  use  their  heels  and  teeth  less  in  self-defence,  and  prove  less  shy  and  willful. 

Diseases  of  the  Mule. — For  treatment  of  diseases  of  mules,  see  Diseases  of  the 
Horse,  since  all  remedial  agencies  apply  equally  well  to  both  animals. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Activity  in  the  Horse,       ...        .        .     680 

Adulteration  of  Tea, 460 

Advantages  of  Large  Farms 583 

Small  Farms,  ...        .584 

"  the  Ensilage  System,       .        .     509 

After-Culture  of  Wheat,  .         .         .         .     377 

Aftermath,  or  Rowen, 248 

Age  and  Size  of  Trees 520 

A  Good  Disposition  in  tlie  Horse,  .        .        .     679 

Agriculture,  General 3 

Improvements  in,       .         .         '        5 

the  Foundation  of  Civilization,         3 

A  Judicious  Clioice  of  Crops  Essential, .        .     104 

Alfalfa,  value  of  as  a  forage  plant,         .        .211 

cultivation  of 212 

Alluvial  soils,  .         .         .         .         .         .20 

Alpha  potato, 343 

Alsike  clover, 207 

American  cotton,  rank  of 401 

American  Girl 733 

"        guano, 60 

Ammonia,  escape  of  from  fermenting  manure,    43 

"  "        how  prevented,      .         .       42 

Analysis  of  Artificial  Grasses, .        .        .     226,  227 

Ash  of  "  ....     229 

"  "      Natural  Grasses,      .        .     229 

"        Natural  Grasses,  ....     229 

Corn,    ....        37.  39,  304 

"  "    when  cut  in  a  gieen  state,       508 

"        Grain  and  Straw,         ...      37 

"        Green  Crops,        ....       37 

Hay 37 

"        Roots  and  Tops 37 

Soils 25 

"  Tahle  of,  .  .  .  27,  28 
"  Unproductive  Soils,  Table  of,  .  28 
"        Sugar-Cane,         ....     412 

"Weeds 229 

Ancliylosis, 803 

Animal  Excrements,  Analysis  of,  .        .        .      38 
"      Dust,  .        .        .        ...        .57 

"         "     Analysis  of,       .        .        .        .57 

An  Ornamental  Cottage,         ....     624 

Aphides,  or  Cotton  Lice,         ....     403 

A  Picturesque  Country  Villa,         .        .        .     623 

Application  of  Commercial  Fertilizers,  .         .       83 

"  Manures,         .         .         .         .83 

Artesian  Wells 335 


PAGE. 

Artichokes 371 

Analysis  of, 373 

"        Cultivation  of 373 

Globe 366 

Planting  of, 372 

"        Varieties  of 372 

A  Sail  in  a  Paris  Sewer,          ....  50 

Ashes,  Coal, 61 

"    Leached 61 

"    of  Sea- Weed 62 

"    Peat 62 

"    Wood 60 

Asparagus,  Colossal, 3(56 

Ass,  The, 826 

"      "     Varieties,  etc.,         ....  826 

Assorting  Tobacco, 448 

Balking. 772 

Baling  Hay,     .        .        .        .        .        .        .247 

"      Press,  Lever, 247 

■'         "      Steam,        .        .        .        .        .248 

Barb  Wire  Fence, 570 

Barefoot  Horses 793 

Barley, 297 

CuUivation  of, 298 

"      Harvesting 299 

Barn,  The, 641,  650 

"    Cellars, 43,  661 

"    Location  of,  plans  for,  etc.,  .        .        .     643 

"    Ground  Plan  for, 646 

Barns,  Cattle 656 

"     Dairy 651 

"    Farm, 650 

"    Horse, 653 

"    Model,    .        .        .        .        .     639,  640,  644 

"     old  and  new 653 

Barn-yard  Manure 40 

Bars  in  Road-Making 552 

Bat  Guano 60 

Beans,  Varieties,  etc 475 

"      Cultivation  of 476 

"      Harvesting, 476 

Field,  Formula  of  Fertilizers  for,        .      81 
"      Castor,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .     477 

"  "    Cultivation  of,  .        .        .        ..,  477 

Horse,  Cultivation,  etc .,,  476 

"      Improved  Lima,  .        .        ...        ...  366 

Beetle,  Colorado,     .        .        .        .        .        .349 

(835) 


836 


INDEX 


PAGE. 

Beets 364 

"    Varieties  of, 365 

"     Cultivation  of 365 


Harvesting,    . 
Storage  of. 
Blood  Turnip, 
Early  Red, 
Imperial  Sugar, 


367 


.    ■    .  366 

.  370 

"     Lonff  Blood 366 

"    Mangel  AVurzel,     .        .        .     366,  367,  370 

"               "             Cultivation  of,       .        .  367 

"     Swiss  Chard, 366 

Belgian  Carrot 370 

Best  American  Trotting-time,         .         .     719,  741 
"    Method  of  Shoeing  Horses,    .        .        .793 

"    Russian  Trotting-time,   ....  719 

"    Records  of  Fleetest  Running  Horses,    .  742 

Bitting  Process,  The 767 

Black  Hawk 728 

"           Junior 696 

Black  Tea  District 452 

Bleeding  Horses 759 

Blinders  for  Horses 776 

Blinds  for  Buildings, 633 

Blood  as  a  Fertilizer,  .        .        .        44,  56 

Bones  as  a         "              60 

"        How  to  Reduce  and  Pulverize,  .        .  65 

Bokhara  Clover, 210 

Boll- Worm,  The, 407 

Boulounaise  Draft  Horses,     ....  708 

Box-Stalls 659 

Breaking  and  General  Management  of  Mules,  832 
"      Colts  to  the  Harness,         .        .        .768 

Saddle 771 

Breeding  of  Horses.  The 746 

"             "        Disciualifieations  for,       .  747 

"        Marcs,  Care  of 751 

Mules, 831 

Brick  Silos 491 

Brittle  Hoofs,  Remedy  for,  etc 794 

Brooks,    .        .        .   " 529 

Broom  Corn 478 

"         Soil  and  Preparation  for,    .        .  479 

Planting 479 

"         Cultivation  of 480 

■"         Harvesting  of,     ....  480 

Curing 481 

Buckwheat 399 

Varieties 300 

"          Cultivation,  Harvesting  of,  etc.,   .  300 

"          Formula  of  Fertilizers  for,    .        .  80 

Buffalo  Clover 210 

Buildings,  Farm 613,  654 

"    Height  of 655 

"     Painting 616 

"     Plans  of 621 

"            "    Repairing 610 

"        Necessary  on  the  Farm,        .        .  615 


Bidrush,  Morgan 727 

Burr  Cucumber,      .     ■ 370 

Butter-Worker, 594 


Calcareous  Soils, 

Canadian  Horse,  The 

Care  of  Breeding-Mares,         .... 
Care  of  Cattle  at  Mountain-Side  Farm,  . 
"      Cows  at  Deerfoot  Farm, 
"      Roads,  Objection  to  Present  System, 

"      Stallions 

"     Young  Colts, 

Carriage-Horse,  The, 

Carrot, 

"        Cultivation  of, 

"        Harvesting  of, 

"        Varieties  of, 

"        Storing  of, 

Seed,  Cultivation  of,  etc., 

"        Belgian 

"        Carenton 

Early  Scarlet 

"  "  "        Horn, 

"        Long  Orange, 

"        Scarlet, 

"        Weeder, 

Cassadaj  Sulky  Plow,  .... 

Castor  Beans,  Cultivation  of,  ... 

Castor  Pomace  as  a  Fertilizer, 

Castration  of  Colts, 

Catch-waters  in  Road-making, 

Cattle  Barn,  

Cellars,  Barn, 42, 

"        for  Dwellings, 

Centrifugal  Machines  of  Deerfoot  Farm, 

Cereals,  ' 

Cereal  Products  in  the  United  States,     . 

Champlain  Wheat, 

Charcoal  Dust, 

Cheap  Conservatory,  How  to  Construct, 

Check-rein,  Use  of, 

Chest  of  the  Horse, 

Chimneys  of  Dwellings, 

Chinch  Bug,  

Chinese  Yam,  Cultivation  of. 

Chloride  of  Sodium 

Chufas,  Cultivation  of,  ... 

Choice  of  Farms,  .... 

Choice  of  Plants  for  Prodticing  Seed,    . 

Cisterns, 

"        How  Constructed,     . 
Circular  Cisterns,  How  to  find  Capacity  of. 
Cisterns,  Filters  for,        .... 

Classification  of  Soils 

Clay  Loams,  

Clay  Soils  and  their  Management, . 

Cleaning  Harness  Plate, 

Cleveland  Bay, 


15 
730 

751 
601 
601 
554 
751 
752 
681 
868 


370 
370 
370 
370 
870 
370 


477 
57 
756 
553 
656 
661 
636 
597 
263 
263 
266 
63 
674 
774 
686 
633 
283 
357 
68 
373 
583 
513 
531 
583 
583 
533 
14 
14 
15 
800 
708 


837 


'  Bay  Splendor 


to  Fermen 


Cleveland  Ba}-  Stallion 
Clipping  Horses, 
Closets  of  Dwellings, 
Clover,  Alsike, 
"        Bokhara,     . 
Buffalo,       . 
"        Crimson,     . 
"        Hare's-foot, 

Hop, 
"        Japan, 
"        Mexican,     . 

Red, 
"  "      Cultivation  of, 

"  "      Time  of  Cutting, 

"  "      Method  of  Curing, 

Clover  Hay.  Conditions  Favorable 

tation  in,  . 

Clover  Hay,   How  Fermentation  can  be  Pre- 
vented in,  ... 
Clover  Seed,  Cultivation  of,   . 
"        "     Harvesting  of,    . 
"        "      Storing  and  Cleanin 
"         "      Huller  and  Cleaner, 
Clover  as  a  Fertilizer, 
"      Sickness, 
"      White, 
"      Yellow, 
'       "      Zigzag, 
Clydesdale,  The,      . 

Stallion,  "  Time  o'  Day 
Coal  Ashes, 
Color  in  the  Horse, 
Color  of  Soils, 
Colorado  Beetle,  The,      . 
Colossal  Asparagus, 
Colls,  Age  for  Working, 
"      Breaking  to  Harness, 
"      Breaking  to  Saddle, 
"      Foot  at  two  years, 
"     Halter  Breaking.  . 
"      Old-time  Method  of  Managing, 
"     Present  System  of  Management, 
"      Raising  by  Hand, 
"      Teaching  to  Back, 
"      Weaning,       .... 
Commercial  Fertilizers,  . 

"  "  Analysis  of, 

"  "  Application  of, 

Common  Millet,       .... 
"  "        Cultivation  of,     . 

Composition  of  Malfures, 
Composition  of  German  Potash  Salts, 

Composts 

Compost  Pile,  How  to  Construct,  . 
Compost  Poudrette, 
Compton's  Surprise  Potatoes, 
Concrete  Silos,         .... 
Conestoga  The,       .... 


PAGE. 

714 

776 

633 

207 

210 

210 

209 

210 

210 

194,  19.5 

196,  197 

.     198 


.     203 

.     204 

.     204 

.     205 

204,  205 

75,  205 

207 

209 

210 

210 

707 

686 

61 


24 
349 
366 

771 
768 
771 
786 
765 
760 
760 
756 
770 


36, 


38 

83 

190 

191 

30 

70 

51 

51 

45 

342 

493 

708 


PAGE. 

Conservatory,  How  to  Construct  a  Cheap,     .     674 

Corn,  Analysis  of 37,  39,  304 

"  "  vihen  cut  green,        .        .     508 

"     Diseases  of,  etc., 323 

"     Cultivation  of 314 

"      Cultivators,   ....     314,  315,  316 

"      Grinding 320 

"      Harvesting 317 

"      Hilling  and  Level  Culture,   .         .         .     315 
"      Hill  and  Drill  Planting,        .         .         .311 

"      Hilling  Cultivator 315 

"      History  of,  etc. 302 

"      Insect  enemies  of,  ....     324 

"      Mills,  Farm,  ....     322,  323 

"      Planter, 312 

"      Planting 311 

"      Preparation  of  Seed  for  Planting,  308 

"      Selection  of  Seed 306 

"      Shellers 321,  322 

"      Shelling  and  Grinding,  .        .         .320 

"      Soil  for,  and  its  Preparation,        .        .     809 

"     Stalk  Cutters 317,  318 

"      Summary  of  Rules  for  Securing  Large 

Crops 313 

"     Varieties  of, 305 

Cotton 383 

"        Aphides,  or  Cotton-lice,    .        .         .     403 

Baling  of 400 

Bolls,  Rotting  of 409 

"        Boll-worm, 407 

"  Caterpillar,  or  Cotton-worm,  .  .  403 
"  Egg  of,  .  403 
"  Larva  of,  .  403 
"  Chrysalis  of,  405 
"     Moth  of,      .     405 

"        Cultivation  of 394 

"        Cultivator 395 

Fertilizers  for, 393 

Gins, 398,  399,  400 

Ginning 399 

Growing  Belt,  The 385 

"        Lands,  Exhaustion  of,        .         .         .     391 
"  "  "  How  Prevented,  391 

"        Harvesting  of 396 

History  of, 382 

Lice 403 

Plant,  Blight  of 409 

"        Plant,  Diseases  of 409 

Plant,  Rust  of 409 

Plant,  Enemies  of,     .         .         .         .403 

Planter 383 

Plants,  Thinning  of,  ...     396 

Press 383 

"        Production  in  the  United  States,  and 

average  product  per  acre.  Table  of,     386 

Rotation  for 392 

Seed  Huller 402 

"  "    Pomace, 57 


838 


INDEX. 


PACE. 

Cotton  Seed,  Selection  of  for  Planting, 

390 

■ '     Uses  of, 

401 

"  .     Soil,  and  its  Preparation  for,     . 

891 

Stalk  Cutter 

397 

"  .     Underdraining  of  Soil  for. 

393 

"       Varieties  of 

384 

"  .     Worm, 

403 

Rank  of  American 

401 

Covering  of  Wheat,  Depth  of,          ... 

27.5 

Cow,  or  Field  Pea,  Cultivation  of,  etc., . 

217 

Cow  Stable  for  Model  Barn,    .... 

648 

Crops,  a  Judicious  Choice  of.  Essential, 

104 

Crops,  Choice  of,  Modified  by  Demand, 

10.5 

"          "                 "          '■   the  character  of 

the  Soil,  etc., 

106 

Crops,  ReUitive  Cost  in  the  Production  of, 

107 

"      Rotation  of 

107 

"  .  Various  for  Green  Manure, 

76 

"     What  to  Raise,     . 

104 

Cultivation  of  Grass  Seed, 

248 

Cutting  Potatoes  for  Planting, 

337 

Cutting  Potatoes  to  a  Single  Eye, 

339 

Dairy  Barns 

651 

Darlvmple  Farm,  The,     . 

610 

Deerfoot  Farm,  The, 

595 

Defiance  Wheat, 

206 

Deficiency  of  Potash  in  Common 

Fertilizers 

and  in  Soils, 

39 

Depth  of  Covering  W'heat, 

275 

Depth  of  Drains, 

33 

Depth  of  Plowing,  . 

96 

Design  for  a  Country  House,  . 

614 

Determining  the  Outlet  of  Drains, 

130 

Determining  the  Age  of  Horses, 

694 

Dexter 

735 

Dew  Point,  The,      . 

24 

Diet  for  Sick  Horses, 

800 

Diseases  of  the  Horse, 

801 

"    Mule,         .       . 

833 

"             and  Insects  of  Wheat, 

282 

of  Rye,     . 

291 

"  Oats, 

297 

"           "  Corn,    . 

333 

"          "  Potatoes, 

348 

"  the  Cotton  Plant, 

409 

Disqualificatious  for  Breeding, 

747 

Docking,           .... 

759 

Dog  Power,     .... 

543 

Doing  Work  Over  Nicely, 
Doors 

574 
630 

Doors  for  Barns, 

663 

Domestic  Animals,  . 

677 

Double  Row  Stalk-Cutter, 

318 

Dr.  J.  B.  Lawes'  Experiments  wit 

i  Manures 

on  Meadow  Lands,    . 

256 

Dr.  Bailey's  Silos,    . 

494 

Draco  Prince,  .... 

782 

Drainage,  .... 

for  Roads,    .     . 
Furrow,    . 

Old  Time  Method  of. 
Tools  for, 
"        What  Lands  Require, 
"        Determing  the  Depth  of, 
"   Outlet  of, 
"        Plans  for, 
"        Locating  the  Main  Drains  and 
utaries  of,  .... 

Drainage,  Size  and  Kind  of  Tile  for 

StQne 

Tile 

Turf,        .... 
"         Obstructions  in, 
"         Open  Ditches, 
"         Rule  to   find   How  Many  Ac 
Given  Main  will  Drain,     . 

Dried  Blood 

Drill-Planting  of  Corn,    . 

Driven  Wells, 

Dwellings,  Warmth  in,    . 

"       .  Influence  of  on  Character, 

Early  Amber  Sugar-Cane, 

Eave  Troughs,  .... 

Echo  Farm 

"  "     Buildings,     . 

Economy  of  Mule  Labor, 
Elements  of  Plant  Food, 

"  "  "     Organic.    . 

"  "  "     Inorganic, 

Embankments,         .... 
Enemies  and  Diseases  of  the  Cotton  Plant, 

"      of  the  Tobacco  Plant, 

Engli.sh  Cottage 

English  Draft,  The, 

"           "      Stallion,  "Lincoln," 
Ensilage, 

' '        Adapted  to  the  Southern  States 

"        Analysis  of,     . 

"        Corn-Planter,    . 

"        Cutters 

"        How  to  Feed,  . 

"        Method  of  Cultivating  Maize 

"        Mr.  Mills'  System  of, 

"        Mr.  Morris"    '\     "  . 

"        Most  Profitable  Crops  for, 

"         Southern  Seed  Corn  for, . 

"        Sys'eni.  Advantage*  of ,  . 

"        Experiments  Respecting, 

"        Opinions  Respecting, 

"        Time  of  Harvesting  Maize  for. 
Silos,  Brick,     ... 

"  "     Concrete, 

"     Dr.  Bailey's,   . 
"     Earth,     . 


for. 


INDEX. 


839 


PAGE. 

Ensilage,  Silos,  How  to  Build, 

491 

"     How  to  Cut  Maize  for,  . 

503 

"     How  to  Fill 

504 

"     M.  Goffart's,   ...     488 

496 

"     United,  Plan  of,     . 

497 

"        Silo,  Vertical  Slicing  in. 

505 

"    Removing  Fodder  from. 

506 

Erecting  Barb  Wire  Fence,     .... 

568 

Esssentials  in  Building  an  Ice-House,     . 

669 

Evaporating  the  Juice  of  Sugar  Cane,     . 

418 

Exhaustion  of  Soils  by  Crops, 

36 

"      "      "    Table  of,  . 

37 

Experiments  in  Rotation  of  Crops, 

110 

"          with     Manures    on    Permanent 

Meadow-Lands,  by  Dr.  Lawes, 

256 

Extraction  of  the  .Juice  of  Sugar-Cane,  . 

417 

Fall  Fallowmg 

85 

Fall  Grazing  of  Mowing  Lands, 

249 

Fallow  System,  The 

84 

Farm  Buildings 582 

613 

Design  for  a  Country  House, 

614 

an  Ornamental  Cottage.      . 

629 

Engli.sh  Cottage, 

625 

"        Ground  Plan  of. 

625 

Chamber-Floor  Plan, 

625 

Designs  for  a  Picturesque  Country  Villa, 

629 

"        a  Rural  Cottage, 

627 

"                "          '■  Ground  Plan, 

627 

"  Chamber-Flooi 

Plan,  . 

637 

That  are  necessary 

615 

Should  be  Made  Tasty  and  Attractive,  . 

616,  620,  621,  622 

652 

Height  of, 

621 

Painting, 

616 

Plans  of 

655 

Repairing, 

616 

Vesey  Homestead  Cottage,  The,   . 

623 

The  Farm-House, 

618 

Location  of,   . 

618 

"         Should  be  Pleasant,  etc.. 

620 

630 

The  Farm-House,  Plans  for, 

622 

Blinds,      . 

633 

Cellars,     . 

636 

"              "              Chimneys, 

633 

Clo.sets,     . 

633 

"             "             Doors, 

630 

"             "             Eave  troughs,  . 

633 

"              "              Floors, 

630 

"             "              Light  in,  . 

620 

"              Lightning  rods, 

633 

"              "              Safest  Position  Durin 

g 

a  Thunder-Storm, 

634 

"             "             Mantels  in. 

033 

"             "             Piazzas,    . 

632 

Roofs,      . 

631 

Farm  Buildings — Continued. 

The  Farm-House,  Stairs,      .        .        .631 

Ventilation  in,  .     634 

Vaults,     .        .        .638 

warmth  in,       .         .     639 

"  "  water-closets  and 

vaults,  .        .     638 

Windows,        .        .     639 

The  Barn 641,  650 

"    Box-Stalls 659 

"    Cellars,  .        .        .143,  661 

"    Doors  of 663 

"         "    Location  of 643 

"    Plans  for 643 

"    Old  and  New,        .        .        .     653 

■■     Scaffolds  for,        .        .        .663 

"     Stables,  .         .         .     658,  777 

•'     Floors  of,     .         .         .     659 

'    for  Hor-ses  and  Stable 

Management,    .     777 

"    Light  in,      .        .        .658 

"         "         "     Manure-gutters  in,       .     659 

"     Stalls,  box,  .        .        .659 

"    Ventilation  of,     .        .     658 

Cattle  Barns 656 

Dairy,      "     .         .         .        .         .         .651 

Horse       " 653 

"    Stables,  and  Stable  Man- 
agement in.    .         .         .     777 
Model  Barns,         .        .        .     639,  640,  644 
•'     Cow-Stall  for,    .        .        .649 
"  "    Feeding-floor    and    Yard, 

Plan  for,        .        .        .647 

"  "     Ground  plan  for,       .         .     646 

"    Horse-StaU  for,         .        .     648 

Sheep  Barns, 657 

Granary 663 

Hog-House 663 

"  Plans  for  Piggeries,     .         .     665 

Ice  House 669 

"        "     Essentials  in  building,    .         .     670 

"     Plans  for 670 

"        "    How  to  cut  Ice.     .        .  671 

"        "  "    keep  small  quantities 

of  ice  in  summer,    .     073 
"        "    How  to  make  Ice,  .        .  673 

"        "    How  to  store  Ice,  .        .        .     672 
"        "    Keeping  Ice  without  Ice- 
Houses,     ....     673 

Summer-Houses, 674 

How  to  Construct  a  Cheap  Conservatory,    674 
Shed,  or  Wagon-House,         .  .     667 

Store-House 668 

Tool-House  and  Repair  Shop,         .         .     668 
Wagon-House,  or  Shed,         .         .         .     667 

Wood-House 668 

Piggeries,  or  Hog-House,       .        .        .     663 
Plans  for 665 


840 


INDEX. 


of,  . 


322, 


Farm  Buildings — Continued. 
Poultry-Houses,     . 
Repair-Shop, 
Farming  as  an  Occupation,     . 

"      Permanence  and  Independence 
"      Profitable, 

Farm  Fences, 

To  what  Extent  Essential, 
"  "      Kemoving  of, 

"         "  "  Stone-heaps, 

"  "      Barb  Wire, 

"         "  "        "    Erecting,. 

"         "  "        "    Use  of  Stretcher, 

"  "      Wire 

"         "      Embankments,  . 

•'      Flood, 
"         "      Hedges, 
"         "  "        Varieties  of,. 

••  "  "        Planting  of,. 

"  "  "        Trimming  of , 

"         "      Portable,     . 
"         "      Post  and  Board,. 
•'      -  Rail,     . 
"         "      Preserving  Fence  Posts, 

"      Rail 

■■       Stone  Walls,       . 

"       Wire 

Farm  Life,  Pleasures  of, 

"     Mills 

"    Roads 

Farms  and  Farm  Buildings,    . 
Farm  Teams— Horse,  Mule,  Ox,  etc.. 
Farm.  Wastes  and  Wants  of  the,    . 

Farms,  Choice  of 

Large,  Advantages  of ,  . 
"      Small, 

Large,  of  the  Coimtry,. 
"  ■'         "  "      Dalrymple  Farm, 

"  "         "  "      Glenn  Farm, 

"  '■         "  "      Quiun  Farm, 

•  "         "  "      Schaeffer  "    etc., 

612 

■'      Model 

"  "    Decrfoot  Farm, . 

"  "    Echo  Farm, 

"  "    Hillhurst  Farm. 

"  "    Long  View  Farm, 

"  "     Lorillard  Stock  Farm, 

"  "     Mountain-Side  Farm, 

Fertilizers, 

"  American  Guano, 

"  Animal  Dust, 

"  "  "     Analysis  of , 

"  Animal  Excrement,  Analysi 

"  Application  of  Manures, 

"  Ashes,  Coal,  . 

"of  Sea  Weed,     . 
Peat,  . 


9 
560 
561 
563 
563 
570 
568 
570 
570 
5G7 
569 
566 
566 
566 
566 
567 
564 
563 
564 
563 
565 
569 

9 
323 
558 
583 
547 
572 
583 
583 
584 
609 
610 
012 
612 


613 
.  587 
.  595 
586,  587 
.  604 
.  605 
.  603 
.  598 
.  29 
.  60 
.  57 
.   57 


of. 


Fertilizers,  Ashes,  Wood, 

"             "            "       Leached, 
"          Barn-yard  Manure, 
"          Bat  Guano,     . 
"  Bones 


PAOB. 

60 
61 
40 
60 
65 

"      Pulverizing  and  Reducing  of,  65 
Charcoal  Dust, 
Chloride  of  Sodium,  Salt, 
Clover  for  Vegetable  Manure; 
Commercial,  ....        36, 
Application  of, 
"  Analysis  of, 

Composition   of    German    Potash 

Salts, 
Composition  of  Manures, 
Compost  Poudrette, 
Composts, 


How  to  Construct  a  Pile,    51 
Caster  Pomace, 
Cotton-seed  Pomace, 
Deficiency  of  Potash  in  Common 
Fertilizers  and  Soils, 

Dried  Blood 

Dr.  Lawes'  Experiments  with  3Ia- 

uures  on  Meadow  Lands,  . 
Elements  Necessary  f  o  Supph"  Soils 
Elements  of  Plant  Food, 
Escape  of  Ammonia  from  Ferment- 
ing Manures,  How  Prevented, 
Exhaustion  of  Soils  by  Crops, 
Formula  of,  for  Buclcwheat, 
"     Field  Beans, 
"  "     Fodder  Com, 

"     Hay,     . 
"  "     Indian  Corn, 

'■      Oats,     . 
"            "      Onions, 
"            "      Potatoes, 
"     Rye,      . 
"            "      Swede  Turnip,  or 
Rutabagas, 
"     Wheat, 
Fall  Fallowing, 
Fallow  System,  The,      . 
Fish,  Fish  Guano,  Fish  Pomace, 
Flesh,  Blood,  Hair,  etc.,  as  a  Fer- 
tilizer  

Gas  Lime 

General  Principles  Concerning  Plant 

Food 

Ground  Limestone  and  Shells, 
Guano.  American, 
"       Peruvian, 
■'  "         Rectified,  . 

Gypsum,         ....      67 
"         Dr.  Franklin's  Experi- 
ment in  the  Use  of,  68,  200 
How  to  Construct  a  Compost  Pile,      51 


INDEX. 


841 


Fertilizers,  How  to  use  Potash  Salts  as  a  Fer- 
tilizer,       ... 
Leaves  of  Trees  as  Fertilizer 
Lime,     .... 
"     Gas,     ... 
Linseed  Pomace,   . 
Magnesia, 

Manuring  Mowing  Lands, 
"        with  Green  Crops, 

Marl 

Miscellaneous,  Analysis  of. 
Night  Soil,     . 
Nitrogen, 
Peat, 

"     Ashes,  . 
Peruvian  Guano, 

"  "        Rectified, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 
Plaster,  . 
Potash,  . 

"       Sources  of  Supply  of, 
"       Strassfurt  Potash  Mines, 
Poudrette, 

"         Blood  and  Meat, 
"         Compost, 
"  Humid, 

"  Simple, 

Poultry  Manure,    . 

Salt 

Sewage  as  a  Fertilizer,  . 
Sewage  of  Paris,    . 
Sea  Weed, 

Soot 

Sulphate  of  Lime, 
Special  Fertilizers, 
Superphosphates,  . 
Table  for  Calculating  the  Exhaus 
tion  of  Soils  by  Crops 
"         Table  Showing  the  Materials  Re 
moved  from  the  Soil  by  Various 
Crops,         .... 
"  Tobacco  Stems, 

"  Various  Crops  for  Green  Manure, 

Fertilization  of  Soil  for  Wheat, 
Fertilizers  for  Tobacco,  .... 

Field  Roller,  The 

Flax 


35, 


"     Cultivation  of  for  Fiber, 
"      Seed, 

"    Harvesting  of 

"    Preparing  the  Fiber  of,  . 

"  "  "   Seed  for  Market,     . 

Filters  for  Cisterns,         .... 

Flora  Temple, 

Forage  Plants.  Grasses  and.    . 

Forcing  Potatoes, 

Forests,  Influence  Exerted  by, 

"      "      "   "  on  Climate, 

50 


71 
73 
63 
65 
57 
73 
250 
74 
62 
38 
44 
36 
62 
63 
58 
58 
34 
67 
69 
69 
69 
44 
44 
45 
45 
45 
44 
68 
46 
48 
62 
61 
67 
79 


37 


441 
103 
440 
466 
468 
468 
469 
469 
533 
732 
138 
343 
517 
518 


Forests,  Influence  Exerted  by,  on  Rainfall 

Form  of  a  Road-bed 

Furrow  Draining 

Gas  Lime 

Glossary  of  Terms  Used  in  Describing  Grasses, 

Gold  Dust, 

Goldsmith  Maid 

Good  Seed, 

"        "     Choice  of  Plants  in  Producing,    . 
"        "     Special  Cultivation  Essential, 
"       "     Harvesting  Seed,  .... 

"        "      Storing 

"       "     Qualities  Desirable  in,  . 

Gov.  Sprague, 

Grasses  and  Forage  Plants 

Aftermath  or  Rowen 

Agrostis-like  Panic-Grass,     . 

Alfalfa,  Lucerne 

"       Value  of  as  a  Forage  Plant,    . 

Manner  of  Cultivating,    . 
"       Soil  to  which  it  is  Adapted,    . 
Analysis  of  Green  Alfalfa,    . 
"       "Alfalfa  Hay, 

Alsike  Clover 

"  "      Cultivation  of,  etc., 

"  "      Analysis  of,    . 

Analysis  of  Natural  Grasses,         .     326, 
"  Ash  of  Natural  Grasses, 

"  Artificial  Grasses,       .     226, 

"  Ash  of  Artificial  Grasses,  . 

Weeds, 
Alpine  Brown  Bent, 
Annual  Spear-Grass,     . 
Awnless  Muhlenbergia, 
Barnyard-Grass,  Cock's-foot 
Beach-Grass, Sea  Sand  Reed,  Mat-Grass, 
Bengal-Grass, 
Bermuda-Grass,     . 
Blue-Grass,  Wire-Grass, 
Blue-Joint  Grass,  . 
Bonnet-Grass, 
Bottle-Grass, 
Bristly  Fox-Tail,  . 
Broad-Leaved  Panic-Grass, 
Broom  Grass, 
"      Sedge, 
Brown  Bent, 
Bokhara  Clover,    . 
Buffalo  Clover,      . 
Clover  as  a  Fertilizer,    . 
Clover,  Red,  Cultivation  of, 
"      Seed, 
"      Sickness,  . 
Common  Canary-Grass, 

Millet,     . 
Couch-Grass,  Quitch-Grass, 
Crab  Grass,    . 
Creeping  Meadow-Grass,       .        .     150, 


PAGE' 

518 
550 
138 
65 
231 
731 
734 
513 
513 
512 
512 
515 
516 
738 
138 
348 
189 
210 
311 
313 
213 
218 
213 
207 
308 
309 
227 
239 
237 
339 
229 
154 
149 
156 
Grass,  186,  188 
157 
158 
163 
149 
157 
153 
158 
158 


160, 


180, 
170, 


etc.,  . 


182 
182 
156 
210 
310 
305 
199 
204 
207 
172 
190 
162 
187 
151 


842 


INDEX. 


Bent, 


etc. 


Grasses  and  Forage  Plants — Continued. 

Crow-Foot,  Yard-Grass, 

Dew-Grass,  White-Top,  English 

Downy  Oat-Grass, 

Drop-Seed  Grass,  Nimble  Will, 

Feather-Grass,  Black-Oat  Grass, 

Foul  Meadow-Grass, 

Fresh  Water,  Cord-Grass,     . 

Fringed  Brome-Grass,   . 

Gama-Grass 

Giant  Sainfoin, 

Glaucous  Small  Reed,   . 

Glossary  of  Terms  used  in  Describing, 

Golden  Millet,       ... 

Green  Foxtail.  Bottle-Grass, 

Green  Meadow-Grass,  June-Grass, 

Guinea-Grass,        ... 

Grouping  of,  ... 

Hair-Stalked  Meadow-Grass, 

Hair-Grass,  Flyaway-Grass,  . 

Hard  Fescue-Grass, 

Hare's-Foot  Clover, 

Herd's-Grass,  Timothy, 

"     Red-Top,  etc.. 

Hop  Clover,  Yellow  Clover, 

Hungarian-Grass,  Hungarian-Millet 

Indian  Corn  as  a  Forage  Plant, 

Indian-Grass,  Wood-Grass,  . 
"     Millet, 

Italian  Rye-Grass, 

Japan  Clover, 

Kentucky  Blue-Grass,  . 

Kidney  Vetch, 

Long-Panicled  Manna-Grass, 

Lucerne,  Value  of,  etc., 
"         Cultivation  of,  etc.. 

Lupine, 

List  of  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants 

Maize  as  a  Forage  Plant, 

Meadow  Brome-Grass,  . 

Meadow  Fescue,    . 

Meadow  Foxtail,   . 
"       Oat-Grass, 

Meadow  Soft-Grass,  Velvet-Grass, 

Meadow  Spear-Grass,  Nerved  Manna- 
Grass,      .        .        . 

Means,  Johnson,  Egyptian-Grass 

Mexican  Clover,     . 

Mexican  Muhlenbergia, 

Millet-Grass, 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed,  .... 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Fine  Lawns 
Frequently  Mown, .... 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Hay  and 
Pasture  in  Orchards  and  Shaded 
Places 234 

Mixture   of  Grass  Seed  for  Hay  and 

Pasture  Combined,  .        .        .232 


164 

158 

.     163 

155,  156 
167, 172, 173 

140,  150 
167 
181 

164,  166 
315 
157 
231 
101 
158 
147 
189 
233 
189 
154 
153 
210 
144 
153 
310 
190 
193 

184,  185 
186 
161 

194,  195 
139 
216 
167 

210,  211 
212 
318 
220 
193 
181 
151 
146 
163 
168 

148 

183,  183 

196,  197 

.     156 

.     172 

.     231 


234 


Grasses  and  Forage  Plants — Continued. 

Mixture    of    Grass    Seed   for  Marshy 

Grounds, 

Mixture  of   Grass   Seed    for   Meadow 

Lands 

Mixture  of   Grass  Seed    for  Mowing 

Lands, 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Mowing  on 

Light  Lands, 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Permanent 

Lawns 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Permanent 

Pastures,         .        .        .231,  333, 
Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Reclaimed 

Peaty  Lands 

Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Rocky  Hills, 

"  "         "       "  Rotation  and 

Improving  the  Soil, 
Mixture   of  Grass   Seed    for    Summe 

Pastures,         .... 
Mixture  of  Grass  Seed  for  Winter  Pas 

tures, 

Mountain  Red-Top, 
Mountain  or  Northern  Red-Top,  . 
Mountain  Rice,      .... 
Nutritive  Value  of,        .        .        . 
Obtuse  Flowered  Panic-Grass, 
Obtuse  Spear -Grass, 
Orchard-Grass,  Rough  Cock's-Foot 

Pearl  Millet 

Perennial  Rye-Grass,  Darnel, 
Pigeon-Grass,  Bristle-Grass, .         .     159, 
Poverty-Grass,  Three-Awned  Grass 
Pricklj'  Comfrey,  .... 
Prolific  Panic-Grass, 
Quaking-Grass,'      .... 
Rattlesnake-Grass,         .        .        '. 
Red-Top,  Fine-Top,  etc.,      . 
Rice-Grass,  Cut  Grass,  etc.,  . 
Reed  Canary-Grass, 
Rough-Stalked  Meadow-Grass,     . 
Rush  Salt-Grass,    .... 

Sainfoin 

"        Cultivation  of, 
"        Giant, 
Salt  Marsh  Grass, 
Salt  Reed-Grass, 
Sand-Grass,   . 
Schrader's  Grass, 
Sheep's  Fescue, 
Slender  Crab-Grass, 

"      Spiked-Fescue,  . 
Smut-Grass,  .        .        .        .1 

Soutliern  Bent 

Spurr}', 

Swect-Scented  Vernal  Grass, 

Sylvan  Muhlenbergia,  . 

Texas  Millet 


178, 


234 
234 


232 

333 

143 

156 

167 

334 

189 

197 

147 

191 

161 

161 

167 

319 

189- 

161 

167 

152 

153 

171 

149 

168 

315 

315 

215 

168 

167 

168 

181 

151 

189 

152 

176 

154 

216 

168 

156 

141 


INDEX 


843 


Grasses  and  Forage  Plants — Continued. 

Timothy,  or  Herds-Grass,  .  .  .  144 
TaU  Fescue  Grass,  .  .  .  .152 
Tall  Meadow-Grass,  Tall  Oat-Grass,  .  163 
Tall  Pauic-Grass,  ....     189,  193 

Tall  Red-Top 168,  169 

Texas-MOlet, 186 

The   Florin,    Broad-Leaved    Creeping 

Bent 154 

Vanilla-Grass,  Seneca-Grass,        .     179,  181 

Vetch,  Tare 316 

Water  Grass,         .        .       -.        .     173,  174 
Water    Spear-Grass,    Reed    Meadow- 
Grass 150 

White-Clover, 209 

WUd  Chess, 175 

Wilklenom's  Mublenbergia, .        .        .     157 

Wild  Fescue 175,  177 

Wood  Meadow-Grass,  ....     149 

Yard-Grass 165 

Yellow  Oat-Grass,        .        .        .        .163 

Zigzag  Clover, 210 

Grouping  of, 233 


Ground  Limestone  and  Shells, 
Guano,  American,  . 

Bat 

Peruvian, 

Rectified, 
Gypsum,  .... 


Hay  Caps, 

Elevator  and  Carrier,       .        .        .     244, 

Forks 

Method  of  Curing, 

Press .247, 

Pitching  Apparatus,         .... 

Rakes,       .        .        .        . 

Scales, 

Stacking 

Storage  of, 

Tedders,    .        .       '.        .        .        .240, 

Time  of  Cutting  Grass  for. 

Mowers, 236, 

Renovating  Grass  Lands, 

Rolling  Mowing  Lands  and  Pastures, 

Selection  of  Grass-Seed,  .... 

Time  to  Sow  Grass-Seed, 

Harrowing 

Height  of  Buildings, 

Hemp 

Cultivation  of, 

Harvesting  of 

After-Management  of,  . 

Hessian  Fly, 

Hill  and  Drill  Planting,  ....  311, 
"HiUhtirst," 


343 
247 
245 
237 
348 
246 
243 
415 
245 
343 
341 
337 
238 
353 
350 
230 
229 
100 
631 
470 
470 
471 
471 
285 
315 
604 


PAGE. 

Hilling  Cultivator, 315 

Hog-House, (J63 

Hops, 482 

Cultivation  of, 483 

Varieties  of 432 

Harvesting  of, 485 

Drj'ing  of, 435 

Horse,  The 677 

Qualities  Desirable  in 677 

Activity, 680 

A  Good  Disposition,     ....  679 

Endurance, 679 

Intelligence 679 

Strength, 679 

The  Back 694 

Balking  of 773 

Black  Hawk 738 

"        "     Junior,     ....  696 

,  Blinders,  Use  of 776 

Bits,  Frosty, 775 

Jhe  Bones 691 

of  the  Leg,  .        .        .        .693 

Boulonnaise  Draft,       ....  708 

Breeding  of 746 

Breeding,  Disqualifications  for,    .        .  747 

Influence  of  Sire  and  Dam,     .  747 

What  Horses  to  Breed,    .        .  749 

Care  of  Breeding-Mares,.        .  751 

Care  of  Young  Colts,      .        .  753 

Care  of  Stallions,     .        .        .  751 

Chest,  The 689 

Canadian,  The, 720 

Carriage-Horse, 681 

Cleveland  Bay,  The,     .        .        .    708,  714 

Clipping, 776 

Clydesdale, 686,  707 

Color  in,         .         .        .         ...         .698 

Colts,  Age  for  Working,      .        .        .771 

Balking  of, 773 

Breaking  of  to  Halter, .        .        .  765 

"            "   Harness,       .        .  768 

Bitting  Process,     .        .  767 

Saddle 771 

Check  Rein,  Use  of,     .        .        .  774 
Natural  and  Unnatural  Position  of 

a  Horse's  Head,     .        .        .  775 

Teaching  a  Colt  to  Back,     .        .  770 

Care  of 753 

Castration  of, 756 

How    to   Prevent  a  Colt  from  being 

Easily  Frightened,          .        .         .  771 

Old-Time  Method  of  Managing,    .        .  760 

Present  System  of  Colt  Management,  .  760 

Raising  by  Hand, 756 

Weaning 755 

Colt's  Foot  at  Two  Years,     .        .        .786 

Conestoga,  The 708 


844 


Horse,  'V'he.— Continued. 

Diet  for  Sick  Horses,    . 
Diseases  of,  and  Treatment  for, 
Ancliylosis, 
Blood  Spavin, 
Bloody  Urine, 
Bog  Spavin, 
Bone  Spavin, 
Bots,    . 
Brolien  Wind, 
Bruises, 
Burns, 

Capped  Ankles, 
"      Elbow, 
"      Hock, 
Colic,  . 

"    Symptoms  of. 
Contusions, 
Corns, . 
Cougli, 
Crib-Biting, 
Curb,  . 
Diabetes,     . 
Diarrhea, 
Distemper,  . 
Epizootic,    . 
Farcy, 
Fistula, 
Founder, 
Fracture,     . 
Galls,  . 
Glanders,     . 
Grease, 
Scratches,    . 
Gripes, 
Heaves, 
•Hematuria, . 
Hide  Bound, 

Inflammation  of  the  Bladder, 
"  "    Bowels, 

"   Symp- 
toms of,   . 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys, 
"  "    Lungs, 

Influenza,    . 

Itch,    . 

Laminitis,   . 

Lice,    . 

Lock-jaw,  . 

Lung  Fever, 

Mange, 

Megrims, 

Navicular  Disease, 

Occult  Spavin, 

Ophthalmia, 

Overreaching, 

Pink  Eye,    . 

Pneumonia, 


PAGE. 

Horse,  The,  Diseases  and  Treatment — Continued. 

Poll  Evil 821 

Quarter-Crack,    .        .        .        .823 

Ring-Bone, 823 

Roaring 832 

Sand- Crack 822 

Scratches 823 

Sore  Shoulder 823 

Spavin 823 

Splent  or  Splint, .        .        .        .823 

Staggers, 823 

Strangles 823 

Strains  or  Sprains,      .        .        .     823 

String  Halt 823 

Tetanus 823 

■•     Thoroughpin 824 

Toe-Crack, 825 

Thrush 825 

Tread 825 

Warts 825 

Wind  Galls,        .        .        .        .825 
Worms, 825 

809  Docking, 759 

810  The  Ears 687 

810  The  English  Draft,        .        .        .     707,  710 

810  The  Eye, 687 

812  The  Farm  Horse 680 

812  The  Foot, 693,  785 

813  Gold  Dust, 731 

813  The  Hambletonians,     .        .        .     711,  730 

815  The  Head 687 

815  Henry  Clay 726 

815  The  Hind-Quarters,       .        .        .        .694 

815  Hints  to  Purchasers  of,         ...     698 

816  Hints  on  Driving  and  Draft,  .  .  783 
816  The  Hock 693 

816  Lampas, 796 

817  Lampas-Iron, 796 

817  The  Limbs, 691 

817  The  Messengers 711,  726 

The  Morgans,         ....     711,  727 

807  Mustang  Horses,   .  *     .        .        .        .721 

818  The  Neck, 686 

818  Nicking, 759 

817  Noted  Trotting  Horses,  .        .        .731 

819  American  Girl,    .        .        .        .733 

819  Dexter 735 

819  Flora  Temple 732 

819  Goldsmith  Maid,         .        .        .734 

818  Governor  Sprague,      .        .     738,  739 

819  Maud  S., 736 

820  Rarus, 735 

820  Santa  Claus,        .        .        .        .739 

821  Smuggler, 736 

820  St.  Julien, 736 

821  Thorndale,  ....  740,  744 
821  Trinket,  .  .  .  .  .740 
818              OrlofE, 716 


INDEX. 


845 


Horse,  The — Continvtd. 

OrlofE  Stallion  "  Sobol," 
The  Pasterns, 
Percheron-Nonnan, 

"  "       Grade,    . 

Points  of,       ...        . 
Prairie  Horses, 

Progenitors  of  Trotting  Families, 
Black  Hawk, 
Gold  Dust,  . 
Henry  Clay, 
Mambrino  Chief, 
Messenger,  . 
Morgan,  Bulrush, 
"      Justin,  . 
"      Sherman, 
"      Woodbury,   .        < 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian, 
Stockholm's  American  Star, 
Young  Bashaw,  . 
Pulse  of ,        .        .        . 
Saddle  Gait,  . 
Saddle  Horse, 
Shetland  Ponies,   . 
Shoeing, 

Best  Method  of. 
Barefooted  Horses, 
Brittle  Hoofs, 
Colt's  Foot  at  Two  Years, 
Horse's  Foot, 

"  "      Showing  Quarters, 

Shoe-tips,      .... 
The  Charlier  System  of  Shoeing, 
The  Goodenough  Shoe, 
The  La  Fosse  System  of  Shoeing 
Results  of  Improper  Shoeing, 
The  Shoulder, 
Sick  Horses,  Diet  for,   . 

"         "       Treatment  of, 
Skeleton  of,  . 
Stable  and  Stable  Management, 
Care  of  Harnesses, 
How  to  Clean  and  Oil 
How  to  Clean  Harness 
Feeding, 
Grooming,   . 
Stopping  the  Feet, 
Watering,    . 
The  Teeth,     . 

Determining  the  Age 

by,  .       . 
At  the  Expiration  of 

Tear, 
At  Two  Years,    . 
"  Three     " 
"  Four       " 
"  Five       " 
"  Six 


6,  702, 


724 


a  Harness, 
Plate 


718 
692 
704 
706 
682 
721 
726 
728 
731 
726 
726 
726 
727 
727 
727 
727 
726 
726 
726 
800 
682 
682 
720 
785 
792 
792 
794 


790 
790 


793 
691 


777 
799 
799 
800 
779 
783 
795 


695 
695 
695 
696 
696 
697 


PAOB. 

Horse,  The,  Teeth  of — Continued. 

At  Seven  Years,  .        .        .     697 

"  Eight  "  .  .  .  .697 
"  Nine  "  .  .  .  .697 
"  Ten  and  Eleven  Years,  .     697 

After  Eleven  Years,  .  .  .697 
"  Fourteen  "  .  .  .  697 
"  Nineteen  "  .  .  .  697 
"     Twenty-one"    .        .        .697 

Temperament  in, 683 

Billions, 684 

Lympathic,  ....     684 

Nervous 684 

Sanguine, 684 

Thoroughbred, 703 

Treatment  of  Old  or  Disabled  Horses,  796 
Treatment  of  Sick  Horses,  .  .  .800 
The  Trotting  Horse  of  America,  .  .  725 
Best  American  Trotting  Time,  .  .719 
"    Russian  "  "  .        .     719 

Trotting  Record 741 

Best    Records    of    Fleetest   Running 

Horses, 742 

Trotting  with  Double  Team,        .        .     742 
Hurdle  Races,        .        .        .        .        .746 

Pacing 742 

Trotting  Under  Saddle,         ...     742 
Trotting  to  Wagon,       .        .        .        .742 

Horse  Hoe, 316,  361 

Horse  Power, 542,  543 

Hybridizing  Potatoes, 345 

Hydraulic  Ram 526,  537 

Ice  House, 669 

"          Essentials  in  Building  Ice  Houses,  670 

"          Plans  for, 670 

How  to  Cut  Ice  for,      .        .        .671 

"          How  to  Store  Ice  in,      .        .        .  672 

Ice, — Keeping  without  an  Ice  House,     .        .  672 
"      How  to  Keep   Small  Quantities  of  in 

Summer 673 

"      How  to  Make, 673 

Imphee  Sugar  Cane 421 

Improved  Hoosier  Grain  Drill,        .        .        .  274 

Peach  Blow, 333 

"        Lima  Bean, 366 

"        Farm  Implements  Essential,  .        .  578 

Indian  Corn, 37 

"        "      Stalks  and  Leaves  of,        .        .  37 

India,  Tillage  in, 89 

Indigo, 464 

"      Cultivation  of, 464 

"      Preparing  for  Market,         .         .         .  465 

Inconvenience  of  Farm  Buildings,          .         .  577 

Inferior  Stock 577 

Insufficient  Help, 576 

Interior  of  Cow  Stable 591 

Influence  Exerted  by  Forests,         .        .        .  517 


846 


Influence  Exerted  by  Forests  on  Climate, 

"  "         ••         "        on  Rainfall, 

Influence  of  Dwelling  on  Character, 

"        "   the  Sire  and  Dam  respectively, 
Inflammation  of  the  Bladder, 
"  "      Bowels,  . 

"  "      Kidneys, 

"  "      Lungs, 

Intelligence  of  the  Horse, 
Irrigation, 

"  Methods  of,    . 

"  When  to  Irrigate, 

Iron  Slower,     . 
Iron  Turbine  Wind  3U11, 
Itch,         .... 


Jack,  "  Magnum  Bonum 
Japan  Clover,  . 
Jersey  Bull,  Litchfield, 
Bulls,  Group  of 
"      Heifers,    "       " 
Justin  Morgan, 
Jute, 
"     Cultivation  of, 
"    Harvesting  of, 


Kemp's  Manure  Spreader, 
Keeping  Ice  Without  Ice  Houses,  . 

Lack  of  Economy  in  Labor,   . 
Lack  of  Care  of  Farm  Implements, 
La  Dow's  Pulverizing  Harrow, 
Lampas, 

"        Iron, 
Large  Farms  of  the  Country 
Late  Bt'auty  of  Hebron, 
Leached  Ashes, 
Leaf  of  Tea,   . 
Leaves  of  Trees, 
Lever  Baling  Process, 
Level  Culture, 
Liberian  Sugar  Cane, 
Light  in  Stables, 
Lime, 

"     Ground  Limestone 

"     Gas  Lime, 
Linseed  Pomace, 

List  of  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants, 
Location  of  Maple  Sugar  House,    . 
"         "   Farm  Roads, 
"  "   Barns, 

Locating  Main  Drains  and  Tributaries, 

Loamy  Soil 

Long  Blood  Beet,    .... 

Long  Orange  Carrot, 

Long  View  Farm 

"         "        "      System  of  Management  at 
Lorillard  Stock  Farm,     .... 


and 


Shells, 


713, 


PAGE. 
518 

518 
620 
747 
817 
817 
818 
818 
679 
117 
120 
126 
336 
525 
819 

828 
195 
592 
589 
588 
727 
473 
472 
473 

30 
673 

573 

575 

100 

796 

796 

609 

334 

61 

453 

73 

247 

315 

421 

658 

68 

65 

65 

57 

320 

431 

549 

643 

131 

14,  19 


370 
605 
605 
603 


Lucerne, 4Z,   210 

"   Value  of  as  a  Forage  Plant,  .    .211 


M.  Goffart's  Silos,  . 

Magnesia, 

Magnum  Bonum,  Jack,  . 

McCormick  Harvester,    . 

"  Dropper, 

Maize,  Method  of  Cultivating  for  Ensila 
"       Time  of  Harvesting       "        " 
"       How  to  Cut  for  Silos,  . 

Mambrino  Chief 

Mangel  Wurzel  Beet, 

"  "  "      Cultivation  of, 

"  "  "      Harvesting  of, 

"  "  "      Storage  of,  . 

Mantels,  .  ' 

Manufacturing  Sugar,     . 

"  "        and   Syrup  from 

ghum, 
"  "        from  Beets, 

3Ianure  Spreader,    .... 
Manuring  with  Green  Crops,  . 

"  Mowing  Lands, 
Manure  Gutters  in  Stables, 
Maple  Sugar  Making, 

"          "            "        Obtaining  Sap  fo 
Marl 


Marly  Soils, 14, 

Maud  S.,  ... 

Messenger,  The 71 

Metallic  Pipes,  Injurious  Effects  of, 
Methods  of  Irrigation,    . 
Methods  of  Curing  Hay, 
Mills'  System  of  Ensilage, 
Miscellaneous  Fertilizers, 
Mi.xture  of  Grass  Seed,    . 

for  Mowing  Lands, 

for  Permanent  Pastures, 

for  Hay  and  Pasture  Combined, 

for  Rotation  and  Improving  the  Soil, 

for  Meadow  Land, 

for  Summer  Pasture, 

for  Winter  Pasture, 

for  Permanent  Pasture, 

for  Permanent  Lawns, 

for  Fine  Lawns  Frequently  Mow 

for  Hay  and  Pasture  in  Orchard 
Shaded  Places,        ... 

for  Mowing  on  Light  Soils,  . 

for  ^Mowing  on  Reclaimed  Peat}'  Lands 

for  Marshy  Grounds, 

for  Rocky  Hills,     . 

Model  Barns 639,  640 

Model  Farms,  . 

"  Deerfoot  Farm," 

"         "  Centrifugal  Machines  at, 
"         "  Care  of  Cows  at,    . 


Sor- 


332, 


and 


496 
73 
828 
262 
276 
500 
501 
502 
726 
370 
367 
367 
367 
633 
414 

425 

428 

30 

74 

250 


433 
429 
62 
19 
736 
726 
539 
120 
237 
499 
38 
231 
231 
231 
333 
333 
333 
332 
333 
333 
333 
334 

334 
334 
234 
234 
334 
644 
587 
595 
597 
597 


INDEX. 


847 


Model  Farms — Contirmed. 
"Echo  Farm," 

Buildings,  etc.,    . 
Group  of  Jersej'  Bulls, 
Group  of  Heifers, 
Interior  of  Cotv  Stable, 
Jersey  Bull,  "Litchfield, 
Stable  Management  of, 
The  Dairy,  ... 
"  Hillhurst,"  Management  of,  etc, 
"Long  View  Fann,"    . 

System  of  Management  at, 
Lorillard's  Stock  Farm, 
"Mountain  Side  Farm," 
Barns  of ,     . 

■ '      Interior  View  of, 
Care  of  Cattle  at, 
More  Capital  in  Farming, 
Morgans,  The, 
Morris'  System  of  Ensilage, 
Most  Profitable  Crops  for, 
Moline  Stalk-Cutter, 
Motive  Power  for  Farms, 
"Mountain  Side  Farm," 
Muck, 
Mule,  The, 

"     Breaking  of,  . 

"      Breeding  of,  . 

"     Diseases  of,    . 

"     Economy  of  Mule  Labor, 

"      General  JIanagement  of, 

"      Shoeing  of,    . 

Mustard, 

"        Cultivation  and  Harvesting  of 


587 
586 
589 
588 
591 
593 
593 
593 
604 
605 
605 
603 


599,  600 

.  603 

.  601 

.  580 

.  711 

.  497 

.  500 

.  318 

.  543 

598,  600 

.  20 

.  829 

.  832 

.  831 


829 
832 
833 
486 
486 


Nature  Follows  a  Course  of  Rotation,    .        .  109 

Natural  Position  of  the  Horse's  Head,    .        .  775 
New  Buckeye  Table-Rake,      .        .        .        .279 

Nicking, 759 

Night  Soil 44 

Night  Soil  and  Poudrette 44 

Nishwitz  Harrow, 102 

Nitrogen 86 

Noted  Trotting  Horses, 731 

Nutritive  Value  of  Roots,       ....  359 

"      of  Grasses 224 

Oats 292 

'■    Varieties  of, 293 

"    Pringle's  Excelsior 294 

"     Cultivation  of 295 

"     Harvesting  of 297 

"     Diseases  of 297 

Old-Time  Implements  Compared  with  New, .  6 

"    Farming 7 

"    Method  of  Managing  Colts,     .        .  760 

Oliver  Chilled  Plow 97 

Oomseeana  Sugar-Cane, 421 


Onions 

Varieties  of ,  . 
Cultivation  of  from  Seed, 
from  sets,     . 
from  Top  Onions, 
from  Potato  Onions, 
from  Shallot  Onions, 
from  Rareripes,  . 
from  Onion  Seed, 
Harvesting  of, 
Storage  of,     . 
Origin  and  Age  of  Muck  Deposits, 
Orloff  Trotting  Stall^pn  "  Sobol," 

Parsnips, 

Varieties  of,  . 

"      Cultivation  of. 
Peanuts 

"      Cultivation  of, 

"     Harvesting  of, 

' '     Preparing  for  Market,  . 
Peas, 


the  Farm 


"      Cultivation  of, 

''     Harvesting  of. 
Peat, 

Peat  Ashes 

Peaty  Soils  and  their  Cultivation, 
Plantation  Cane-Mill, 
Prairie  Horses,         ... 
Permanence  and  Independence  of 

er's  Vocation,    . 
Peruvian  Guano, 
Percheron-Norman  Stallion,  "Romulus," 
••  "  "  "Eldorado," 

(Half -Blooded) 
poleon  3d," 
Pleasures  of  Farm  Life, 
Piggeries,  Plans  for, 
Pringle's  Excelsior  Oat, 
Phosphoric  Acid,  . 
Plowing, 
Plow,  Subsoil, 

"      Iron  Beam,    . 

"      Sulky,    . 

"     Adamant, 

"      Cabbage, 

"      Advance  Chilled, 

"      Oliver,  . 

"      Stubble, 

"      Gilpin  Sulky, 

"     Timl)er  Land, 

"     Cassaday  Sulky, 

"      When  to, 

"     How  to, 
Plowing,  Depth  of. 
Profitable  Farming, 
Progenitors  of  Trotting  Families  of  Horses, 
Poor  Teams 


PAGE. 

374 
375 
376 
378 
379 
379 
379 
379 
379 
380 
380 
20 
718 

371 
371 
371 
460 
461 
463 
463 
473 
474 
474 
62 
62 
22 
416 
721 


58 
702 
676 


Na- 


219 
665 
294 
34 
91 
93 
93 
93 
94 
94 
97 
97 


726 
577 


848 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Potash 35 

"      Sources  of  Supply        ....  69 

Potato 331 

"    Varieties  of  the 332 

"    The  Alpha, 343 

"    Compton's  Surprise 342 

"    Improved  Peach  Blow,          .        .        .  333 

"    Snow  Flake, 333 

"    Late  Beauty  of  Hebron,        .        .        .  334 

"    Silver  Skin, 334 

"     Selecting  and  Cutting  for  Planting,      .  337 

"     Planting  of, 339 

"    Cutting  to  a  Single  Eye^       .        .        .339 

"    Planter, 340 

"    Forcing  of, 343 

"    Coverer, 442 

"    Cultivation  of, 344 

"    How  to  Raise  from  Cuttings,        .        .  344 

"    How  to  Raise  Two  Crops  per  Year,     .  345 

"    Hybridizing  of, 345 

"    How  to  Raise  Seedlings,        .        .        .  346 

"     Harvesting  of, 346 

"    Digger, 347 

"    Storing  of, 348 

"    Diseases  of, 348 

"    Rot  of .349 

"    Bug 349 

"    Beetle  (Colorado),          ....  349 

"    Scabby 352 

"    How  to  Tell  a  Good,     .        .        .        .352 

"    Sweet, 353 

"         "    Varieties  of,         ...        .  353 

"         "    Cultivation  of,    .        .        .        .  353 

"         "    Harvesting  of,     .        .        .        .  356 

"         "    Storing  of 357 

"    Analysis  of, 373 

Poudrette, 44 

Poultry  Houses, 667 

Poultry  Manure, 44 

Power,  Motive  for  Farmers,    ....  543 

"    Dog .543 

"    Wind 543 

"    Horse .'        .     542,  543 

"    Steam 544 

Pulse  of  the  Horse, 800 

Pulverizing  and  Reducing  Bones,  ...  65 


Quinn  Farm,  The 612 


Red  Clover 

Relative  Cost  in  Production  of  Crops, 
Repairing  Tools 

"      "  Buildings, 
Rice 

"  Cultivation  of 

"  Harvesting  of,  . 

"  Threshing  and  Milling  of, 
Roads,  Removing  Obstructions  from, 


198 
107 
576 
616 
326 
327 
329 
329 
551 


Roads,  Drainage  for, 

"  Catch-Water  for, 

"  Bars  for 

"  Repairing  of, 

"  Care  of 

"  Objections  to  Present  Sj-stem  of,     . 

"  Grades 

"  Farm, 

Roller,  Use  of, 

"    The  Field, 

"    How  to  Construct  for  Farm  Use,. 
"Romulus" — Percheron-Norman  Stallion,    . 
Roots  and  Esculent  Tubers,    .... 

"  Cutters, 

"  Crops,  Ridge-Culture  for. 

Rotation  of  Crops 

"  "        Theories  of 

"    Nature  follows  a  Course  of , . 

"    E.xperiments  in, 

"    Schemes  of 112, 

Rural  Cottage, 

"         "    Ground  plan  for 

"        "    Chamber-tloor  plan  for, . 
Ruta  Bagas,  Cultivation  of,    . 
"        "    Harvesting  of,        .        .        .        . 

Rye, 

"  Varieties  of 

"  Soil  for, 

"  Sowing  of 

"  Harvesting,  of 

"  Diseases  of, 

"  Thresher 

Rysdyk's  Hambletonian,         .        .        .     724, 

Salt, 

Shallot, 

Share's  Coulter-Harrow,  .... 
Stables, 

"     Light  in, 

"     Ventilation  of 

Stacking  Hay, 

Stassfurt  Potash  Mines 

Sea- Weed, 

"    Ashes  of 

Selecting  and  Cutting  Potatoes  for  Planting,. 

Sequoia  Gigantca,  

Sewage  as  a  Fertilizer 

"    of  Paris 

Scene  on  Grandin  Farm,         .... 

Sheep  Barn 

"Sherman  Morgan," 

Shetland  Ponies 

Steam  Power 

"       Baling-Press 

"       Sugar  Works, 

Sweet  Potato 

Silos  of  M.  Goffart, 

"  How  to  Fill, 


PAGE. 

525 

552 
552 
553 
554 
554 
557 
558 
103 
103 
104 
702 
330 
363 
373 
107 
108 
109 
110 
115 
627 
627 
627 
361 
862 
326 
288 
268 
288 
288 
291 
290 
726 


379 

101 

658 

658 

658 

245 

69 

62 

62 

337 

521 

46 

48 

608 

657 

727 

720 

544 

248 

410 

353 

488 

504 


849 


PAGE. 

Siphon,  Use  of  in  Water  Supply,    .        .        .  540 

Spring, 529 

Soils 10 

Origin  of, 10 

Classification  of, 14 

"  Pure  Clay 14 

"  Strongest  Clay  Soil,         ....  14 

' '  Clay  Loam 1 

"  Loamy 14 

"  Sandy  Loam, 14 

"  Marly, 15 

Calcareous 15 

Vegetable  Molds, 15 

"  Clay  Soils  and  their  Management,    .        .  15 

Sandy        "          "             "             .        .  17 

"  Gravelly, 19 

Loamy 19 

"  Marly  and  Calcareous 19 

Silt  and  Alluvial 20 

Muck, 20 

"     Origin  and  Age  of  Muck  Deposits,.  20 

Peaty,  and  their  Cultivation,    ...  23 

Subsoils 22 

Friableness  of, 24 

Color  of 24 

Analysis  of, 25,  27,  28 

"          Unproductive,        ...  28 

Table  of  Analysis 27,  28 

Soot .61 

Sorgho,  Sugar-Cane 421 

Special  Fertilizers 79 

Stone  Drains 136 

"    Heaps 562 

'•     Walls, 565 

Southern  Seed  Corn, 500 

"Smuggler," 736 

Stubble  Plow, 98 

Subsoil      " 93 

Sulky        " 93 

Sugar 411 

SugarCane,  Varieties  of,        ...        .  411 

"     Analysis  of, 412 

"     Cultivation  of, 412 

"    Harvesting  of, 413 

"    Plantation  Mills,        .        .        .     414,  416 

"    Extracting  the  juice  of,     .        .        .  417 
"    Defecation  or   Classification  of   the 

"           juice  of,       .         •        .        .        .  417 

"    Evaporation  of  the  juice  of,      .     417,  418 

"    Evaporators, 419 

"    Crystallization  of  Sugar,  .        .        .  430 
"                "                "               Centrifugal 

"           Machines  for 420 

"    Scales 415 

"    Sorgho  and  Imphee,                   .        .  421 
"        "            "        Varieties  of,      .        .  421 
"        "            "        Soil   and  its    Prepa- 
ration for,     .        .  423 


Sugar-Cane,  Sorgho  and  Imphee,  Planting  of,  423 

Cultivation  of,  .        .  424 

"        "            "        Harvesting,       .        .  424 
"        "            "        Manufacturing  Syrup 

and  Sugar  from 425 

Sugar-Beet 426 

Cultivation  of, 427 

Harvesting  of, 427 

Storage  of, 427 

Manufacturing  Sugar  from,      .        .  428 

Sugar,  JIaple 429 

Obtaining  Sap, 429 

"        Location  of  Sugar-house,  .        .        .  431 

"        Making, 432 

Yield  of  Maple  Trees,       .        .        .433 

Summer  Fallow 84 

Sulphate  of  Lime, 67 

Summer  Hou.ses, 674 

Table  for  Calculating  the  Exhaustion  of  Soil 

by  Crops 37 

Table  Showing  Materials  Removed  from  the 

Soil  by  Various  Crops 39 

Table  Showing  the  Nutritive  Value  of  Roots,  359 

Tare 216 

Tea, 452 

"    Leaf  of, 453 

"    Leaves 454 

"    Varieties  of, 455 

"    Cultivation  of, 455 

"    Picking  of 456 

"    Curing  of 456 

"    Plant  and  Root, 457 

"    Gathering  of,    .        .        .        .        .        .458 

"    Adulteration  of 460 

Teeth  of  Horses,  Age  Determined  by,    .        .  695 

Teaching  a  Colt  to  Back 770 

Treatment  of  Old  and  Disabled  Horses,         .  796 

"    Sick  Horses,     .        .        .        .800 

The  Trotting  Horse  of  America,     .        .        .  725 

The  Wire  Worm, 324 

"Thorndale," 703 

Thoroughbred  Horse,  The,      .         .         .         .703 

Threshing,       .      ' 281 

Tliresher  and  Cleaner 283 

Tile  Draining,          ......  130 

Tillage, 86 

Benefits  of,         .        .        .        .        86,  91 

"        Theories  Concerning,         .                .  86 

"        Should  be  Adapted  to  Nature  of  Soil,  89 

"        in  India, 89 

for  Clay  Soils, 89 

"        Benefits  to  the  Soil  from  Freezing,  .  89 

Summer  Tillage,         ....  90 

Plowing,    .     " 91 

"        Harrowing, 100 

Use  of  the  Roller 103 

Timber  Culture,               516 


850 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Timber  Culture,  Forests,  Influence  E.xertcd  by,  517 
"      of  on  Rainfall,  518 
"            "             "            "      of  on  Climate,  518 
"            "        Trees,  Varieties  of  for  Plant- 
ing   519 

"            "        Age  and  Size  of,  .        .        .  520 
"            "        Sequoia  Gigantea,  Giant  Red- 
wood   521 

"            "        Where  and  When  to  Plant,  .  522 

Planting  from  Seeds,    .        .  522 

Transplanting,      .         .         .527 

Time  of  Sowing  Spring  Wheat,      .        .        .271 

"      "        "       Winter,     "           ...  271 

Tobacco 434 

"        Varieties  of 436 

Soil  for 436 

"        Preparation  of  Plant-beds,      .        .  437 

Sowing  and  Weeding,      .         .         .438 

"        Preparation  of  Soil  for,  .         .         .  441 

"        Fertilizers  for, 441 

"        Ridger 442 

"        Transplanting,          ....  442 

"        Cultivation  of,          ....  443 

"        Enemies  of, 444 

"        Worming  of 445 

"        Topping. 445 

"        Suckeriug, 446 

Cutting 446 

"        Curing 447 

"        Stripping, 448 

"        Assorting 448 

Packing 449 

"        Cultivating  for  Seed,        .        .        .  449 

Tobacco  Stems  for  Fertilizers,        ...  73 

Tool  House  and  Repair  Shop,         .        .        .  668 

"Trinket," 740 

Trotting  Records, 770 

Turf  Drains 137 

Turnips,  Cultivation  of,  etc. ,          ...  358 

Two  Crops  of  Potatoes  a  Year,       .        .        .  345 


Unnatural  Position  of  Horse's  Head, 

Underdrainage 

Upland  Cotton,        .... 
Use  of  Birds  in  Protecting  Corn,    . 
Use  of  Poor  Tools, 
Uses  of  Cotton  Seed, 


775 
127 


325,  326 
.  574 
.     401 


Various  Crops  for  Green  Manures,          .        .  761 
Ventilation  of  Dwellings,                .        .        .634 

"   Stables,'' 658 

Vetch,  The 216 

Victor  Cane  Mill 414 

Wagon  House,  The 667 

"      Jack,  The 667 

Warmth  in  Dwellings, 628 


PAOX. 

Wastes  and  Wants  of  the  Farm,     .        .        .  572 
Better  Knowledge  of  Farming  and  Less 

Drudgery 578 

Waste  of  Manure 572 

"    Lack  of  Economy  in  Labor,         .        .  573 

"     Slovenly  Management,  ....  574 

"    Doing  Work  Over-uicely,     .        .        .  574 

"    Use  of  Poor  Tools 574 

"     Borrowing  Tools,           ....  575 

"     Lack  of  Care  of  Farm  Implements,     .  575 

"     Repairing  Tools, 576 

"     Insufficient  Help, 576 

"    Poor  Teams, 577 

"    Inferior  Stock 577 

"    Inconvenience  of  Farm  Buildings,      .  577 

"     Improved  Farm  Implements  Essential,  578 

"     Systematic  Management  Essential,        .  580 

"    More  Capital  in  Farming,     .        .        .  580 

Water  Closets 638 

Water  Supply  for  the  Farm 527 

"    Metallic  Pipes,  Injurious  Effects  of,     .  529 

"    Springs, 529 

"     Brooks, 529 

"    Cisterns, .531 

"    Wells .534 

"    Hydraulic  Rams,  .....  537 

"    Wind  Mills 537 

"    Wind  Engines 538,  539 

"     Siphon,  Use  of,  etc.,     ....  540 

Watering  Horses, 780 

Weaning  Colts 755 

Wells, 534 

"      Artesian 535 

"      Driven, 535 

"      Tube, 535 

Wliat  Horses  to  Breed 749 

What  Lands  Require  Irrigating,     .         .         .  128 

Wheat 264 

"       Varieties  of 264 

Champlain, 266 

Defiance, 266 

"       Preparation  of  Soil  for,      .        .        .  267 

Fertilizers  of  Soil  for,         .        .        .268 

Selection  of  Seed  for,  .        .        .270 

Time  of  Sowing  Spring  Wheat,          .  271 

••    "        "       Winter     "               .  271 

"       Quantity  Sown  to  the  Acre,       .        .  271 

Sowing 273 

Grain  brills 274 

"       Depth  of  Covering,     ....  275 

"       Dropper, 276 

After-Culture  of  Wheat,     .        .        .277 

"       Harvesting,          .....  277 

Self-Binding  Harvester,              .        .  278 

"       Table  Rake 279 

"       Thresher  and  Cleaner.        .     280,  281,  282 

•'       Threshing 281 


INDEX. 


851 


PAGE 

Wheat,  Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies  of,         .     283 

Smut,  . 

.     382 

Rust,    . 

.     282 

"       Insect  Enemies  of. 

.     383 

"  Chinch-Bug,    . 

.     383 

"  Rocky  Mountain 

Locust,     384 

"            "           "  Hessian  Fly,    . 

.     385 

When  to  Irrigate,     . 

.     126 

When  to  Plow, 

94 

White  Clover,  . 

.     309 

Wind  Engine,  . 

.     538 

at  Rest,     . 

.     540 

"in  Motion, 

.     539 

Windows, 

.     629 

Wind  Mills,  Use  of,  etc.. 

.     537 

Wind  Power g^g 

Wire  Fence, ggjj 

Wire  Worm g24 

Wood  Ashes,    ■..-...  gn 

Wood-House,  The, .668 

"  Woodbury  Morgan, " 737 

Worming  Tobacco.  .         .         .  .445 

Yam,  Cultivation  of,  etc 357 

Chinese,  Cultivation  of,  etc.,        ,         .  357 

Yellow  Clover, gjQ 

Yield  of  Maple  Trees, 433 

Zigzag  Clover, 210 


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